Wikipedia http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8C MediaWiki 1.9alpha first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk Image Image talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk 4 4042 2006-10-18T13:53:27Z Newawiki.org 16 <div id="mainpage"></div> <!-- Beginning of header section -->{|style="width:100%;margin-top:+.7em;background-color:#fcfcfc;border:1px solid #ccc" |style="width:56%;color:#000"| {|style="width:280px;border:solid 0px;background:none" |- |style="width:280px;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;color:#000" | <div style="font-size:162%;border:none;margin: 0;padding:.1em;color:#000">[[विकिपिडिया]]य् लसकुस!</div> <div style="top:+0.2em;font-size: 95%">[[विकिपिडिया:म्हसीका|सकलसिंनं सम्पादन]]याये ज्युगु सितिकं छ्येलिगु हमिलसफू</div> <div id="articlecount" style="width:100%;text-align:center;font-size:85%;">नेपाल भासय् [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] लेख दु|</div> |}<!-- Portals Follow --> |style="width:11%;font-size:95%;color:#000"| *[[:Category:ईतिहास|ईतिहास]] *[[:Category:गणित|गणित]] *[[:Category:जीवनी|जीवनी]] |style="width:11%;font-size:95%"| *[[:Category:नसला|नसला]] *[[:Category:प्रविधि|प्रविधि]] *[[:Category:भूगोल|भूगोल]] |style="width:11%;font-size:95%"| *[[:Category:विज्ञान|विज्ञान]] *[[:Category:समाज|समाज]] *[[:Category:संस्कृति|संस्कृति]] |}<!-- End Portals --> {|style="width:100%;background:none;margin:-.8em 0 -.7em 0" |style="font-size:95%;text-align:left;white-space:nowrap;color:#000"|[[विकिपिडिया:म्हसीका|म्हसीका]] '''·''' [[विकिपिडिया:मालेज्या|मालेज्या]] '''·''' [[विकिपिडिया:ब्वंकेज्या|सम्पादन]] '''·''' [[विकिपिडिया:न्ह्येस:|न्ह्येस:]] '''·''' [[ग्वाहालि:धल:पौ|ग्वाहालि]] |style="font-size:95%;padding:10px 0;margin:0px;text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;color:#000"| [[विकिपिडिया:पुच:|पुच:]] '''·''' [[विकिपिडिया:विशिष्ट लेख|विशिष्ट लेख]] '''·''' [[विकिपिडिया:अ-ज्ञ इन्डेक्स|अ-ज्ञ इन्डेक्स]] |} {{Main Page banner}}<!-- End of header section / beginning of left-column --> == च्वसा नाप स्वापु दुगु == {{ज्याब्व}} थ्व हलिमसफुले आ तक्क दुगु लेख स्वेत क्वे बियातगु सन्‍दुकय् लेख न्ह्यथनिगु आख:यात माउसं तिया दिसं| {{इन्डेक्स}} छिं मालादिगु लेख मलुसा वा न्हु लेख न्ह्येथनेत क्वे यागु सन्‍दुकय् व लेखयागु नां तया इन्टर तिया दिसं| {{न्हु लेख}} <!-- Start of reference section --> ==विकिपिडियायागु मेमेगु ख्य:त== {{मेमेगु}}<!--Template:WikipediaOther--> ==विकिपिडियायागु फुकी ज्याझ्व== {{विकिपिडिया फुकी ज्याझ्व}}<!--Template:WikipediaSister--> ==विकिपिडिया भाय== {{विकिपिडिया भाय}}<!--Template:Wikipedialang--> </div> </div>__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ 6 871 2006-10-02T11:48:01Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Portal:जीवनी]] moved to [[Portal:जीवनी]] #REDIRECT [[Portal:जीवनी]] 7 873 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Portal:जीवनी/box-footer]] moved to [[Portal:जीवनी/box-footer]] {{Portal:Box-footer | {{{1}}} }} 8 875 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Portal:जीवनी/box-header]] moved to [[Portal:जीवनी/box-header]] {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#aaaaaa <!-- This is the color of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar text--> |titlebackground=#aaccff <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- This is the color of the Box Section text --> 9 877 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Portal:विज्ञान/box-footer]] moved to [[Portal:विज्ञान/box-footer]] #REDIRECT [[पोर्टल:विज्ञान/box-footer]] 10 879 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Portal:विज्ञान/box-header]] moved to [[Portal:विज्ञान/box-header]] #REDIRECT [[पोर्टल:विज्ञान/box-header]] 11 3578 2006-10-15T22:55:02Z Eukesh 11 <div id="browsebar"></div> <div style="margin-top:-3px; margin-bottom:0.2em; text-align: center; font-size: 98%;"><!-- These should be fundamental portals --> [[दबु:ईतिहास|ईतिहास]] | [[दबु:गणित|गणित]] | [[दबु:जीवनी|जीवनी]] | [[दबु:नसला|नसला]] | [[दबु:प्रविधि|प्रविधि]] | [[दबु:भूगोल|भूगोल]] | [[दबु:विज्ञान|विज्ञान]] | [[दबु:समाज|समाज]] | [[दबु:संस्कृति|संस्कृति]]</div> 12 883 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:Portal]] moved to [[Template:Portal]] <div style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: solid #aaa 1px; background: #f9f9f9; padding: 1ex; font-size: 90%;" class="tright"> {| style="background: transparent;" width={{{boxsize|{{{4|0}}}}}} |<div style="position: relative; width: {{{size|{{{3|36}}}}}}px; height: 32px; overflow: hidden"> <div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2">[[Image:{{{image|{{{2|Portal.svg}}}}}}|{{{size|{{{3|36}}}}}}x32px|Portal:{{{name|{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}}]]</div> </div> || '''''[[Portal:{{{name|{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}}|{{{name|{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}} पोर्टल]]''''' |} </div> 13 885 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:Portal:Box-footer]] moved to [[Template:Portal:Box-footer]] #REDIRECT [[Template:पोर्टल:Box-footer]] 14 887 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:Portal:Box-header]] moved to [[Template:Portal:Box-header]] <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div style="position: relative;<!-- -->border: 1px solid {{{titleborder|{{{border|#ababab}}}}}};<!-- -->background: {{{titlebackground|#bcbcbc}}};<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};<!-- -->padding: .1em;<!-- -->text-align: center;<!-- -->font-weight: bold;<!-- -->font-size: 100%;<!-- -->margin-bottom: 0px;<!-- -->border-bottom: none;"><!-- --><span class="plainlinks" <!-- -->style="position: absolute;<!-- -->top: 1px;<!-- -->right: 1px;<!-- -->background: transparent;<!-- -->border: 0px;<!-- -->margin-bottom:.1em;<!-- -->font-size:80%;<!-- -->font-weight: normal;<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};"><!-- -->[{{fullurl:{{{editpage|/}}}|action=edit{{#if:{{{section|}}}|&section={{{section|}}}}}}} <span style="color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">edit</span>]{{{top| }}}&nbsp;<!-- --></span ><!-- --><h2 style="font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;border: none; margin: 0; padding:0; padding-bottom:.1em; color:{{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">{{{title}}}</h2><!-- --></div> 15 3554 2006-10-15T21:10:12Z Eukesh 11 <div align="center" style="clear:both;padding-top:1.5em;">'''[[विकिपिडिया:दबु(पोर्टल)|दबु(पोर्टल)]] धागु छु ख?''' | '''[[विकिपिडिया:दबुयागु सुची|दबुयागु सुची]]''' | '''[[विकिपिडिया:विशिष्ट दबु|विशिष्ट दबु]]'''</div> 16 891 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:चिकित्सा]] moved to [[Template:चिकित्सा]] <br clear=all /> {| style="margin:0 auto;" align=center width="80%" class="toccolours" !style="background:#ccccff"|<big>[[उसायं विज्ञान]] – [[चिकित्साशास्त्र]]</big> |- |align=center|[[एनेस्थेसियोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[चर्मशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[आकस्मिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[साधारण चिकित्सक]]&nbsp;| [[आन्तरिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[स्नायुशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[प्रसवशास्त्र]] व [[मिसाल्वे शास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ज्यानाप स्वागु चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[ल्वेशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[मचाल्वेशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[भौतिक चिकित्सा व पूनर्स्थापना]]&nbsp;| [[मानसिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[सामाजिक उसायं]]&nbsp;| [[चिकित्सा विकिरणशास्त्र|विकिरणशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[शल्यचिकित्सा]] |- !style="background:#ccccff"| [[आन्तरिक चिकित्सा]]यागु ख्य:त: |- |align=center| [[हृदयशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ग्रन्थिशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ग्यास्त्रोएन्टेरोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[रक्तशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[कम्युनिकेबल ल्वे चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[ईन्टेन्सिभ केयर चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[मृगौलाशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ओन्कोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[फोक्सोशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[रिउम्याटोलोजी]] |- !style="background:#ccccff"| [[शल्यचिकित्सा]]यागु ख्य:त: |- |align=center| [[नुगछाती शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[छ्यंगु शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[साधारण शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[मिसा शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[स्नायुशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[मिखाशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[ख्वा व म्हुतु शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[अंग प्रत्यारोपण]]&nbsp;| [[क्वेंजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[ओटोल्यारिंजियोलोजी]]&nbsp;<small>(ENT)</small>&nbsp;| [[मचाशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[प्लास्टिक शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[क्यान्सर शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[घा:पा: शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[युरोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[धमनी शल्यचिकित्सा]] |} 17 893 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:ट्युमर]] moved to [[Template:ट्युमर]] {| style="margin:0 auto;" align=center width="90%" class="toccolours" |align=center style="background:#ccccff"| '''[[ट्युमर]]''' (व स्वापु दुगु स्वरूप), '''[[क्यान्सर]]''' व '''[[अन्कोलोजी]]''' <small class="editlink noprint plainlinksneverexpand"> [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:Template:Tumors|action=edit}} edit]</small> |- |align=center| [[बिनाइन]] - [[पृम्यालिग्नेन्ट अवस्था|पृम्यालिग्नेन्ट]] - [[कार्सिनोमा इन् सितु]] - [[म्यालिग्नेन्ट]] ''थाय:'' [[मलद्वार क्यान्सर|मलद्वार]] - [[मूत्रम्हिचा क्यान्सर|मूत्रम्हिचा]] - [[क्वें त्युमर|क्वें]] - [[न्ह्येपु ट्युमर|न्ह्येपु]] - [[स्तन क्यान्सर|स्तन]] - [[सर्भाइकल क्यान्सर|सर्भिक्स]] - [[कोलोरेक्टल क्यान्सर|तधंगु आन्द्रा]] - [[ड्युडेनल क्यान्सर|चीधंगु आन्द्रा]] - [[एन्डोमेट्रीयल क्यान्सर|एन्डोमेट्रीयम]] - [[एसोफेजियल क्यान्सर|एसोफेगस]] - [[मिखा क्यान्सर|मिखा]] - [[पित्तम्हिचा क्यान्सर|पित्तम्हिचा]] - [[छ्यं व ग:प: क्यान्सर|छ्यं/ग:प:]] - [[हेप्याटोसेलुलर क्यान्सर|लिभर]] - [[ल्यारिन्क्स क्यान्सर|ल्यारिन्क्स]] - [[फोक्सो क्यान्सर|फोक्सो]] - [[म्हुतु क्यान्सर|म्हुतु]] - [[प्यान्कृयाटिक क्यान्सर|प्यान्कृया]] - [[नाकु क्यान्सर|नाकु]] - [[प्रोस्ट्रेट क्यान्सर|प्रोस्ट्रेट]] - [[मृगौला कोष क्यान्सर|मृगौला]] - [[ओभरियन क्यान्सर|ओभरी]] - [[छ्येंगु क्यान्सर|छ्येंगु]] - [[प्वाथ क्यान्सर|प्वाथ]] - [[टेस्टिकुलर क्यान्सर|टेस्टिकल]] - [[थाइरोइड क्यान्सर|थाइरोइड]] ''स्वरूप:'' [[प्यापिलोमा]] / [[कार्सिनोमा]] - [[कोरियोकार्सिनोमा]] - [[एडेनोमा]][[एडेनोकार्सिनोमा]] - [[याउंसेच्वंगु तन्तु सार्कोमा]] - [[मेलानोमा]] - [[फाइब्रोमा]] / [[फाइब्रोसार्कोमा]] - [[मेटास्ट्यासिस]] - [[लाइपोमा]] / [[लाइपोसार्कोमा]] - [[लियोमायोमा]] / [[लियोमायोसार्कोमा]] - [[र्याब्डोमायोमा]] / [[र्यब्डोमायोसार्कोमा]] - [[मेसोथेलियोमा]] - [[एन्जियोमा]] / [[एन्जियोसार्कोमा]] - [[ओस्टियोमा]] / [[ओस्टियोसार्कोमा]] - [[कोन्ड्रोमा]] / [[कोन्ड्रोसार्कोमा]] - [[ग्लायोमा]] - [[लिम्फोमा]] / [[लिउकेमिया]] ''उपचार:'' [[शल्य]] - [[वास:]] - [[विकिरण चिकित्सा]] - [[क्यान्सर इम्युनोथेरापी|इम्युनोथेरापी]] - [[प्रयोगिक क्यान्सर चिकित्सा]] ''स्वापूदुगु स्वरूपत:'' [[सिस्ट]] - [[डिस्प्लेजिया]] - [[हेमार्टोमा]] - [[नियोप्लेजिया]] - [[नोड्युल (चिकित्सा)|नोड्युल]] - [[पोलिप (चिकित्सा)|पोलिप]] - [[सीउडोसिस्ट]] ''मेमेगु:'' [[ट्युमर सप्रेसर जीन]] / [[अन्कोजीन]] - [[क्यान्सर स्टेजिङ|स्टेजिङ]] / [[ग्रेडिङ (ट्युमर)|ग्रेडिङ]] - [[कार्सिनोजेनेसिस]] / [[मेटास्टेसिस]] - [[कार्सिनोजेन]] - [[क्यान्सर मालेज्या|मालेज्या]] - [[प्यारानियोप्लास्तिक फेनमेनन्]] - [[आइ सी डी-ओ]] - [[अन्कोलोजीयागु सुची-स्वापुदुगु खंग्व]] |} 18 895 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:पोर्टल:Box-footer]] moved to [[Template:पोर्टल:Box-footer]] #REDIRECT [[Template:Wp/new/पोर्टल:Box-footer]] 19 897 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:पोर्टल:Box-header]] moved to [[Template:पोर्टल:Box-header]] <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div style="position: relative;<!-- -->border: 1px solid {{{titleborder|{{{border|#ababab}}}}}};<!-- -->background: {{{titlebackground|#bcbcbc}}};<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};<!-- -->padding: .1em;<!-- -->text-align: center;<!-- -->font-weight: bold;<!-- -->font-size: 100%;<!-- -->margin-bottom: 0px;<!-- -->border-bottom: none;"><!-- --><span class="plainlinks" <!-- -->style="position: absolute;<!-- -->top: 1px;<!-- -->right: 1px;<!-- -->background: transparent;<!-- -->border: 0px;<!-- -->margin-bottom:.1em;<!-- -->font-size:80%;<!-- -->font-weight: normal;<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};"><!-- -->[{{fullurl:{{{editpage|/}}}|action=edit{{#if:{{{section|}}}|&section={{{section|}}}}}}} <span style="color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">edit</span>]{{{top| }}}&nbsp;<!-- --></span ><!-- --><h2 style="font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;border: none; margin: 0; padding:0; padding-bottom:.1em; color:{{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">{{{title}}}</h2><!-- --></div> 20 899 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:पोर्टल:जीवनी/ल्ययातगु किपा]] moved to [[Template:पोर्टल:जीवनी/ल्ययातगु किपा]] {| style="width:100%;padding:.5em;background-color:transparent" |- | style="width:100%;text-align:center;"| [[Image:Thomas_Young_(scientist).jpg|center|220px|'''Thomas Young''', English scientist]] '''[[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]]''' ([[June 13]], [[1773]] &ndash; [[May 10]], [[1829]]) was an [[England|English]] [[scientist]], [[researcher]], [[physician]] and [[polymath]]. He is sometimes considered to be "the last person to know everything": that is, he was familiar with virtually all the contemporary Western academic knowledge at that point in history. Clearly this can never be verified, and other claimants to this title are [[Gottfried Leibniz]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], and [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], among others. |} 21 901 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:पोर्टल:जीवनी/ल्ययातगु जीवनी/2006, वा 38]] moved to [[Template:पोर्टल:जीवनी/ल्ययातगु जीवनी/2006, वा 38]] <div style="float:left;margin-right:0.9em"> [[Image:MR 1932 small.jpg|none|100px|Marian Rejewski]] </div> '''[[Marian Rejewski]]''' was a [[Poland|Polish]] [[mathematician]] and [[cryptology|cryptologist]] who, in 1932, solved the [[Enigma machine]], the main [[cipher]] machine then in use by Germany. The success of Rejewski and his colleagues jump-started British reading of Enigma in [[World War II]], and the [[military espionage|intelligence]] so gained, code-named "[[ULTRA|Ultra]]", contributed to the [[End of World War II in Europe|defeat of Nazi Germany]]. While studying mathematics at [[Poznań University]], Rejewski attended a secret [[cryptology]] course conducted by the Polish [[General Staff]]'s [[Biuro Szyfrów|Cipher Bureau]], which he joined full-time in 1932. The Bureau had had no success in reading Enigma, and set Rejewski to work on the problem in late 1932. After only a few weeks he had deduced the secret internal wiring of the Enigma. Rejewski and two mathematician colleagues then developed an assortment of techniques for the regular [[decryption]] of Enigma messages, including the cryptologic "[[card catalog (cryptology)|card catalog]]", the "[[cyclometer]]", and the cryptologic "[[bomba (cryptography)|bomb]]". Five weeks before the [[Polish September Campaign|German invasion of Poland]] in 1939, Rejewski and his colleagues presented their results on Enigma decryption to their [[France|French]] and [[Great Britain|British]] counterparts. Shortly after the outbreak of war, the Polish cryptologists were evacuated to France, and later to Britain. In Britain, Rejewski worked with a Polish unit solving low-level German ciphers. In 1946 Rejewski returned to his family in Poland and worked as an accountant, remaining silent about his cryptologic work until the Enigma story became public in the 1970s. ('''[[Marian Rejewski|पूवंक ब्वनादिसं...]]''') 22 903 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/Template:पोर्टल:जीवनी/विभाजनत:]] moved to [[Template:पोर्टल:जीवनी/विभाजनत:]] '''[[:Category:जीवनी]]''': * [[:Category:कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] * [[:Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] * [[:Category:लेखक व कवि]] * [[:Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] * [[:Category:अनवेषक]] * [[:Category:संकिपा निर्देशक व लेखक]] * [[:Category:आविष्कारक, वैज्ञानिक व गणितिज्ञ]] * [[:Category:समाज शास्त्री (विचारक, अर्थशास्त्री व ईतिहासकार)]] * [[:Category:राजनीतिज्ञ, नेता व जहांनिया]] * [[:Category:क्रान्तिकारी]] 23 3844 2006-10-16T15:40:31Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 24 907 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अनवेषक]] moved to [[अनवेषक]] == म्हसिका== # [[रोआल्ड अ म्युन्ड्सेन]] # [[नील आर्मस्ट्रंग]] # [[विल्लेम् वारेन्ट्स्]] # [[वाइटस बेरिंग]] # [[ज्याक कार्टियर]] # '''[[कृस्टोफर कोलम्बस]]''' # [[जेम्स कूक]] # [[हेर्न्यान कोर्टीस]] # [[फ्रान्सिस् ड्रेक]] # [[युआन सेबेस्टियन एल्कानो]] # [[लीफ् इरिकसन]] # [[भास्को डे गामा]] # [[युरी ग्यागारिन]] # [[एडमन्ड हिलारी]] # [[फर्डिन्यन्ड म्यागालिन]] # [[तेन्जिङ नोर्गे]] # [[मार्को पोलो]] # [[अबेल तास्मान]] # [[झेङ् ही]] [[Category:जीवनी]] 25 2332 2006-10-10T20:48:02Z Eukesh 11 # [[अफ्रीकी युनियन]] # [[अरब लिग]] # [[आसियान]] # [[स्वतन्त्र राष्ट्रतेगु कमनवेल्थ]] # [[राष्ट्रतेगु कमनवेल्थ]] # [[युरोपयागु काउन्सिल]] # [[युरोपेली संघ]] # [[जेनेभा कन्भेन्सन]] ## '''[[अन्तरराष्ट्रीय रेडक्रस् व रेड क्रेसेन्ट मुभमेन्ट]]''' # [[इन्टरपोल]] # [[नेटो]] # [[नोबेल सिरपा]] # [[आर्थिक समन्वय व विकासया गुठि]] # [[युरोपे सुरक्षा व समन्वययागु गुठि]] # [[अमेरिकी राज्यतेगु गुठि]] # [[चिकं निर्यातयाईगु देतेगु गुठि]] # '''[[संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ]]''' ## [[अन्तरराष्ट्रीय आणविक उर्जा संघ]] ## [[न्याययागु अन्तरराष्ट्रीय अदालत]] ## [[अन्तरराष्ट्रीय अपराध अदालत]] ## [[अन्तराष्ट्रीय मुद्रा कोष]] ## [[युनेस्को]] ## [[संयुक्त राष्टृय मचा कोष]] ## [[मनु अधिकारयागु ब्रह्माण्डीय घोषणा]] ## [[हलिम उसायं गुठि]] # [[हलिम ब्यांक पुच]] # [[हलिम बनेज्या गुठि]] [[Category:समाज]] 26 911 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अबेल तास्मान]] moved to [[अबेल तास्मान]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 27 4004 2006-10-16T17:27:33Z Eukesh 11 {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} *धम्मसङ्गणी *विभङ्ग *कथावत्थु *पुग्गलपञ्ञति *धातुकथा [[Category:बौद्ध]] 28 915 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अरियो अट्ठङ्गीको मग्गो]] moved to [[अरियो अट्ठङ्गीको मग्गो]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 29 917 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अर्थतन्त्र]] moved to [[अर्थतन्त्र]] '''अर्थतन्त्र''' (Economy) 30 919 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अर्थशास्त्र]] moved to [[अर्थशास्त्र]] [[समाज शास्त्र]]ले '''अर्थशास्त्र''' धागु छुं न [[वस्तु(अर्थशास्त्र)|वस्तु]] वा [[सेवा(अर्थशास्त्र)|सेवा]] यागु [[देकेज्या]], [[इनेज्या]] व [[छ्येलेज्या]] यागु सीकाकायेगु ख्य ख:|<ref>''[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]'' on [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109547?query=Economics&ct= Economics]</ref> अर्थशास्त्रले मनु व समाजं गथे याना जागरण(ईन्सेन्टिभ), ल्येयेज्या(चोईस), मगाउ वस्तुयागु भागबन्डा(एलोकेसन् अफ् स्कार्स रिसोर्सेस्)यात छ्येला मांग व चाहनायात सन्तुष्ट याई धका अध्ययन जुई| [[अल्फ्रेड मार्शल्]]नं १९औं शताब्दीयागु अन्त्यपाखे अनौपचारिक कथं अर्थशास्त्र यात "मनु यागु जीवनयागु साधारण बनेज्या यागु अध्ययन" धका परिभाषित याना दिगु दु| अर्थशास्त्रयागु ख्ययाय येक्व कथं बाये ज्यु| आपालं थुकित [[चीधंगु अर्थशास्त्र]] (मनुयागु सतहले) व [[तधंगु अर्थशास्त्र]] (मंका परिनाम) धका विभाजन याई तर थुकित मेमेगु कथं न विभाजित या छिं| अर्थशास्त्रयागु बनेज्या, व्तक्तिगत लगानी, सरकार आदि क्षेत्रले यक्व स्वापू दु| अर्थशास्त्र यागु सिद्धान्त अर्थ ख्य स्वया पिने नं छ्येला च्वंगु दु| == अर्थशास्त्रया ख्य:त: == 31 921 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अर्नेस्ट हेमिङ्वे]] moved to [[अर्नेस्ट हेमिङ्वे]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 32 923 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अर्हतयागु प्यंगु त्वाथत:]] moved to [[अर्हतयागु प्यंगु त्वाथत:]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 33 925 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अलेक्जेन्डर डुमास]] moved to [[अलेक्जेन्डर डुमास]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 34 927 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/अलेक्सान्द्र पुश्किन]] moved to [[अलेक्सान्द्र पुश्किन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 35 3827 2006-10-16T15:33:59Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 36 931 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/आइज्याक् आसिमोभ]] moved to [[आइज्याक् आसिमोभ]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 37 933 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/आरेथा फ्र्यान्क्लिन]] moved to [[आरेथा फ्र्यान्क्लिन]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 38 935 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/आर्थर कोनान डोयल]] moved to [[आर्थर कोनान डोयल]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 39 937 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/आर्थर मिलर]] moved to [[आर्थर मिलर]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 40 939 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/आविष्कारक, वैज्ञानिक व गणितिज्ञ]] moved to [[आविष्कारक, वैज्ञानिक व गणितिज्ञ]] # [[मुहम्मद इब्न् मुसा अल्-ख्वारिज्मी]] # [[आर्किमिडिज]] # [[जोन लोगी बेर्ड]] # [[अलेकजेन्डर ग्राहम् बेल]] # [[कार्ल बेन्ज]] # [[टिम बर्नर्स-ली]] # [[नील्स् बोर]] # [[टाइको ब्रे]] # [[रेचेल कार्सोन]] # [[निकोलस कपरनिकस]] # [[मेरी क्युरी]] # '''[[चार्ल्स डार्विन]]''' # [[थोमस एडिसन]] # '''[[अल्बर्ट आइन्स्टाइन]]''' # [[लियोनार्ड युलर]] # [[एनरिको फर्मी]] # [[रिचार्ड फेञ्म्यान]] # [[अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ]] # [[हेन्री फोर्ड]] # [[जोसेफ फोरिए]] # [[बकमिन्स्टर फुलर]] # [[क्यासिमिर फन्क]] # [[ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली]] # [[बिल गेट्स्]] # [[कार्ल फ्राइडरिच गस]] # [[कर्ट गोडेल]] # [[योहान गुटेनबर्ग]] # [[डेविड हिल्बर्ट]] # [[कृस्टियान हुजेन्स]] # [[अलेक्जेन्ड्रीयायाम्ह हेपाटिया]] # [[एडवार्ड जेनर]] # [[स्टिभ जब्स्]] # [[योहानेस् केप्लर]] # [[जोन् मेनार्ड कीन्स्]] # [[डोनल्ड नथ]] # [[पियरे-सिमों लाप्लास्]] # [[गट्फ्राइड लीब्निज्]] # [[कारोलस लिनियस]] # [[इग्नेसी ल्युकसिविक्ज]] # [[जेम्स् क्लर्क म्याक्सवेल]] # '''[[आईज्याक न्युटन]]''' # [[अल्फ्रेड नोबेल]] # [[हान्स् कृस्टियन ओर्स्टेड]] # [[लुई पास्चर]] # [[डेनिस रिची]] # [[ओल रोमेर]] # [[विल्हेम कोनराड रोन्ट्जेन]] # [[बर्न्हार्ड रीम्यान]] # [[अर्नेस्ट रुथर्फोर्ड]] # [[रिचार्ड स्टालम्यान]] # [[निकोला टेस्ला]] # [[लाइनस टोर्भाल्ड्स्]] # [[एलेन ट्युरिङ]] # [[लियोनार्डो दा भिन्सी]] # [[राईट दाजुकिजा]] 41 941 2006-10-02T11:48:02Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ईतिहास]] moved to [[ईतिहास]] {{portal}} '''ईतिहास''' (अंग्रेजी: हिस्ट्री / History) धागु वैज्ञानिक तव नं मुंका तगु न्हापा न्हापा यागु ज्या, खं आदि यागु वैज्ञानिक अध्ययन ख:| न्हपा ईतिहास यात मानविकी यागु अन्तर्गर तया तगु जुसां थौं कन्हे थ्व शास्त्र यात सामजिक विज्ञानया दुने अध्ययन जुई | ईतिहास यात येक्व मनु तेसं शासक व महत्त्वपूर्ण ज्या यागु जक्क ल्याखं तैगु विज्ञान धका नं धाई तर थौं कन्हे वगु न्हु चलन या कथं न्हापा यागु आम मनु तेगु नं थुकिलि अध्ययन जुई| == वर्गिकरण == ईतिहासयागु वर्गिकरण क्वे बिया तगु कथं याये ज्यु:- * ई कथं (सम्बत अनुसार) * थाय् कथं * दे कथं * जाति कथं * विषय कथं == हलिमयागु ईतिहास == # [[हलिमयागु ईतिहास]] 42 943 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ईन्जिन्यरिङ]] moved to [[ईन्जिन्यरिङ]] '''ईन्जिन्यरिङ''' (Engineering) 43 3188 2006-10-14T21:09:31Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[पात्र]]''' ## [[चिनिया पात्र]] ## [[ग्रेगोरियन पात्र]] # '''[[न्हु]]''' # '''[[ला]]''' ## [[ज्यानुअरी]] ## [[फेब्रुअरी]] ## [[मार्च]] ## [[अपृल]] ## [[मे]] ## [[जुन]] ## [[जुलाइ]] ## [[अगस्ट]] ## [[सेप्तेम्बेर]] ## [[अक्टोबर]] ## [[नोवेम्बर]] ## [[डिसेम्बर]] # [[ई थाय]] ## [[न्हिज मुन्किगु ई]] # [[वा]] # '''[[दं]]''' ## [[लीप दं]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 44 947 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ईलेक्त्रोनिक विज्ञान]] moved to [[ईलेक्त्रोनिक विज्ञान]] '''ईलेक्त्रोनिक विज्ञान''' (Electronics) 45 949 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/उध्योग]] moved to [[उध्योग]] '''उध्योग''' (Manufacture) 46 3013 2006-10-14T20:21:12Z Eukesh 11 डब्ल्यु एच ओ (सन् १९४६)या कथं उसायं धागु "शारीरिक, मानसिक व सामाजिक (रुपे)पूवंक सद्दे छगु जुइगु छगु अवस्था ख: व थ्व ल्वे व मफु मदैगु जक्क मखु|"। थ्व परिभाषायात थौं कन्हे "सामाजिक व आर्थिक कथं फलदायक जीवन" म्वाये फैगु क्षमता तया परिमार्जित यागु दु| [[Category:विज्ञान]] 47 953 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/उसायं ख्य:]] moved to [[उसायं ख्य:]] '''उसायं ख्य:''' (Health science) 48 3025 2006-10-14T20:24:26Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[चिकित्साशास्त्र]]''' # [[व्यसन]] ## [[अयलागुलु]] ### [[सिरोसिस्]] ## [[वास व्यसन]] # '''[[क्यान्सर]]''' ## [[फोक्सो क्यान्सर]] # [[कोलेरा]] # [[दन्त चिकित्सा]] # [[डायबिटिज मेलाइटस]] # [[अशक्तता]] ## [[कां]] ## [[न्ह्यापं ख्वांय]] ## [[मानसिक ल्वे]] # '''[[ल्वे]]''' # [[वास]] ## [[क्याफिन]] ## [[क्यानाबिस]] ## [[कोकेन]] ## [[एथानोल]] ## [[निकोटिन]] ### [[टोबाको]] ## [[अफिम]] # [[डिसेन्टरी]] # [[उसायं]] # [[नुग ल्वे]] # [[उच्च रक्तचाप]] # '''[[मलेरिया]]''' # [[कुपोषण]] # [[तग्वारा]] # [[निमोनिया]] # [[मैथुनिक ल्वे]] ## '''[[एड्स]]''' ## [[सिफिलिस]] # [[स्त्रोक]] # [[क्षयरोग]] # '''[[भाइरस]]''' ## '''[[ईन्फ्लुएन्जा]]''' ### [[एच५ एन१]] ## [[स्मल पक्स]] {{चिकित्सा}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 49 957 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एच जी वेल्स्]] moved to [[एच जी वेल्स्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 50 959 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एडमन्ड हिलारी]] moved to [[एडमन्ड हिलारी]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 51 3833 2006-10-16T15:36:55Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 52 963 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एड्गार एलेन पोए]] moved to [[एड्गार एलेन पोए]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 53 965 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एड्ना सन्त भिन्सेन्ट मीले]] moved to [[एड्ना सन्त भिन्सेन्ट मीले]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 54 967 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एड्वार्ड ग्रेग्]] moved to [[एड्वार्ड ग्रेग्]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 55 3018 2006-10-14T20:22:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 56 2955 2006-10-14T20:04:24Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[एनाटोमी]]''' # '''[[कोष]]''' # [[ईनिगु प्रणाली]] ## [[हि]] ## [[नुग]] # [[ग्रन्थि प्रणाली]] # [[प्वाआन्द्रा प्रणाली]] ## [[तधंगु आन्द्रा]] ## [[चिधंगु आन्द्रा]] ## [[सेंधी]] # [[छ्येंगुसं प्रणाली]] ## [[वक्ष]] ## [[छ्येंगु]] # [[स्नायु प्रणाली]] ## [[न्ह्येपू]] ## [[जनेन्द्रीय प्रणाली]] ### [[श्रवण प्रणाली]] #### [[न्ह्यापं]] ### [[सवा प्रणाली]] ### [[न:त्वनिगु प्रणाली]] ### [[सोम्याटोसेन्सरी प्रणाली]] ### [[दृस्टि प्रणाली]] #### [[मिखा]] # [[प्रजनन प्रणाली]] ## [[नाकु]] ## [[मांसी]] # [[सासंल्हाईगु प्रणाली]] ## [[फोक्सो]] # [[कवं प्रणाली]] {{एनाटोमी}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 57 973 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एन्टोनिन ड्वोराक]] moved to [[एन्टोनिन ड्वोराक]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 58 975 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एन्टोन् चेखोव]] moved to [[एन्टोन् चेखोव]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 59 3849 2006-10-16T15:41:39Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 60 979 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एफ स्कट फिट्ज्गेराल्ड]] moved to [[एफ स्कट फिट्ज्गेराल्ड]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 61 981 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एमिली डिकिन्सन]] moved to [[एमिली डिकिन्सन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 62 983 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एरिस्टोफेन्स्]] moved to [[एरिस्टोफेन्स्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 63 3231 2006-10-14T21:21:43Z Eukesh 11 # [[एलेक्ट्रोनिक्स्]] ## [[क्यापासिट्यान्स]] ## [[त्या]] ## [[चार्ज]] ## [[बाहा (विद्युत) ]] ## [[विद्युतीय विरोध]] ## [[फृक्वेन्सी]] ## [[इन्डक्ट्यान्स]] ## [[रियाक्ट्यान्स]] # पूर्जात: ## [[क्यापासिटर]] ## [[इन्डक्टर]] ## [[ट्रान्जिस्टर]] ## [[डायोड]] ## [[रेजिस्टर]] ## [[ट्रान्स्फर्मर]] [[Category:प्रविधि]] 64 987 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एल्भिस प्रेस्ली]] moved to [[एल्भिस प्रेस्ली]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 65 989 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एसिया]] moved to [[एसिया]] थ्व: दक्ले तधंगु महादेश ख:| थ्व महादेशये हलिमयागु दक्ले येक्व मनुत: च्वनी| == भूगोल == == मनु त: == == प्राकृतिक श्रोत त: == == क्षेत्रीय गुठी त: == 66 991 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/एस्ट्रीड लिन्ड्ग्रेन]] moved to [[एस्ट्रीड लिन्ड्ग्रेन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 67 993 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ओस्कर वाइल्ड]] moved to [[ओस्कर वाइल्ड]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 68 1812 2006-10-10T17:31:08Z Eukesh 11 # [[सन् १९७३ चिकं समस्या]] # [[अमेरिकी गृह युद्ध]] # [[अपार्थेईड]] # [[बेलायती साम्राज्य]] # [[शीत युद्ध]] # [[उपनिवेषयागु ह्रास]] # [[इजराइलयागु स्थापना]] # [[सोभियत संघयागु बायेज्या]] # [[फ्रान्स-प्रुसियाली युद्ध]] # [[जर्मन पूर्नएकिकरण]] # [[जर्मन एकिकरण]] # [[तधंगु मन्दी]] # [[खाडी युद्ध]] # [[होलोकस्ट]] # [[औद्योगिक क्रान्ति]] # [[इरानी क्रान्ति]] # [[ईटाली एकिकरण]] # [[कोरियन युद्ध]] # [[मेइजी पूनर्स्थापना]] # [[नाजी जर्मनी]] # [[पोलिश-सोभियत वार]] # [[क्विङ् काल]] # [[रसियाली गृहयुद्ध]] # [[सन् १९१७यागु रसियाली क्रान्ति]] # [[अफृकायागु स्क्र्याम्बल]] # [[सोलिड्यारिटी]] # [[अफ्घानिस्तानये सोभियत युद्ध]] # [[सर्ग अन्वेषण]] # [[स्पेनी गृहयुद्ध]] # [[भर्साईल्स सन्धि]] # [[भियतनाम युद्ध]] # [[प्रथम हलिम युद्ध]] # [[द्वितीय हलिम युद्ध]] 69 3271 2006-10-14T21:35:15Z Eukesh 11 # [[विद्युत]] ## [[न्युक्लियर शक्ति]] # [[फोसिल उर्जाश्रोत]] ## [[कोइला]] ## [[ग्यासोलिन]] ## [[चिकं]] # [[मि]] # [[दुने मुइगु यन्त्र]] # [[पूर्ननविकरणीय उर्जा]] ## [[जलशक्ति]] ## [[सौर्य शक्ति]] ## [[फे शक्ति]] # [[खा]] # [[भ्वं]] # [[प्लास्टिक]] # [[हा यन्त्र]] # [[सिं]] [[Category:प्रविधि]] 70 3266 2006-10-14T21:32:17Z Eukesh 11 # [[कम्प्युटर]] ## [[बूट लोडर]] ## [[हार्ड डिस्क]] ## [[मदरबोर्ड]] ## [[प्रोसेसर]] ## [[र्याम]] # [[आर्टिफिसियल इन्टेलिजेन्स]] # [[कम्प्युटर विज्ञान]] ## [[अल्गोरिथम]] # [[सूचना प्रविधि]] # [[अन्तरजाल]] ## [[ई-पौ]] ## [[अन्तरजाल नियम]] ## [[टी सी पी]] ## [[वोर्ल्ड वाइड वेब्]] ### [[वेब् ब्राउजर]] ## [[एच टी टी पी]] ## [[एच टी एम् एल्]] # [[अपरेटिङ सिस्टम]] ## [[लाइनक्स]] ## [[म्याक् ओ एस्]] ## [[माइक्रोसफ्ट विन्डोज्]] ## [[युनिक्स्]] # [[प्रोग्रामिङ भाय]] ## [[बेसिक]] ## [[सी++]] ## [[भिजुअल बेसिक]] ## [[जावा प्रोग्रामिङ भाय]] ## [[पी एच् पी]] # [[सफ्ट्वेर]] # [[प्रयोगकर्ता इन्टरफेस]] ## [[कीबोर्ड]] ## [[मोनिटर]] ## [[माउस]] [[Category:प्रविधि]] 71 1001 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/कम्प्युटरया विज्ञान]] moved to [[कम्प्युटरया विज्ञान]] '''कम्प्युटर''' धागु छुं नं अन्यागु ज्याब्व ख छुकिलि छुं डेटा तये धुन्का व ज्याब्व नं उकियु हे [[नियम]] अनुसार व डेटा यात [[प्रोसेस]] याना छगु आउटपुट पिकाई| 72 1003 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/कर्म (बौद्ध)]] moved to [[कर्म (बौद्ध)]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 73 2373 2006-10-11T21:24:04Z Eukesh 11 '''कला''' (Arts) [[Category:संस्कृति]] 74 1007 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] moved to [[कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] == म्हसीका == # [[म्यार्लन ब्रान्डो]] # [[चार्ली च्याप्लिन्]] # [[मर्लेन् डाएतृच्]] # [[म्यारिलीन् मोन्रो]] # [[जोह्न् वेन्]] == कलाकार == == नृतक == == मोडेल == [[Category:कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] 75 1009 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/कार्ल स्यान्डबर्ग]] moved to [[कार्ल स्यान्डबर्ग]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 76 2800 2006-10-14T19:12:32Z Eukesh 11 /* मेगु कासा */ '''कासा''' (Sports) धागु नियमया दुने च्वना थयात शारीरिक व मानसिक रुपे बललाकिगु, सीप देकिगु, न्ह्याईपुइकेगु, धेंधेंबल्ला याइगु थें न्यागु विकासयात याईगु ज्या ख:| == कासाया ईतिहास == हलिमे दक्क्व सभ्यताये थगु हे थींथीं कथंया कासा त दु| == विभाजन == कासायात [[कम्प्युटर कासा]] व [[मेमेगु कासा]] ये विभाजन या छीं| === कम्प्युटर कासा === कम्प्युटरले म्हितिगु कासायात कम्प्युटर कासा धाई| भिडिओ कासा धागु नं कम्प्युटर कासा थें न्यागु कासा ख:| तर थ्व: कासा टिभीले व आर्केड मेसिनले म्हिति| === मेगु कासा === कम्प्युटर व टिभि स्वया पिने म्हितिगु कासायात मेमेगु कासाया दुने ते छीं| [[Category:संस्कृति]] 77 1013 2006-10-02T11:48:03Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/कृस्टोफर कोलम्बस]] moved to [[कृस्टोफर कोलम्बस]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 78 2991 2006-10-14T20:15:06Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 79 1017 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/क्येब]] moved to [[क्येब]] '''क्येब''' (Gardening) 80 1019 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/क्रान्तिकारी]] moved to [[क्रान्तिकारी]] # [[जोन आर्कयिम्ह]] # [[महात्मा गान्धी]] # [[एमा गोल्डम्यान]] # [[चे ग्वेभारा]] # [[हेलेन केलर]] # [[हो चि मिन्ह्]] # [[ओसामा बिन लादेन]] # [[फ्लोरेन्स नाईटिङेल]] # [[रोजा पार्क्स्]] # [[एमिलिया प्लेटर]] # [[ग्याभ्रीलो प्रीन्सिप]] # [[मदर टेरेसा]] # [[सोजोर्नर ट्रुथ]] # [[हेरिएट टुबम्यान]] 81 3850 2006-10-16T15:42:04Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 82 3837 2006-10-16T15:38:33Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 83 1025 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/क्लाउडियो मोन्तेभर्डि]] moved to [[क्लाउडियो मोन्तेभर्डि]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 84 2917 2006-10-14T19:46:50Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[खगोलशास्त्र]]''' # [[उल्का पिण्ड]] # '''[[बिग ब्याङ्ग]]''' # [[ब्ल्याक होल]] # [[न्ह्येपंनगु]] # '''[[नगुमण्ड]]''' ## [[मिल्की वे]] # [[ज दं]] # '''[[तिमिला]]''' # '''[[ग्रह]]''' ## '''[[पृथ्वि]]''' ## [[बृहस्पति]] ## [[मंगल]] ## [[बुध]] ## [[वरुण]] ## ''[[प्लुटो]]'' ## [[शनि]] ## [[अरुण]] ## [[शुक्र]] # [[सौर्यमण्डल]] # '''[[नगु]]''' ## '''[[सुर्द्य]]''' # [[ब्रह्माण्ड]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 85 3362 2006-10-14T22:05:47Z Eukesh 11 /* गणितयागु विषयत: */ {{portal}} == गणितयागु विषयत: == [[Image:Euclid.jpg|right|thumb|220px|[[युक्लिड]], युनानी गणितिज्ञ, "रेखाशास्त्रयागु अबु" धका नं नांजाम्ह ,यात [[राफेल]]नं देकु किपा ''[[द स्कूल अफ् एथेन्स]]''ले क्येनातगु दु]] # [[गणित]] # [[बीजगणित]] # [[अंकगणित]] # [[एक्जियोम]] # [[क्याल्कुलस्]] ## [[विभिन्निकरण]] ## [[संयोजन]] # [[रेखागणित]] ## [[चाकुला]] ### [[पाइ]] ## [[प्यकुंला]] ## [[स्वकुंला]] # [[ग्रुप सिद्धान्त]] # [[गणितीय लजिक]] # [[गणितीय प्रमाण]] ## [[गणितीय ईन्डक्सन]] ## [[रेदक्सियो एड एब्सर्डम्]] # [[अंक]] ## [[कम्प्लेक्स अंक]] ## [[इन्टिजर]] ## [[प्राकृतिक अंक]] ## [[प्राइम अंक]] ## [[र्यासनल अंक]] # [[अल्याख]] # [[सेट सिद्धान्त]] # [[तथ्यांक]] # [[ट्रीगोनोमेट्री]] == म्हसिका == गणित यागु विकास [[एब्स्ट्र्याक्सन]] व [[लजिकल कारन]] यात छ्येला ल्याखाइगु, गणन याईगु, नापे याईगु निसेंकया भौतिक वस्तुयागु स्वरूप व गति निर्धारण याइगु तक्क थ्यन| गणितले छुं न विचा यात अध्ययन याना उकिगु सत्यता यात एक्जियोम व परिभाषा नं विस्तारिकरण (डिडक्सन्) यायेगु लक्ष्य जुई।| सामान्य गणितयागु ज्ञान येक्क्व हे थासे छ्येलातगु खने दु| थंयागु ज्ञान व उकिगु छ्येलेज्या ईतिहासे स्वे बिले हलिमे येक्क्व थासे छ्येला तगु खने दु| प्राचीन मिश्र, मेसोपोटामिया, भारत, युनान आदि थासेयागु सफुले गणितयागु सामान्य विचा यागु परिमार्जन यानातगु दु| मध्यकाले गणितयागु सिक्क हे म्हो विकास जुल| १६औ शताव्दीपाखेयगु [[रिनायसां]] धुंका जुगु न्हु वज्ञानिक विकासयात गणितयागु जग मागुलिं व ई धुंका आ तक्क गणितयागु द्रुत गतिले विकास जुया च्वंगु दु| थौंकन्हे गणित हलिमे यक्क्व ख्येले छ्येलेज्या जुया च्वंगु दु| गथे कि- विज्ञान, यन्त्रशास्त्र, चिकित्सा व अर्थशास्त्र| थंयागु कथलं मेमेगु ख्यले जुगु गणित यागु छ्येलेज्यायात व्यवहारिक गणित धाई| थन्यागु छ्येलेज्या नं गणितीय आविस्कारयात ग्वालि याना च्वंगु दु व ई-ईले गणितयागु न्हु ख्य देकेत नं ग्वालि याना च्वंगु दु| गणितीज्ञतेसं शुद्ध गणित वा गणितयागु विकास जक्क याइगु तर छुं व्यवहारिक अर्थ मदुगु ख्यले नं मालेज्या याई| थंयागु ख्यतेगु व्यवहारिक अर्थ लिपा लिपा मनुतेसं विकास याई| ==ईतिहास== [[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|right|[[क्वीपु]], [[इन्का साम्राज्य]]ले छ्येलिगु आंकिक डेटा मुंका तैगु यन्त्र ]] गणित यागु विकासयात न्ह्याबलें तनाच्वनिगु एब्स्ट्र्याक्सनयागु क्रम वा विषय वस्तुयागु परिमार्जनयागु कथलं स्वे छिं| दक्ले न्हापांगु एब्स्ट्र्याक्सन अंक हे जुइ मा| निगु स्याउ व निगु सन्त्रासीया दथुई छुं मंका दु धैगु विचायागु चेतना मनु जातियागु लागि क्रान्तिकारी विचा ख:| थ्व धुंका भौतिक वस्तुयात निने सैगु क्षमता, द्रव्य वस्तु गथे कि न्हि, मौसम, दं आदियागु ल्याखं तेगु क्षमतायागु विकास जुल| अंक गणित, रेखा गणित व धुंका विकास जुल| व धुंका च्वेगु वा अंक मुना तेगु व्यवस्था गथे कि इन्का साम्राज्यले छ्येलिगु आंकिक डेटा मुंका तैगु यन्त्र क्वीपु यागु विकास जुल| ल्या खाइगु येक्व प्रविधि तेगु अले विकास जुल:| ईतिहासयागु न्ह्येथाईगु ई निसें गणितयागु प्रमुख शास्त्रत: करयागु गणनयाययेगु, बनेज्या यायेगु, अंकतेगु सम्बन्ध सीकिगु, जग्गा दानास्वेगु, खगोलीय गतिविधि सीकिगु थें न्यागु ज्यायागु लागि विकास जुल:| थन्यागु आवस्यकताया कथं गणितयात मात्रा, स्वरूप, खगोल (सर्ग) व परिवर्तन धागु प्येंगु ख्य:ले बाये छिं| व धुंका गणित येक्क्व परिमार्जित जुल| गणित व विज्ञानयागु सम्बन्ध सुमधुर कथं न्ह्यने वन| छगु शास्त्र मेगु यागु परिपूर्वक जुल| गणितीय मालेज्यात: अप्वया वल व आ नं वयाच्वंगु दनि| ==प्रेरणा, शुद्ध व व्यवहारिक गणित== गणितयागु उत्पत्ति मात्रा, स्वरूप, खगुल, परिवर्तह नाप स्वागु थाकुइगु समस्या नापं जुई| न्हापा थन्यागु समस्या बनेज्याले, बुं दाइगु आदिले खने दत, व धुंका खगोले व आ विज्ञानयागु न्ह्यागु नं ख्यले| गणितदुने न थौकन्हे गणितयागु येक्व ज्या दु! न्युटन इन्फिनिटेसिमल् क्याल्कुलस आविष्कार याई पिं न्हापा ई पिं मनुत मध्य: छम ख| फेन्मयान नं इन्वेन्तेद् फेन्मयान पाथ इन्टेग्रल यागु विकास कारण व भौतिक चेतना छ्येला यानादिल| थौं यागु स्टृंग थियोरीन नं न्हु गणितयात प्रेरणा बियाच्वंगु दु| [[Category:गणित]] 86 1031 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/गुस्ताभ मेलर]] moved to [[गुस्ताभ मेलर]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 87 2851 2006-10-14T19:28:06Z Eukesh 11 {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 88 1035 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/चत्तरी आर्य सच्छनि]] moved to [[चत्तरी आर्य सच्छनि]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 89 1037 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/चार्ली च्याप्लिन्]] moved to [[चार्ली च्याप्लिन्]] [[Category:कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] 90 1039 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/चाहिलिगु (ट्र्याभल)]] moved to [[चाहिलिगु (ट्र्याभल)]] '''चाहिलिगु''' (ट्र्याभल, Travel) 91 1041 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/चिकित्सा]] moved to [[चिकित्सा]] {{चिकित्सा}} 92 1043 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] moved to [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] '''चिकित्सा विज्ञान''' छगु उसायं विज्ञानयागु ह: ख| थुकिलि मनु यागु उसायं भिंकिगु व ल्वे लंकिगु ज्याखं जुइ| == मू खं == चिकित्सा चिकित्सक तेसं वो मे पिं उसायं पेसाकमी (संयुक्त उसायं ज्याकमी) गथे कि नर्स, फार्मासिस्ट आदि तेसं यागु ज्या ख| ऐतिहासिक कथं स्वेगु ख सा चिकित्साले विध्यावारिधिया पिं मनु तेसं जक्क चिकित्साया ज्या यागु खने दु| चिकित्साया ख्य:ले ज्या याई पिं क्लिनिसियन् त धा पिं चिकित्सक, नर्स व मेडिकल असिस्टेन्ट ख:| थ्व ख्य:ले ज्या याये त छगु औपचारिक तालिम काय मा|थ्व ज्या सिक्क हे संवेदनशील जुगु लीं येक्व दे ये थुकिया संवन्धले थी-थी कथंया विधान व नीति त नं देका तगु दु| == चिकित्सा विज्ञानया ख्य:त == * [[भ्रूणशास्त्र]] 93 2989 2006-10-14T20:14:11Z Eukesh 11 {{चिकित्सा}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 94 1047 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/च्वका, स्वनिग व मरुभूमि]] moved to [[च्वका, स्वनिग व मरुभूमि]] # [[एल्पस्]] # [[एन्डेज]] # [[ग्र्यान्ड क्यान्योन]] # [[तधंगु रिफ्ट स्वनिग]] # '''[[हिमालय]]''' # [[च्वका किलिम्यान्जेरो]] # [[च्वका सगरमाथा]] # [[रक्की पर्वत]] # '''[[सहारा]]''' 95 1049 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/च्वमि व कवि]] moved to [[च्वमि व कवि]] # '''[[दान्ते अलिघिएरी]]''' # [[हान्स् क्रीस्टियन एन्डर्सेन]] # [[एरिस्टोफेन्स्]] # [[आइज्याक् आसिमोभ]] # [[जेन अस्टेन]] # [[विलियम ब्लेक]] # [[बेर्टोल्ट् ब्रेच्त्]] # [[लर्ड बाईरोन]] # [[मीगल डे केर्वेन्तेस्]] # [[एन्टोन् चेखोव]] # [[एमिली डिकिन्सन]] # [[फ्योडोर डोस्तोएभ्स्की]] # [[आर्थर कोनान डोयल]] # [[डु फु]] # [[अलेक्जेन्डर डुमास]] # [[एफ स्कट फिट्ज्गेराल्ड]] # [[ब्रदर्स् गृम्]] # [[डाशिएल् ह्यामेट]] # [[न्याथानील ह:थोर्न]] # [[अर्नेस्ट हेमिङ्वे]] # [[बिंगेनया हिल्डेगार्ड]] # '''[[होमर]]''' # [[भिक्तर ह्युगो]] # [[ल्याङ्स्टन ह्युएज्]] # [[हेनृक इब्सेन]] # [[जेम्स् जोईस]] # [[फ्रान्ज् कफ्का]] # [[ली बै]] # [[एस्ट्रीड लिन्ड्ग्रेन]] # [[थोमस म्यान]] # [[मात्सुओ बाशो]] # [[एड्ना सन्त भिन्सेन्ट मीले]] # [[आर्थर मिलर]] # [[मोलियर]] # [[मुरासाकि शिकिबु]] # [[पाब्लो नेरुडा]] # [[एड्गार एलेन पोए]] # [[मार्सेल प्रोस्ट्]] # [[अलेक्सान्द्र पुश्किन]] # [[रैनेर मारिया रिल्के]] # [[कार्ल स्यान्डबर्ग]] # [[सफो]] # [[जां-पल सारत्रे]] # '''[[विलियम शेक्स्पियर]]''' # [[जोर्ज बर्नार्ड शा]] # [[मेरी शेली]] # [[सोफोकल्स्]] # [[रोबर्ट लुइ स्टेभेन्सन]] # [[जे आर आर टोल्किएन]] # [[लियो टोल्स्टोय]] # [[मार्क ट्वेन]] # [[जुल्स भर्ने]] # [[भर्जिल]] # [[एच जी वेल्स्]] # [[वल्त् व्हित्मन्]] # [[ओस्कर वाइल्ड]] # [[विलियम बट्लर यिट्स्]] # [[जिमि मोटोकियो]] [[Category:जीवनी]] 96 1051 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/छें विज्ञान]] moved to [[छें विज्ञान]] '''छें विज्ञान''' (Architecture) [[Image:Ac.parthenon5.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Parthenon]] on top of the [[Acropolis]], [[Athens]], [[Greece]]]] '''Architecture''' (from [[Latin language|Latin]], ''architectura'' and ultimately from [[Greek language|Greek]], ''αρχιτεκτων'', "a master builder", from ''αρχι-'' "chief, leader" and ''τεκτων'', "builder, carpenter") is the [[art]] and [[science]] of [[design|designing]] [[building]]s and [[structure]]s. A wider definition would include within its scope the design of the total built environment, from the macrolevel of [[town planning]], [[urban design]], and [[landscape architecture]] to the microlevel of creating [[furniture]]. Architectural design usually must address both feasibility and [[cost]] for the [[Construction|builder]], as well as function and [[aesthetics]] for the [[wiktionary:user|user]]. In modern usage, architecture is the [[art]] and [[discipline]] of creating an actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object or [[system]]. The term can be used to connote the ''implied architecture'' of abstract things such as [[music]] or [[mathematics]], the ''apparent architecture'' of natural things, such as [[geology|geological]] formations or the [[structural biology|structure of biological cells]], or explicitly ''planned architectures'' of human-made things such as [[software]], [[computers]], [[Enterprise_architecture|enterprise]]s, and [[database]]s, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a ''subjective [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]]'' from a human perspective (that of the ''user'' in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the [[Element (mathematics)|elements]] or [[wikt:component|components]] of some kind of [[structure]] or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components. Planned architecture often [[manipulation|manipulates]] [[space]], [[volume]], [[texture]], [[light]], [[shadow]], or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing [[aesthetics]]. This distinguishes it from [[applied science]] or [[engineering]], which usually concentrate more on the functional and feasibility aspects of the design of constructions or structures. In the field of building architecture, the skills demanded of an architect range from the more complex, such as for a [[hospital]] or a [[stadium]], to the apparently simpler, such as planning [[residential]] houses. Many architectural works may be seen also as cultural and political [[symbol]]s, and/or works of art. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes less than successful) design and implementation of pleasingly built environments in which people live. ==Scope== According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject, [[Vitruvius]]' [[De architectura]], good buildings satisfy three core principles: ''Firmness'', ''Commodity'', and ''Delight''{{ref|elements}}; architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. A modern day definition sees architecture as addressing aesthetic, structural and functional considerations. However, looked at another way, function itself is seen as encompassing all criteria, including aesthetic and psychological ones. Architecture is an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary field]], drawing upon [[mathematics]], [[science]], [[art]], [[technology]], [[social sciences]], [[politics]], [[history]], and [[philosophy]]. Vitruvius states: ''"Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts."'' He adds that an architect should be well versed in fields such as [[music]] and [[astronomy]]. [[Philosophy]] is a particular favourite; in fact the approach of an [[architect]] to their subject is often called their philosophy. [[Rationalism]], [[empiricism]], [[structuralism]], [[poststructuralism]], and [[phenomenology]] are some topics from philosophy that have influenced architecture. ===Architecture and buildings=== The difference between architecture and building is a subject matter that has engaged the attention of many. According to [[Nikolaus Pevsner]], [[Europe]]an historian of the early twentieth century, "A bicycle shed is a building, [[Lincoln Cathedral]] is a piece of architecture." This distinction, however, is not a clear one, and contemporary scholarship is showing that all buildings, cathedrals and bicycle sheds alike, are part of a single continuum that characterizes the built world. Architecture is also the art of designing the built environment. Buildings, landscaping, and street designs may be used to impart both functional as well as aesthetic character to a project. Siding and roofing materials and colors may be used to enhance or blend buildings with the environment. Building features such as cornices, gables, entrances, window treatments and borders may be used to soften or enhance portions of a building. Landscaping may be used to create privacy and block direct views from or to a site and enhance buildings with colorful plants and trees. Street side features such as decorative lighting, benches, meandering walkways, and [[bicycle lane]]s may enhance a site for passersby, pedestrians, and cyclists. ==Architectural history== {{main|Architectural history}} Architecture first [[evolved]] out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available [[building material]]s and attendant skills). Prehistoric and primitive architecture constitute this early stage. As humans progressed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions and practices, architecture evolved into a [[craft]]. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed [[Vernacular architecture]] continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day. [[Image:Colosseum-2003-07-09.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Colosseum]], [[Rome]], [[Italy]] is an example of Roman architecture.]] Early human settlements were essentially [[rural]]. As surplus of production began to occur, rural societies transformed into [[urban area|urban]] ones and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians' architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the [[supernatural]], while in other ancient cultures such as [[Iran]] architecture and [[urban planning]] was used to exemplify the power of the state. [[Image:Badshahi Mosque July 1 2005 pic32 by Ali Imran.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Badshahi Masjid]], [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]]]] However, the architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilisations such as the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] evolved from more civic ideas and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed and texts on architecture began to be written. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are the works of Vitruvius, the Kaogongji of ancient [[China]] and [[Vaastu Shastra]] in ancient [[India]]. In [[Europe]] in the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] and [[Medieval]] periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individual architects who remained anonymous. [[Guild]]s were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged. [[Islamic architecture]] has a long and complex history beginning in the seventh century [[Common Era|CE]]. Examples can be found throughout the countries that are, or were, Islamic - from [[Morocco]] and [[Spain]] to [[Turkey]], [[Iran]] and [[Pakistan]]. Other examples can be found in areas where Muslims are a minority. Islamic architecture includes mosques, madrasas, caravansarais, palaces, and mausolea of this large region. With the [[Renaissance]] and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - [[Michaelangelo]], [[Brunelleschi]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]] - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between [[artist]], [[architect]] and [[engineer]], or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist. With the consolidation of knowledge in scientific fields such as [[engineering]] and the rise of new materials and technology, the architect began to lose ground on the technical aspects of building. He therefore cornered for himself another playing field - that of [[aesthetics]]. There was the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes. In the 19th century [[Ecole des Beaux Arts]] in [[France]], the training was toward producing quick sketch schemes involving beautiful drawings without much emphasis on context. Meanwhile, the [[Industrial Revolution]] laid open the door for mass consumption and aesthetics started becoming a criterion even for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. [[Image:Bauhaus.JPG|thumb|left|250px|[[Bauhaus]] building, [[Dessau]], [[Germany]]]]The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that in architecture served as precursors to [[Modern Architecture]]. Notable among these is the [[Deutscher Werkbund]], formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of [[industrial design]] is usually placed here. Following this lead, the [[Bauhaus]] school, founded in [[Germany]] in 1919, consciously rejected [[history]] and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology. When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an [[avant-garde]] movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Modernist Architects sought to "strip down" buildings to their pure form. Classical columns and decorations were dubbed unnecessary, in favor simple steel and glass cages, seen as beautiful in their own right. It was during this shift that the phrase, "Less is more" was coined by [[Mies van der Rohe]], one of the Fathers of the Modernist movement. Many people saw Modernism as dull or even ugly. [[Postmodernism]] developed as a reaction. [[Robert Venturi]]'s contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach. Another part of the profession, and also some non-architects, responded by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The [[Design Methodology Movement]] involving people such as [[Chris Jones(design)|Chris Jones]], [[Christopher Alexander]] started searching for more people-orientated designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioural, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process. As many other concerns began to be recognised and complexity of buildings began to increase in terms of aspects such as services, architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture now required a team of professionals in its making, an architect being one among the many, sometimes the leader, sometimes not. This is the state of the profession today. However, individuality is still cherished and sought for in the design of buildings seen as cultural symbols - the museum or fine arts centre has become a showcase for new experiments in style: today one style, tomorrow maybe something else. [[Image:FallingwaterWright.jpg|left|thumb|[[Frank Lloyd Wright]]'s Famous "[[Fallingwater]]"]] [[Image:Wawka2.jpg|thumb|right|Modern architecture in [[Warsaw]]]] <br clear="all" /> ==References== #{{note|etymology}} [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=architect Online Etymology of the term "architect"] #{{note|elements}} Translation of ''firmitatis utilitatis venustatis'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html] due to Henry Wotton, 1624 [http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3]. ==See also== [[image:architecture.swiss.re.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Four architectural styles in [[London]], [[England]], including the [[30 St Mary Axe|Gherkin]]. In 2004 this building won the [[RIBA Stirling Prize]] for its architects [[Foster and Partners]] ]] {{commonscat|Architecture by country}} {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Architecture}} {| |- |valign="top"| * [[Architect]] * [[Architectural endoscopy]] * [[Architectural history]] * [[Architectural mythology]] * [[Architectural style]] <!--PLEASE ENTER ALL (FUTURE) STYLES ON THE 'ARCHITECTURAL STYLE' PAGE IN ITS ALPHABETICAL SEQUENCE--> * [[Architectural glossary]] * [[Architectural theory]] ** [[Architecture Description Language]] ** [[Mathematics and architecture]] ** [[Pattern language]] ** [[Proportion (architecture)]] ** [[Space syntax]] * [[Portal:Architecture/Selected picture archive|Architecture selected pictures]] * [[Architecture parlante]] * [[Architecture timeline]] * [[Australian architectural styles]] * [[Bachelor of Architecture]] * [[Building code]] * [[Building construction]] * [[Building design]] * [[Building material]] * [[Buildings and architecture of New York City]] * [[Canadian architecture]] |valign="top"| * [[Environmental design]] * Energy efficient building ([[Green building]]) * [[Forms in architecture]] * [[Interior design]] * [[Islamic Architecture]] * [[Landscape architecture]] * [[List of architects]] * [[List of architecture firms]] * [[List of architecture prizes]] ** [[Pritzker Prize]] ** [[RIBA Stirling Prize]] ** [[Aga Khan Award]] * [[List of buildings]] * [[List of concert halls]] * [[Skyscraper]] * [[Spanish architecture]] * [[Structural engineering]] * [[Sustainable design]] * [[Sustainable architecture]] * [[Temple architecture]] * [[Urban Design]] * [[Urban planning]] * [[World Heritage Sites]] |} == External links == *[http://www.arounder.eu - Tolomeus - Art around you] Architecture VR panoramas by Tolomeus [[Image:Chryslerbldg.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Chrysler Building]], [[New York City]], [[USA]]]] * Architectural Practice Directories **[http://www.architectsindex.com/ ArchitectsIndex - Directory of UK Architects along with work examples] * Reference **[http://www.archinect.com/ Archinect - Architecture news, jobs, discussions, features, etc. Updated daily since 1997] **[http://www.archinform.net/ Archinform - International Architecture Database] **[http://www.architecture.com/ Architecture.com - Courtesy of the Royal Institute of British Architects] **[http://www.architypes.net/ Architypes - Wiki of architecture design principles and patterns] **[http://www.archpedia.com/ Archpedia - architecture encyclopedia] **[http://www.thehopkinscompany.com/glossary/glossary.html Glossary of Architecture - Residential] **[http://www.danda.be/ Danda - News and reviews on architecture] **[http://www.reluct.com/ RE. Design and architecture news] **[http://www.archiquotes.info/ ArchiQuotes - Gallery of Architectural Quotations] **[http://www.territorioscuola.com/tsodp/dmoz.php3?browse=/Arts/Architecture TerritorioScuola ODP - Architecture Resources] * Professional organizations **[http://www.aia.org/ American Institute of Architects] **[http://www.architects.org/ Boston Society of Architects] **[http://www.nzia.co.nz/ New Zealand Institute of Architects] **[http://www.pritzkerprize.com/ The Pritzker Architecture Prize] **[http://www.architecture.com.au/ Royal Australian Institute of Architects] **[http://www.riba.org/ Royal Institute of British Architects] **[http://www.sah.org/ Society of Architectural Historians] **[http://www.sahanz.net/ Society of Architectural Historians Australia and New Zealand] **[http://www.architects.org.il/ Architects' Association of Israel] * Buildings and structures (''refer to'' : [[:Category:Buildings and structures]]) **[http://content.lib.washington.edu/buildingsweb/index.html Cities and Buildings Database - From the University of Washington] **[http://www.cupola.com/bldgstr1.htm Cupola - Building and Structure Photo Galleries] **[http://www.emporis.com/en/ Emporis Buildings - Free Building Database] **[http://www.galinsky.com/ Galinsky - People enjoying buildings worldwide] **[http://www.glasssteelandstone.com/ Global Architecture Encyclopedia - Glass Steel and Stone] **[http://www.greatbuildings.com/ Great Buildings Collection] **[http://www.vitruvio.ch/ Vitruvio] * Regional architectures **[http://www.geocities.com/medit1976/index.htm Barcelona Architecture - Catalan architecture and catalan architects] **[http://content.lib.washington.edu/dearmassarweb/index.html University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Dearborn-Massar Photographs] Over 1200 images chosen from a group of approximately 6000 photographic prints representing the work of some of the most well known architects in the Pacific Northwest. 97 3128 2006-10-14T20:53:43Z Eukesh 11 # [[च्वापूच:ल:]] # '''[[मौसम]]''' ## [[इ एन एस ओ]] ## [[हलिम तान्वैगु]] # [[भ्वक्याब्व]] # '''[[भूशास्त्र]]''' ## '''[[खानी]]''' ### [[हेरा]] ### [[चूनलोहं]] ## [[प्लेट टेक्टोनिक्स]] ## '''[[लोहं]]''' ### [[बसाल्ट]] ### [[फ्लिन्ट]] # [[प्राकृतिक विपदा]] # [[ज्वालामुखी]] # '''[[जलवायु]]''' ## [[सुपायं]] ## [[खुसीबाहा]] ### [[चुनामी]] ## [[वा:]] ### [[अम्ल वा:]] ### [[च्वापु गायु]] ## [[टोर्न्याडो]] ## [[ट्रपिकल साइक्लोन]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 98 1055 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जहान व सम्बन्ध]] moved to [[जहान व सम्बन्ध]] # '''[[जहान]]''' # '''[[वस्यक]]''' # [[मिजंमचा]] # '''[[मचा]]''' # [[कोर्टशिप]] # [[मिसामचा]] # '''[[ह्यांगु मचा]]''' # [[मिजं]] # '''[[ईहिपा]]''' ## [[भात:]] ## [[कला]] # [[मिसा]] 99 1057 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जां-पल सारत्रे]] moved to [[जां-पल सारत्रे]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 100 1059 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जां सिबेलियस]] moved to [[जां सिबेलियस]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 101 1061 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जिमि मोटोकियो]] moved to [[जिमि मोटोकियो]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 102 1063 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जीवनी]] moved to [[जीवनी]] 103 2925 2006-10-14T19:48:46Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[जीवशास्त्र]]''' # जीवशास्त्रीय वस्तुत: ## '''[[डी एन् ए]]''' ## [[ईन्जाइम]] ## [[प्रोटिन]] # [[वनस्पति शास्त्र]] # '''[[मृत्यु]]''' ## [[आत्मदाह]] # [[ईकोलोजी]] ## [[ईन्डेन्जर्ड प्रजाति]] ## [[लोप]] # [[गृहस्थिकरण]] # '''[[जीवन]]''' # [[वैज्ञानिक विभाजन]] ## [[प्रजाति]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 104 1067 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जुल्स भर्ने]] moved to [[जुल्स भर्ने]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 105 1069 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जे आर आर टोल्किएन]] moved to [[जे आर आर टोल्किएन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 106 1071 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जेन अस्टेन]] moved to [[जेन अस्टेन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 107 1073 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जेम्स कूक]] moved to [[जेम्स कूक]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 108 1075 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जेम्स् जोईस]] moved to [[जेम्स् जोईस]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 109 2942 2006-10-14T19:55:22Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[मेटाबोलिजम]]''' ## [[पाचन]] ### [[शौच ज्या]] ## '''[[फोटोसिन्थेसिस]]''' ## [[सास ल्हाईगु]] # '''[[विकासक्रम]]''' ## [[मनु विकासक्रम]] # '''[[मचा बुइकिगु]]''' ## [[अमैथुनिक प्रजनन]] ## [[मैथुनिक प्रजनन]] ### [[विपरित लिङ्गिय मैथुन]] ### [[समलिङ्गिय मैथुन]] ### [[प्रजनन]] ### [[लिङ्ग]] #### [[मिसा]] #### [[मिजं]] ### [[मैथुन]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 110 1079 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जोर्ज बर्नार्ड शा]] moved to [[जोर्ज बर्नार्ड शा]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 111 3847 2006-10-16T15:41:12Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 112 1083 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/जोह्न् वेन्]] moved to [[जोह्न् वेन्]] [[Category:कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] 113 1085 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ज्याक कार्टियर]] moved to [[ज्याक कार्टियर]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 114 3840 2006-10-16T15:39:25Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 115 1089 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ज्यानाप स्वागु विज्ञान]] moved to [[ज्यानाप स्वागु विज्ञान]] '''ज्यानाप स्वागु विज्ञान''' (Applied Sciences) 116 1091 2006-10-02T11:48:04Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ज्यामिति]] moved to [[ज्यामिति]] फुति वो फुति यात छगु, निगु वो स्वंगु दिशाले परिमर्जित् याई बिले दया वैगु येक्को कथंया किपा व वस्तु अले अन्यागु किपा व वस्तु नं पालना यायेगु नियम यात सिका कायेगु कुत यायेगु विज्ञानयात '''ज्यामिति'''(Geometry) धाइ| 117 3838 2006-10-16T15:38:56Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 118 1095 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/झेङ् ही]] moved to [[झेङ् ही]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 119 1097 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/टेलिभिजन]] moved to [[टेलिभिजन]] '''टेलिभिजन''' (Television) 120 1099 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ट्युमर]] moved to [[ट्युमर]] {{ट्युमर}} 121 1101 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/डाशिएल् ह्यामेट]] moved to [[डाशिएल् ह्यामेट]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 122 3846 2006-10-16T15:41:05Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 123 1105 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/डु फु]] moved to [[डु फु]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 124 1107 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/तिब्बती बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] moved to [[तिब्बती बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 125 1109 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/तेन्जिङ नोर्गे]] moved to [[तेन्जिङ नोर्गे]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 126 1111 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/त्रिरत्न]] moved to [[त्रिरत्न]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 127 1113 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/त्रिलक्षण]] moved to [[त्रिलक्षण]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 128 3334 2006-10-14T21:56:06Z Eukesh 11 # [[मद्यदुगु]] ## [[बीयर]] ## [[अयला]] # [[कोला]] # [[कफी]] # [[दुरु]] # [[चिया]] # [[ल:]] [[Category:नसला]] 129 1117 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/थाय कथंयागु बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] moved to [[थाय कथंयागु बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 130 1119 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/थेरवाद]] moved to [[थेरवाद]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 131 1121 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/थोमस म्यान]] moved to [[थोमस म्यान]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 132 1123 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/द बिटल्स]] moved to [[द बिटल्स]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 133 1125 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/दक्षिणपूर्वी एसियाली बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] moved to [[दक्षिणपूर्वी एसियाली बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 134 2378 2006-10-11T21:27:31Z Eukesh 11 '''दबु''' (Stage Show) [[Category:संस्कृति]] 135 2898 2006-10-14T19:41:10Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[दर्शन]]''' ## [[पूर्वीय दर्शन]] ## [[पाश्चात्य दर्शन]] # [[सौन्दर्य दर्शन]] # [[सौन्दर्य]] # [[ईमान]] # [[ज्ञान दर्शन]] # [[मिसावाद]] # [[स्वनिर्भरता]] # [[मानवता]] # [[ज्ञान]] # '''[[लजिक]]''' # [[मेताफिजिक्स]] # [[मस्तिस्क]] # [[नैतिकता]] # [[अन्टोलोजी]] # [[वास्तविक्ता]] # [[सत्य]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 136 1131 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/दर्शन विज्ञान]] moved to [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] '''दर्शन विज्ञान''' (Philosophy) 137 3371 2006-10-14T22:07:53Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[दानिगु]]''' # [[एस् आइ]] # [[किलोग्राम]] # [[लिटर]] # [[मिटर]] # [[न्युटन]] # [[भोल्ट]] # [[वाट]] [[Category:गणित]] 138 1135 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/दान्ते अलिघिएरी]] moved to [[दान्ते अलिघिएरी]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 139 2388 2006-10-12T16:22:22Z Eukesh 11 /* [[ओसेनिया]]यागु दे */ == [[अफ्रीका]]यागु दे== *[[अल्जेरिया]] *[[एंगोला]] *[[बेनिन]] *[[बोत्स्वाना]] *[[बुर्किना फासो]] *[[बुरुन्डी]] *[[क्यामेरून]] *[[केप भर्डे]] *[[मध्य अफ्रीकी गणतन्त्र]] *[[चाड]] *[[कोमोरोस]] *[[प्रजातान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र कंगो]] *[[गणतन्त्र कंगो]] *[[कोटे डिवोरे]] *[[जिबुटी]] *[[मिश्र]] *[[इक्वेटोरियल गिनिया]] *[[एरितृया]] *[[इथीयोपीया]] *[[गाबोन]] *[[गाम्बिया]] *[[घाना]] *[[गिनिया]] *[[गिनिया बिसाउ]] *[[केन्या]] *[[लेसोथो]] *[[लाईबेरिया]] *[[लिब्या]] *[[माडागास्कर]] *[[मलावी]] *[[माली]] *[[ईस्लामी गणतन्त्र माउरीतानीया]] *[[मरिसस्]] *[[मोरक्को]] *[[मोजाम्बिक]] *[[नामिबिया]] *[[नाईजर]] *[[नाईजेरिया]] *[[रुवान्डा]] *[[साओ तोमे व प्रीन्सिप्]] *[[सेनेगल]] *[[सीशील्स]] *[[सीयेरा लियोन]] *[[सोमालिया]] *[[दक्षिण अफ्रीका]] *[[सुडान]] *[[स्वाजिल्याण्ड]] *[[तान्जानिया]] *[[टोगो]] *[[ट्युनिसिया]] *[[युगान्डा]] *[[जाम्बिया]] *[[जिम्बाब्वे]] == [[एसिया]]यागु दे == *[[अफगानिस्तान]] *[[आर्मेनिया]] *[[अजरबैजान]] *[[बहरिन]] *[[बंगलादेश]] *[[भूटान]] *[[ब्रुनाई]] *[[क्याम्बोडिया]] *[[चीन]] *[[साईप्रस्]] *[[पूर्व टिमोर]] *[[ज्योर्जिया]] *[[भारत]] *[[गणतन्त्र ईन्डोनेसिया]] *[[ईरान]] *[[ईराक]] *[[ईजराईल]] *[[जापान]] *[[जोर्डन]] *[[कजाख्स्तान]] *[[उत्तर कोरिया]] *[[दक्षिण कोरिया]] *[[कुवेत]] *[[कीर्गीस्तान]] *[[लाओस]] *[[लेबानन्]] *[[मलेसिया]] *[[मालद्विप]] *[[मंगोलिया]] *[[बर्मा]] *[[नेपाल]] *[[ओमान]] *[[पाकिस्तान]] *[[फिलिपिन्स]] *[[कतार]] *[[रुस]] *[[साउदी अरबिया]] *[[सिंगापुर]] *[[श्रीलंका]] *[[सीरिया]] *[[ताजिकिस्तान]] *[[थाईल्याण्ड]] *[[टर्की]] *[[तुर्केमिनिस्तान]] *[[संयुक्त अरब ईमिरेट्स्]] *[[उज्बेकिस्तान]] *[[भियेत्नाम]] *[[गणतन्त्र यमन]] == [[युरोप]]यागु दे == *[[अल्बानिया]] *[[एण्डोरा]] *[[अष्ट्रीया]] *[[बेलारुस]] *[[बेल्जियम]] *[[बोस्निया व हर्जगोविना]] *[[बुल्गेरिया]] *[[क्रोएसिया]] *[[चेक गणतन्त्र]] *[[डेनमार्क]] *[[ईस्टोनिया]] *[[फिनल्याण्ड]] *[[फ्रान्स]] *[[जर्मनी]] *[[ग्रीस]] *[[हंगेरी]] *[[आईसल्याण्ड]] *[[आयरल्याण्ड]] *[[ईटाली]] *[[लात्भिया]] *[[लीश्टेनस्टाईन]] *[[लिथुआनिया]] *[[लक्जेम्बर्ग]] *[[म्यासेडोनिया]] *[[माल्टा]] *[[मोल्दोवा]] *[[मोनाको]] *[[नेडरल्याण्ड]] *[[नर्वे]] *[[पोल्याण्ड]] *[[पोर्चुगल]] *[[रोमानिया]] *[[रुस]] *[[सान मरिनो]] *[[सर्बिया]] *[[स्लोभाकिया]] *[[स्लोभेनिया]] *[[स्पेन]] *[[स्वीडेन]] *[[स्वीट्जरल्याण्ड]] *[[टर्की]] *[[युक्रेन]] *[[बेलायत]] *[[भेटिकन सिटी]] *[[संघीय गणतन्त्र युगोस्लाभिया]] == [[उत्तर अमेरिका]]यागु दे== *[[क्यानाडा]] *[[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]] *[[मेक्सिको]] *[[ग्वाटेमाला]] *[[बेलिज]] *[[होन्डुरस]] *[[एल साल्भाडोर]] *[[निकारागुवा]] *[[कोस्टा रिका]] *[[पनामा]] *[[क्युबा]] *[[जमैका]] *[[डोमिनिकन गणतन्त्र]] *[[बहामास]] *[[हेइटी]] *[[बार्बाडोस]] *[[टृनिड्याड व टोबागो]] *[[डोमिनिका]] *[[ग्रेनेडा]] *[[सन्त कित्त्स् व नेभिस् गणराज्य]] *[[सन्त लुसिया]] *[[सन्त भिन्सेन्ट व ग्रेनाडिन्स्]] *[[एन्टिगुवा व बार्बुडा]] == [[दक्षिण अमेरिका]]यागु दे == *[[अर्जेन्टिना]] *[[बोलिभिया]] *[[ब्राजिल]] *[[चिली]] *[[कोलम्बिया]] *[[ईक्वेडोर]] *[[पाराग्वे]] *[[पेरु]] *[[उरुग्वे]] *[[भेनेजुएला]] *[[गायना]] *[[सुरिनाम]] *[[फ्रेन्च गायना]] == [[ओसेनिया]]यागु दे== *[[अस्ट्रेलिया]] *[[न्हु जील्याण्ड]] *[[माईक्रोनेसिया]] *[[मार्शल टापू]] *[[पलाउ]] *[[नाउरु]] *[[सोलोमन टापू]] *[[भानुआटु]] *[[फिजी]] *[[तुभालु]] *[[किरिबाती]] *[[सामोआ]] *[[टोङ्गा]] *[[नायु]] *[[कूक टापू]] *[[पपुवा न्हु गिनिया]] [[Category:दे]] 140 1139 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/देमहादेश]] moved to [[देमहादेश]] #REDIRECT [[महादे]] 141 2897 2006-10-14T19:40:12Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[धर्म]]''' # [[ज्योतिषशास्त्र]] # '''[[भगवान]]''' ## [[ईश्वर]] # [[नख:]] # [[बिदा]] # '''[[कथन]]''' ## [[ग्रीक कथनत]] # धार्मिक विचा:त: ## [[अध्यात्मवाद]] ## [[नास्तिकवाद]] ## [[अतिवाद]] # '''[[आत्मा]]''' # निस्चित धर्म ## [[बहाइ धर्म]] ### [[बाब]] ### [[बहाउलाह]] ## [[बौद्ध धर्म]] ### [[गौतम बुद्ध]] ## '''[[ख्रीस्ट धर्म]]''' ### [[बाइबल]] ### [[चर्च]] ### [[पूर्वीय ख्रीस्टियन]] ### [[एसु]] ### [[पोप]] ### [[प्रोटेस्ट्यान्ट्वाद]] ### [[रोमन क्याथोलिक चर्च]] ### [[टृनिटी]] ## [[कन्फुत्जु धर्म]] ### [[कन्फुत्जु]] ## '''[[हिन्दू धर्म]]''' ### [[श्रीमदभागवत गीता]] ### [[ब्रह्मा]] ### [[ब्राह्मण]] ### [[शिव]] ### [[उपनिषद]] ### [[वेद]] ### [[वेदान्त]] ### [[विष्णु]] ### [[योग]] ## '''[[इस्लाम]]''' ### [[अलि]] ### [[अल्लाह्]] ### [[मस्जिद]] ### [[मुहम्मद]] ### [[कुरान]] ### [[शिआ इस्लाम]] ### [[सुफीवाद]] ### [[सुन्नी इस्लाम]] ### [[उमार]] ## [[जैन धर्म ]] ## [[यहुद धर्म]] ### [[अब्राहम]] ### [[मोसेस]] ### [[तोराह]] ### [[तल्मुद]] ## [[शिन्तो धर्म]] ## [[सिख धर्म]] ### [[गुरु नानक देव]] ## [[ताओ धर्म]] ### [[लाओजी]] ## [[भूदू]] ## [[जोरोआस्तर धर्म]] ### [[जोरोआस्तर]] # [[आत्मावाद]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 142 1143 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/धर्म (बौद्ध)]] moved to [[धर्म (बौद्ध)]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 143 1145 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ध्यान (बौद्ध)]] moved to [[ध्यान (बौद्ध)]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 144 1147 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/नसला]] moved to [[नसला]] {{portal}} # [[नेगु]] # [[त्वनिगु]] [[Category:नसला]] 145 1149 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/नसला:]] moved to [[नसला:]] == नसला == # [[नसला]] # [[छोचुंमरी]] # [[सिरियल]] ## [[कोदो]] ## [[कनी]] ## [[ओत]] ## [[जा]] ## [[सोर्घम]] ## [[छो]] # [[चीज]] # [[चकलेट]] # [[कस्ती]] # [[सी]] ## [[स्याउ]] ## [[केरा]] ## [[अंगुर]] ## [[लेगुम]] ### [[सोयबीन]] ## [[कागती]] ## [[नट]] ## [[सन्त्रासी]] # [[ला]] # [[चिनी]] # [[तरकारी]] ## [[आलू]] === त्वनीगु === # [[मद्दपान]] ## [[बीयर]] ## [[अयला]] # [[कोला]] # [[कफी]] # [[दुरु]] # [[च्या]] # [[ल:]] 146 1151 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/नसला: ज्वरे यागु]] moved to [[नसला: ज्वरे यागु]] '''नसला: ज्वरे यागु'''(Cooking) 147 1153 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/नापी व युनिट]] moved to [[नापी व युनिट]] #REDIRECT [[दानिगु व युनिट]] 148 3841 2006-10-16T15:39:45Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 149 1157 2006-10-02T11:48:05Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/निर्वाण]] moved to [[निर्वाण]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 150 1159 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/नीति]] moved to [[नीति]] See [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]] for a general overview of what policies are about, how they are made, and why we have them. Every current policy falls into one of the following five categories: *'''Behavioral''': standards for behavior on Wikipedia to make it a pleasant experience for everyone. *'''Content''': which topics are welcome on Wikipedia and give quality and naming standards. *'''Enforcement''': what action authorised users can take to enforce other policies. *'''Deletion''': the fraught area of deleting articles that are considered undesirable. *'''Legal and copyright''': firm rules about what material may be used here, and remedies for misuse. __NOTOC__ ==Policies== [[Image:OrangeColumn.jpg|60px|left]] ===Behavioral=== ; [[Wikipedia:Assume good faith|Assume good faith]]:Assume that most people who work on the project are trying to help it, not hurt it. ; [[Wikipedia:Bots|Bots]]:Programs that update pages automatically in a useful and harmless way may be welcome, if their owners seek approval first and go to great lengths to stop them from running amok or being a drain on resources. ; [[Wikipedia:Civility|Civility]]:Being rude, insensitive or petty makes people upset and stops Wikipedia from working well. Try to discourage others from being uncivil, and be careful to avoid offending people unintentionally. Mediation is available if needed. ; [[Wikipedia:Editing policy|Editing policy]]:Improve pages wherever you can, and don't worry about leaving them imperfect. Avoid deleting information wherever possible. ; [[Wikipedia:Harassment|Harassment]]:Don't stop other editors from enjoying Wikipedia with threats, nitpicking good-faith edits to different articles, repeated personal attacks, or posting personal information. ; [[Wikipedia:No legal threats|No legal threats]]:Use dispute resolution rather than legal threats, for everyone's sake. We respond quickly to complaints of defamation or copyright infringement. If you do take legal action, please refrain from editing until it is resolved. ; [[Wikipedia:No personal attacks|No personal attacks]]:Do not make [[ad hominem|personal attacks]] anywhere in Wikipedia. Comment on content, not on the contributor. Personal attacks damage the community and deter users. Nobody likes abuse. ; [[Wikipedia:Ownership of articles|Ownership of articles]]:You agreed to allow others to modify your work. So let them. ; [[Wikipedia:Sock puppetry|Sock puppetry]]:Do not use multiple accounts to create the illusion of greater support for an issue, to mislead others, or to circumvent a block; nor ask your friends to create accounts to support you or anyone. ; [[Wikipedia:Three-revert rule|Three-revert rule]]:Do not [[Wikipedia:Revert|revert]] any single page ''in whole or in part'' more than three times in 24 hours. (Or else an Administrator '''may''' [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|suspend your account]]). ; [[Wikipedia:Username|Username]]:Choose a neutral username that you'll be happy with. You can usually change your name if you need to by asking, but you can't delete it. ; [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|Vandalism]]: Vandalism is any addition, deletion, or change to content made in a deliberate attempt to compromise the integrity of the encyclopedia. It is, and needs to be, removed from the encyclopedia. [[Image:BluColumn.jpg|60px|left]] ===Content=== ; [[Wikipedia:Image use policy|Image use policy]]:Generally avoid uploading copyrighted images; fully describe images' sources and copyright details on their description pages, and try and make images as useful and reusable as possible. ; [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions|Naming conventions]]:Generally, article naming should give priority to what the majority of English speakers worldwide would most easily recognize, with a reasonable minimum of ambiguity, while at the same time making linking to those articles easy and second nature. ; [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (categories)|Naming conventions (categories)]]:Category names should be specific, neutral, objective, inclusive and follow certain conventions, such as "Venezuelan musicians", "Hospitals in Denmark" or "Computer law". ; [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|Neutral point of view]]: Articles, including reader-facing templates, categories and portals, should be written from a Neutral Point of View. ; [[Wikipedia:No original research|No original research]]: Articles may not contain any unpublished theories, data, statements, concepts, arguments, or ideas; or any new interpretation, analysis, or synthesis of published data, statements, concepts, arguments, or ideas that, in the words of Wikipedia's co-founder Jimbo Wales, would amount to a "novel narrative or historical interpretation." ; [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|Verifiability]]: We cannot check the accuracy of claims, but we can check whether the claims have been published by a reputable publication. Articles should therefore [[WP:CITE|cite sources]] whenever possible. Any unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ; [[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not|What Wikipedia is not]]:Wikipedia is first and foremost an online [[encyclopedia]], and ''as a means to that end'', [[meta:The Wikipedia Community|an online community]]. Please avoid the temptation to use Wikipedia for other purposes, or to treat it as something it is not. ; [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not a dictionary|Wikipedia is not a dictionary]]:An article should '''begin''' with a [[Fallacies_of_definition|good]] [[Definition|definition]] or a clear description of the topic. Articles that are just dictionary entries belong at [[Wiktionary]]. [[Image:RedColumn.jpg|60px|left]] ===Deletion=== ; [[Wikipedia:Category deletion policy|Category deletion policy]]: Deleting categories follows roughly the same process as articles, except that it's on a different page. Categories that don't conform to naming conventions can be "speedily renamed". ; [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion|Criteria for speedy deletion]]:Articles, images, categories etc. may be "speedily deleted" if they clearly fall within certain categories, which generally boil down to pages lacking content, or disruptive pages. Anything potentially controversial should go through the [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion|deletion process]] instead. ; [[Wikipedia:Proposed deletion|Proposed deletion]]: As a shortcut around AfD for uncontroversial deletions, an article can be proposed for deletion, though once only. If no one contests the proposal within five days, the article may be deleted by an administrator. ; [[Wikipedia:Deletion of vanity articles|Deletion of vanity articles]]:Articles that serve to glorify an unremarkable person with no remarkable achievements can be [[Wikipedia:Speedy deletion|speedily deleted]]. Use caution if it is possible that the person's achievements are simply not clearly stated. ; [[Wikipedia:Deletion policy|Deletion policy]]: Deleting articles requires an administrator and generally follow a consensus-forming process. Most potentially controversial articles require a three-step process and a waiting period of a week. ; [[Wikipedia:Office Actions|Office actions]]: The Wikimedia Foundation office reserves the right to speedily delete an article temporarily in cases of exceptional controversy. ; [[Wikipedia:Undeletion policy|Undeletion policy]]: Deleted articles can be undeleted by any administrator. If this is controversial (or if a non-admin wishes something undeleted) this is discussed at [[WP:DRV|Deletion review]]. For technical reasons, images can't be undeleted. [[Image:GreenColumn.jpg|60px|left]] ===Enforcing policies=== ; [[Wikipedia:Arbitration Committee|Arbitration Committee]]: The Arbitration Committee exists to impose binding solutions to Wikipedia disputes. It is a last resort to be turned to when all else has failed. ; [[Wikipedia:Arbitration policy|Arbitration policy]]: Rules for how Arbitrators decide cases. ; [[Wikipedia:Banning policy|Banning policy]]: Extremely disruptive users may be banned from Wikipedia. Please respect these bans, don't bait banned users and don't help them out. Bans can be appealed to Jimbo Wales. ; [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|Blocking policy]]: Disruptive users can be blocked from editing for short or long amounts of time. ; [[Wikipedia:Indefinite blocks|Indefinite blocks]]: Indefinite blocks should only be used in the case of severe abuse of Wikipedia, such as for open proxies. ; [[Wikipedia:No binding decisions|No binding decisions]]:All decisions, including poll results, can be reversed later as Wikipedia develops. ; [[Wikipedia:No open proxies|No open proxies]]: All public proxy servers which could be used by anyone to hide their true IP address are not allowed to edit Wikipedia, and will be permanently blocked from editing upon discovery. (There are no restrictions on reading Wikipedia from public proxy servers). ; [[Wikipedia:Protection policy|Protection policy]]: Pages can be protected against vandals or during fierce content disputes. Protected pages can, but in general shouldn't, be edited by administrators. ; [[Wikipedia:Resolving disputes|Resolving disputes]]: The first step to resolving any dispute is to ''talk'' to those who disagree with you. If that fails, there are more structured forms of discussion available. ; [[Wikipedia:Semi-protection policy|Semi-protection policy]]:Pages undergoing frequent vandalism can be semi-protected to block edits by very new or unregistered users. [[Image:YellowColumn.jpg|60px|left]] ===Legal and copyright=== ; [[Wikipedia:Copyrights|Copyrights]]: Material which infringes other copyrights must not be added. The legalities of copyright and "fair use" are quite complex. ; [[Wikipedia:Copyright violations|Copyright violations]]: Wikipedia has no tolerance for copyright violations in our encyclopedia, and we actively strive to find and remove any that we find. ; [[Wikipedia:Fair use criteria|Fair use criteria]]:The cases in which you can declare an image "fair use" are quite narrow. You must specify the exact use of the image, and only use the image in that one context. ; [[Wikipedia:Libel|Libel]]:It is Wikipedia policy to delete libellous revisions from the page history. If you believe you have been defamed, please contact the [[Wikipedia:Help_desk|help desk]]. ;[[Wikipedia:Reusing Wikipedia material|Reusing Wikipedia material]]:Wikipedia material may be freely used under the [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], which means you must credit authors, relicense the material under GFDL and allow free access to it. ; [[Wikipedia:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License|Text of the GNU Free Documentation License]]:This is the license under which all contributions to Wikipedia are released. Any re-use of the work must also be released under GFDL. ==See also== *[[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]] *[[Wikipedia:List of guidelines]] 151 1161 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/नील आर्मस्ट्रंग]] moved to [[नील आर्मस्ट्रंग]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 152 1163 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/नुगखं विज्ञान (साईकोलोजी)]] moved to [[नुगखं विज्ञान (साईकोलोजी)]] '''नुगखं विज्ञान''' (साईकोलोजी, Psychology) 153 3325 2006-10-14T21:52:59Z Eukesh 11 # [[नसला]] # [[छोचुं मरी]] # [[सिरियल]] ## [[बार्ले]] ## [[कनी]] ## [[ओट]] ## [[जाकी]] ## [[सोर्घम]] ## [[छो]] # [[चीज]] # [[चकलेट]] # [[कस्ति]] # [[फलफुल]] ## [[स्याउ]] ## [[केरा]] ## [[अंगुर]] ## [[लेगुम]] ### [[सोयाबीन]] ## [[कागती]] ## [[नट]] ## [[सन्त्रासी]] # [[ला:]] # [[चिनी]] # [[तरकारी]] ## [[आलू]] [[Category:नसला]] 154 2470 2006-10-12T16:42:05Z Eukesh 11 /* रिफरेन्स */ {{Infobox Country| native_name = नेपाल अधिराज्य <br />''Nēpāl Adhirājya'' | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Nepal | common_name = Nepal | image_flag = Flag of Nepal.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Nepal.png | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = जननी जन्मभूमिष्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी <br /> ([[Sanskrit]]: Motherland is even dearer than the heavens) | image_map = LocationNepal.png | national_anthem = [[Rastriya Gaan]] | official_languages = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] | capital = [[Kathmandu]] | latd = 27|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=85|longm=19|longEW=E | government_type = [[Transitional government]] | leader_title1 = [[Kings of Nepal|King]] | leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]] | leader_name1 = [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Gyanendra]] | leader_name2 = [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]| largest_city = [[Kathmandu]] | area = 147,181 sq.km | areami²=56,827 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->| area_rank = 94th | area_magnitude = 1 E10 | percent_water = 2.8 | population_estimate = 27,133,000 | population_estimate_year = July 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 42nd | population_census = 23,151,423| population_census_year = 2002| population_density = 196 | population_densitymi² = 508<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 56th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $42.17 billion<!-- cia.gov --> | GDP_PPP_rank = 81st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,675| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 152nd | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.526 | HDI_rank = 136th | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Unification of Nepal|Unification]] | sovereignty_note = [[1768-12-21]] | currency = [[Nepalese Rupee|Rupee]] | currency_code = NPR | time_zone = [[Nepal Time|NPT]] | utc_offset = +5:45 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +5:45| cctld = [[.np]] | calling_code = 977| footnotes = }} '''नेपाल''' (Nepal) दक्षिण एसियायागु छ्गु दे ख:| नेपाल चीन व भारतया दथुई ला:| More than 80% of its people follow [[Hinduism]]. For a relatively small country, the Nepali landscape is uncommonly diverse, ranging from the humid [[Terai]] in the south to the lofty [[Himalaya]]s in the north. It is notable that within a very small width the elevation of Nepal increases from the plain terrain to the tallest Himalayas leading to great vegetation. Nepal boasts eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including [[Mount Everest]] on the border with China. [[Kathmandu]] is the capital and largest city. The other main cities include Biratnagar, Birgunj, Janakpur, Pokhara, [[Nepalgunj]], Mahendranagar etc. The origin of the name ''Nepal'' is uncertain, but the most popular understanding is that it derived from ''Ne'' (holy) and ''pal'' (cave). == ईतिहास == नेपाल खंग्वया आतक्क सिगु दक्ले न्हापांगु छ्येलेज्या [[कौटिल्य अर्थशास्त्रम्]]ले जुगु दु| व [[सफु]]यागु निगु अधिकरण (अध्यक्षप्रचार)या प्रकरण २७ अध्याय ११ (कोषप्रवेश्यरत्नपरिक्षा)ले "अष्टप्लोतिसङ्घा कृष्णा भिङ्गिसी वर्षवारणम्, अपसारक इति '''नैपाल'''कम्|" धका च्वया तगु दु| [[Neolithic]] tools found in the [[Kathmandu Valley]] indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of [[Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity lived in Nepal 2,500 years ago. {{inote|Library of Congress|History}} [[Indo-Aryan]] tribes entered the valley around 1500 BCE. Around 1000 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose. One of the princes of the [[Shakya]] confederation was [[Siddharta Gautama]] (563&ndash;483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the ''[[Buddha]]'' ("the one who has awakened"). By 250 BCE, the region came under the influence of the [[Mauryan empire]] of northern India, and later became a puppet state under the [[Gupta Dynasty]] in the 4th century CE. From the late 5th century CE, rulers called ''the [[Licchavi]]s'' governed the area. The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by a [[Newari]] era, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. By late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the influence of the [[Chalukya|Chalukaya Empire]] of [[South India|southern India]]. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised [[Hinduism]] instead of the prevailing Buddhism. [[Image:Patan temples.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Hindu temples in Patan, the capital one of the three medieval kingdoms]] [[Image:RaniOfNepal1920.jpg|250px|thumb|Nepalese royalty in the 1920s]] By the early 12th century, leaders were emerging whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix ''malla'' ("wrestler"). Initially their reign was marked by upheaval, but the kings consolidated their power over the next 200 years. By late 14th century much of the country began to come under a unified rule. This unity was short-lived: in 1482 the kingdom was carved into three -- [[Kathmandu]], [[Patan]], and [[Bhadgaon]] -- which had petty rivalry for centuries. In 1765 the [[Gorkha]] ruler [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] set out to unify the kingdoms, after first seeking arms and aid from India and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify Nepal three years later. This marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal. A dispute and subsequent war with [[Tibet]] over control of mountain passes forced Nepal to retreat and pay heavy repatriations. Rivalry with the [[British East India Company]] over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the brief but bloody [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1815&ndash;16), in which Nepal defended its present day borders but lost its territories west of the Kali River, including present day [[Uttaranchal]] state and several Punjab Hill States of present day [[Himachal Pradesh]]. The [[Treaty of Sugauli]] also ceded parts of the Terai and [[Sikkim]] to the Company in exchange for Nepalese [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]]. Factionalism among the [[royal family]] led to instability after the war. In 1846, a discovered plot to overthrow [[Jang Bahadur]], a fast-rising military leader by the reigning queen, led to the [[Kot Massacre]]. Armed clashes between [[military]] personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bahadur won and founded the [[Rana]] lineage. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British, and assisted the British during the [[Sepoy Rebellion]] in 1857, and later in both [[World War]]s. In 1923 the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal's independence was recognised by the UK. In the late 1940s, emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, China annexed Tibet in 1950, making India keen on stability in Nepal, to avoid an expansive military. Thus India sponsored [[Tribhuvan]] as Nepal's new king in 1951, and a new government, mostly comprising the [[Nepali Congress Party]]. After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, the democratic experiment was dissolved in 1959, and a "partyless" [[panchayat]] system was made to govern Nepal. In 1989, the "Jan Andolan" (People's) Movement forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and establish a multiparty parliament in May 1991. Nepali Congress Party wins first democratic elections. Girija Prasad Koirala becomes prime minister. == भूगोल == [[Image:Nepal_topo_en.jpg|thumb|250px|Topographic map of Nepal]] [[Image:KaliGandaki.jpg|thumb|250px|The cold and barren Himalayan landscape]] Nepal is of roughly rectangular shape, 650&nbsp;km wide and 200&nbsp;km broad, with an area of 147,181&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]. Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: the Mountain, [[Hill Region|Hill]], and [[Terai Region]]s. These ecological belts run east-west and are bisected by Nepal's major river systems. The Terai Plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]]. They were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the [[Kosi]], the [[Narayani]] (India's [[Gandak]] River), and the [[Karnali]]. This region has a hot, humid climate. The Hill Region (''Pahar'' in Nepali) abuts the mountains and varies from 1,000 to 4,000 m in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the [[Mahabharat Lekh]] and [[Siwalik Hills|Shiwalik Range]] (also called the Churia Range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanised area. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural centre of Nepal. Unlike the valleys, elevations above 2,500 m are sparsely populated. The Mountain Region contains the highest region in the world. The world's highest mountain, [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmatha'' in Nepali) at 8,850 m is located on the border with [[Tibet]]. Eight of the world's [[Eight-thousander|ten highest mountains]] are located in Nepal. [[Kanchenjunga]], the world's third highest peak, is also located on its eastern border with [[Sikkim]]. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems. Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to altitude. The [[tropical]] and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 m, the [[temperate]] zone 1,200 to 2,400 m, the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 m, the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 m, and the arctic zone above 4,400 m. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalaya blocks cold winds from [[Central Asia]] in winter, and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns. Although Nepal shares no boundary with [[Bangladesh]], the two countries are separated by a narrow strip of land about 21 km wide, called the [[Chicken's Neck]]. Efforts are underway to make this area a free-trade zone. == अर्थतन्त्र == Nepal is one of the poorest and least developed nations in the world; up to half of its population lives below the [[poverty line]]. Agriculture sustains 76% of the population and accounts for about 38% of the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]; services comprise 41%, and industry 21%. Hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. There are just over 4,000 km of paved roads, and one 59 km railway line in the south. Aviation is in a better state, with 46 airports, nine of them with paved runways. There is less than one telephone per 46 people; landline services are poor, although mobile telephony is in a reasonable state in some parts of the country. There are around 100,000 Internet connections, but after the imposition of the "state of emergency", intermittent losses of service have been reported.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} A lack of natural resources, its landlocked location, technological backwardness and the long-running civil war have also prevented Nepal from fully developing its economy. The country receives foreign aid from [[India]], [[PRC|China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]] and the [[European Union]]. The government's budget is about US$665 million, with expenditures of $1.1bn. The [[inflation]] rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation during the 1990s. The [[Nepalese Rupee]] has been tied to the [[Indian Rupee]] at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappeared. A long-standing economic agreement underpins a close relationship with India. The distribution of wealth among people is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. [[Image:Nepal landscape 1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Terraced farming on the foothills of the Himalayas]] Nepal's workforce of about 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labour. Agriculture employs 81% of the workforce, services 16% and manufacturing/craft-based industry 3%. Agricultural produce——mostly grown in the Terrai region bordering India——includes rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industry mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce, including [[jute]], sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. The spectacular landscape and deep, exotic culture of Nepal represents considerable potential for tourism, but growth in this export industry has been stifled by recent political events. The [[unemployment rate|rate of unemployment and underemployment]] approaches half of the working-age population. Thus many Nepalese move to India in search of work, the Gulf countries and Malaysia being new sources of work. Poverty is acute and many of Nepal's women are sold to Indian brothels, 7,000 each year albeit this insulting practise is heavily penalised and mass propaganda against it conducted .<ref>[http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm Nepal]</ref> Nepal receives US$50 million a year through the [[Gurkha]] soldiers who serve in the [[Indian Army|Indian]] and [[British Army|British]] armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. The total remittance value is worth around 1 billion USD, including money sent from Arab and Malaysia, who combinedly employ around 200,000 Nepalese. Nepal's GDP for the year 2005 is estimated at just over US$37 billion (adjusted to [[Purchasing Power Parity]]), making it the 83rd-largest economy in the world. Per-capita income is around US$1,402, ranked 163rd. Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, leather goods, [[jute]] goods and grain total $568 million. Import commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products and fertiliser total US$1.419 bn. India (48.8%), the US (22.3%), and [[Germany]] (8.5%) are its main export partners. Nepal's import partners include India (43%), the [[United Arab Emirates]] (10%), China (10%), [[Saudi Arabia]] (4.4%), and [[Singapore]] (4%).{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} == सरकार व राज्यनीति == Until 1990, Nepal was an [[absolute monarchy]] running under the executive control of the king. Faced with a people's movement against the absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a [[parliamentary monarchy]] with the king as the [[head of state]] and a prime minister as the [[head of the government]]. Nepal's legislature was [[bicameral]] consisting of a [[House of Representatives]] and a [[National Council]]. The House of Representatives consist of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members, 10 nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term, but was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepalese citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote. The executive comprised the King and the [[Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]]). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal have tended to be highly unstable; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991, either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch. The judiciary is made of the ''[[Sarbochha Adalat]]''&mdash;the [[Supreme Court]], appellate courts and various district courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges were appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. The Nepalese political landscape consists of more than two dozen political parties. Based on the parliamentary seats occupied by various parties since 1991, [[Nepali Congress Party]] (NCP), [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)]] (CPN-UML), [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party|National Democratic Party]] (NDP), [[Nepal Sadbhawana Party]] (NGP), [[People’s Front Nepal]] (PFN) and [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Party]] (NWPP) are significant ones. [[United People's Front of Nepal]] (UPFN), which had won third largest number of seats in 1991 parliamentary election, began to splinter in 1993. Its one faction later merged with [[Nepal Communist Party (Masal)]] to form [[PFN]]. However, the other faction established [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] in 1995, which staged an armed rebellion in 1996 and gradually emerged as a major political force - holding a balance of power in Nepal. All these political realignments have made the political scene of Nepal one of the most confusing in the world. Breakup of the parties had become a norm rather than an exception in Nepal. Parties never agreed on most issues of National significance. However, the situation began to change after King Gyanendra took an absolute power in 2005. In [[November 22]], [[2005]], the seven parliamentary parties of the [[Seven Party Alliance]] (SPA) and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] agreed on a historic and unprecedented 12-point [[memorandum of understanding]] (MOU) in [[November 22]], [[2005]] for peace and democracy. Nepalese from various walks of life and the international community regarded the MOU as an appropriate political response to the crisis that was developing in Nepal. In the backdrop of the historical sufferings of the Nepalese people and the enormous human cost of the last ten years of violent conflict, the MOU, which proposes a peaceful transition through an elected constituent assembly, created an acceptable formula for a united movement for democracy. As per the 12-point MOU, the [[Seven Party Alliance]] called for a protest movement and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] supported it. This led to a countrywide uprising that started in April 2006. All political forces including civil society and professional organizations actively galvanized the people. This resulted into massive and spontaneous demonstrations and rallies held across Nepal against the King Gyanendra's autocratic rule. The people's participation was so broad, momentous and pervasive that the king feared of being overrun. On April 21, 2006, King Gyanendra declared that the "power would be returned to the people". This had little effect on the people, who continued to occupy the streets of Kathmandu and other towns, openly defying the daytime curfew. Finally King Gyanendra announced the reinstatement the House of Representatives, so conceding one of the major demands of the SPA, at midnight of [[April 24]], [[2006]]. With this the coalition of political forces decided to call off the protests. 21 people died and thousands were injured during the 19 days of protests. On [[May 19]], [[2006]], the parliament assumed total legislative power and gave executive power to the Government of Nepal (previously known as His Majesty's Government). Names of many institutions (including the army) were stripped of the "royal" adjective and the Raj Parishad (a council of the King's advisors) was abolished, with his duties assigned to the Parliament itself. The activities of the King became subject to parliamentary scrutiny and the King's properties were subjected to taxation. Moreover, Nepal was declared a secular state abrogating the previous status of a Hindu Kingdom, albeit the fear shown by midline Hindu communities over their concern over the abolishment of long founded tradition of Vedic systems. On July 19, 2006, the prime minister, G. P. Koirala, esnt a letter to the United Nations announcing the intentions of the Nepalese Government to hold elections to a constituent assembly by April 2007. ==Military and foreign affairs== {{main|Military of Nepal|Foreign relations of Nepal}} [[Image:NamcheBazar1.jpg|thumb|250px|The famous outpost of [[Namche Bazaar]] in the Khumbu region close to Mount Everest. The town is built on terraces in what resembles a giant Greek amphitheatre.]] Nepal's military consists of the Nepalese Army which includes the Nepalese Army Air Service, (the [[air force]] unit under it), and the [[Nepalese Police Force]]. On May 19, 2006 The House unanimously passed the proposal to renamed Royal Nepal Army (RNA) as the “Nepali Army”. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military&mdash;1.5% of its GDP. Nepali Army having 90,000 soldiers of the country, which is currently engaged in the civil war against the [[Maoist]] [[insurgent]]s. Most of the equipment and arms are supplied by [[India]].<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html Asia Times Online]</ref> Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance with a long standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese citizens may travel to each others' countries without a [[passport]] or [[visa (document)|visa]]. Nepalese citizens may work in India without legal restriction. Although Nepal and India typically have close ties, from time to time Nepal becomes caught up in the problematic Sino-Indian relationship. India considers Nepal as part of its realm of influence, and views Chinese aid with concern. Some Indians consider Nepal to be part of a greater pan-Indian state, an attitude that has caused Nepalese antagonism towards India. In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India, the US, and the UK have worsened. These three foreign countries have been vociferous opponents to the crackdown on civil liberties in Nepal. China mainly seeks cooperation with Nepal on the issues of Tibet. Outside of Asia, Nepal has especially friendly relations with [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]][http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?land_id=120&type_id=14] and has historical military links with the [[United Kingdom]]. == पिनेया वेबपौत == *[http://welcomenepal.com/new/index.asp Nepal Tourism Board] *[http://www.nepalhmg.gov.np Government of Nepal] *[http://www.britannica.com/nations/Nepal Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Nepal'' Country Page] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5283.htm United States Department of State Profile of Nepal] *[http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html Library of Congress &ndash; Nepal] *[http://www.myhimalayas.com/travelogues/nepal.htm MyHimalayas - Travelogues and Pictures from various areas in Nepal] *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Nepal/ Open Directory Project -- Nepal] *{{wikitravel|Nepal}} *[http://planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/WebHome Planet Nepal Wiki] ==रिफरेन्स== *{{cite web | title= ....a window to newar culture: Jwajalapa.com | url=http://www.jwajalapa.com | accessdate=May 16 | accessyear=2006 }} *{{cite web | title= A Country Study: Nepal | work=Federal Research Division, [[Library of Congress]] | url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal | work=[[CIA World Factbook]] | url=http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/np.html | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal | work=MSN Encarta | url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562648_3/Nepal.html | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= India Nepal Open Border | work=Nepal Democracy | url=http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/treaties_agreements/nep_india_open_border.htm | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Football at the heart of the Himalaya | work=[[FIFA]] | url=http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/magazine/index/0,1569,102162,00.html?articleid=102162 | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Etymology of the word "Nepal" | work=Infoclub.com.np | url=http://www.infoclub.com.np/nepal/history/history_ancient.htm| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | author= Siddharth Srivastava | title=India hits Nepal where it hurts | work=Asia Times Online | url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title=rudraksha | url=http://www.rudrakshanepal.com}} *{{cite web | title=Nepal: A state under siege | work=The South Asian: Featured Articles | url=http://www.thesouthasian.org/archives/000155.html| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal: Basic Fact Sheet | work=Nepal homepage | url=http://www.nepalhomepage.com/general/glance.html| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Jailed ex-PM in Nepal court plea | work=[[BBC News]] | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4194160.stm| accessdate=September 29 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Timeline: Nepal | work=[[BBC News]] | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1166516.stm| accessdate=September 29 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal to hold polls in two years| work=[[Times of India]] | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1239136.cms| accessdate=September 29 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal | work=Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation | url=http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite book | author=Barbara Crossette| title=So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas | location= New York | publisher=Vintage | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0679743634}} * {{cite book | author=Bista, Dor Bahadur| title=People of Nepal | publisher= Dept. of Publicity, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of Nepal | year=1967 | id=ISBN 9993304182}} *Michael Hutt, ed., ''Himalayan 'people's war' : Nepal's Maoist rebellion'', London : C. Hurst, 2004 * {{cite book | author=Peter Matthiessen| title=The Snow Leopard | publisher= Penguin | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-00-272025-6}} * {{cite book | author=Joe Simpson| title=Storms of Silence | publisher= Mountaineers Books | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0898865123}} * {{cite book | author=Samrat Upadhyay| title=Arresting God in Kathmandu | publisher= Mariner Books | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0618043713}} * {{cite book | author=Joseph R. Pietri| title=The King of Nepal | publisher=Joseph R. Pietri | year=2001 | id=ISBN 061511928X}} * {{cite book | author=Maurice Herzog| title=[[Annapurna]] | publisher=The Lyons Press | year=1951 | id=ISBN 1558215492}} * {{cite book | author=Dervla Murphy| title=The Waiting Land: A Spell in Nepal | publisher= Transatlantic Arts | year=1968 | id=ISBN 0719517451}} * {{cite book | author=Rishikesh Shaha| title=Modern Nepal: A Political History| publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors | year=2001 | id=ISBN 8173044031}} [[Category:दे]] 155 1647 2006-10-09T22:33:18Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=tomato><big>नेपाल भाषा</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> [[नेपाल]], [[भारत]] <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td>[[दक्षिण एशिया]] <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> १० लख: <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[चीनी-तिब्बती]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[तिब्बती-बर्मेली]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[हिमाली]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''नेपाल भाषा ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=tomato>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td>new </table> '''नेपाल भाषा''' (नेवा: भाय्, नेवारी, Nepal Bhasa) [[नेपाल]] दे या छगु प्रमुख भाय् ख:| थ्व भाय् नेपाल स्वनिग: (काठमाडौं स्वनिग:), काभ्रेपलान्चोक, दोलखा, पाल्पा व नेपालया प्रमुख बजार व नगरया नापं भारतया आसाम, दार्जीलिङ्, सिक्किम आदि थासे छ्येलाच्वंगु दु| == ईतिहास == थ्व भाय् छगु हे मूल नं उत्पति जुया ई नापं विकास जुगु मखु| थ्व भाय् नेपाल गाले शताब्दीयौं शताब्दी तक्क यक्को भाय् यागु समिश्रण नं आ यागु रूप कागु ख:| नेपाल गाले दक्ले न्हापा मंजुश्री वया बिज्यागु धागु बाखं कथं थन दक्ले न्हापा महाचीनया मनु वगु धैगु खंयात छुं ग्वाली याई| ईमिगु भाय् नेपाल भाय् या दक्ले न्हापागु स्रोत जुइफु| गोपाल व महिषपाल वंशया भाय् या बारे छु खास तथ्य लूगु मदु| ईमिगु भाय् न्ह्यागु हे जूसां व भाय् नं न नेपाल भाय् या उत्त्पतिले छुं ग्वाली यागु जुईमा धैगु भलसा काये ज्यु| व धुंका वोगु किरांत ईले थ्व: नेपाल गा:या भाय् ले चीनीया-तिब्बती भाय् या महाकिरांती परिवारया प्रभाव वगु खं थ्व भाय् या किरांती भाय् त नाप छुं मिले जुगु स्वरूपं क्येनी| संस्कृत यागु औपचारिक कथं नं छ्येले ज्या, भारतवर्ष नं नेपाल गाले च्वं व: पिं मल्ल, राजोपाध्याय आदि मनुत:, मैथिल प्रदेश, बंगाल नापयागु बनेज्या थें न्यागु भारतवर्ष नाप यागु स्वापू नं याना लिच्छ्वी ईले व लिच्छवी लिपायागु ईले भारोपेली भाय यागु प्रभाव नेपाल गा: या भाय् ले अप्प्वया वल| उकिया हे नाप्पं भोत दे नाप यागु बनेज्या व नेपाली कलाकार त अन वना ज्या यायेगु, नेपामी तेगु भोत दे नापं यागु सामाजिक संस्कार थें न्यागु ज्याखं नं भोत नाप दयावगु स्वापू नं न थ्व भाय् यागु स्वरूपले छुं परिवर्तन हगु खने दु| शाहकाले वया नेपाल भाय् ले खसकुराया नं प्रभाव खने दत| अले आ यागु सूचना प्रविधियागु विकासं याना थ्व भाय् ले हलिमया दक्व भाय् व विशेष याना अंग्रेजी भाय् या प्रभाव खना च्वंगु दु| == भाषिका == *[[पश्चिम नेपा: गा: (यें-यल-क्येपू) भाषिका]] *[[पूर्व नेपा: गा: (ख्वप-भ्वत) भाषिका]] *[[दोलखा भाषिका]] *[[पाल्पा भाषिका]] == साहित्य == === साहित्यकारत: === *[[सिध्दिदास महाजु]] *[[शुक्रराज शास्त्री]] *[[चित्तधर "हृदय"]] === बाखं ख्य: === === काव्य ख्य: === === नाटक ख्य: === === संकिपा ख्य: === *[[सिलु]] *[[राजमती]] *[[यांमिखा]] *[[पपु मदुम्ह: झंग]] === किपा:सफु (कमिक) ख्य: === *[[मजिपा: लाखे]] *[[गुरुमापा]] *[[बूंगद्य]] === निबन्ध ख्य: === === म्ये ख्य: === *[[नेपाल भाय् भजन म्ये]] *[[नेपाल भाय् लोकम्ये]] *[[नेपाल भाय् प्रगतिवादी म्ये]] *[[नेपाल भाय् आधुनिक म्ये]] *[[नेपाल भाय् रक म्ये]] == संचारले उपस्थिति == *[[रेडियोले नेपाल भाय् या ज्याझ्व:]] *[[टिभीले नेपाल भाय् या ज्याझ्वा]] *[[नेपाल भाय् या बूखंपौ]] *[[नेपाल भाय् या म्यागाजिन]] == नेपाल भाय् ब्वनेज्या या ख्य:ले == *[[प्राथमिक तह]] *[[ईन्टरमिडिएट]] *[[ब्याचेलर्स]] *[[मास्टर्स्]] *[[डक्टरेट]] == स्वापू पौ त: == *[http://www.jwajalapa.com a window to Newari culture], *[http://www.layalama.com] *[http://www.newapost.com] [[af:Nepal Taal]] [[ang:Nepal Bhasa]] [[bh:नेपाल भाषा]] [[bn:নেপাল ভাষা]] [[br:Nepal Bhasa]] [[de:Nepal Bhasa]] [[el:Νεβάρι]] [[en:Nepal Bhasa]] [[es:Nepal Bhasa]] [[eo:Nepal Bhasa]] [[fr:Nepâlbhâsa]] [[gu:નેપાલ ભાષા]] [[hi:नेपाल भाषा]] [[id:Bahasa Nepal]] [[ie:Nepal Bhasa]] [[it:Lingua Nepal]] [[ks:नेपाल भाषा]] [[mr:नेपाळ भाषा]] [[ms:Bahasa Nepal]] [[nl:Nepalbhasa]] [[ne:नेपाल भाषा]] [[no:Nepal Bhasa]] [[pi:नेपाल भाषा]] [[pt:Língua bhasa de Nepal]] [[rmy:नेपाल भाषा]] [[ru:Непали]] [[sa:नेपाल भाषा]] [[sco:Nepal leid]] [[sh:Nepal Bhasa]] [[simple:Nepal Bhasa]] 156 1171 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/नेवा:]] moved to [[नेवा:]] नेवा: धागु नेपालयागु छगु जातियभाषिक समुदाय ख:| थ्व समुदायया ल्याखं दक्ले अप्व नेपाल गाले दु| == संस्कृति == नेवा तेगु थगु हे कथंया संस्कृति दु| थ्व संस्कृति ले बौध्द व हिन्दू धर्मयागु येक्क्व प्रभाव दु| नेवा तेगु संस्कृतिले नख, जात्रा, सम्बत, प्याखं, भाय्, बाजं, धर्म, प्रकृति, मौसम आदि यागु येक्व प्रभाव दु| === [[नेवा: गुठि]] === नेवा तेगु समाजे गुथि यागु येक्व महत्त्व दु| थगु जात वा ज्याया कथं देकिगु गुथि नं नेवा तेगु सामाजिक नियम त देकिगु व पालना यायेगु ज्या याई|सुं न मनु बुई बिले निसें सी बिले तक्क हनिगु दक्व ज्याखं गुथि यागु नियमया कथं जुइ| गुथियागु नियम पालना मयासा मनुयात गुथि नं पींथना छ्वेगु तक्क यागु व्यवस्था गुथिले दै| गुथि नं पींतने धुंका मनु यागु सामाजिक जीवन हने थाकुई|गुथि तेसं येक्व रुढिवादी नियम त देका व पालना याना च्वंगुलिं थौ कन्हे गुथियागु महत्त्व क्षीण जुया च्वंगु दु| === [[नेवा: जात्रा]] === === [[नेवा: नख:]] === === [[नेवा: बाजं]] === === [[नेवा: प्याखं]] === === [[नेवा: जीवन रीति]] === === [[नेपाल संवत]] === === [[नेपाल भाय्]] === === [[नेवा: धर्म]] === === [[नेवा: बाखंत व मान्यता]] === === नेवा: कासा व धेंधेंबल्ला === == ईतिहास == == आर्थिक अवस्था == === नेवा: तेसं याना च्वंगु ज्या त === == राज्यनीति == == नेवा: भूगोल == === नेपाल दुने === === नेपाल पिने === *[[अमेरिकाये नेवा:]] *[[युरोपये नेवा:]] *[[अस्ट्रेलिया व ओसनियाये नेवा:]] *[[अफ्रीकाये नेवा:]] *[[एसियाये नेवा]] 157 1173 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/न्याथानील ह:थोर्न]] moved to [[न्याथानील ह:थोर्न]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 158 1175 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/न्ह्यसत]] moved to [[न्ह्यसत]] ==General and particular FAQs== *[[Wikipedia:Overview FAQ|Overview FAQ]] &ndash; General questions about the Wikipedia project. *[[Wikipedia:Readers' FAQ|Readers' FAQ]] &ndash; Finding, reading and using Wikipedia material. *[[Wikipedia:Schools' FAQ|Schools' and Teachers' FAQ]] &ndash; Using Wikipedia in the classroom. *[[Wikipedia:Contributing FAQ|Contributing FAQ]] &ndash; Why you might want to contribute to the Wikipedia project, and how you can do it. *[[Wikipedia:Editing FAQ|Editing FAQ]] &ndash; The ins and outs of creating and editing Wikipedia pages. *[[Wikipedia:Administration FAQ|Administration FAQ]] &ndash; What an administrator (or "sysop") is, sysop status, and server administration. *[[Wikipedia:Technical FAQ|Technical FAQ]] &ndash; Questions about Wikipedia software and hardware and their limitations. *[[Wikipedia:Problems FAQ|Problems FAQ]] &ndash; Questions relating to past or present difficulties and criticism. *[[Wikipedia:Miscellaneous FAQ|Miscellaneous FAQ]] &ndash; Everything else. *[[Wikipedia:Copyright FAQ|Copyright FAQ]] &ndash; Questions pertaining to copyright issues. *[[Wikipedia:Very Frequently Asked Questions|Very Frequently Asked Questions]] &ndash; Commonly asked questions ==Specific FAQs== *[[Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia|Citing Wikipedia]] &ndash; Detailed information about how to cite Wikipedia when you use it as a reference. *[[Wikipedia:Who writes Wikipedia|Who writes Wikipedia]] &ndash; An overview of the process and people behind Wikipedia. *[[Wikipedia:What is an article]] &ndash; What constitutes an article. *[[Wikipedia:Glossary|Glossary]] &ndash; Definitions of Wikipedia jargon and acronyms. *[[Wikipedia:PHP script FAQ|PHP script FAQ]] &ndash; Covers the major difference in the PHP script from [[UseModWiki]]. *[[User talk:Rambot|Rambot FAQ]] &ndash; The much discussed [[User:Rambot|rambot]]. *[[Wikipedia:Forking FAQ|Forking FAQ]] &ndash; How to download Wikipedia content and/or software and/or create derivative works of Wikipedia. *[[Wikipedia:Categorization FAQ|Categorization FAQ]] &ndash; About the [[Wikipedia:Category|Category]] feature introduced in June 2004. *[[Wikipedia:Template FAQ|Template FAQ]] &ndash; About the [[Wikipedia:Template|Template]] feature. *[[Wikipedia:Main Page FAQ|Main Page FAQ]] &ndash; How it works and other common answers. ==See also== *[[Help:Contents|Help pages]] &ndash; Table of contents for all Help pages. **[[Wikipedia:Help desk|The Wikipedia Help Desk]] &ndash; For questions about How to use Wikipedia. *[[Wikipedia:Troubleshooting|Troubleshooting]] &ndash; Help with various technical difficulties with accessing or editing Wikipedia pages. *[[Wikipedia:Editing the main page|Editing the main page]] &ndash; Help editing the main page. *[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|The Wikipedia Manual of Style]] &ndash; Stylistic guidebook to help keep Wikipedia's appearance self-consistent. *[[Wikipedia:Replies to common objections|Replies to common objections]] &ndash; Responses to common criticisms leveled at Wikipedia. *[[Wikipedia:Press Kit]] &ndash; Resources for media inquiries, and corrections to common misconceptions about Wikipedia. *[[Wikipedia:Department directory|Wikipedia department directory]] 159 2835 2006-10-14T19:21:48Z Eukesh 11 # [[न्ह्याइपुइकेगु]] # [[मनोरंजन]] # '''[[कासा]]''' ## [[ब्याकग्यामन]] ## [[चेस]] ## [[ड्रौत्स्]] ## [[गो (बोर्ड कासा)]] ## [[मन्काला]] ## [[तास]] # [[ग्याम्बल]] # [[लीजर]] # [[मार्सल आर्ट]] ## [[जुडो]] # [[ओलम्पिक कासा]] # [[भ्वे]] # '''[[ख्य: कासा]]''' ## [[अमेरिकन फूटबल]] ## [[अटो रेसिंग]] ### [[फर्मुला वान]] ## [[ब्याडमिन्टन]] ## [[बेसबल]] ## [[बास्केटबल]] ## [[कृकेट]] ## [[फेन्सिङ्]] ## [[फूटबल (सकर)]] ## [[गल्फ]] ## [[सल ब्वाकिगु]] ## [[च्वापू हक्की]] ## [[ल्याक्रोसे]] ## [[रग्बी फूटबल]] ## [[टेनिस]] ## [[भलीबल]] ## [[ल पोलो]] ## [[कुस्ती]] ## [[एथ्लेटिक्स्]] # [[फिफा वर्ल्ड कप]] # '''[[कताँमरी]]''' [[Category:संस्कृति]] 160 1179 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पञ्चशील]] moved to [[पञ्चशील]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 161 1181 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/परापूर्व व प्राचीनकाल]] moved to [[परापूर्व व प्राचीनकाल]] #[[प्राचीन मिश्र]] #[[प्राचीन युनान]] #[[प्राचीन रोम]] #[[पूरातत्त्व]] #[[ब्रोन्ज ई]] #[[बैजन्टाइन साम्राज्य]] #[[हान साम्राज्य]] #[[मनु विकास]] #[[सिन्ध स्वनिग: सभ्यता]] #[[माया सभ्यता]] #[[न: ई]] #[[मेसेडोनियन साम्राज्य]] #[[मेसोअमेरिका]] #[[परापूर्व]] #[[सेल्जक साम्राज्य]] #[[लोहं ई]] #[[सुमेर]] 162 4008 2006-10-16T17:38:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Paul Cezanne.jpg|thumb|पल सेजान्]] {{चित्रकार व वास्तुशास्त्री}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 163 1185 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पशु विज्ञान]] moved to [[पशु विज्ञान]] '''पशु विज्ञान'''(Zoology)त जूलोजी नं धाइ| थ्व विज्ञानले पशु, कि व झङगतेगु म्वायेगु प्रकृया व उकिगु अंशयात अध्ययन याई| 164 1187 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पाब्लो नेरुडा]] moved to [[पाब्लो नेरुडा]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 165 4006 2006-10-16T17:35:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:PabloPicasso1916 (photo).jpg|thumb|right|125px|पाब्लो पिकासो]] {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 166 1191 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पारमिता]] moved to [[पारमिता]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 167 1193 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पाश्चात्य बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] moved to [[पाश्चात्य बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 168 1195 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] moved to [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] '''पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र''' (Archaeology) '''Archaeology''', '''archeology''', or '''archæology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''αρχαίος'' = ancient and ''λόγος'' = word/speech/discourse) is the study of [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]], [[biofact]]s, human remains, and [[landscapes]]. The goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human [[culture]], understand [[culture history]], chronicle [[cultural evolution]], and study human [[behavior]] and [[ecology]], for both [[prehistory|prehistoric]] and [[history|historic]] societies. It is considered in North America to be one of the four sub-fields of [[anthropology]]. [[Image:GD-EG-Alex-Théatre031.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[theater]], [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]]] ==Usage== As with words such as [[encyclopaedia]] and [[gynaecology]], archaeology traditionally has an ''ae'' combination; however, unlike many other words, the ''ae'' is still widely retained. Contrary to popular belief in other parts of the world, the spelling ''archeology'' is not predominant in [[United States]] [[dictionary|dictionaries]], though it ''is'' the spelling used by the United States government organizations involved in the field. The traditional spelling, ''archaeology'', continues to be the most common form in everyday writing throughout the world, including the U.S. ==Origins and definition== [[Image:Altamira-plafond.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Prehistoric]] [[cave painting]]s. [[Altamira]], [[Spain]]]]In the [[Old World]], archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains, the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject's goals. The discipline's roots in [[antiquarian]]ism and the study of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] provided it with a natural affinity with the field of [[history]]. In the [[New World]], archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human [[society|societies]] and is treated as one of the four subfields of [[Anthropology]]. The other subfields of [[anthropology]] supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner. These subfields are [[cultural anthropology]], which studies behavioural, symbolic, and material dimensions of culture; [[linguistics]], which studies language, including the origins of language and language groups; and [[physical anthropology]], which includes the study of human evolution and physical and [[genetics|genetic]] characteristics. Other disciplines also supplement archaeology, such as [[paleontology]], [[paleozoology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], [[paleobotany]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[art history]], and [[classics]]. Archaeology has been described as a [[craft]] that enlists the [[science]]s to illuminate the [[humanities]]. The American archaeologist [[Walter Taylor]] asserted in his major work "A Study of Archeology" (1948, [[American Anthropological Association]]) that "Archaeology is neither history nor anthropology. As an autonomous discipline, it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering, or 'production' of cultural information". Archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology. In [[England]], archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown [[New York City]] archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the Black burial ground. Traditional Archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical human cultures; that is cultures that existed before the development of [[writing]] for that culture. [[Historical archaeology]] is the study of cultures with some form of [[writing]]. In the study of relatively recent cultures, which have been observed and studied by Western scholars, archaeology is closely allied with [[ethnography]]. This is the case in large parts of [[North America]], [[Oceania]], [[Siberia]], and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied. [[Kennewick Man]] is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture. In the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours, [[history]] and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context, as at [[Hadrian's Wall]]. ==Importance and applicability== [[Image:Stonehenge back wide.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Stonehenge]], [[United Kingdom]]]] Understand that even though the scope of this is centered around an evolutionary viewpoint, there is no evidence that supports any such claims(millions of years, etc.). To look at Archeology with a mindset that has been culminated from years of being informed about evolution, the lookingglass has been smudged and then they only see what they want too, and without an open mind. Then what makes things even worse is when this false information is touted as "true science", as where true science is tried and tested and repeatable. If any area falls apart the science has become only what man says it is, not what the basic foundation of what science states that it is. So before you continue, remember to question everything, if no suitable answer is given, then question it even harder, and then question the answers that are given. Then you will find the truth or factual evidence that was buried under the facade of evolutionary theory. '''-Ævo''' Often archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people in the past. Many thousands of cultures and societies and millions of people have come and gone across the millennia of which there simply is little or no written record - no history - or for which written records may be misrepresentative or incomplete. [[Writing]] as it is known and understood today did not exist anywhere in the world until about 5000 years ago, and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced [[civilisation]]s. In contrast [[Homo Sapiens|''Homo sapiens'']] have existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of [[Homo (genus)|''Homo'']] for millions of years (see [[Human evolution]]). These [[civilisation]]s are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels, many important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation - the development of [[agriculture]], cult practices of [[folk religion]], the rise of the first [[city|cities]] - must come from archaeology. Even where written records do exist, they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the [[elite]] classes, such as the [[clergy]] or the [[bureaucracy]] of court or temple. The literacy even of an [[aristocracy]] has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into [[library|libraries]] and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually only a fraction of the larger population. As such, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is nearer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as [[sampling bias]] and [[differential preservation]]. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong [[aesthetic]] appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'', and ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]''. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of [[pseudoscience]] are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology, below). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of the modern state of archaeology. ==Goals== There is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies. These include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites, digging [sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein, and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains. Every phase of this process can be a source of information. The goals of archaeology are not always the same. There are at least three broad, distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do. (These are beyond the scope of the present discussion, and are discussed at length below.) Nevertheless, there is much common ground. ===Academic sub-disciplines=== {{Main|Archaeological sub-disciplines}} As with most [[academia|academic]] disciplines, there are a very large number of [[archaeological sub-disciplines]] characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g. [[lithic analysis]], [[music (archaeology)|music]], [[archaeobotany]]), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. [[Near Eastern archaeology]], [[Medieval archaeology]]), other thematic concern (e.g. [[landscape archaeology]]), or a specific [[archaeological culture]] or [[civilisation]] (e.g. [[Egyptology]]). ===Cultural resources management=== ''[[Cultural resources management]]'' (CRM) (also called ''heritage management'' in Britain) is a branch of archaeology that accounts for most research done in the [[United States]] and much of that in [[western Europe]] as well. In the United States, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the [[National Historic Preservation Act]] of 1966 and most of the archaeology done in that country today proceeds from either direct or related requirements of that measure. In the United States, the vast majority of taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped to preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, this mandates that no construction project on [[public land]] or involving public funds may damage an unstudied [[archaeological site]]. The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 [[PPG 16]] has required planners to consider archaeology as a [[material consideration]] in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense. Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of [[cultural]] sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thriving entity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline. Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour. ==Field methods== ===Survey=== [[Image:Monte Albán archeological site, Oaxaca.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Monte Alban]] archeological site]]A modern archaeological project often begins with a [[archaeological survey|survey]]. ''Regional survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. ''Site survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and [[midden]]s, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. [[Gordon Willey]] pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the [[Viru Valley]] of coastal [[Peru]], and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later. Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] methods.) It avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as [[settlement pattern]]s and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into [[map]]s, which may show surface features and/or artefact distribution. The simplest survey technique is ''surface survey''. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport, to search for features or artefacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as [[auger]]s, [[corer]]s, and [[shovel test]] pits. ''[[Aerial survey]]'' is conducted using [[camera]]s attached to [[aircraft]], [[balloon]]s, or even [[kite (toy)|kites]]. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. [[Plant]]s growing above a stone structure, such as a wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as [[midden]]s) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening [[cereal|grain]], which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial survey also employs [[infrared]], ground-penetrating [[radar]] wavelengths, and [[thermography]]. ''[[Geophysical survey]]'' is the most effective way to see beneath the ground. [[Magnetometer]]s detect minute deviations in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] caused by [[iron]] artefacts, [[kiln]]s, some types of [[stone structures]], and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the [[electrical resistivity]] of the soil are also widely used. Most soils are [[moisture|moist]] below the surface, which gives them a relatively low resistivity. Features such as hard-packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider the use of [[metal detector]]s to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on [[English Civil War]] battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the [[Portable Antiquities Scheme]]. Regional survey in maritime archaeology uses [[side-scan sonar]]. ===Excavation=== [[Image:Vill excavation.jpg|thumb|Archeological excavation which discovered prehistorical caves in [[Vill]], [[Austria]]]] [[Excavation|Archaeological excavation]] existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their [[provenance]] or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see [[Primary Laws of Archaeology]]). Similarly, their [[archaeological association|association]], or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its [[stratification (archeology)|stratigraphy]]; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct [[culture]]s, artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research. Also, as a destructive process, it carries [[ethics|ethical]] concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. [[Sampling (statistics)|Sampling]] is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as [[backhoe]]s ([[J. C. Bamford|JCBs]]), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the [[topsoil]] ([[overburden]]), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with [[trowel|trowels]] or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task is to form a [[Archaeological plan|site plan]] and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural [[subsoil]] are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible [[archaeological section]] for recording. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the [[context]] of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site. ==Post-excavation analysis== Once artefacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is normally the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published. At its most basic, the artefacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections, in order to classify them [[typology|typologically]] and to identify other sites with similar artefact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through [[archaeological science]], meaning that artefacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed (using the techniques of [[zooarchaeology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], and [[palynology]]), while any texts can usually be [[Decipherment|deciphered]]. These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site. ==History of archaeology== [[Image:Jade pot from the Qing Dynasty.jpg|thumb|Gilt-metal and jade-inlaid pot. [[Qianlong]] reign in the [[Qing dynasty]] of [[China]] (c. 1700)]] ''Main article: [[History of archaeology]]'' The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible. Excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years, but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artefacts. It was only in the 19th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out. A notable early development was the founding in Rome in 1829, by [[Eduard Gerhard]] and others, of the Institute for Archaeological Correspondence (Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica or Institut für archäologisches Korrespondenz). Archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals, including [[Augustus Pitt Rivers]] and [[William Flinders Petrie]]. This process was continued in the 20th century by such people as [[Mortimer Wheeler]], whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained. During the 20th century, the development of [[urban archaeology]] and then [[rescue archaeology]] have been important factors, as has the development of [[archaeological science]], which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain. ==Archaeological theory== {{Main|Archaeological theory}} There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both [[history]] and [[anthropology]]. The first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as '''[[Cultural-history archaeology|cultural, or culture, history]]''', which was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1960s, a number of young, primarily American archaeologists, such as [[Lewis Binford]], rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with [[hypothesis]] testing and the [[scientific method]] very important parts of what became known as '''[[processual archaeology]]'''. In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists [[Michael Shanks (archaeologist)|Michael Shanks]], [[Christopher Tilley]], [[Daniel Miller]], and [[Ian Hodder]]. It questioned processualism's appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism, becoming known as '''[[post-processual archaeology]]'''. However, this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour. The validity of both processualism and post-procuessualism is still under debate. Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including [[evolution|neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought]], [[phenomenology]], [[postmodernism]], [[Structure and agency|agency theory]], [[Cognitive archaeology|cognitive science]], [[Functionalism (sociology)|Functionalism]], [[Gender archaeology|gender-based]] and [[Feminist archaeology]], and [[Systems theory in archaeology|Systems theory]]. ==Public archaeology== Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public, portrayed in books (such as ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]'') and films (such as ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'' and ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''). Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as [[Copán]] and the [[Valley of the Kings]], but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational. In addition, archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern [[archaeological survey|survey]], [[excavation]], and [[archaeological data processing|data processing]] techniques. Some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as "[[pseudoarchaeology]]". Nevertheless, archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of [[Indiana Jones]] films and [[Tomb Raider games]] as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Without a strong public interest in the subject, often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists, it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require. In the UK, popular archaeology programmes such as ''[[Time Team]]'' and ''[[Meet the Ancestors]]'' have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did. However, the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now relegated to unskilled labour, and even this is less freely available than before. Developer-funded excavation necessitates a well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately, observing the necessary [[health and safety]] and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern [[construction|building site]] with tight deadlines. Certain charities and [[local government]] bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial [[training excavations]] and archaeological holiday tours. Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies. Anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group. ===Pseudoarchaeology=== {{Main|Pseudoarchaeology}} Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of [[processual archaeology]], or the specific critiques of it contained in [[Post-processual archaeology|post-processualism]]. An example of this type is the writing of [[Erich von Däniken]]. His ''[[Chariots of the Gods]]'' (1968), together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as [[palaeocontact theory]], is not exclusively Däniken's nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind. ===Looting=== [[Image:Adad-Nirari stela.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Stela]] Stela of a king named Adad-Nirari. Object stolen from the Iraq National Museum in the looting in connection with the [[Iraq war]] of 2003.]]Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of [[hoard]]s of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian [[pharaoh]]s were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artefacts encourages looting and the [[illicit antiquities]] trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage. The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor [[Third World]] countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient [[Sinagua]] people of [[Arizona]], clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the [[metal detector]] a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig. ===Public outreach=== Motivated by a desire to halt '''looting''', curb '''pseudoarchaeology''', and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting '''public-outreach campaigns'''. They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artefact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation. The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites. ===Descendant peoples=== In the United States, examples such as the case of [[Kennewick Man]] have illustrated the tensions between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artefacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive. As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of [[indigenous peoples]] likely to be descended from those under study. Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study. While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their [[Small finds|finds[[. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession. ====Repatriation==== A new trend in the heated controversy between [[First Nations]] groups and scientists is the [[repatriation]] of native [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when a community members and elders from a number of the 10 [[Algonquian]] nations in the [[Ottawa]] area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in [[Kanawagi, Quebec]], to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years. The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including [[beads]], [[tools]] and [[weapons]], were originally excavated from various sites in the [[Ottawa Valley]], including [[Morrison]] and the [[Allumette Islands]]. They had been part of the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional [[redcedar]] and [[birchbark]] boxes lined with redcedar chips, [[muskrat]] and [[beaver pelts]]. Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp | title= Canadian Geographic Online }}</ref> ==See also== *[[List of significant archaeological discoveries]] *[[List of archaeological sites sorted by country]] *[[List of archaeologists]] *[[Biblical archaeology]] *[[List of archaeological periods]] *[[Prehistory]] *[[Use of GIS in Archaeology]] ==Footnotes== <references/> ==External links== {{commonscat|Archaeology}} * [http://www.archeologia.be Archeologia belga] The Alphabetical of Archaeology. French Archaeology. * [http://www.archaeologynews.org Archaeology News] Current News and Information pertaining to all areas of archaeology, plus free news feeds for webmasters. *[http://www.northpacificprehistory.com North Pacific Prehistory] is an academic journal specialising in Northeast Asian and North American archaeology. * [http://nefer-seba.net/Archaeological-Fieldwork.php Excavation Sites] Archaeological work and volunteer pages. * [http://wasteflake.com/tiki-index.php?page=PopularArchaeology Archaeology in Popular Culture] * [http://www.anthropology-resources.org/ Anthropology Resources on the Internet] - Anthropology Resources on the Internet : a web directory, part of the WWW Virtual Library, with over 4000 links grouped in specialised topics. * [http://www.archaeology.org/ ''Archaeology'' magazine] published by the Archaeological Institute of America * [http://www.archaeologydirectory.com/ Archaeology Directory] - Directory of archaeological topics on the web. * [http://cctr.umkc.edu/user/fdeblauwe/iraq.html The 2003- Iraq War & Archaeology] Information about looting in Iraq. * [http://www.galilean-library.org/newarch.html Philosophy and the New Archaeology], an essay at the Galilean Library on the philosophical underpinnning of archaeology and the debate over the New Archaeology. * [http://www.sahumanities.org.za Southern African Humanities] - Vehicle for human science and heritage research of an archaeological, anthropological and historical nature. * [http://www.african-archaeology.net/ WWW VL African Archaeology] - The african archaeology portal, part of the WWW Virtual Library : all the web sites relating to african archaeology are listed here. * [http://www.veljkomilkovic.com/ArheologijaEng.html/ Archaelogical and prehistoric discoveries] by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veljko_Milković Veljko Milković] * [http://www.territorioscuola.com/tsodp/dmoz.php3?browse=/Science/Social_Sciences/Archaeology/ TerritorioScuola ODP - Archaeology Resources] ==Further reading== * Ashmore, W. and Sharer, R. J., ''Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology'' Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 076741196X. This has also been used as a source. * Maniscalco, Fabio (ed.), [http://www.webjournal.unior.it Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony] * Neumann, Thomas W. and Robert M. Sanford, ''Practicing Archaeology: A Training Manual for Cultural Resources Archaeology'' [http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc], August, 2001, hardcover, 450 pages, ISBN 0759100942 * Renfrew, Colin & Bahn, Paul G., ''Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice'', Thames and Hudson, 4th edition, 2004. ISBN 0500284415 * Sanford, Robert M. and Thomas W. Neumann, ''Cultural Resources Archaeology: An Introduction'', [http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc], December, 2001, trade paperback, 256 pages, ISBN 0759100950 * Trigger, Bruce. 1990. "A History of Archaeological Thought". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521338182 169 1197 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पूर्नजन्म (बौद्ध)]] moved to [[पूर्नजन्म (बौद्ध)]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 170 1199 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पूर्वी एसियाली बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] moved to [[पूर्वी एसियाली बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 171 1201 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पोर्टल:गणित/ल्ययातगु किपा]] moved to [[पोर्टल:गणित/ल्ययातगु किपा]] [[Image:Construction of Golden rectangle.svg|250px|center|Constructing a golden rectangle]] थ्व कम्पास व स्ट्रेटएड्ज छ्येला रेक्ट्यागल देकिगु तरिका ख:. {| width="100%" border="0" style="padding: 0; margin:0; background:transparent;" |align=left|'''[[पोर्टल:गणित/ल्ययातगु किपा आर्काइभ|...आर्काइभ]]''' |align=center|<small>Last updated: 24th August 2006</small> |align=right|'''[[सुवर्ण रेक्ट्यांगल |ब्वना दिसं...]]''' |} 172 3543 2006-10-15T20:20:40Z Eukesh 11 173 1205 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पोर्टल:जीवनी/Wp/new/Template:box-header]] moved to [[पोर्टल:जीवनी/Template:box-header]] {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#aaaaaa <!-- This is the color of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar text--> |titlebackground=#aaccff <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- This is the color of the Box Section text --> 174 1207 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पोर्टल:जीवनी/box-footer]] moved to [[पोर्टल:जीवनी/box-footer]] {{Portal:Box-footer | {{{1}}} }} 175 1209 2006-10-02T11:48:06Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पोर्टल:जीवनी/box-header]] moved to [[पोर्टल:जीवनी/box-header]] {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#aaaaaa <!-- This is the color of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar text--> |titlebackground=#aaccff <!-- This is the color 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[[ru:Портал:Наука]] [[sl:Portal:Znanost]] [[sv:Portal:Naturvetenskap]] [[zh-yue:Portal:科學]] 177 1213 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पोर्टल:विज्ञान/box-footer]] moved to [[पोर्टल:विज्ञान/box-footer]] <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div> 178 1215 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/पोर्टल:विज्ञान/box-header]] moved to [[पोर्टल:विज्ञान/box-header]] <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div style="position: relative;<!-- -->border: 1px solid {{{titleborder|{{{border|#99aaff}}}}}};<!-- -->background: {{{titlebackground|#99aaff}}};<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|white}}};<!-- -->padding: .1em;<!-- -->text-align: center;<!-- -->font-weight: bold;<!-- -->font-size: 100%;<!-- -->margin-bottom: 0px;<!-- -->border-bottom: none;"><!-- --><span class="plainlinks" <!-- -->style="position: absolute;<!-- -->top: 1px;<!-- -->right: 1px;<!-- -->background: transparent;<!-- -->border: 0px;<!-- -->margin-bottom:.1em;<!-- -->font-size:80%;<!-- -->font-weight: normal;<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|white}}};"><!-- -->[{{fullurl:{{{editpage|/}}}|action=edit}} <span style="color: {{{titleforeground|white}}}">edit</span>]{{{top| }}}&nbsp;<!-- --></span ><!-- --><h2 style="font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;border: none; margin: 0; padding:0; padding-bottom:.1em; color:{{{titleforeground|white}}}">{{{title}}}</h2><!-- --></div> <div style="display: block;<!-- -->border: {{{border-width|1}}}px solid {{{border|#99aaff}}};<!-- -->vertical-align: top;<!-- -->background: {{{background|white}}};<!-- -->color: {{{foreground|black}}};<!-- -->margin-bottom: 10px;<!-- -->padding: 1em;<!-- -->margin-top: 0em;<!-- -->padding-top: .3em;"> 179 2375 2006-10-11T21:25:30Z Eukesh 11 '''प्याखं''' (Dance) [[Category:संस्कृति]] 180 1219 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/प्रकृति]] moved to [[प्रकृति]] '''प्रकृति''' (Nature) 181 1221 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/प्रतित्य-समुत्पाद]] moved to [[प्रतित्य-समुत्पाद]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 182 3205 2006-10-14T21:14:25Z Eukesh 11 {{portal}} # [[प्रविधि]] # [[जीवप्रविधि]] # [[वस]] ## [[कपाय]] # [[मौदृक]] # [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]] ## [[पा:लुगु समथर]] ## [[लिवर]] ## [[घिर्नी]] ## [[पेच]] ## [[फाईगु ज्याब्व]] ## [[घ:चा]] # [[सिंचाई]] ## [[हलो]] # [[चुप्पी]] # [[धातुशास्त्र]] # [[नेनोटेक्नोलोजी]] [[Category:प्रविधि]] 183 1225 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/प्राचीन मेमेगु ख्य:त:]] moved to [[प्राचीन मेमेगु ख्य:त:]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 184 3032 2006-10-14T20:26:59Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[प्राणी]]''' # '''[[जनावर]]''' ## [[स्वानतगु तुति]] ### '''[[कि]]''' #### [[इमु]] #### [[हा]] #### [[पुतली]] ### [[च्यागुतुति]] ## [[जंक्वेंदुपिं]] ### '''[[एम्पिबियन]]''' #### [[ब्यांचा]] ### '''[[झंग]]''' #### [[बखुं]] #### [[चील]] ### '''[[न्या]]''' #### [[शार्क]] ### '''[[स्तनधारी]]''' #### [[न्ह्यपंमदुम्ह माक]] ##### '''[[मनु]]''' #### [[ब्याट]] #### [[भालू]] #### [[उंट]] #### [[भौ]] #### [[चौपाया]] #### [[खीचा]] #### [[सोंस]] #### [[किसी]] ##### [[म्यामथ]] #### [[सल]] #### [[दुगुचा]] #### [[सिंह]] #### [[फा]] #### [[व्हेल]] ### '''[[रेप्टाइल]]''' #### [[डाइनोसौर्]] #### [[सर्प]] # [[आर्केया]] # '''[[ब्याक्टेरिया]]''' # '''[[ढुसी]]''' # '''[[वनस्पति]]''' ## [[स्वां]] ## [[सींमां]] # [[प्रोटिस्टा]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 185 1229 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/फर्डिन्यन्ड म्यागालिन]] moved to [[फर्डिन्यन्ड म्यागालिन]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 186 1231 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/फ्योडोर डोस्तोएभ्स्की]] moved to [[फ्योडोर डोस्तोएभ्स्की]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 187 1233 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/फ्रान्ज् कफ्का]] moved to [[फ्रान्ज् कफ्का]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 188 1235 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/फ्रान्सिस् ड्रेक]] moved to [[फ्रान्सिस् ड्रेक]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 189 3829 2006-10-16T15:34:39Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 190 3832 2006-10-16T15:36:33Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 191 1241 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/फ्रेडेरिक चोपिन]] moved to [[फ्रेडेरिक चोपिन]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 192 3851 2006-10-16T15:42:13Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 193 1245 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बज्रयान]] moved to [[बज्रयान]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 194 1247 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बनेज्या]] moved to [[बनेज्या]] '''बनेज्या''' (Business) 195 1249 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बनेज्या व अर्थतन्त्र]] moved to [[बनेज्या व अर्थतन्त्र]] # '''[[बनेज्या]] # '''[[अर्थशास्त्र]]''' ## [[तधंगु अर्थशास्त्र]] ## [[चीधंगु अर्थशास्त्र]] # [[विज्ञापन]] # '''[[बूंज्या]]''' # [[पूंजी]] # [[पूंजीवाद]] # [[मूद्रा]] ## [[युरो]] ## [[जापानी येन]] ## [[पाउन्ड स्टर्लिङ]] ## [[रेन्मिन्बि]] ## [[रुपी]] ## [[संयुक्त राज्य डलर]] # [[ज्या बिगु]] # [[लगानी]] # [[उद्योग]] ## [[निर्माण]] ## [[खानी]] ## [[प्रशोधन]] # [[बजार]] # '''[[ध्यबा]]''' # [[आपूर्ति व माग]] # [[पर्यटन]] 196 1251 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बिंगेनया हिल्डेगार्ड]] moved to [[बिंगेनया हिल्डेगार्ड]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 197 4003 2006-10-16T17:26:43Z Eukesh 11 {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} *पाराजिका पालि *पाचित्तिय पालि *महावग्ग *चूलवग्ग *परिवार पालि *यमक *पट्ठान [[Category:बौद्ध]] 198 1255 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बुंज्या विज्ञान]] moved to [[बुंज्या विज्ञान]] '''बुंज्या विज्ञान'''(Agriculture) 199 1257 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बुद्ध]] moved to [[बुद्ध]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 200 1259 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बेर्टोल्ट् ब्रेच्त्]] moved to [[बेर्टोल्ट् ब्रेच्त्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 201 1261 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बोधिसत्त्व]] moved to [[बोधिसत्त्व]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 202 1263 2006-10-02T11:48:07Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध ग्रन्थ]] moved to [[बौद्ध ग्रन्थ]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 203 2850 2006-10-14T19:27:53Z Eukesh 11 /* अभिधम्म पिटक */ {{Template:wp/new/बौद्ध}} '''बौद्ध धर्म''' हलिमयागु तधंगु [[धर्म]]मध्ये छगु ख:| थ्व छगु [[धार्मिक]] [[ईश्वर मदुगु]] दर्शन ख:| बौद्ध धर्म [[गौतम बुद्ध]] यागु शिक्षाले आधारित दु| गौतमबुद्ध [[जम्बुद्वीप]]ये ५ शताब्दी ईपूले म्वानादिम्ह छम्ह महामानव ख:| == नियम == बुद्ध निर्वाण जुई धुंका संस्कृति, दार्शनिक महत्व व धर्मयायेगु तवयागु आधारे धर्म येक्व विस्तार जुई धुंकल|अथे जुगुलिं फुकं बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी तेसं छगु हे कथं यागु नियम पालना मया| तर अप्व बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी तेगु दथ्वी छुं नियम व दर्शन मंका दु| ===प्रतित्य-समुत्पाद=== ===स्कन्ध=== ===चत्तरी आर्य सच्छनि=== ===निर्वाण=== ===अरियो अट्ठङ्गीको मग्गो=== ===बोधि=== ===कर्म=== == मध्यम मार्ग == बौद्ध धर्मले दक्ले प्रथमिक इयम धागु मध्यम मार्ग ख:| मध्यम मार्ग बुद्ध नं बोधि प्राप्त याये स्वया न्ह्य प्रतिपादित याना दिगु ख:| मध्यम मार्गयात अतिवादी मजुइगु व मध्यम रूपं व्यसन कथं यागु आनन्द व सीगु थें न्यागु भक्ति यागु दथुयागु लं धाई|थुकिया दुने क्वे बियातगु विषयत: ला ===त्रिरत्न शरण=== ===शील=== ===समाधि=== ===भावना=== ===प्रज्ञा=== == बुद्ध धुंकायागु बुद्ध धर्म == ===न्हापायागु धर्म=== ===थेरवादयागु स्थापना (दक्षिणी बौद्ध)=== ===महायानयागु उदय (उत्तरी बौद्ध)=== ===बज्रयानयागु उत्पत्ति=== ===बौद्ध धर्मयागु मध्य एसिया व भारतये ह्रास=== == बौद्ध संस्था == ===थेरवाद=== ===महायान=== ===बज्रयान=== == बौद्ध ग्रन्थ == ===त्रिपिटक=== ====सुत्त पिटक==== ====बिनय पिटक==== ====अभिधम्म पिटक==== [[Category:संस्कृति]] 204 1267 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध धर्मयागु ईतिहास]] moved to [[बौद्ध धर्मयागु ईतिहास]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 205 1269 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध धर्मयागु कालचक्र]] moved to [[बौद्ध धर्मयागु कालचक्र]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 206 1271 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध धर्मयागु ख्य:त:]] moved to [[बौद्ध धर्मयागु ख्य:त:]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 207 1273 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध धर्मयागु विषय]] moved to [[बौद्ध धर्मयागु विषय]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 208 1275 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध धर्मयागु सांस्कृतिक पक्ष]] moved to [[बौद्ध धर्मयागु सांस्कृतिक पक्ष]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 209 1277 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध ब्रह्माण्ड]] moved to [[बौद्ध ब्रह्माण्ड]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 210 1279 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध शब्दावली व विचार]] moved to [[बौद्ध शब्दावली व विचार]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 211 1281 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध संघ]] moved to [[बौद्ध संघ]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 212 1283 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/बौद्ध सूची]] moved to [[बौद्ध सूची]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 213 1285 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ब्रदर्स् गृम्]] moved to [[ब्रदर्स् गृम्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 214 1287 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ब्वंकिगु ज्यायागु शास्त्र]] moved to [[ब्वंकिगु ज्यायागु शास्त्र]] '''ब्वंकिगु ज्यायागु शास्त्र''' (Education Science) 215 3848 2006-10-16T15:41:34Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 216 1291 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/भर्जिल]] moved to [[भर्जिल]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 217 1293 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/भाय]] moved to [[भाय]] *[[नेपाल भाषा]] 218 1295 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/भाय्]] moved to [[भाय्]] [[Image:Surfacegyri.jpg|thumb|Some of the areas of the brain involved in language processing: [[Broca's area]], [[Wernicke's area]], [[Supramarginal gyrus]], [[Angular gyrus]], [[Primary Auditory Cortex]]]] '''भाय्''' (अंग्रेजी: Language) धागु मनु यागु विचा हिलेगु छगु माध्यम ख:| भाये यात अप्प्व याना म्हुतु व कथु न पिकायिगु स या ग्वालिं छ्येले ज्या जुइ| तर भाय् यात च्वया व सांकेतिक तव नं छ्येले ज्यु| भाय् मनु यु दक्ले तधंगु आविस्कारले छगु ख| भाय् या छ्येले ज्या मेगु प्राणीले न दुगु तथ्य थौं कन्हे या मालेज्या (एक्स्पेरिमेन्ट्स्)तेसं क्येनी| भाय् यागु वैज्ञानिक ब्वनेजा यात भाय् विज्ञान (अंग्रेजी: Linguistics) धाई | == ईतिहास == भाय् या ईतिहास मनु यागु ईतिहास ति हे पुलांगु जुइ फु। थ्व छगु मनु यागु आवस्यकता नं दया वगु आविष्कार ख:| '''भाय्''' (अंग्रेजी: Language) धागु मनु यागु विचा हिलेगु छगु माध्यम ख:| भाये यात अप्प्व याना म्हुतु व कथु न पिकायिगु स या ग्वालिं छ्येले ज्या जुइ| तर भाय् यात च्वया व सांकेतिक तव नं छ्येले ज्यु| भाय् मनु यु दक्ले तधंगु आविस्कारले छगु ख| भाय् या छ्येले ज्या मेगु प्राणीले न दुगु तथ्य थौं कन्हे या मालेज्या (एक्स्पेरिमेन्ट्स्)तेसं क्येनी| भाय् यागु वैज्ञानिक ब्वनेजा यात भाय् विज्ञान (अंग्रेजी: Linguistics) धाई | == ईतिहास == भाय् या ईतिहास मनु यागु ईतिहास ति हे पुलांगु जुइ फु। थ्व छगु मनु यागु आवस्यकता नं दया वगु आविष्कार ख:| A '''language''' is a system of arbitary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings. [[Human]] spoken and written languages can be described as a [[system]] of [[symbol]]s (sometimes known as [[lexeme]]s) and the [[grammar]]s ([[wiktionary:rule|rule]]s) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" is also used to refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of [[sound]] or [[gesture]] for symbols which enable [[communication]] with others around them. There are thousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions. There is [[Dialect#.22Dialect.22_or_.22language.22|no defined line]] between a language and a [[dialect]], but [[Max Weinreich]] is credited as saying that [[Language-dialect aphorism|a language is a dialect with an army and a navy]]. <!-- this in-joke needs explanation for many readers --> Humans and computer programs have also constructed other languages, including [[Constructed language|constructed languages]] such as [[Esperanto]], [[Ido]], [[Interlingua]], [[Klingon language|Klingon]], programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms. These languages are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages. ==Properties of language== Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also often conform to a rough [[grammar]], or system of rules, used to manipulate the symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively unexpressive, because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. <!-- uh? how can a language manipulate symbols? Because a language also often has a grammar, it can manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them. --> For example, imagine going on a walk with a person who only knows individual symbols. If you saw a dog, he might say, "Dog not scare" or "Not scare dog". Although any <!--?--> English speaker would have some notion of what he was talking about, the relationship between the words is unclear. Is he scared of dogs? Or just that dog? Or does he want to scare the dog off? Does he think the dog is scared? But if you respond, "I'm not scared of dogs", the relationship between "dog" and "scare" is quite apparent and hence the meaning of the utterance. <!-- added some Nots to show what a poor example this is --> Another property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''{{lang|es|nada}}'' itself that forces Spanish speakers to use it to mean ''nothing''. That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But for [[Croatian language|Croatian]] speakers ''{{lang|hr|nada}}'' means "hope". However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as "meow" sound similar to what they represent (see [[Onomatopoeia]]), but they could be replaced with words such as "jarn", and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same concepts could be expressed with it. ==Human languages== {{main|Natural language}} Human languages are usually referred to as natural languages, and the science studying them is [[linguistics]]. Making a principled distinction between one '''language''' and another is usually impossible. For instance, there are a few [[dialect]]s of [[German language|German]] similar to some dialects of [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. The transition between languages within the same [[language family]] is usually gradual (see [[dialect continuum]]). Some like to make parallels with [[biology]], where it is not always possible to make a well-defined distinction between one [[species]] and the next. In either case, the ultimate difficulty may stem from the [[interaction]]s between languages and [[population]]s. (See [[Dialect]] or [[August Schleicher]] for a longer discussion.) The concepts of [[Ausbausprache]], [[Abstandsprache]], and [[Dachsprache]] are used to make finer [[distinction]]s about the degrees of difference between languages or dialects. ===Origins of human language=== {{main|Origin of language}} No one yet agrees on when language was first used by humans (or their ancestors). Estimates range from about two million (2,000,000) years ago, during the time of ''[[Homo habilis]]'', to as recently as forty thousand (40,000) years ago, during the time of [[Cro-Magnon]] man. ===Language taxonomy=== The [[Taxonomic classification|classification]] of natural languages can be performed on the basis of different underlying principles (different closeness notions, respecting different properties and relations between languages); important directions of present classifications are: * paying attention to the historical evolution of languages results in a genetic classification of languages&mdash;which is based on genetic relatedness of languages, * paying attention to the internal structure of languages ([[grammar]]) results in a typological classification of languages&mdash;which is based on similarity of one or more components of the language's grammar across languages, * and respecting geographical closeness and contacts between language-speaking communities results in areal groupings of languages. The different classifications do not match each other and are not expected to, but the correlation between them is an important point for many [[linguistics|linguistic]] research works. (There is a parallel to the classification of [[species]] in biological [[phylogenetics]] here: consider [[monophyletic]] vs. [[polyphyletic]] groups of species.) The task of genetic classification belongs to the field of [[historical-comparative linguistics]], of typological&mdash;to [[linguistic typology]]. See also [[Taxonomy]], and [[Taxonomic classification]] for the general idea of classification and taxonomies. ====Genetic classification==== {{main|Language family}} The world's languages have been grouped into families of languages that are believed to have common ancestors. Some of the major families are the [[Indo-European languages]], the [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], the [[Austronesian languages]], and the [[Sino-Tibetan languages]]. The shared features of languages from one family can be due to shared ancestry. (Compare with [[homology (biology)|homology]] in biology.) ====Typological classification==== {{main|Linguistic typology}} An example of a typological classification is the classification of languages on the basis of the basic order of the [[verb]], the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] and the [[object (grammar)|object]] in a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] into several types: [[SVO language|SVO]], [[SOV language|SOV]], [[VSO language|VSO]], and so on, languages. ([[English language|English]], for instance, belongs to the [[SVO language]] type.) The shared features of languages of one type (= from one typological class) may have arisen completely independently. (Compare with [[analogy (biology)|analogy]] in biology.) Their cooccurence might be due to the universal laws governing the structure of natural languages&mdash;[[language universal]]s. ====Areal classification==== The following language groupings can serve as some linguistically significant examples of areal linguistic units, or ''[[sprachbund]]s'': [[Balkan linguistic union]], or the bigger group of [[European languages]]; [[Caucasian languages]]. Although the members of each group are not closely [[genetic relatedness of languages|genetically related]], there is a reason for them to share similar features, namely: their speakers have been in contact for a long time within a common community and the languages ''converged'' in the course of the history. These are called "[[areal feature (linguistics)|areal feature]]s". N.B.: one should be careful about the underlying classification principle for groups of languages which have apparently a geographical name: besides areal linguistic units, the [[taxa]] of the genetic classification ([[language family|language families]]) are often given names which themselves or parts of which refer to geographical areas. ===Constructed languages=== {{main|Constructed language}} Some individuals have constructed their own artificial languages, for practical, experimental, personal, or ideological reasons. For example, one prominent [[artificial language]], [[Esperanto]], was created by [[L. L. Zamenhof]] as a compilation of various elements of different languages, and was intended to be an easy-to-learn language for people familiar with similar languages. Other constructed languages strive to be more logical ("loglangs") than natural languages; a prominent example of this is [[Lojban]]. Some writers, such as [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], and [[Christopher Paolini]], have created fantasy languages, for literary, [[Artistic language|artistic]], or personal reasons. ==The study of language== {{main|Linguistics}} The oldest surviving written grammar for any language is believed to be the ''[[Tolkāppiyam]]'' (தொல்காப்பியம்), a book on the grammar of the [[Tamil language]], written around [[200 BC|200 BC]] by Tolkāppiyar. Its classification of the alphabet into [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]] was a breakthrough. The historical record of the study of language begins in [[North India]] with [[Pāṇini]], the [[5th century BC]] grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], known as the ''{{Unicode|[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]}}'' (अष्टाध्यायी). {{Unicode|Pāṇini’s}} grammar is highly systematized and technical. Inherent in its analytic approach are the concepts of the [[phoneme]], the [[morpheme]], and the [[Root (linguistics)|root]]; the phoneme was only recognized by Western linguists some two millennia later. In the [[Middle East]], the [[Persian language|Persian]] linguist [[Sibawayh]] made a detailed and professional description of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in 760 CE in his monumental work, ''Al-kitab fi al-nahw'' (الكتاب في النحو, ''The Book on Grammar''), bringing many [[Linguistics|linguistic]] aspects of language to light. In his book he distinguished [[phonetics]] from [[phonology]]. Later in the West, the success of [[science]], [[mathematics]], and other [[formal system]]s in the 20th century led many to attempt a formalization of the study of language as a "semantic code". This resulted in the [[academic discipline]] of [[linguistics]], the founding of which is attributed to [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]. <!-- Where do Wittgenstein and Quine argue this? [[Philosopher]]s such as [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[W. V. Quine]], and [[Jacques Derrida]] have disputed the possibility of such a rigorous study of language by questioning many of the assumptions necessary for such a study, and have put forth their own views on the nature of language. There is no end in sight to this debate.--> ==Non-human languages== {{main|Animal language}} The term "[[animal language]]s" is often used for non-human languages. Most researchers agree that these are not as complex or expressive as [[human language]]; they may better be described as [[animal communication]]. Some researchers argue that there are significant differences separating human language from the communication of other animals, and that the underlying principles are unrelated. In several publicised instances, non-human animals have been trained to mimic certain features of human language. For example, [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s have been taught hand signs based on [[American Sign Language]]; however, they have never been successfully taught its grammar. There was also a case in 2003 of [[Kanzi]], a captive bonobo chimpanzee allegedly independently creating some words to mean certain concepts. While animal communication has debated levels of [[semantics]], it has not been shown to have [[syntax]] in the sense that human languages do. Some researchers argue that a continuum exists among the communication methods of all social animals, pointing to the fundamental requirements of group behaviour and the existence of "[[mirror cells]]" in [[primate]]s. This, however, may not be a [[scientific]] question, but is perhaps more one of [[definition]]. What exactly is the definition of the word "language"? Most researchers agree that, although human and more primitive languages have [[Analogous#Anatomy|analogous]] features, they are not [[wikt:homologous|homologous]]. ==Formal languages== {{main|Formal language}} Mathematics and [[computer science]] use artificial entities called formal languages (including [[programming language]]s and [[markup language]]s, but also some that are far more theoretical in nature). These often take the form of [[character string]]s, produced by some combination of [[formal grammar]] and semantics of arbitrary complexity. ==See also== {{col-begin}} {{col-4}} *[[List of languages]] *[[List of official languages]] *[[List of common phrases in various languages]] *[[Ethnologue]] - a fairly complete list of languages, locations, population and genetic affiliation *[[Official language]] *[[Extinct language]] *[[Symbolic communication]] *[[Translation]] *[[Whistled language]] {{col-4}} *[[Computer-assisted language learning]] (a historical perspective) *[[Deception]] *[[Language education]] *[[Language reform]] *[[Language policy]] *[[Language school]] *[[Linguistic protectionism]] *[[Linguistics basic topics]] *[[List of language academies]] *[[Visual language]] {{col-4}} *[[Intercultural competence]] *[[Metacommunicative competence]] *[[Naming]] *[[Non-verbal communication]] *[[Non-sexist language]] *[[Orthography]] *[[Philology]] and [[Historical linguistics]] *[[Philosophy of language]] *[[Profanity]] *[[Psycholinguistics]] *[[Sign language]] {{col-4}} *[[Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]] *[[Slang]] *[[Speech therapy]] *[[Terminology]] *[[Tongue-twister]] *[[ISO 639]] (2- and 3-letter codes for language names) *[[ISO 639-3]] (3-letter codes attempting to cover all languages) *[[FOXP2]] (gene that has been implicated in cases of SLI) *[[ILR scale]] (defines five levels of language proficiency) {{col-end}} ==References== *Crystal, David (1997). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. *Crystal, David (2001). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. *Katzner, K. (1999). ''The Languages of the World.'' New York, Routledge. *McArthur, T. (1996). ''The Concise Companion to the English Language.'' Oxford, Oxford University Press. * [[Eric R. Kandel|Kandel ER]], Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. ''[[Principles of Neural Science]]'', 4th ed., pp.1173. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0838577016 ==External links== {{wikibook}} {{Spoken Wikipedia|Language.ogg|2005-07-19}} *[http://www.primitivism.com/language.htm ''Language: Origin and Meaning'' by John Zerzan] *[http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/ballc/animals/animals.html Animal sounds in different languages] *[http://www.netz-tipp.de/languages.html Distribution of languages on the Internet] *[http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/ Speech accent archive] *[http://www.linguaphone.info Linguaphone official site] * [http://www.audioenglish.net/ English as a foreign language] *[http://acp.eugraph.com The Animal Communication Project] *[http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages] *[http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2000/8/8/article_01.htm "Languages — Bridges and Walls to Communication"], from ''[[Awake!]]'' magazine 219 1297 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/भारतीय बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] moved to [[भारतीय बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 220 2745 2006-10-14T15:50:01Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[भाषा]]''' # '''[[लिपि]]''' ## [[चिनिया लिपि]] ## [[सिरिलिक लिपि]] ## [[ग्रीक लिपि]] ## [[ल्याटिन लिपि]] ## '''[[आख:]]''' ## [[फेनेसियन लिपि]] # '''[[सफु]]''' # [[भाषिका]] # '''[[व्याकरण]]''' ## [[नांपद]] ## [[सिन्ट्याक्स]] ## [[कृया]] # [[भाषाशास्त्र]] # [[साक्षरता]] # '''[[साहित्य]]''' ## [[गद्य]] ## [[काल्पनिक]] ## [[बाखंसफु]] ### [[डन क्विक्जोट]] ### [[द बूक अफ वन थाउजेन्ड एण्ड वन नाइट्स्]] ## '''[[पद्य]]''' ### [[एनिड]] ### [[डिभाइन कमेडी]] ### [[एपिक अफ गील्गमेश]] ### [[फौस्ट]] ### [[इलियाड]] ### [[महाभारत]] ### [[रामायन]] ### [[ओडेसी]] # [[प्रनाउन्सियसन]] # निस्चित भाय ## [[अरबी भाय]] ## [[बेंगोली भाय]] ## [[चीनिया भाय]] ## [[अंग्रेजी भाय]] ## [[एस्परान्तो]] ## [[फ्रान्से भाय]] ## [[जर्मन भाय]] ## [[ग्रीक् भाय]] ## [[हिब्र्यु]] ## [[हिन्दी]] ## [[इन्टरलिंगुवा]] ## [[इटालियन भाय]] ## [[जापानी भाय]] ## [[ल्याटिन भाय]] ## [[फारसी]] ## [[रुसी भाय]] ## [[संस्कृत]] ## [[इस्पान्योल]] ## [[तमिल भाय]] ## [[टर्किश भाय]] # '''[[खंग्व]]''' # '''[[च्वेगु]]''' [[Category:संस्कृति]] 221 1301 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/भास्को डे गामा]] moved to [[भास्को डे गामा]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 222 1303 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/भिक्तर ह्युगो]] moved to [[भिक्तर ह्युगो]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 223 1305 2006-10-02T11:48:08Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/भूगोल]] moved to [[भूगोल]] {{portal}} == भूगोल == # '''[[भूगोल]]''' # [[राजधानी]] # '''[[सहर]]''' # '''[[महादेश]]''' # '''[[दे]]''' # [[मरुभूमि]] # [[पृथ्वि विज्ञान]] # [[नक्सा]] # [[उत्तरी ध्रुव]] # '''[[महासागर]]''' # [[रेनफरेस्ट]] # [[खुसी]] # [[समुद्र]] # [[दक्षिणी ध्रुव]] 224 1307 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/भौतिक विज्ञान]] moved to [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] '''भौतिक विज्ञान''' यात फिजिक्स (Physics) नं धाइ| प्रकृति विज्ञान यागु छगु तधंगु शाखा ख:। भौतिक शास्त्रले पदार्थ व बल यागु संबंधयु सीकेज्या जुइ। == भौतिक विज्ञानया ख्य:त == <b> {| class="wikitable" |- ! पुलांगु भौतिकी ! न्हुगु भौतिकी ! ज्यायागु भौतिकी |- | *मेकानिक्स् | *क्वान्टम मेक्यानिक्स् *रिलेटिभिटी | * सर्गभौतिकी ** खगोल शास्त्र * ग्रहिय भौतिकी ** भूभौतिकी * मोलेकुलर भौतिकी * अणु भौतिकी * न्युक्लियर भौतिकी * पदार्थ भौतिकी |- | * स: भौतिकी | * क्वान्टम स:भौतिकी | * स: भौतिकी |- | * उष्मागति | * क्वान्टम उष्मागति | * उष्म भौतिकी |- | * विद्युतचुंबकत्व | * क्वान्टम विद्युतगति | * ईलेक्त्रोनिक्स् |- | *ज: भौतिकी | *क्वान्टम ज | *फोटोनिक्स् |} </b> '''Physics''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]], φύσις (''phúsis''), "nature" and φυσικός (''phusikós''), "natural"), the most fundamental [[natural science]], is concerned with the underlying principles of the [[nature]]. Physics deals with the elementary constituents of the [[nature]] (e.g. [[matter]], [[energy]], [[space]], and [[time]]) and their [[fundamental interaction|interactions]], as well as the analysis of systems which are best understood in terms of these fundamental principles. Physics is both an [[empirical]] systematic study of nature and the body of knowledge obtained as a result of this process. The foremost task of the [[physicist]] is to find patterns in the workings of the natural world and deduce those elementary laws that govern the [[cosmos]] in the most precise and [[Occam's razor|simplest]] formulation. == Introduction == Discoveries in physics find applications throughout the other [[natural science]]s as they regard the basic constituents of the Universe. Some of the phenomena studied in physics, such as the phenomenon of [[conservation of energy]], are common to ''all'' material systems. These are often referred to as [[law of physics|laws of physics]]. Others, such as [[superconductivity]], stem from these laws, but are not laws themselves because they only appear in some systems. Physics is often said to be the "fundamental science" (chemistry is sometimes included), because each of the other weaker sciences ([[biology]], [[chemistry]], [[geology]], [[material science]], [[engineering]], [[medicine]] etc.) deals with particular types of material systems that obey the laws of physics. For example, chemistry is the science of matter (such as [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s) and the [[chemical substance]]s that they form in the bulk. The structure, reactivity, and properties of a [[chemical compound]] are determined by the properties of the underlying molecules, which can be described by areas of physics such as [[quantum mechanics]] (called in this case [[quantum chemistry]]), [[thermodynamics]], and [[electromagnetism]]. <small>Refer to [[Physics#Branches of physics|Branches of physics]]</small> Physics is closely related to [[mathematics]], which provides the logical framework in which physical laws can be precisely formulated and their predictions quantified. Physical [[definitions]], [[model theory|models]] and [[theory|theories]] are invariably expressed using mathematical relations. A key difference between physics and mathematics is that because physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the material world, it tests its [[theories]] by [[observation]]s (called [[experiment]]s), whereas mathematics is concerned with abstract logical patterns not limited by those observed in the real world (because the real world is limited in the number of dimensions and in many other ways it does not have to correspond to richer mathematical structures). The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. There is a large area of research intermediate between physics and mathematics, known as [[mathematical physics]]. Physics attempts to describe the natural world by the application of the [[scientific method]]. [[Natural philosophy]], its counterpart, is the study of the changing world by philosophy which has been also called "physics" since classical times to at least up to its separation from philosophy as a [[positive science]] in the 19th century. Mixed questions, of which solutions can be attempted through the applications of both disciplines (e.g. the divisibility of the atom) can involve natural philosophy in physics the science and vice versa. ==Etymology== The word '''Physics''' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word '''φύσις''' (''phúsis'') meaning "[[nature]]" or from its adjectival form '''φυσικός''' (''phusikós'') meaning "natural". ==Subdisciplines of Physics== [[Physicist]]s study a wide range of physical phenomena, from [[quark]]s to [[black hole]]s, from individual [[atom]]s to the many-body systems of [[superconductor]]s. The subject matter of Physics is broadly classified into '''Pure Physics''' and '''Applied Physics'''. Based on the chronological development of Physics, Pure Physics is again classified into [[Classical Physics]] and [[Modern Physics]]. Based on the method adopted for study, Physics is classified into [[Theoretical physics]] and [[Experimental physics]] === Classical Physics and Modern physics === {{ Expandsect }} {{further|[[Classical physics]], [[Quantum physics]], [[Modern physics]], [[Semiclassical]]}} [[Image:universe.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The deepest visible-light image of the [[Universe]], the [[Hubble Ultra Deep Field]].]] Classical physics generally covers the developments of physics up to the end of 19th century. In the domain of classical physics, Nature consists of a continuous distribution of [[matter]] and [[energy]] in [[space]] and [[time]]. By the end of the 19th century, however, a series of experimental and theoretical developments provided evidence that some aspects of Nature are non-continuous (e.g., discrete atomic energy levels), and that space and time are interrelated (e.g., the constancy of the speed of light). During a period of about twenty years, whose beginning is often marked by the publication of two seminal papers by [[Albert Einstein]] in [[Annus Mirabilis Papers|1905]], physicists discovered the [[theory of relativity]] and [[quantum mechanics]]. The advances in physics based on quantum physics and relativity during the last century are collectively referred to as [[modern physics]]. ====Classical Physics==== Classical physics has five distinct branches such as [[Classical mechanics|Mechanics]], [[Acoustics]], [[Thermodynamics]], [[Electrodynamics]] and [[Optics]]. =====Mechanics===== [[Classical mechanics|Mechanics]] deals with fundamental concepts like [[matter]], [[force]], [[Motion (physics)|motion]], [[energy]], [[Mechanical work|work]], [[Power (physics)|power]], etc. =====Acoustics===== [[Acoustics]] is a branch of Physics that studies [[sound]], namely mechanical [[waves]] in [[gases]], [[liquids]], and [[solids]]. A [[physicist]] who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician. =====Thermodynamics===== [[Thermodynamics]] is the science of [[Heat]]. It deals with heat and [[temperature]]. Macroscopic systems are generally analysed by applying statistical principles to their microscopic constituents. The statistical tools used to describe thermodynamic system constitute what is called [[Statistical mechanics]], an auxiliary branch of Thermodynamics. The statistical distribution used in classical thermodynamics is the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. {{Expandsect}} =====Electromagnetics===== [[Classical electromagnetism|Electromagnetics]] deals with [[Electricity]], [[Magnetism]], [[Electromagnetism]], [[Electromagnetic waves]] etc. The classical electromagnetics was developed over the course of the 19th century, most prominently by [[James Clerk Maxwell]]. =====Optics===== [[Optics]] is that branch of physics which describes the behavior and properties of [[light]] and the interaction of light with [[matter]]. Classical optics is generally divided into two: '''Ray Optics''' and '''Wave Optics'''. ====Modern Physics==== [[Image:HAtomOrbitals.png|thumb|right|200px|The first few [[hydrogen atom]] [[electron orbital]]s shown as cross-sections with color-coded [[probability amplitude|probability density]].]] Since relativity and quantum mechanics provide the most complete known description of fundamental interactions, and because the changes brought by these two frameworks to the physicist's world view were revolutionary, the term ''modern physics'' is used to describe physics which relies on these two theories. Colloquially, modern physics can be described as the physics of extremes: from systems at the extremely small ([[atom]]s, [[Atomic nucleus|nuclei]], [[Elementary particles|fundamental particles]]) to the extremely large (the [[Universe]]) and of the extremely fast ([[special relativity|relativity]]). =====Relativistic Mechanics===== [[Relativistic mechanics]] deals with [[Einstein]]'s Special theory of relativity and General theory of relativity. =====Quantum Mechanics===== [[Quantum mechanics]] {{Expandsect}} =====Quantum Thermodynamics===== [[Quantum thermodynamics]] is the study of [[heat]] and work dynamics in quantum systems. Approximately, quantum thermodynamics attempts to combine thermodynamics and quantum mechanics into a coherent whole. A central objective in quantum thermodynamics is the quantitative and qualitative determination of the laws of thermodynamics at the quantum level in which uncertainty and probability begin to take effect. In quantum thermodynmics, the statistical distributions used are Bose-Einstein Statistics and Fermi-Dirac Statistics. {{Expandsect}} =====Quantum Electrodynamics===== [[Quantum electrodynamics]] {{Expandsect}} =====Quantum Optics===== [[Quantum optics]] ('''Modern Optics''') is a branch of [[Modern physics]], dealing with the application of [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical principles]] to phenomena involving [[light]] and its interactions with [[matter]]. {{Expandsect}} ===Applied Physics=== [[Applied physics]] is physics that is intended for a particular technological or practical use, as for example in [[engineering]], as opposed to [[basic research]]. This approach is similar to that of [[applied mathematics]]. Applied physics is rooted in the fundamental truths and basic concepts of the physical sciences but is concerned with the utilization of scientific principles in practical devices and systems, and in the application of physics in other areas of science. "Applied" is distinguished from "pure" by a subtle combination of factors such as the motivation and attitude of researchers and the nature of the relationship to the technology or science that may be affected by the work. [http://www.stanford.edu/dept/app-physics/general/] {| class="wikitable" !Branches of Applied Physics |- | [[Agrophysics]], [[Biophysics]], [[Chemical Physics]], [[Communication Physics]], [[Econophysics]], [[Engineering physics]], [[Fluid dynamics]], [[Geophysics]], [[Medical physics]], [[Nanotechnology]], [[Optoelectronics]], [[Photovoltaics]], [[Physical chemistry]], [[Physics of computation]], [[Quantum chemistry]], [[Quantum information science]], [[Vehicle dynamics]] |} === Theoretical physics and experimental physics === The culture of physics research differs from the other sciences in the separation of [[theory]] and [[experiment]]. Since the [[20th century]], most individual physicists have specialized in either [[theoretical physics]] or [[experimental physics]]. The great [[Italy|Italian]] physicist [[Enrico Fermi]] ([[1901]]&mdash;[[1954]]), who made fundamental contributions to both theory and experimentation in [[nuclear physics]], was a notable exception. In contrast, almost all the successful theorists in [[biology]] and [[chemistry]] (e.g. American [[quantum chemistry|quantum chemist]] and [[biochemistry|biochemist]] [[Linus Pauling]]) have also been experimentalists, though this is changing as of late. Roughly speaking, theorists seek to develop through [[Model (abstract)|abstractions]] and [[mathematical model]]s theories that can both describe and interpret existing experimental results and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to explore new phenomena and test theoretical predictions. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they are strongly dependent on each other. However, theoretical research in physics may further be considered to draw from [[mathematical physics]] and [[computational physics]] in addition to experimentation. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot account for, necessitating the formulation of new theories. Likewise, ideas arising from theory often inspire new experiments. In the absence of experiment, theoretical research can go in the wrong direction; this is one of the criticisms that has been leveled against [[M-theory]], a popular theory in high-energy physics for which no practical experimental test has ever been devised. == Central theories == {{ Expandsect }} While physics deals with a wide variety of systems, there are certain theories that are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of [[classical mechanics]] accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than [[atom]]s and moving at much less than the [[speed of light]]. These theories continue to be areas of active research; for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as [[chaos theory|chaos]] was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by [[Isaac Newton]] ([[1642]]&mdash;[[1727]]). These "central theories" are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them. ''[[Classical mechanics]]'' is a model of the physics of [[force]]s acting upon bodies. It is often referred to as "Newtonian mechanics" after Newton and his laws of motion. Classical mechanics is subdivided into [[statics]] (which models objects at rest), [[kinematics]] (which models objects in motion), and [[dynamics]] (which models objects subjected to forces). See also [[mechanics]]. ''[[Electromagnetism]]'', or ''electromagnetic theory'', is the physics of the [[electromagnetic field]]: a [[field (physics)|field]], encompassing all of [[space]], which exerts a [[force]] on those [[Elementary particle|particle]]s that possess the property of [[electric charge]], and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of such particles. The term [[electrodynamics]] is sometimes used to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with [[mechanics]], and deals with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic behavior of electrically charged particles. Electromagnetism encompasses various real-world ''electromagnetic phenomena''. ''[[Optics]]'', a sub-field of electromagnetism, is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of [[light]], an [[electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic wave]], and the interaction of light with matter. Optics explains and is illuminated by ''[[optical phenomenon|optical phenomena]]''. ''[[Thermodynamics]]'' is the branch of physics that deals with the action of [[heat]] and the conversions from one to another of various forms of [[energy]]. Thermodynamics is particularly concerned with how these affect [[temperature]], [[pressure]], [[volume]], [[mechanics|mechanical action]], and [[work]]. Historically, it grew out of efforts to construct more efficient [[heat engines]] &mdash; devices for extracting useful work from expanding hot gases. ''[[Statistical mechanics]]'', a related theory, is the branch of physics that analyzes [[macroscopic]] [[thermodynamic system|systems]] by applying [[statistics|statistical principles]] to their microscopic constituents. ''Statistical physics'' relates these principles to the thermodynamic (and other macroscopic) properties of the system and, thus, can be used to calculate the ''thermodynamic properties'' of ''bulk materials'' from the [[spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] data of individual molecules. ''[[Quantum mechanics]]'' is the branch of [[theoretical physics|mathematical physics]] treating [[atom|atomi]]c and [[subatomic]] systems and their interaction with [[radiation]] in terms of observable quantities. It is based on the observation that all forms of energy are released in discrete units or bundles called ''[[quantum|quanta]]''. ''Quantum theory'' typically permits only [[probability|probable]] or [[statistics|statistical]] calculation of the observed features of subatomic particles, understood in terms of [[wave function]]s. The ''[[theory of relativity]]'', or ''relativity theory'', refers to two theories concerning the relationship of [[time]], [[space]], and the motion of objects that account for certain anomalies in the concept of relative motion in Newtonian principles. The first of these two theories, the ''[[special theory of relativity]]'' (or ''special relativity''), was formulated by [[Albert Einstein]] ([[1879]]&mdash;[[1955]]) of [[Berne]], [[Hendrik Lorentz]] ([[1853]]&mdash;[[1928]]) of [[Leiden]], and [[Henri Poincaré]] ([[1854]]&mdash;[[1912]]) of [[Paris]], and is based on the [[principle of relativity|principle of special relativity]], which states that all observers moving at constant velocities with respect to each other should find the same laws of Nature operating in their [[frame of reference|frames of reference]]. It follows from this principle that the [[speed of light]] would have to appear to be the same to every observer. This, in turn, implies that speed has an upper bound; nothing can pass the speed of light. The theory predicts that moving clocks will appear to run slower than stationary ones (see [[time dilation]]), that moving objects will appear shorter and heavier than stationary ones (see [[Lorentz contraction]]), and that energy and mass are equivalent (see [[E = mc²]]) &mdash; as a result, mass can be converted into huge amounts of energy, and vice versa, according to the formula E=mc². Thus, the theory states that time and distance measurements are not absolute but are instead relative to the observer's frame of reference. Space and time are viewed as aspects of a single phenomenon, called [[spacetime]]. [[Energy]] and [[momentum]] are similarly linked. There is abundant experimental confirmation of these predictions. Although special relativity makes relative some quantities, such as time, that we would have imagined to be absolute based on everyday experience, it also makes absolute some others that we would have thought were relative. The theory was called "special" because it applies the [[principle of relativity]] only to [[inertial frames]]. Special relativity doesn't account for gravity, but it can deal with accelerations. An extension of the special theory of relativity to include gravitational effects and related acceleration phenomena, the ''[[general theory of relativity]]'' (or ''general relativity'') is a [[geometry|geometrical]] theory of [[gravitation]] also proposed by Einstein, in which gravity is explained via the curvature of spacetime produced by the [[mass]]-[[energy]] and [[momentum]] content of the [[spacetime]]. General relativity is distinguished from other metric [[theories of gravitation]] by its use of the [[Einstein field equations]] to relate spacetime content and spacetime curvature. <noinclude><!-- THIS SHOULD NOT BE HERE! {| class="wikitable" !Theory || Major subtopics || Concepts |- | [[Classical mechanics]] | [[Newton's laws of motion]], [[Lagrangian mechanics]], [[Hamiltonian mechanics]], [[Kinematics]], [[Statics]], [[Dynamics (mechanics)|Dynamics]], [[Chaos theory]], [[Acoustics]], [[Fluid dynamics]], [[Continuum mechanics]] | [[Density]], [[Dimension]], [[Law of universal gravitation|Gravity]], [[Space]], [[Time]], [[Motion (physics)|Motion]], [[Length]], [[Position]], [[Velocity]], [[Acceleration]], [[Mass]], [[Momentum]], [[Force (physics)|Force]], [[Energy]], [[Angular momentum]], [[Torque]], [[Conservation law]], [[Harmonic oscillator]], [[Wave]], [[Mechanical work|Work]], [[Power (physics)|Power]], [[Harmonic oscillator]] |- | [[Electromagnetism]] | [[Electrostatics]], [[Electrodynamics]], [[Electricity]], [[Magnetism]], [[Maxwell's equations]], [[Optics]] | [[Capacitance]], [[Electric charge]], [[Current (electricity)|Current]], [[Electrical conductivity]], [[Electric field]], [[Permittivity|Electric permittivity]], [[Electrical resistance]], [[Electromagnetic field]], [[Electromagnetic induction]], [[Electromagnetic radiation]], [[Gaussian surface]], [[Magnetic field]], [[Magnetic flux]], [[Magnetic monopole]], [[Magnetic permeability]] |- | [[Thermodynamics]] and [[Statistical mechanics]] | [[Heat engine]], [[Kinetic theory]] | [[Boltzmann's constant]], [[Conjugate variables (thermodynamics)|Conjugate variables]], [[Enthalpy]], [[Entropy]], [[Equation of state]], [[Equipartition theorem]], [[First Law of Thermodynamics]], [[Free energy]], [[Heat]], [[Ideal gas law]], [[Internal energy]], [[Non-equilibrium thermodynamics|Irreversible process]], [[Partition function (statistical mechanics)|Partition function]], [[Pressure]], [[Reversible process (thermodynamics)|Reversible process]], [[Second Law of Thermodynamics]], [[Spontaneous process]], [[State function]], [[Statistical ensemble (mathematical physics)|Statistical ensemble]], [[Temperature]], [[Thermodynamic equilibrium]], [[Thermodynamic potential]], [[Thermodynamic processes]], [[Thermodynamic state]], [[System (thermodynamics)|Thermodynamic system]], [[Third Law of Thermodynamics]], [[Viscosity]], [[Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics]] |- | [[Quantum mechanics]] | [[Path integral formulation]], [[Scattering theory]], [[Schrödinger equation]], [[Quantum field theory]], [[Quantum statistical mechanics]] | [[Born-Oppenheimer Approximation|Adiabatic approximation]], [[Correspondence principle]], [[Free particle]], [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]], [[Hilbert space]], [[Identical particles]], [[Matrix Mechanics]], [[Planck's constant]], [[Operators]], [[Quantum|Quanta]], [[Quantization (physics)|Quantization]], [[Quantum entanglement]], [[Quantum harmonic oscillator]], [[Quantum number]], [[Quantum tunneling]], [[Schrödinger's cat]], [[Dirac equation]], [[Spin (physics)|Spin]], [[Wavefunction]], [[Wave mechanics]], [[Wave-particle duality]], [[Zero-point energy]], [[Pauli Exclusion Principle]], [[Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle]] |- | [[Theory of relativity]] | [[Special relativity]], [[General relativity]], [[Einstein field equations]] | [[Covariant|Covariance]], [[Einstein manifold]], [[Equivalence principle]], [[Four-momentum]], [[Four-vector]], [[General principle of relativity]], [[Geodesic (general relativity)|Geodesic motion]], [[Gravity]], [[Gravitoelectromagnetism]], [[Inertial frame of reference]], [[Invariant (physics)|Invariance]], [[Length contraction]], [[Pseudo-Riemannian manifold|Lorentzian manifold]], [[Lorentz transformation]], [[Metric (mathematics)|Metric]], [[Minkowski diagram]], [[Minkowski space]], [[Principle of Relativity]], [[Proper length]], [[Proper time]], [[Reference frame]], [[Rest energy]], [[Rest mass]], [[Relativity of simultaneity]], [[Spacetime]], [[Special principle of relativity]], [[Speed of light]], [[Stress-energy tensor]], [[Time dilation]], [[Twin paradox]], [[World line]] |}--></noinclude> == Major fields of research == {{ Expandsect }} Contemporary research in physics is divided into several distinct fields that study different aspects of the material world. [[Condensed matter physics]], by most estimates the largest single field of physics, is concerned with how the properties of bulk matter, such as the ordinary [[solid]]s and [[liquid]]s we encounter in everyday life, arise from the properties and mutual interactions of the constituent atoms. The field of [[atomic, molecular, and optical physics]] deals with the behavior of individual atoms and molecules, and in particular the ways in which they absorb and emit [[light]]. The field of [[particle physics]], also known as "high-energy physics", is concerned with the properties of submicroscopic particles much smaller than atoms, including the [[elementary particle]]s from which all other units of matter are constructed. Finally, the field of [[astrophysics]] applies the laws of physics to explain [[celestial]] phenomena, ranging from the [[Sun]] and the other objects in the [[solar system]] to the Universe as a whole. Since the [[20th century]], the individual fields of physics have become increasingly [[specialization|specialized]], and nowadays it is not uncommon for physicists to work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" like [[Albert Einstein]] ([[1879]]&mdash;[[1955]]) and [[Lev Landau]] ([[1908]]&mdash;[[1968]]), who were comfortable working in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare. <noinclude><!-- {| class="wikitable" !Field ||Subfields || Major theories || Concepts |- | [[Astrophysics]] | [[Physical cosmology|Cosmology]], [[Gravitation|Gravitation physics]], [[High-energy astronomy|High-energy astrophysics]], [[Planetary science|Planetary astrophysics]], [[Plasma (physics)|Plasma physics]], [[Space physics]], [[Stellar astronomy|Stellar astrophysics]] | [[Big Bang]], [[Lambda-CDM model]], [[Cosmic inflation]], [[General relativity]], [[Law of universal gravitation]] | [[Black hole]], [[Cosmic background radiation]], [[Cosmic string]], [[Cosmos]], [[Dark energy]], [[Dark matter]], [[Galaxy]], [[Gravity]], [[Gravitational radiation]], [[Gravitational singularity]], [[Planet]], [[Solar system]], [[Star]], [[Supernova]], [[Universe]] |- | [[Atomic, molecular, and optical physics]] | [[Atomic physics]], [[Molecular physics]], [[Atomic and Molecular astrophysics]], [[Chemical physics]], [[Optics]], [[Photonics]] | [[Quantum optics]], [[Quantum chemistry]], [[Quantum information science]] | [[Atom]], [[Molecule]], [[Diffraction]], [[Electromagnetic radiation]], [[Laser]], [[Polarization]], [[Spectral line]], [[Casimir effect]] |- | [[Particle physics]] | [[Accelerator physics]], [[Nuclear physics]], [[Nuclear astrophysics]], [[Particle astrophysics]], [[Particle physics phenomenology]] | [[Standard Model]], [[Quantum field theory]], [[Quantum chromodynamics]], [[Electroweak interaction|Electroweak theory]], [[Effective field theory]], [[Lattice field theory]], [[Lattice gauge theory]], [[Gauge theory]], [[Supersymmetry]], [[Grand unification theory]], [[Superstring theory]], [[M-theory]] | [[Fundamental force]] ([[gravity|gravitational]], [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]], [[weak interaction|weak]], [[strong interaction|strong]]), [[Elementary particle]], [[Spin (physics)|Spin]], [[Antimatter]], [[Spontaneous symmetry breaking]], [[Brane]], [[String (physics)|String]], [[Quantum gravity]], [[Theory of everything]], [[Vacuum energy]] |- | [[Condensed matter physics]] | [[Solid state physics]], [[High pressure physics]], [[Cryogenics|Low-temperature physics]], [[Nanotechnology|Nanoscale and Mesoscopic physics]], [[Polymer physics]] | [[BCS theory]], [[Bloch wave]], [[Fermi gas]], [[Fermi liquid]], [[Many-body theory]] | [[Phase (matter)|Phases]] ([[gas]], [[liquid]], [[solid]], [[Bose-Einstein condensate]], [[superconductivity|superconductor]], [[superfluid]]), [[Electrical conduction]], [[Magnetism]], [[Self-organization]], [[Spin (physics)|Spin]], [[Spontaneous symmetry breaking]] |}--> </noinclude> '''Fringe theories''' * [[Cold fusion]] * [[Dynamic theory of gravity]] * [[Luminiferous aether]] * [[Steady state theory]] ==History== {{main|History of physics}} {{further|[[Famous physicists]], [[Nobel Prize in physics]]}} [[Image:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Aristotle]]]] Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of [[matter]]: why unsupported objects drop to the ground, why different [[materials science|materials]] have different properties, and so forth. Also a mystery was the character of the [[Universe]], such as the form of the [[Earth]] and the behavior of celestial objects such as the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. Several theories were proposed, most of which were wrong. These theories were largely couched in [[philosophy|philosophical]] terms, and never verified by systematic experimental testing as is popular today. The works of [[Ptolemy]] and [[Physics (Aristotle)|Aristotle]] however, were also not always found to match everyday observations. There were exceptions and there are [[anachronism]]s: for example, [[Indian philosophy|Indian philosophers]] and [[Indian science and technology#Astronomy|astronomers]] gave many correct descriptions in [[atomism]] and [[astronomy]], and the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] thinker [[Archimedes]] derived many correct quantitative descriptions of [[mechanics]] and [[hydrostatics]]. The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers eventually resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the [[Scientific Revolution]] of the late [[17th century]]. The precursors to the scientific revolution can be traced back to the important developments made in [[India]] and [[Persia]], including the [[ellipse|elliptical]] model of the planets based on the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] [[solar system]] of [[gravitation]] developed by [[Indian mathematics|Indian mathematician]]-astronomer [[Aryabhata]]; the basic ideas of [[atomic theory]] developed by [[Hindu]] and [[Jaina]] philosophers; the theory of light being equivalent to energy particles developed by the Indian [[Buddhist]] scholars [[Dignāga]] and [[Dharmakirti]]; the optical theory of [[light]] developed by [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Islamic science|scientist]] [[Alhazen]]; the [[Astrolabe]] invented by the Persian [[Mohammad al-Fazari]]; and the significant flaws in the [[Ptolemaic system]] pointed out by Persian scientist [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]. [[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Galileo Galilei]]]] As the influence of the [[Islam]]ic [[Caliph]]ate expanded to Europe, the works of Aristotle preserved by the [[Arab]]s, and the works of the Indians and Persians, became known in Europe by the [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries]]. This eventually lead to the scientific revolution which culminated with the publication of the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' in [[1687]] by the mathematician, physicist, alchemist and inventor Sir [[Isaac Newton]] ([[1643]]-[[1727]]). The Scientific Revolution is held by most historians (e.g., Howard Margolis) to have begun in [[1543]], when the first printed copy of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]'s ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium|De Revolutionibus]]'' (most of which had been written years prior but whose publication had been delayed) was brought to the influential Polish astronomer from [[Nuremberg]]. Further significant advances were made over the following century by [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Christiaan Huygens]], [[Johannes Kepler]], and [[Blaise Pascal]]. During the early [[17th century]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] pioneered the use of experimentation to validate physical theories, which is the key idea in modern [[scientific method]]. Galileo formulated and successfully tested several results in [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamics]], in particular the Law of [[Inertia]]. From the late [[17th century]] onwards, [[thermodynamics]] was developed by physicist and chemist [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]], [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Young]], and many others. In [[1733]], [[Daniel Bernoulli|Bernoulli]] used statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive thermodynamic results, initiating the field of [[statistical mechanics]]. In [[1798]], [[Benjamin Thompson|Thompson]] demonstrated the conversion of mechanical work into heat, and in [[1847]] [[James Joule|Joule]] stated the law of conservation of [[energy]], in the form of heat as well as mechanical energy. <blockquote> ''Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night. God said:Let Newton be! And all was Light!'' <small> : Alexander Pope</small> </blockquote> [[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Sir Isaac Newton]]]] In [[1687]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] published the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'', detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: [[Newton's laws of motion]], from which arise [[classical mechanics]]; and [[gravity|Newton's Law of Gravitation]], which describes the [[fundamental force]] of [[gravity]]. Both theories agreed well with experiment. The Principia also included several theories in [[fluid dynamics]]. Classical mechanics was re-formulated and extended by [[Leonhard Euler]], French mathematician [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Joseph-Louis Comte de Lagrange]], Irish mathematical physicist [[William Rowan Hamilton]], and others, who produced new results in mathematical physics. The law of universal gravitation initiated the field of [[astrophysics]], which describes [[astronomy|astronomical]] phenomena using physical theories. After Newton defined [[classical mechanics]], the next great field of inquiry within physics was the nature of [[electricity]]. Observations in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century]] by scientists such as [[Robert Boyle]], [[Stephen Gray (scientist)|Stephen Gray]], and [[Benjamin Franklin]] created a foundation for later work. These observations also established our basic understanding of electrical charge and [[electric current|current]]. [[Image:James Clerk Maxwell.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[James Clerk Maxwell]]]] In [[1821]], the English physicist and chemist [[Michael Faraday]] integrated the study of [[magnetism]] with the study of electricity. This was done by demonstrating that a moving [[magnet]] induced an [[electric current]] in a [[conductor (material)|conductor]]. Faraday also formulated a physical conception of [[electromagnetic field]]s. [[James Clerk Maxwell]] built upon this conception, in [[1864]], with an interlinked set of 20 equations that explained the interactions between [[electric field|electric]] and [[magnetic field]]s. These 20 equations were later reduced, using [[vector calculus]], to a set of [[Maxwell's equations|four equations]] by [[Oliver Heaviside]]. In addition to other electromagnetic phenomena, Maxwell's equations also can be used to describe [[light]]. Confirmation of this observation was made with the [[1888]] discovery of [[radio]] by [[Heinrich Hertz]] and in [[1895]] when [[Wilhelm Roentgen]] detected [[X rays]]. In [[1895]], [[Wilhelm Röntgen|Röntgen]] discovered [[X-ray]]s, which turned out to be high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. [[Radioactivity]] was discovered in [[1896]] by [[Henri Becquerel]], and further studied by [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie Curie]], [[Pierre Curie]], and others. This initiated the field of [[nuclear physics]]. In [[1897]], [[J.J. Thomson|Joseph J. Thomson]] discovered the [[electron]], the elementary particle which carries electrical current in [[electrical circuit|circuits]]. In [[1900]], [[Max Planck]] published his explanation of [[blackbody radiation]]. This equation assumed that radiators are [[quantum|quantized]] in nature. In [[1904]], J. J. Thomspn proposed the first model of the [[atom]], known as the [[atom/plum pudding|plum pudding model]]. (The existence of the atom had been proposed in [[1808]] by [[John Dalton]].)These discoveries revealed that the assumption of many physicists that atoms were the basic unit of [[matter]] was flawed, and prompted further study into the structure of [[atom]]s. <blockquote> ''But not for long! Let Einstein be; the devil said! And it was dark; the light had fled!'' <small> : George Gamow</small> </blockquote> [[Image:Albert Einstein Head.jpg|thumb|left|170px|[[Albert Einstein]] ]] The ability to describe light in electromagnetic terms helped serve as a springboard for [[Albert Einstein]]'s publication of the theory of [[special relativity]] in 1905. This theory combined classical mechanics with Maxwell's equations. The theory of [[special relativity]] unifies space and time into a single entity, [[spacetime]]. Relativity prescribes a different transformation between [[inertial frame of reference|reference frames]] than classical mechanics; this necessitated the development of relativistic mechanics as a replacement for classical mechanics. In the regime of low (relative) velocities, the two theories agree. Einstein built further on the special theory by including gravity into his calculations, and published his theory of [[general relativity]] in [[1915]]. One part of the theory of general relativity is [[Einstein's field equation]]. This describes how the ''stress-energy tensor'' creates the curvature of [[spacetime]] and forms the basis of general relativity. Further work on Einstein's field equation produced results which predicted the [[Big Bang]], [[black hole]]s, and the [[expanding universe]]. Einstein believed in a static universe and tried (and failed) to fix his equation to allow for this. However, by [[1929]] [[Edwin Hubble]]'s astronomical observations suggested that the universe is expanding. [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], in the 19th century, is responsible for the modern form of statistical mechanics. [[Image:Ernest Rutherford.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Ernest Rutherford]]]] In [[1911]], [[Ernest Rutherford]] deduced from [[rutherford scattering|scattering experiments]] the existence of a compact atomic nucleus, with positively charged constituents dubbed [[proton]]s. [[neutron|Neutrons]], the neutral nuclear constituents, were discovered in [[1932]] by [[James Chadwick|Chadwick]]. The equivalence of mass and energy (Einstein, 1905) was spectacularly demonstrated during [[World War II]], as research was conducted by each side into [[nuclear physics]], for the purpose of creating a [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]]. The German effort, led by Heisenberg, did not succeed, but the Allied [[Manhattan Project]] reached its goal. In America, a team led by [[Enrico Fermi|Fermi]] achieved the first man-made [[nuclear chain reaction]] in [[1942]], and in [[1945]] the world's first [[nuclear weapon|nuclear explosive]] was detonated at [[Trinity site]], near [[Alamogordo]], [[New Mexico]]. Beginning in [[1900]], [[Max Planck|Planck]], Einstein, [[Niels Bohr]], and others developed [[quantum]] theories to explain various anomalous experimental results by introducing discrete energy levels. In [[1925]], [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg]] and [[1926]], [[Erwin Schrödinger|Schrödinger]] and [[Paul Dirac]] formulated [[quantum mechanics]], which explained the preceding heuristic quantum theories. In quantum mechanics, the outcomes of physical measurements are inherently [[probability|probabilistic]]; the theory describes the calculation of these probabilities. It successfully describes the behavior of matter at small distance scales. During the [[1920s]] [[Erwin Schrödinger]], [[Werner Heisenberg]], and [[Max Born]] were able to formulate a consistent picture of the chemical behavior of matter, a complete theory of the electronic structure of the atom, as a byproduct of the quantum theory. [[Quantum field theory]] was formulated in order to extend quantum mechanics to be consistent with special relativity. It was devised in the late [[1940s]] with work by [[Richard Feynman]], [[Julian Schwinger]], [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]], and [[Freeman Dyson]]. They formulated the theory of [[quantum electrodynamics]], which describes the electromagnetic interaction, and successfully explained the [[Lamb shift]]. Quantum field theory provided the framework for modern [[particle physics]], which studies [[fundamental force]]s and elementary particles. [[Chen Ning Yang]] and [[Tsung-Dao Lee]], in the [[1950s]], discovered an unexpected [[asymmetry]] in the decay of a [[subatomic particle]]. In [[1954]], Yang and [[Robert Mills (physicist)|Robert Mills]] then developed a class of [[gauge theory|gauge theories]] which provided the framework for understanding the nuclear forces. The theory for the [[strong nuclear force]] was first proposed by [[Murray Gell-Mann]]. The [[electroweak force]], the unification of the [[weak nuclear force]] with electromagnetism, was proposed by [[Sheldon Lee Glashow]], [[Abdus Salam]] and [[Steven Weinberg]]. This led to the so-called [[Standard Model]] of particle physics in the [[1970s]], which successfully describes all the elementary particles observed to date. In [[1964]], [[CP violation]] was discovered by [[James Watson Cronin]] and [[Val Fitch]]. Quantum mechanics also provided the theoretical tools for [[condensed matter physics]], whose largest branch is [[solid state physics]]. It studies the physical behavior of solids and liquids, including phenomena such as [[crystal structure]]s, [[semiconductor|semiconductivity]], and [[superconductor|superconductivity]]. The pioneers of condensed matter physics include [[Felix Bloch|Bloch]], who created a quantum mechanical description of the behavior of electrons in crystal structures in [[1928]]. The transistor was developed by physicists [[John Bardeen]], [[Walter Houser Brattain]] and [[William Bradford Shockley]] in [[1947]] at [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]]. The two themes of the [[20th century]], general relativity and quantum mechanics, appear inconsistent with each other. General relativity describes the [[universe]] on the scale of [[planet]]s and [[solar system]]s while quantum mechanics operates on sub-atomic scales. This challenge is being attacked by [[string theory]], which treats [[spacetime]] as composed, not of points, but of one-dimensional objects, [[string theory|strings]]. Strings have properties like a common string (e.g., [[Tension (mechanics)|tension]] and [[vibration]]). The theories yield promising, but not yet testable results. The search for experimental verification of string theory is in progress. [[Image:WYP2005 logo.gif|right|130px]] The United Nations declared the year [[2005]], the centenary of Einstein's [[annus mirabilis]], as the [[World Year of Physics]]. == Future directions == {{main|Unsolved problems in physics}} Research in physics is progressing constantly on a large number of fronts, and is likely to do so for the foreseeable future. In condensed matter physics, the biggest unsolved theoretical problem is the explanation for [[high-temperature superconductivity]]. Strong efforts, largely experimental, are being put into making workable [[spintronics]] and [[quantum computer]]s. In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the [[Standard Model]] have begun to appear. Foremost amongst these are indications that [[neutrino]]s have non-zero [[mass]]. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing [[solar neutrino problem]] in solar physics. The physics of massive neutrinos is currently an area of active theoretical and experimental research. In the next several years, [[particle accelerator]]s will begin probing energy scales in the [[TeV]] range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for the [[Higgs boson]] and [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric particles]]. Theoretical attempts to unify [[quantum mechanics]] and [[general relativity]] into a single theory of [[quantum gravity]], a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet borne fruit. The current leading candidates are [[M-theory]], [[superstring theory]] and [[loop quantum gravity]]. Many [[astronomy|astronomical]] and [[physical cosmology|cosmological]] phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of [[GZK paradox|ultra-high energy cosmic rays]], the [[baryon asymmetry]], the [[accelerating universe|acceleration of the universe]] and the [[galaxy rotation problem|anomalous rotation rates of galaxies]]. Although much progress has been made in high-energy, [[quantum]], and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena, involving [[complex systems|complexity]], [[chaos]], or [[turbulence]] are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics, such as the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling [[water]], the shape of water [[droplet]]s, mechanisms of [[surface tension]] [[catastrophe theory|catastrophes]], or self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections are unsolved. These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, not least of which has been the availability of modern [[mathematics|mathematical]] methods and [[computers]] which enabled [[complex systems]] to be modeled in new ways. The [[interdisciplinary]] [[relevance]] of complex physics has also increased, as exemplified by the study of [[turbulence]] in [[aerodynamics]] or the [[observation]] of [[pattern]] [[formation]] in [[biology|biological]] systems. In 1932, [[Horace Lamb]] correctly prophesized: <blockquote> ''I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.'' </blockquote> == See also == {{portal|Physics}} * [[Astronomy]] * [[Chemistry]] * [[Classical physics]] * [[E=mc²|E = mc²]] * [[Engineering]] * [[Glossary of classical physics]] * [[List of basic physics topics]] * [[List of physics topics]] * [[Mathematics]] * [[Perfection#Perfection in physics and chemistry|Perfection in physics and chemistry]] * [[Philosophy of physics]] * [[Physics (Aristotle)]] - an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a philosophical point of view * [[Unsolved problems in physics]] == Further reading == ===Popular Reading=== *{{cite book | author=[[Stephen Hawking|Hawking, Stephen]] | title=[[A Brief History of Time]] | publisher=Bantam | year=1988 | id=ISBN 0553109537}} *{{cite book | author=[[Richard Feynman|Feynman, Richard]] | title=Character of Physical Law | publisher=Random House | year=1994 | id=ISBN 0679601279}} *{{cite book | author=[[Roger Penrose|Penrose, Roger]] | title=Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe | publisher=Knopf | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-679-45443-8}} *{{cite book | author=[[Brian Greene|Greene, Brian]] | title=[[The Elegant Universe|The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory]] | publisher=Vintage | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0375708111}} *{{cite book | author=[[Michio Kaku|Kaku, Michio]] | title=[[Hyperspace (book)|Hyperspace : A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the 10th Dimension]] | publisher=Anchor | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0385477058}} *{{cite book | author=Walker, Jearl | title=The Flying Circus of Physics | publisher=Wiley | year=1977 | id=ISBN 047102984X}} *{{cite book | author=Leggett, Anthony | title=The Problems of Physics | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1988 | id=ISBN 0192891863}} *{{cite book | author=Rogers, Eric | title=Physics for the Inquiring Mind: The Methods, Nature, and Philosophy of Physical Science | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1960| id=ISBN 069108016X}} *{{cite book | author=Coward, David | title=An Advanced Guide to Physics | publisher=Bantam | year=1988|id=ISBN 068108016X}} ===Notes=== <references /> <!-- Dead note "big bang":--> * Alpher, Herman, and Gamow. ''Nature'' '''162''',774 (1948). [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf Wilson's [[1978]] Nobel lecture] <!-- Dead note "parity":--> * [http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Wu,_Chien_Shiung@841234567.html C.S. Wu's contribution to the overthrow of the conservation of parity] <!-- Dead note "gauge theories":--> * Yang, Mills [[1954]] ''[[Physical Review]]'' '''95''', 631; Yang, Mills 1954 ''Physical Review'' '''96''', 191. ===University Level Textbooks=== '''Introductory''' *{{cite book | author=Feynman, Richard | title=[[The Feynman Lectures on Physics|Feynman Lectures on Physics]] | publisher=Addison-Wesley | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0201510030}} *{{cite book | author=Feynman, Richard | title=Exercises for Feynman Lectures Volumes 1-3| publisher=Caltech | year= | id=ISBN 2356487891}} *{{cite book | author=Knight, Randall | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach | publisher=Benjamin Cummings | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0805386858}} *{{cite book |author=Resnick, Halliday, Walker| title=Fundamentals of Physics}} *{{cite book | author=Hewitt, Paul | title=Conceptual Physics with Practicing Physics Workbook (9th ed.) | publisher=Addison Wesley | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0321052021}} *{{cite book | author=Giancoli, Douglas | title=Physics: Principles with Applications (6th ed.) | publisher=Prentice Hall | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0130606200}} *{{cite book | author=Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.) | publisher=Brooks/Cole | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0534408427}} *{{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0716708094}} *{{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0716708108}} *{{cite book | author=Wilson, Jerry; Buffa, Anthony | title=College Physics (5th ed.) | publisher=Prentice Hall | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0130676446}} *{{cite book |author=Schiller, Christoph| title=Motion Mountain: The Free Physics Textbook| year=2005 |url=http://www.motionmountain.net/}} *{{cite book |author=H. C. Verma| title=Concepts of Physics | publisher=Bharti Bhavan | year=2005 | id=ISBN 8177091875}} '''Undergraduate''' *{{cite book | author=Thornton, Stephen T.; Marion, Jerry B. | title=Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.) | publisher=Brooks Cole | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0534408966}} *{{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J.|title=Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.)| publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1998 |id=ISBN 013805326X}} *{{cite book | author=Wangsness, Roald K.|title=Electromagnetic Fields (2nd ed.) | publisher=Wiley |year=1986 |id=ISBN 0471811866}} *{{cite book | author=Fowles, Grant R.|title=Introduction to Modern Optics | publisher=Dover Publications |year=1989 |id=ISBN 0486659577}} *{{cite book | author=Hecht, Eugene | title=Optics (4th ed.) | publisher=Pearson Education | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0805385665}} *{{cite book | author=Schroeder, Daniel V.|title=An Introduction to Thermal Physics | publisher=Addison Wesley |year=1999 |id=ISBN 0201380277}} *{{cite book | author=Kroemer, Herbert; Kittel, Charles | title=Thermal Physics (2nd ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman Company | year=1980 | id=ISBN 0716710889}} *{{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J.|title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.) | publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2004 |id=ISBN 013805326X}} *{{cite book | author=Liboff, Richard L. | title=Introductory Quantum Mechanics | publisher=Addison-Wesley | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0805387145}} *{{cite book | author=[[David Bohm|Bohm, David]] | title=Quantum Theory | publisher=Dover Publications | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0486659690}} *{{cite book | author=Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert | title=Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.) | publisher=Wiley | year=1985 | id=ISBN 047187373X}} *{{cite book | author=Taylor, Edwin F.; [[John Archibald Wheeler|Wheeler, John Archibald]] | title=Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity (2nd ed.) | publisher=W.H. Freeman | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0716723271}} *{{cite book | author=Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald | title=Exploring Black Holes: Introduction to General Relativity | publisher=Addison Wesley | year=2000 | id=ISBN 020138423X}} *{{cite book | author=Schutz, Bernard F. | title=A First Course in General Relativity | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0521277035}} *{{cite book | author=Bergmann, Peter G.| title=Introduction to the Theory of Relativity| publisher=Dover Publications | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0486632822}} *{{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph | title=Modern Physics (4th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0716743450}} *{{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J. | title=Introduction to Elementary Particles | publisher=Wiley, John & Sons, Inc | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0471603864}} *{{cite book | author=Perkins, Donald H. | title=Introduction to High Energy Physics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0521621968}} *{{cite book | author=Menzel, Donald Howard | title=Mathematical Physics | publisher=Dover Publishications | year=1961 | id=ISBN 0486600564}} *{{cite book | author=Joos, Georg; Freeman, Ira M. | title=Theoretical Physics | publisher=Dover Publications | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0486652270}} '''Graduate''' *{{cite book | author=Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. | title=Course of Theoretical Physics | publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0750628960}} *{{cite book | author=Morse, Philip; Feshbach, Herman | title=Methods of Theoretical Physics | publisher=Feshbach Publishing | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0976202123}} *{{cite book | author=Arfken, George B.; Weber, Hans J. | title=Mathematical Methods for Physicists (5th ed.) | publisher=Academic Press | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0120598256}} *{{cite book | author=Goldstein, Herbert | title=Classical Mechanics | publisher=Addison Wesley | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0201657023}} *{{cite book | author=Jackson, John D. | title=Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.) | publisher=Wiley | year=1998 | id=ISBN 047130932X}} *{{cite book | author=[[Lev Landau|Landau, L. D.]]; Lifshitz, E. M. | title=Mechanics and Electrodynamics, Vol. 1 | publisher=Franklin Book Company, Inc | year=1972 | id=ISBN 008016739X}} *{{cite book | author=Huang, Kerson | title=Statistical Mechanics | publisher=Wiley, John & Sons, Inc | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0471815187}} *{{cite book | author=Merzbacher, Eugen | title=Quantum Mechanics | publisher=Wiley, John & Sons, Inc | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0471887021}} *{{cite book | author=Peskin, Michael E.; Schroeder, Daniel V. | title=Introduction to Quantum Field Theory | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1994 | id=ISBN 0201503972}} *{{cite book | author=[[Kip Thorne|Thorne, Kip S.]]; Misner, Charles W.; Wheeler, John Archibald | title=Gravitation | publisher=W.H. Freeman | year=1973 | id=ISBN 0716703440}} *{{cite book | author=Wald, Robert M. | title=General Relativity | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0226870332}} *{{cite book | author=[[Steven Weinberg|Weinberg, Stephen]] | title=Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity | publisher=Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated | year=1972 | id=ISBN 0471925675}} ===History=== *{{cite book | author=Cropper, William H. | title=Great Physicists : The Life and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0195173244}} *{{cite book | author=[[George Gamow|Gamow, George]] | title=The Great Physicists from Galileo to Einstein | publisher=Dover Publications | year=1988 | id=ISBN 0486257673}} *{{cite book | author=Heilbron, John L. | title=The Oxford Guide to the History of Physics and Astronomy | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0195171985}} == External links == {{Wikibooks}} {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Physics}} {{Wiktionary}} {{Commonscat}} * [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/00107514.asp Contemporary Physics] ;General * Aristotle's [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/a8ph/ ''Physics'', trans. by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye ] * [http://us.geocities.com/alex_stef/mylist.html Physics and Math Textbooks] Numerous online textbooks on Physics and Mathematics * [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ Usenet Physics FAQ]. A [[FAQ]] compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups. * [http://www.physics.org/ Physics.org] - Web portal run by the [http://www.iop.org/ Institute of Physics]. * [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/ World of Physics]. An online encyclopedic dictionary of physics. * [http://www.nobel.se/physics Website of the Nobel Prize in Physics]. * [http://thephysics.net The Physics Network] Official Physics Network * [http://www.physicstoday.org Physics Today] - Your daily physics news and research source * [http://musr.physics.ubc.ca/~jess/hr/skept/ The Skeptic's Guide to Physics] * [http://www.planetphysics.org PlanetPhysics] Online Physics * [http://www.physics2005.org Physics 2005]: Website of the [[World Year of Physics 2005]] * [http://physicsweb.org Physicsweb.org] * [http://www.physicscommunity.org Physics community] The Physics Community accepts contributions from those knowledgeable in physics * [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/00107514.asp Contemporary Physics] * [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html HyperPhysics] HyperPhysics is an exploration environment for concepts in physics which employs concept maps. ;Organizations * [http://www.aip.org/index.html AIP.org] Website of the [[American Institute of Physics]] * [http://www.iop.org IOP.org] Website of the [[Institute of Physics]] * [http://www.aps.org APS.org] Website of the [[American Physical Society]] * [http://www.spsnational.org SPS National] Website of the [[Society of Physics Students]] * [http://www.physicsmathforums.com Physics & Math Forums] 225 3167 2006-10-14T21:04:54Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[भौतिकशास्त्र]]''' # [[प्रवेग]] # '''[[एटम]]''' ## [[एलेक्ट्रोन]] ## [[न्युट्रोन]] ## [[प्रोटोन]] # '''[[उर्जा]]''' ## [[विद्युतचुम्बकिय विकिरण]] ### [[इन्फ्रारेड]] ### [[खनिगु स्पेक्ट्रम]] #### [[हाकु]] #### '''[[रङ्ग]]''' ##### [[वचु]] ##### [[वांगु]] ##### [[ह्यांगु]] ##### [[म्हासुगु]] #### [[तुयु]] ### [[अल्त्राभायोलेट]] ### [[गामा रे]] # '''[[बल]]''' ## [[विद्युतचुम्बकत्व]] ## [[गुरुवात्कर्षण]] ## [[न्युक्लियर बल]] # [[आइसोटोप]] # [[ज:]] # '''[[मात्रा]]''' # '''[[मोलेक्युल]]''' # [[क्वान्टम मेकानिक्स्]] # '''[[स:]]''' # '''[[वेग]]''' # [[सापेक्षतावादया विचा:]] # '''[[ई]]''' # [[संवेग]] # '''[[तौल]]''' [[Category:विज्ञान]] 226 1775 2006-10-10T17:15:22Z Eukesh 11 # [[ईन्लाइटेन्मेन्टयागु ई]] # [[अमेरिकन क्रान्तिकारी युद्ध]] # [[एज्टेक]] # [[हाकुगु मृत्यु]] # [[काउन्टर रिफर्मेसन]] # [[क्रुसेडस्]] # [[पूर्व-पश्चिम शाईज्म]] # [[चेदंयागु युद्ध]] # [[अंग्रेज गृह युद्ध]] # [[युरोपेलीतेगु अमेरिकी साम्राज्य]] # [[फ्रन्सेली क्रान्ति]] # [[होली रोमन साम्राज्य]] # [[इन्का साम्राज्य]] # [[मध्य काल]] # [[मिङ् साम्राज्य]] # [[नेपोलियनयागु युद्ध]] # [[ओट्टोम्यान साम्राज्य]] # [[पोल्याण्डयागु बायेज्या]] # [[पोलिश-लिथुआनियन कमनवेल्थ]] # [[प्रोटेस्ट्यान्ट सुधार]] # [[पूनर्जागरण]] # [[सोङ काल]] # [[स्पेनी अनवेषण]] # [[टाङ काल]] # [[भाइकिंग]] # [[युवान काल]] 227 3044 2006-10-14T20:30:36Z Eukesh 11 '''मनु''' (Human) [[Category:विज्ञान]] 228 2362 2006-10-10T21:01:35Z Eukesh 11 '''मनु अधिकार''' (Human Rights) [[Category:समाज]] 229 1317 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मनु विज्ञान (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी)]] moved to [[मनु विज्ञान (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी)]] '''मनु विज्ञान''' (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी, Anthropology) '''Anthropology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''άνθρωπος'', "human" or "person") consists of the study of [[humanity]] (see genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''). It is [[holism|holistic]] in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times and with all dimensions of humanity. Anthropology is traditionally distinguished from other disciplines by its emphasis on [[Cultural relativism|cultural relativity]], in-depth examination of context, and cross-cultural comparisons. [[Image:8403452 36f7580a25 o.jpg|right|330px|thumb|[[Initiation rite]] of the [[WaYao|Yao]] people of [[Malawi]]]] ==Historical and institutional context== :''Main Article: [[History of anthropology]]'' The anthropologist [[Eric Wolf]] once described anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences." Contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebears, and the discipline has several sources; [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], for example, claimed [[Montaigne]] and [[Rousseau]] as important influences. Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], a period when Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. The traditions of [[jurisprudence]], [[history]], [[philology]], and [[sociology]] then evolved into something more closely resembling the modern views of these disciplines and informed the development of the [[social sciences]], of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the [[romanticism|romantic]] reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] and later [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept," which is central to the discipline. [[Image:Table of Natural History, Cyclopaedia, Volume 2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Table of natural history, 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'']]Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of [[natural history]] (expounded by authors such as [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]]) that occurred during the European colonization of the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Programs of ethnographic study have their origins in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations. There was a tendency in late 18th century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved in accordance with certain principles and that could be observed empirically.<ref>see, for instance, the writing of [[Auguste Comte]]</ref> In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places. Some critics point to the fact that the material culture of "[[civilization|civilized]]" nations such as [[China]] have historically been displayed in fine-art museums alongside European art, while artifacts from African and Native North American cultures were displayed in Natural History Museums, alongside dinosaur bones and nature dioramas.{{fact}} The [[British Museum]] or the Parisian [[Musée de l'Homme]] are examples of such museums&mdash;the Musée de l'Homme held the "[[Hottentot Venus]]" remains until the 1970s. Saartje Baartman, a [[Namaqua]] woman, was examined by anatomist [[Georges Cuvier]]. This being said, curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be inaccurate to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European [[chauvinism]], since its relationship to [[imperialism]] was and is complex.{{fact}} <ref> Museums weren't the only site of anthropological studies: with the [[New Imperialism]] period, starting in the 1870s, [[zoo]]s became unattended "laboratories," especially the so-called "ethnological exhibitions" or "Negro villages." Thus, "savages" from the colonies were displayed, often nudes, in cages, in what has been called "[[human zoos]]." For example, in [[1906]], anthropologist [[Madison Grant]] put a Congolese [[pygmy]] named [[Ota Benga]] in a cage in the [[Bronx Zoo]], and labelled him "the missing link" between an orangutan and the "white race" (Grant, a renowned [[eugenicist]], was the author of ''[[The Passing of the Great Race]]'' (1916). Such exhibitions were attempts to illustrate and prove in the same movement the validity of [[scientific racism]], the first formulation of which may be found in [[Arthur de Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races]]'' (1853-55). In 1931, the [[Colonial Exhibition]] in Paris still displayed [[Kanaks]] from [[New Caledonia]] in the "indigenous village"; it received 24 million visitors in six months, thus demonstrating the popularity of such "human zoos."</ref> Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history, and by the end of the nineteenth century, it had begun to crystallize into its modern form; by 1935, for example, it was possible for T. K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled "A Hundred Years of Anthropology." Early anthropology was dominated by proponents of [[unilineal evolution|unilinealism]], who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary "living fossils," which could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations that were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans, such as [[Paul Rivet]], first accurately traced [[polynesia|Polynesian]] migrations across the [[Pacific Ocean]]&mdash;though some of them believed those emigrations had originated in [[Egypt]]. Finally, concepts of [[race]] were developed with a view to better understanding the nature of the biological variation within the Human species, and tools such as [[Anthropometry]] were devised as a means of measuring and categorizing this variation, not just within the genus Homo, but in fossil [[Hominids]] and primates as well. Unfortunately racialistic concepts were abused by a few and gave rise to theories of [[Scientific racism]]. <!--I'm really not sure where to put this.-->Anténor Firmin wrote De l'égalité des races humaines (1885) as a direct rebuttal to Count Arthur de Gobineau’s polemical four-volume work ''Essai sur l'inegalite des Races Humaines'' (1853–1855), which asserted the superiority of the Aryan race and the inferiority of blacks and other people of color. Firmin’s work argued the opposite, that "all men are endowed with the same qualities and the same faults, without distinction of color or anatomical form. The races are equal" (pp. 450). Firmin grew up in Haiti, and was admitted to the Societé d’ Anthropologie de Paris in 1884 while serving as a diplomat. His persuasive critique and rigorous analysis of many of that society’s leading scholars made him an early pioneer in the so-called vindicationist struggle in anthropology. Many scholars also associate his work with the very first ideas of Pan-Africanism. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains. The domain of the ''[[sciences]]'' seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments; that of the ''[[humanities]]'' reflects an attempt to study different national traditions, in the form of [[history]] and the [[art]]s, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence; the ''[[social sciences]]'' emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena and provide a universal basis for social knowledge. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains. Drawing on the methods of the [[natural science]]s and developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews, but unstructured ''participant observation,'' and drawing on the new [[theory of evolution]] through [[natural selection]], the branches of anthropology proposed the scientific study of a new object: humankind, conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept of ''culture,'' which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and a propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they saw as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes ''[[Homo sapiens]]''&mdash;and perhaps all species of genus ''[[Hominoid|Homo]]''&mdash;from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions, which takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, culture not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture, but absorbs the peculiarly European distinction among politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms ==Anthropology in the United States== ===Jacksonian America and polygenism=== Late eighteenth century ethnology established the scientific foundation for the field, which began to mature when [[Andrew Jackson]] was President of the United States (1829-1837). Jackson was responsible for implementing the [[Indian Removal Act]], the coerced and forced removal of an estimated 100,000 American Indians during the 1830s to Indian Territory in present-day [[Oklahoma]]; for insuring that the franchise was extended to all white men, irrespective of financial means while denying virtually all black men the right to vote; and, for suppressing abolitionists’ efforts to end slavery while vigorously defending that institution. Finally, he was responsible for appointing Chief Justice Roger B. Taney who would decide, in Scott v. Sandford (1857), that Negroes were “beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race. . . and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect.” As a result of this decision, black people, whether free or enslaved, could never become citizens of the United States. It was in this context that the so-called American School of Anthropology thrived as the champion of polygenism or the doctrine of multiple origins&mdash;sparking a debate between those influenced by the Bible who believed in the unity of humanity and those who argued from a scientific standpoint for the plurality of origins and the antiquity of distinct types. Like the monogenists, these theories were not monolithic and often used words like races, species, hybrid, and mongrel interchangeably. A scientific consensus began to emerge during this period “that there exists a Genus Homo, embracing many primordial types of ‘species.’” Charles Caldwell, [[Samuel George Morton]], Samuel A. Cartwright, George Gliddon, Josiah C. Nott, and [[Louis Agassiz]], and even [[South Carolina]] Governor James Henry Hammond were all influential proponents of this school. While some were disinterested scientists, others were passionate advocates who used science to promote slavery in a period of increasing sectional strife. All were complicit in establishing the putative science that justified slavery, informed the [[Dred Scott]] decision, underpinned miscegenation laws, and eventually fueled [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow]]. Samuel G. Morton, for example, claimed to be just a scientist but he did not hesitate to provide evidence of Negro inferiority to [[John C. Calhoun]], the prominent pro-slavery Secretary of State to help him negotiate the annexation of [[Texas]] as a slave state. ===Types of Mankind, 1854=== The high-water mark of polygenitic theories was Josiah Nott and Gliddon’s voluminous eight-hundred page tome entitled ''Types of Mankind'', published in 1854. Reproducing the work of Louis Agassiz and Samuel Morton, the authors spread the virulent and explicitly racist views to a wider, more popular audience. The first printing sold out quickly and by the end of the century it had undergone nine editions. Although many Southerners felt that all the justification for slavery they needed was found in the Bible, others used the new science to defend slavery and the repression of American Indians. Abolitionists, however, felt as though they had to take on this science on its own terms. And for the first time, African American intellectuals waded into the contentious debate. In the immediate wake of ''Types of Mankind'' and during the pitched political battles that led to Civil War, [[Frederick Douglass]] (1818-1895), the statesman and persuasive abolitionist, directly attacked the leading theorists of the American School of Anthropology. In an 1854 address, entitled “The Claims of the Negro Ethnologically Considered,” Douglass argued that "by making the enslaved a character fit only for slavery, [slaveowners] excuse themselves for refusing to make the slave a freeman.... For let it be once granted that the human race are of multitudinous origin, naturally different in their moral, physical, and intellectual capacities... a chance is left for slavery, as a necessary institution.... There is no doubt that Messrs. Nott, Glidden, Morton, Smith and Agassiz were duly consulted by our slavery propagating statesmen" (p. 287). ===Boasian anthropology===<!--This subsection needs to be expanded so that it occupies more space than the two that precede it.--> [[Image:FranzBoas.jpg|thumb|right|[[Franz Boas]], one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology"]] Cultural anthropology in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects. The field was pioneered by staff of the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, men such as [[John Wesley Powell]] and [[Frank Hamilton Cushing]]. [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] (1818-1881), a lawyer from [[Rochester, New York]], became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the [[Iroquois]]. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as [[Edward Tylor]]), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from ''savagery'', to ''barbarism'', to ''civilization''. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale.<ref>This would be influential on the ideas of [[Karl Marx]].</ref> [[Franz Boas]] established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the U.S. government and wealthy patrons. It was rigorously empirical and skeptical of overgeneralizations and attempts to establish universal laws. Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature. Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct ''cultures,'' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the [[natural science]]s, were not possible. In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. Boas used his positions at [[Columbia University]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included [[Alfred Kroeber]], [[Robert Lowie]], [[Edward Sapir]] and [[Ruth Benedict]], all of whom produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish [[linguistics]] as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on [[Indo-European languages]]. <!--This paragraph is a jumble of statements with no particular focus.-->The publication of [[Alfred Kroeber]]'s textbook, ''Anthropology,'' marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as [[Margaret Mead]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. Though such works as ''Coming of Age in Samoa'' and ''The Chrysanthemum and the Sword'' remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by [[Ralph Linton]], and Mead was limited to her offices at the [[American Museum of Natural History|AMNH]]. ==Anthropology in Britain== Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, modern anthropology in Britain was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present. The two most important scholars in this tradition were [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] and [[Bronislaw Malinowski]], both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork, in the [[Andaman Islands]], was carried out in the old style of historical reconstruction. After reading the work of French sociologists [[Émile Durkheim]] and [[Marcel Mauss]], Radcliffe-Brown published an account of his research (entitled simply ''The Andaman Islanders'') that paid close attention to the meaning and purpose of rituals and myths. Over time, he developed an approach known as structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. [[Bronislaw Malinowski|Malinowski]], in contrast, advocated an unhyphenated "functionalism," which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. He is better known, however, for his detailed [[ethnography]] and advances in methodology. His classic ethnography, ''Argonauts of the Western Pacific,'' advocated getting "the native's point of view" and an approach to fieldwork that became standard in the field. Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by teaching at universities across the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include ''The Nuer,'' by [[Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard]], and ''The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi,'' by [[Meyer Fortes]]; well-known edited volumes include ''African Systems of Kinship and Marriage'' and ''African Political Systems.'' ==Anthropology in France== [[Image:ClaudeLévi-Strauss.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]]] Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider [[Marcel Mauss]] to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim's]] [[Année Sociologique]] group, and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as [[Henri Hubert]] and [[Robert Hertz]]) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's ''[[The Gift (book)|Essay on the Gift]]'' was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of [[trade|exchange]] and [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]. Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as [[surrealism]] and [[primitivism (art movement)|primitivism]] which drew on ethnography for inspiration. [[Marcel Griaule]] and [[Michel Leiris]] are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as ''ethnologie'' was restricted to museums, such as the [[Musée de l'Homme]] founded by [[Paul Rivet]], and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of [[folklore]]. Above all, however, it was [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his [[structuralism]] exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as [[Maurice Godelier]] and [[Françoise Héritier]] who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories ([[CNRS]]) rather than academic departments in universities. Other influential writers in the 1970s include [[Pierre Clastres]], who explains in his books on the [[Guayaki]] tribe in [[Paraguay]] that "primitive societies" actively oppose the institution of the [[state]]. Therefore, these stateless societies are not less evolved than societies with states, but took the active choice of conjuring the institution of [[authority]] as a separate function from society. The [[Leadership|leader]] is only a spokeperson for the group when it has to deal with other groups ("international relations") but has no inside authority, and may be violently removed if he attempts to abuse this position. ==Anthropology after World War II== Before [[World War II|WWII]] British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. It was after the war that the two would blend to create a 'sociocultural' anthropology. In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the [[natural science]]s. Some anthropologists, such as [[Lloyd Fallers]] and [[Clifford Geertz]], focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as [[Julian Steward]] and [[Leslie White]], focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche —— an approach popularized by [[Marvin Harris]]. [[Economic anthropology]] as influenced by [[Karl Polanyi]] and practiced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] and [[George Dalton]] focused on how traditional [[economics]] ignored cultural and social factors. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as [[Max Gluckman]] and [[Peter Worsley]] experimented with Marxism and authors such as [[Rodney Needham]] and [[Edmund Leach]] incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work. Structuralism also influenced a number of developments in 1960s and 1970s, including [[cognitive anthropology]] and componential analysis. Authors such as [[David Schneider (anthropologist)|David Schneider]], [[Clifford Geertz]], and [[Marshall Sahlins]] developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the [[Algerian War of Independence]] and opposition to the [[Vietnam War]]; [[Marxism]] became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as ''Reinventing Anthropology'' worried about anthropology's relevance. [[Image:Michel-foucault.jpg|thumb|[[Michel Foucault]]]]In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in [[Eric Wolf]]'s ''Europe and the People Without History'', were central to the discipline. Books like ''Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter'' pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as [[Antonio Gramsci]] and [[Michel Foucault]] moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] (again), who drew on [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Fernand Braudel]] to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as [[George Marcus]] and [[James Clifford]] pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology and cultural positioning, and their influence on his or her ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of [[postmodernism]] that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to [[globalization]], [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]], [[indigenous rights]], and the anthropology of industrialized societies. ==Politics of anthropology== American cultural anthropology developed during the first four decades of the 20th century under the powerful influence of Franz Boas and his students and their struggle against racial determinism and the ethnocentrism of 19th century cultural evolutionism. With the additional impact of the Great Depression and World War II, American anthropology developed a pronounced liberal-left tone by the 1950s. However, the discipline's deep involvement with nonwestern cultures put it in a vulnerable position during the campus upheavals of the late 1960s and in the subsequent "culture wars." The "politics of anthropology" has become a pervasive concern since then. Whatever the realities, the notion of anthropology as somehow complicit in morally unacceptable projects has become a significant topic both within the discipline and in "cultural studies" and "post-colonialism," etc. A few of the central elements in this discourse are the following: *The claim that the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derived some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, e.g., Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004). It is often assumed that an example of this exploitative relationship can be seen in the relationship between of British anthropologists and colonial forces in Africa, yet this assumption has not been supported by much evidence. (See Asad et al; cf. Desai.) *The idea that social and political problems must arise because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study; it is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects (Rabinow, Dwyer, McGrane). Anthropologists, they argue, can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people they study while the people they study gain nothing, or even lose, in the exchange (e.g. Deloria). Little critical writing has been published in response to these wide-ranging claims, themselves the product of the political concerns and atmosphere of their own times. (See Trencher for a critique.) *It is claimed the discipline was ahistorical, and dealt with its "objects" (sic) "out of time," to their detriment (Fabian). It is often claimed that anthropologists regularly "exoticized 'the Other,'" or, with equal assurance, that they inappropriately universalized "Others" and "human nature." (For references and a response see Lewis 1998.) *Other more explicitly political concerns have to do with anthropologists’ entanglements with government intelligence agencies, on the one hand, and anti-war politics on the other. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in [[World War I]], and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the "Axis" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces but others worked in intelligence (e.g. Office of Strategic Services [OSS} and the Office of War Information). David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists for their vocal left-wing sympathies. On the other hand, attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. (Anthropologists did not participate in the stillborn Project Camelot, for example. See Lewis 2005) On the contrary, many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement and a great many resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA). In the decades since the Vietnam war the tone of cultural and social anthropology, at least, has been increasingly politicized, with the dominant liberal tone of earlier generations replaced with one more radical, a mix of, and varying degrees of, Marxist, feminist, post-colonial, post-modern, Saidian, Foucaultian, identity-based, and more. Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The British Association for Social Anthropology has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." More recently, there have been concerns expressed about bioprospecting, along with struggles for self-representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture, with anthropologists often in the lead on these issues. [[Image:Cavalli-SforzaMap.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of human genetic diversity, from the dust jacket of ''The History and Geography of Human Genes,'' by [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]] (1994)]] Other political controversies come from the emphasis in American anthropology on cultural relativism and its long-standing antipathy to the concept of race. The development of [[sociobiology]] in the late 1960s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as [[Marshall Sahlins]], who argued that these positions were reductive. While authors such John Randal Baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the 1970s, the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front. As genetics continues to advance as a science some anthropologists such as Luca [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have continued to transform and advance notions of race through the use of recent developments in [[genetics]], such as tracing past migrations of peoples through their [[mitochondrial]] and Y-chromosomal [[DNA]], and [[ancestry-informative marker]]s. ==Branches of anthropology== In [[North America]], "anthropology" is traditionally divided into four sub-disciplines: * '''[[Physical anthropology]]''', or [[biological anthropology]], which studies [[primatology|primate behavior]], [[human evolution]], [[osteology]], [[forensics]], and [[population genetics]]; * '''[[Cultural anthropology]]''' (called [[social anthropology]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and now often known as [[socio-cultural anthropology]]), which studies social networks, [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]], social behavior, [[kinship]] patterns, law, politics, [[ideology]], religion, beliefs, patterns in production and consumption, exchange, socialization, gender, and other expressions of culture, with strong emphasis on the importance of [[fieldwork]] or participant observation (i.e., living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time); * '''[[Linguistic anthropology]]''', which studies variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture, and * '''[[Archaeology]]''', which studies the material remains of human [[society|societies]]. Archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate (but related) field in the rest of the world, although closely related to the anthropological field of [[material culture]], which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as a means of understanding its cultural values. More recently, some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two, one emphasizing the [[humanities]] and [[critical theory]], the other emphasizing the [[natural science]]s and [[empiricism|empirical observation]]. ==Anthropological fields and subfields== * [[Biological anthropology]] (also [[Physical anthropology]]) ** [[Forensic anthropology]] ** [[Paleoethnobotany]] ** [[Paleopathology]] ** [[Medical anthropology]] ** [[Primatology]] ** [[Paleoanthropology]] ** [[Osteology]] * [[Cultural anthropology]] (also [[Social anthropology]]) ** [[Anthropology of art]] ** [[Anthropology of religion]] ** [[Applied anthropology]] ** [[Cross-Cultural Studies]] ** [[Cyber anthropology]] ** [[Development anthropology]] ** [[Dual inheritance theory]] ** [[Environmental anthropology]] ** [[Economic anthropology]] ** [[Ecological anthropology]] ** [[Ethnography]] ** [[Ethnomusicology]] ** [[Feminist anthropology]] ** [[Gender]] ** [[Human behavioral ecology]] ** [[Medical anthropology]] ** [[Psychological anthropology]] ** [[Political anthropology]] ** [[Public anthropology]] ** [[Anthropology of religion]] ** [[Symbolic anthropology]] ** [[Urban anthropology]] ** [[Visual anthropology]] * [[Anthropological linguistics|Linguistic anthropology]] ** [[Descriptive linguistics|Synchronic linguistics]] (or Descriptive linguistics) ** [[Diachronic linguistics]] (or [[Historical linguistics]]) ** [[Ethnolinguistics]] ** [[Sociolinguistics]] * [[Archaeology]] ** [[Zooarchaeology]] ==External links== ===Blogs and web portals=== * [http://www.anthropology.net Anthropology.net] - A community orientated anthropology web portal with user run blogs, forums, tags, and a wiki. * [http://www.cybercultura.it Cybercultura] - Collection of web resources about anthropology of cyberspace (in Italian) * [http://www.savageminds.org/ Savage Minds]--group blog * [http://www.antropologi.info/blog/anthropology Social and Cultural Anthropology in the News] - (nearly) daily updated blog * [http://vlib.anthrotech.com/ Virtual Library for Anthropology] - indexed directory of Anthropology related links ===Organizations=== * [http://www.aaanet.org/ The American Anthropological Association Homepage] - the webpage of the largest professional organization of anthropologists in the world. * [http://www.physanth.org/ American Association of Physical Anthropologists] * [http://sscl.berkeley.edu/~afaweb/reviews/index.html Association for Feminist Anthropology] * [http://www.movinganthropology.org The Moving Anthropology Student Network/Moving Anthropology Social Network (MASN)] is the largest international network of anthropology students and young academics * [http://www.therai.org.uk/ The Royal Anthropological Institute Homepage] - The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI) is the world's longest-established scholarly association dedicated to the furtherance of anthropology. They also have a large ethnographic film and video collection. * [http://www.hpsfaa.org/ High Plains Society for Applied Anthropology] * [http://www.practicinganthropology.org/ National Association for the Practice of Anthropology] ===Texts and tutorials=== * [http://www.anthrobase.com Anthrobase.com] - Collection of anthropological texts * [http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/ Palomar College Anthropology Tutorials] - Tutorials on anthropological topics such as economic systems, kinship, subsistence, religion, and evolution ==Footnotes== <references/> ==References== * Asad, Talal (ed.) 1973. Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter. * Darnell, Regna. 2001. Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology. * Desai, Gaurav. 2001. Subject to Colonialism: African Self-Fashioning and the Colonial Library. * Lewis, Herbert S. 1998. "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences." American Anthropologist, v, 100. * Lewis, Herbert S. 2004. "Imagining Anthropology's History." Reviews in Anthropology, v. 33. * Lewis, Herbert S. 2005. "Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History. In R. Darnell & F.W. Gleach (eds.), Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol. I. * Pels, Peter & Oscar Salemink, eds. 2000. Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology. * Price, David. 2004. Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists. * Rabinow, Paul. 1977. Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco. * Trencher, Susan. 2000. Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960-1980. 230 1319 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मर्लेन् डाएतृच्]] moved to [[मर्लेन् डाएतृच्]] [[Category:कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] 231 1321 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/महादे]] moved to [[महादे]] *[[एसिया]] *[[युरोप]] *[[अफ्रीका]] *[[उत्तर अमेरिका]] *[[दक्षिण अमेरिका]] *[[अष्ट्रेलिया]] *[[एन्टार्क्टिका]] 232 1323 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/महादेश]] moved to [[महादेश]] == [[अफ्रीका]] == [[अल्जेरिया]], [[एंगोला]], [[बेनिन]], [[बोत्स्वाना]], [[बुर्किना फासो]], [[बुरुन्डी]], [[क्यामेरून]], [[केप भर्डे]], [[मध्य अफ्रीकी गणतन्त्र]], [[चाड]], [[कोमोरोस]], [[प्रजातान्तृक गणतन्त्र कंगो]], [[गणतन्त्र कंगो]], [[कोटे डिवोरे]], [[जिबुटी]], [[मिश्र]], [[इक्वेटोरियल गिनिया]], [[एरितृया]], [[इथीयोपीया]], [[गाबोन]], [[गाम्बिया]], [[घाना]], [[गिनिया]], [[गिनिया बिसाउ]], [[केन्या]], [[लेसोथो]], [[लाईबेरिया]], [[लिब्या]], [[माडागास्कर]], [[मलावी]], [[माली]], [[ईस्लामी गणतन्त्र माउरीतानीया]], [[मरिसस्]], [[मोरक्को]], [[मोजाम्बिक]], [[नामिबिया]], [[नाईजर]], [[नाईजेरिया]], [[रुवान्डा]], [[साओ तोमे व प्रीन्सिप्]], [[सेनेगल]], [[सीशील्स]], [[सीयेरा लीओन]], [[सोमालिया]], [[दक्षिण अफ्रीका]], [[सुडान]], [[स्वाजिल्याण्ड]], [[तान्जानिया]], [[टोगो]], [[ट्युनिसिया]], [[युगान्डा]], [[जाम्बिया]], [[जिम्बाब्वे]] == [[एसिया]] == [[अफगानिस्तान]], [[आर्मेनिया]], [[अजरबैजान]], [[बहरिन]], [[बंगलादेश]], [[भूटान]], [[ब्रुनाई]], [[क्याम्बोडिया]], [[चीन]], [[साईप्रस्]], [[पूर्व टिमोर]], [[ज्योर्जिया]], [[भारत]], [[गणतन्त्र ईन्डोनेसिया]], [[ईरान]], [[ईराक]], [[ईजराईल]], [[जापान]], [[जोर्डन]], [[कजाख्स्तान]], [[उत्तर कोरिया]], [[दक्षिण कोरिया]], [[कुवेत]], [[कीर्गीस्तान]], [[लाओस]], [[लेबानन्]], [[मलेसिया]], [[मालद्विप]], [[मंगोलिया]], [[बर्मा]], [[नेपाल]], [[ओमान]], [[पाकिस्तान]], फिलिपिन्स, कतार, रुस, साउदी अरबिया, सिंगापुर, श्रीलंका, सीरिया, ताजिकिस्तान, थाईल्याण्ड, टर्की, तुर्केमिनिस्तान, संयुक्त अरब ईमिरेट्स्, उज्बेकिस्तान, भियेत्नाम, गणतन्त्र यमन == युरोप == अल्बानिया, एण्डोरा, अष्ट्रीया, बेलारुस, बेल्जियम, बोस्निया व हर्जगोविना, बुल्गेरिया, क्रोएसिया, चेक रिपब्लिक, डेनमार्क, ईस्टोनिया, फिनल्याण्ड, फ्रान्स, जर्मनी, ग्रीस, हंगेरी, आईसल्याण्ड, आयरल्याण्ड, ईटाली, लात्भिया, लीश्टेनस्टाईन, लिथुआनिया, लक्जेम्बर्ग, म्यासेडोनिया, माल्टा, मोल्दोवा, मोनाको, नेडरल्याण्ड, नर्वे, पोल्याण्ड, पोर्चुगल, रोमानिया, रुस, सान मरिनो, सर्बिया, स्लोभाकिया, स्लोभेनिया, स्पेन, स्वीडेन, स्वीट्जरल्याण्ड, टर्की, युक्रेन, बेलायत, भेटिकन सिटी, संघीय गणतन्त्र युगोस्लाभिया 233 1325 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/महादेश व प्रमुख क्षेत्र]] moved to [[महादेश व प्रमुख क्षेत्र]] # '''[[अफ्रीका]]''' # '''[[एन्टार्टिका]]''' # '''[[एसिया]]''' # '''[[युरोप]]''' # '''[[ल्याटिन अमेरिका]]''' # '''[[मध्य पूर्व]]''' # '''[[उत्तर अमेरिका]]''' # [[ओसेनिया]] # '''[[दक्षिण अमेरिका]]''' 234 1327 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/महायान]] moved to [[महायान]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 235 1329 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/महायान सुत्र]] moved to [[महायान सुत्र]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 236 3836 2006-10-16T15:38:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Michelango Portrait by Volterra.jpg|thumb|200px|माइकलएन्जेलोयागु चक किपा [[ड्यानियल दा भोल्टेरा]]नं देकातगु]] '''माइकलएंजेलो दि लोदोभिको बुओनारोट्टी सिमोनी''' (मार्च् ६, १४७५ – फेब्रुअरी १८, १५६४), लोकभायले माइकलएंजेलो, छम्ह इटालियन रिनाइसान्स मूर्तिकार, चित्रकार, वास्तुशास्त्री व कवि ख:| वेकलं कला क्षेत्र स्वया पिने यक्व ज्या याना मदिसां वेक यागु कला क्षेत्रयागु सेल्लागु ज्याया लागि वेक: यात वेकयागु फ्लोरेन्सी समकक्षी लियोनार्डो डा भिन्सी थें हे पूनर्जागरणयाम्ह मनुतेगु कोटिले तैइ| माइकलएंजेलोयागु उत्पादनत फुक्क हे ख्य:ले सिक्क हे भिंगु कोटीयागु खने दु| वेकयागु पौ, खेस्रा, व कलायागु लुमन्तितेत ल्याखाना स्वेगु ख: सा वेक १६औं शताव्स्दीयागु दक्ले बांलाक्क दस्ताबेज यानातम्ह कलाकार ख:| वेकयागु दक्ले लोकंह्वागु निगु ज्या, पियत व डेभिडयागु निर्माण वेकलं थगु जीवनयागु २गु दसकयागु लिपागु खण्ड व ३गु दसकयागु न्हापागु खण्डले देका दिगु ख:|वेक यात किपा देके येक्व मयसां वेकलं पाश्चात्य कलायागु सिक्क हे प्रभावशाली निगु फ्रेस्को सिस्टिन च्यापेलयागु सिलिंग व अल्टार अंग(द लास्ट जज्मेन्ट)ले देका दिल:|लिपा वेकलं सन्त पिटरयागु ब्यासिलिकायागु डोम देका व पिलास्टरयागु आविष्कार याना दिया क्लासिकल वास्तुशास्त्रले क्रान्ति हया दिल| रेनाइसन्स कलाकारयागु लागि पृथक कथलं वेक:यागु जीवनकाले हे वेकयागु निगु जीवनी प्रकाशित जुल:| व जीवनी मध्ययागु छगु जियोर्जियो भेसारी नं च्वयादुगुली वेकयात रिनायसान्स न्ह्यथसां निसेयागु फुकं कलात्मक उपलब्धियागु च्वका धका प्रस्तावना तगु दु| व विचा थौं तक्क न येक्व कला ईतिहासकार तेसं तया दि| वेकया जीवनकाले वेकयात इल डिभिनो (आलौकिक मनु) धागु उपमा न बियातगु दु गु कि वेकयागु यक्व हे आत्मावादी प्रकृति नाप मिले जु| वेकयागु प्रकृतियागु वेकयागु समकस्खीतेसं मानेयागु छगु गुण वेकयागु टेरिबिलिटा - छगु कथंयागु प्रेरणात्मक ग्र्यान्डुअर ख;| मेमेगु कलाकार तेसं वेकयागु नक्कल यायेगु कुतले हाई रिनाइसान्स व म्यानरिजमयागु विकास जुल:| ==प्रारम्भिक जीवन== वेकयागु जन्म १४७५ले अरेज्जो नापं, क्याप्रेसे, टस्कानीले जुल:। वेकयागु अबु लोडोभिको दि लियोनार्डो दि बुओनारोट्टी दि सिमोनी,क्याप्रेसे यागु रेसिडेन्ट म्याजिस्ट्रेट व चिउसीयायाम्ह पोडेस्ट जुया दिगु ख:। वेकयागु मायागु नां फ्रन्सेस्का दि नेरी देल् मिनियातो दि सिएना ख:। अब्लेयागु वंशावली कथं बुओनारोट्टीत काउन्टेस् टस्कानीयाम्ह मटिल्डायागु वंश ख:| अत: वेक पि। छगु कथं च्वेयागु स्तरयापिं मनुत(नोबिलिटी) ख:| तर, माइकलएंजेलो फ्लोरेन्सले थगु हुर्केजुया दिल: व लिपा,वेकयागु मा यागु ता हाकगु ल्वे व मृत्यु बिले छम्ह स्टोनकटर व उया जहान नाप सेत्तिग्नानो नगरले च्वना दिल| व नगरले वेक या अबुयागु छगु मार्बलयागु खानी व बूं दुगु जुल:| वेकलं पलख: मानववादी फ्रान्सेस्को डुर्बिनोनाप व्याकरण सीका लिपा थगु अबुयागु ईच्छा विरुद्ध थगु यगु ख्य:त चित्रकला व मूर्तिकलाले बेर्टोल्डो दि जियोभानीया अधीनले ज्या न्ह्यथना दिल| {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 237 1333 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मात्सुओ बाशो]] moved to [[मात्सुओ बाशो]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 238 1335 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मार्क ट्वेन]] moved to [[मार्क ट्वेन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 239 1337 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मार्को पोलो]] moved to [[मार्को पोलो]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 240 1339 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मार्सेल प्रोस्ट्]] moved to [[मार्सेल प्रोस्ट्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 241 1341 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मीगल डे केर्वेन्तेस्]] moved to [[मीगल डे केर्वेन्तेस्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 242 1343 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मुरासाकि शिकिबु]] moved to [[मुरासाकि शिकिबु]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 243 1345 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मेमेगु मूखंग्वत:]] moved to [[मेमेगु मूखंग्वत:]] '''मेमेगु मूखंग्वत:''' (Miscellaneous Topics) 244 1347 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मेरी शेली]] moved to [[मेरी शेली]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 245 1349 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/मोलियर]] moved to [[मोलियर]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 246 3108 2006-10-14T20:48:38Z Eukesh 11 '''मौसम''' (Weather) [[Category:विज्ञान]] 247 1353 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/म्यारिलीन् मोन्रो]] moved to [[म्यारिलीन् मोन्रो]] [[Category:कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] 248 3965 2006-10-16T16:48:22Z Eukesh 11 == बाल्यकाल == == वस्यक == == उपलब्धि == [[Category:कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] 249 1357 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/म्ये]] moved to [[म्ये]] '''म्ये''' (Song, Music) 250 1359 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/म्वाम्हया विज्ञान]] moved to [[म्वाम्हया विज्ञान]] '''म्वाम्हया विज्ञान''' (Biology) या दुने म्वागु फुक्कं प्राणी तेगु अध्ययन जुइ| '''Biology''' is the branch of [[science]] dealing with the study of [[life]]. It is concerned with the characteristics, [[scientific classification|classification]], and [[behavior]]s of [[organism]]s, how [[species]] come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the [[natural environment|environment]]. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address phenomena related to living organisms (biological phenomena) over a wide range of scales, from biophysics to [[ecology]]. All concepts in biology are subject to the same laws that other branches of science obey, such as the laws of thermodynamics and conservation of mass. <div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; margin:0.5em;"> {| border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; margin: 0.3em;" |valign="top"|[[Image:EscherichiaColi NIAID.jpg|90px|''Escherichia coli'']] |valign="top"|[[Image:Tree_Fern.jpg|90px|Tree fern]] |- |valign="bottom"|[[Image:Goliath_beetle.jpg|90px|Goliath beetle]] |valign="bottom"|[[Image:Thompson's_Gazelle.jpeg|90px|Gazelle]] |} <div style="border: none; width:200px;"><div class="thumbcaption">Biology studies the variety of life ''(clockwise from top-left)'' ''[[E. coli]]'', tree [[fern]], [[gazelle]], Goliath [[beetle]]</div></div></div> At the organism level, biology has explained phenomena such as [[childbirth|birth]], [[growth]], [[aging]], [[death]] and [[decomposition|decay]] of living organisms, similarities between offspring and their parents ([[heredity]]) and flowering of plants which have puzzled humanity throughout history. Other phenomena, such as [[lactation]], [[Metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]], [[Egg (biology)|egg-hatching]], [[healing]], and [[tropism]] have been addressed. On a wider scale of time and space, biologists have studied [[domestication]] of animals and plants, the wide variety of living organisms ([[biodiversity]]), changes in living organisms over time ([[evolution]]), [[extinction]], [[speciation]], [[social behaviour]] among animals, etc. While [[botany]] encompasses the study of plants, [[zoology]] is the branch of science that is concerned about the study of animals and [[anthropology]] is the branch of biology to study human beings. However, at the [[molecule|molecular]] scale, life is studied in the disciplines of [[molecular biology]], [[biochemistry]], and [[molecular genetics]]. More fundamental than these fields is biophysics which deals with energy within biological systems. Even At the next level, that of the [[cell (biology)|cell]], it is studied in [[cell biology]]. At the [[multicellular]] scale, it is examined in [[physiology]], [[anatomy]], and [[histology]]. [[Developmental biology]] studies life at the level of an individual organism's development or [[ontogeny]]. Moving up the scale towards more than one organism, [[genetics]] considers how [[heredity]] works between parent and offspring. [[Ethology]] considers the behaviour of groups of organisms. [[Population genetics]] looks at the level of an entire [[population]], and [[systematics]] considers the multi-species scale of [[lineage]]s. Interdependent populations and their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitats]] are examined in [[ecology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]. A speculative new field is [[astrobiology]] (or xenobiology), which examines the possibility of life beyond the Earth. ==Principles of biology== Unlike [[physics]], biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by [[mathematics]]. Nevertheless, the biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: [[universality]], [[evolution]], [[diversity]], [[continuity]], [[genetics]], [[homeostasis]], and [[interactions]]. However, biology is still considered to be subject to the same physical laws that other branches of science obey, such as the laws of thermodynamics and conservation of mass. === Universality: Biochemistry, cells, and the genetic code === [[Image:DNA-structure-and-bases.png|thumb|Schematic representation of [[DNA]], the primary [[genetic material]].]] {{main|Life}} Some striking examples of biological universality include life's [[carbon]]-[[Carbon-based|based]] [[biochemistry]] and its ability to pass on [[heredity|characteristics]] via [[genetic material]], using a DNA and RNA based [[genetic code]] with only minor variations across all living things. Another universal principle is that all [[organism]]s (that is, all forms of life on Earth except for [[virus]]es) are made of [[cell (biology)|cells]]. Similarly, all organisms share common developmental processes. For example, in most animals, the basic stages of early [[embryo]]nic development share similar morphological characteristics and include similar [[gene]]s. === Evolution: The central principle of biology === {{main|Evolution}} The central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin and has changed and developed through the process of [[evolution]] (see [[Common descent]]). This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. [[Charles Darwin]] established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, [[natural selection]] ([[Alfred Russel Wallace]] is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept). [[Genetic drift]] was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the [[modern synthesis]] of the theory. The evolutionary history of a [[species]]&mdash; which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended&mdash; together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its [[phylogeny]]. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of [[DNA sequence]]s conducted within [[molecular biology]] or [[genomics]], and comparisons of [[fossil]]s or other records of ancient organisms in [[paleontology]]. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]] (The major events in the evolution of life, as biologists currently understand them, are summarized on this [[evolutionary timeline]]). <br clear="right"> === Diversity: The variety of living organisms === [[image:PhylogeneticTree.png|thumb|340px|A [[phylogenetic tree]] of [[evolutionary tree|all living things]], based on [[rRNA]] [[gene]] data, showing the separation of the three domains [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s as described initially by [[Carl Woese]]. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.]] Despite its underlying unity, life exhibits an astonishingly wide diversity in [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[behavior]], and [[life history|life histories]]. In order to grapple with this diversity, biologists attempt to classify all living things. Scientific classification seeks to reflect the evolutionary trees ([[phylogenetic tree]]s) of the organism being classified. Classification is the province of the disciplines of [[systematics]] and [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomy]]. Taxonomy places organisms in groups called [[taxa]], while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other. This clasification technique has evolved to reflect advances in [[cladistics]] and [[genetics]], shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to [[phylogenetics]]. Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms: :[[Monera]] -- [[Protist]]a -- [[Fungi]] -- [[Plant]]ae -- [[Animal]]ia However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the [[three-domain system]]: :[[Archaea]] (originally Archaebacteria) -- [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] (originally Eubacteria) -- [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]] These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors. Further, each kingdom is broken down continuously until each species is separately classified. The order is 1) Kingdom, 2) Phylum, 3) Class, 4) Order, 5) Family, 6) Genus, 7) Species. The scientific name of an organism is obtained from its Genus and Species. For example, humans would be listed as ''Homo sapiens''. Homo would be the Genus and Sapiens is the species. Whenever writing the scientific name of an organism it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase; in addition the entire term would be put in italics. The term used for classification is called Taxonomy. There is also a series of intracellular [[parasite]]s that are progressively "less alive" in terms of [[metabolism|metabolic]] activity: :[[virus (biology)|Viruses]] -- [[Viroid]]s -- [[Prion]]s ===Continuity: The common descent of life=== {{main|Common descent}} Up into the [[19th century]], it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see [[abiogenesis]]). This misconception was challenged by [[William Harvey]]'s diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the [[Latin]] "[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]"), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time. A group of organisms is said to share a common descent if they share a common [[ancestor]]. All [[organism]]s on the [[Earth]] have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral [[gene pool]]. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about [[Timeline of evolution|3.5 billion years ago]]. Biologists generally regard the universality of the [[genetic code]] as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s (see: [[origin of life]]). ===Homeostasis: Adapting to change === <!--[[Image:Lac_operon.png|thumb|left|250px|An example of [[homeostasis]]: the [[Lac operon]] is mechanism of [[gene regulation]] which prevents the build-up of [[lactose]].]] in the process of checking this is actually homeostatic--> {{main|Homeostasis}} Homeostasis is the ability of an [[open system]] to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple [[dynamic equilibrium]] adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living [[organism]]s, whether [[unicellular]] or [[multicellular]], exhibit homeostasis. Homeostasis manifests itself at the cellular level through the maintenance of a stable internal acidity ([[pH]]); at the organismic level, [[warm-blooded]] animals maintain a constant internal body temperature; and at the level of the [[ecosystem]], as when atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] levels rise and [[plant]]s are theoretically able to grow healthier and remove more of the gas from the atmosphere. [[Biological tissue|Tissues]] and [[organ (biology)|organs]] can also maintain homeostasis. ===Interactions: Groups and environments=== [[image:Common_clownfish.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Mutual [[symbiosis]] between [[clownfish]] of the genus [[Amphiprion]] that dwell among the tentacles of tropical [[sea anemone]]s. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the clown fish from its predators]] Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its [[natural environment|environment]]. One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales. A microscopic [[bacterium]] responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a [[lion]] is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the [[Africa]]n [[savanna]]h. For any given species, [[behavior]]s can be [[co-operation|co-operative]], [[aggression|aggressive]], [[parasite|parasitic]] or [[symbiosis|symbiotic]]. Matters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an [[ecosystem]]. Studies of this type are the province of [[ecology]]. ==Scope of biology== {{main|List of biology disciplines}} Biology has become such a vast research enterprise that it is not generally regarded as a single discipline, but as a number of clustered sub-disciplines. This article considers four broad groupings. The first group consists of those disciplines that study the basic structures of living systems: [[cell (biology)|cells]], [[gene]]s etc.; the second group considers the operation of these structures at the level of tissues, organs, and bodies; the third group considers organisms and their histories; the final constellation of disciplines focuses on their interactions. It is important to note, however, that these boundaries, groupings, and descriptions are a simplified characterization of biological research. In reality, the boundaries between disciplines are fluid, and most disciplines frequently borrow techniques from each other. For example, evolutionary biology leans heavily on techniques from molecular biology to determine [[DNA sequence]]s, which assist in understanding the genetic variation of a population; and physiology borrows extensively from cell biology in describing the function of organ systems. <br clear="right"> ===Structure of life=== [[image:biological_cell.png|thumb|300px|Schematic of typical animal [[cell (biology)|cell]] depicting the various [[organelle]]s and structures]] {{main|Molecular biology|Cell biology|Genetics|Developmental biology}} [[Molecular biology]] is the study of biology at a [[molecular]] level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated. [[Cell biology]] studies the [[physiology|physiological]] properties of [[cell (biology)|cells]], as well as their [[behavior]]s, interactions, and [[natural environment|environment]]. This is done both on a [[microscope|microscopic]] and [[molecule|molecular]] level. Cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like [[bacterium|bacteria]] and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like [[human]]s. Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and [[molecular biology]]. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types. [[Genetics]] is the [[science]] of [[gene]]s, [[heredity]], and the [[variation]] of [[organism]]s. In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of [[genetic interaction]]s. Within [[organism]]s, genetic information generally is carried in [[chromosome]]s, where it is represented in the [[DNA sequence|chemical structure]] of particular [[DNA]] [[molecule]]s. [[Gene]]s encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final [[phenotype]] of the organism. Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Originating in [[embryology]], modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of [[cell growth]], [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]], and "[[morphogenesis]]," which is the process that gives rise to [[biological tissue|tissues]], [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], and [[anatomy]]. [[Model organism]]s for developmental biology include the round worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', the fruit fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', the zebrafish ''[[Brachydanio rerio]]'', the mouse ''[[Mus musculus]]'', and the weed ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''. ===Physiology of organisms=== ''Main articles:'' '''[[Physiology]]''', [[Anatomy]] Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into [[plant physiology]] and [[animal physiology]], but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular [[organism]] is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of [[yeast]] cells can also apply to [[human]] cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of [[human physiology]] to non-human [[species]]. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields. [[Anatomy]] is an important branch of physiology and considers how [[organ (biology)|organ]] systems in animals, such as the [[nervous system|nervous]], [[immune system|immune]], [[endocrine system|endocrine]], [[respiratory system|respiratory]], and [[circulatory system|circulatory]] systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with [[medicine|medically]] oriented disciplines such as [[neurology]] and [[immunology]]. ===Diversity and evolution of organisms=== [[Image:fitness-landscape-cartoon.png|thumb|300px|In [[population genetics]] the [[evolution]] of a [[population]] of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a [[fitness landscape]]. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak]] ''Main articles:'' '''[[Evolutionary biology]]''', [[Biodiversity]], [[Botany]], [[Zoology]] Evolutionary biology is concerned with the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomically]]-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular [[organism]]s such as [[mammalogy]], [[ornithology]], or [[herpetology]], but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology is mainly based on [[paleontology]], which uses the [[fossil]] record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as the developments in areas such as [[population genetics]] and evolutionary theory. In the [[1990s]], [[developmental biology]] re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of [[evolutionary developmental biology]]. Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are [[phylogenetics]], [[systematics]], and [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomy]]. The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are [[botany]] and [[zoology]]. Botany is the scientific study of [[plant]]s. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the [[growth]], [[reproduction]], [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|development]], [[phytopathology|diseases]], and [[evolution]] of plant life. Zoology involves the study of [[animal]]s, including the study of their [[physiology]] within the fields of [[anatomy]] and [[embryology]]. The common [[genetics|genetic]] and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in [[molecular biology]], [[molecular genetics]], and [[developmental biology]]. The [[ecology]] of animals is covered under [[behavioral ecology]] and other fields. ==== Classification of life ==== The dominant classification system is called [[Linnaean taxonomy]], which includes ranks and [[binomial nomenclature]]. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]] (ICBN), the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]] (ICZN), and the [[International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria]] (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted. The [[Virus classification|Virus cInternational Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature]] (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode. ===Interactions of organisms=== [[Image:Foodweb.png|frame|A [[food web]], a generalization of the food chain, depicting the complex interrelationships among organisms in an [[ecosystem]].]] ''Main articles:'' '''[[Ecology]]''', [[Ethology]], [[Behavior]], [[Biogeography]] [[Ecology]] studies the distribution and abundance of [[life|living organisms]], and the interactions between organisms and their [[natural environment|environment]]. The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as [[climate]] and [[geology]], as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat. Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and [[population]]s to [[ecosystem]]s and the [[biosphere]]. As can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines. [[Ethology]] studies [[animal]] [[behavior]] (particularly of social animals such as [[primate]]s and [[canidae|canids]]), and is sometimes considered a branch of [[zoology]]. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the [[evolution]] of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of [[natural selection]]. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was [[Charles Darwin]], whose book ''The expression of the emotions in animals and men'' influenced many ethologists. [[Biogeography]] studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the [[Earth]], focusing on topics like [[plate tectonics]], [[climate change]], dispersal and migration, and [[cladistics]]. ==History of the word "biology"== Formed by combining the Greek βίος ''(bios)'', meaning 'life', and λόγος ''(logos)'', meaning 'study of', the word "biology" in its modern sense seems to have been introduced independently by [[Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus]] (''Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur'', [[1802]]) and by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] (''Hydrogéologie'', 1802). The word itself is sometimes said to have been coined in [[1800]] by Karl Friedrich Burdach, but it appears in the title of Volume 3 of Michael Christoph Hanov's ''Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae'': ''Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia'', published in [[1766]]. ==History== {{main|History of biology|History of medicine|History of genetics}} Major discoveries in biology include: * [[Cell theory]] * [[Germ theory of disease]] * [[Genetics]] * [[Evolution]] * [[DNA]] ==See also== {{main|List of biology topics}} {| width="100%" bgcolor="#fff4f4" id="toc" !align="center" colspan="2"|[[List of biology topics|Topics related to biology]] ([[:Category:Biology|Category]]) |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"|People and history |align="left" valign="top"|[[Biologist]] - [[List of biologists|Notable biologists]] - [[History of biology]] - [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] - [[Timeline of biology and organic chemistry]] - [[List of geneticists and biochemists]] |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"|Institutions, publications |align="left" valign="top"|[[NASA Ames Research Center]] - [[Bachelor of Science]] - [[List of publications in biology|Publications]] |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"|Terms and phrases |align="left" valign="top"|''[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]'' - ''[[In vivo]]'' - ''[[In vitro]]'' - ''[[In utero]]'' - ''[[In silico]]'' |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"|Related disciplines |align="left" valign="top"|[[Medicine]] ([[Physician]]) - [[Physical anthropology]] - [[Environmental science]] - [[Life Sciences]] - [[Biotechnology]] |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"|Outstanding problems |align="left" valign="top"|[[Origin of life]] - [[Unsolved problems in biology]] |-align="center" !align="left" valign="top"|Other |align="left" valign="top"|[[List of technologies]] - [[List of conservation topics]] |} ==External links== {{wikibooks}} {{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Biology}} *[http://www.biocrawler.com Biocrawler.com] *[http://www.biologynews.net/ ''Biology News Net'']: Daily updated biology news & community website. *[http://www.bionews.in/ ''BioNews :Latest Biology News '']: Research News and Articles from Biological Science and related fields. *[http://www.rom.on.ca/biodiversity/biocode/biocode1997.html ''BioCode'']: A proposal for organism naming. * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books NCBI Open-Access Books] *[[PhyloCode]], [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html] *[http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html ''The Tree of Life'']: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity. *[http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=index-html BioOne] Bioscience research journals. *[http://www.fond-merieux.org Fond Mérieux] *[http://www.everythingbio.com EverythingBio] Protocols, graduate school information, hard to find definitions. '''Journal Links''' *[http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=index-html&issn=1545-7885 PLos Biology] A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library of Science *[http://www.biolsci.org International Journal of Biological Sciences] A biological journal publishes peer-reviewed scientific papers of significance *[http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/index.html Perspectives in Biology and Medicine] ==Further reading== * [[Lynn Margulis]], ''Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth,'' 3rd ed., St. Martin's Press, [[1997]], paperback, ISBN 0805072527 (many other editions) * [[Neil Campbell]], ''Biology (7th edition)'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, [[2004]], hardcover, ISBN 080537146X 251 3290 2006-10-14T21:42:20Z Eukesh 11 # [[यातायात]] # [[वायुयान]] # [[अटोमोबाईल]] # [[बाइसाइकल]] # [[डुंगा]] # [[जहाज]] # [[रेल]] [[Category:प्रविधि]] 252 1363 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/युआन सेबेस्टियन एल्कानो]] moved to [[युआन सेबेस्टियन एल्कानो]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 253 2355 2006-10-10T20:58:45Z Eukesh 11 # [[सर्गया ल्वापू]] # '''[[जंगी]]''' ## [[सेना]] ### [[छेप्यास्त्र]] ### [[सलसेना]] ### [[जनपद]] ## [[ल सेना]] # '''[[शान्ति]]''' # '''[[युद्ध]]''' [[Category:समाज]] 254 1367 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/युरी ग्यागारिन]] moved to [[युरी ग्यागारिन]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 255 1369 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/योहान सेबेस्टियन बाच]] moved to [[योहान सेबेस्टियन बाच]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 256 1371 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] moved to [[रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] # [[योहान सेबेस्टियन बाच]] # [[द बिटल्स]] # '''[[लुडविग भ्यान बीथोवेन]]''' # [[फ्रेडेरिक चोपिन]] # [[एन्टोनिन ड्वोराक]] # [[आरेथा फ्र्यान्क्लिन]] # [[एड्वार्ड ग्रेग्]] # [[गुस्ताभ मेलर]] # [[क्लाउडियो मोन्तेभर्डि]] # '''[[वुल्फग्यांग अमेडियस मोजार्ट]]''' # [[एल्भिस प्रेस्ली]] # [[जां सिबेलियस]] # [[रिचार्ड वाग्नर]] [[Category:जीवनी]] 257 1373 2006-10-02T11:48:09Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/रसायनया विज्ञान]] moved to [[रसायनया विज्ञान]] रसायनया विज्ञान यात केमिस्त्री(Chemistry) नं धाइ| थुकिलि छुं न भौतिक वस्तुनं यक्को प्रकार यागु अवस्थाये मेगु वस्तुनाप गन्यागु स्वापु तै व अन्यागु स्वापु यात गुलि ई काइ, गुलि शक्ति माली इत्यादि कथंयागु खं यागु अध्ययन जुइ| '''Chemistry''' (derived from [[alchemy]]) is the [[science]] of [[matter]] at the [[atom]]ic to [[molecular]] scale, dealing with collections of atoms (such as [[molecule]]s, [[crystal]]s, and [[metal]]s). Chemistry deals with the composition and statistical properties of such structures, as well as their transformations and interactions to become materials encountered in everyday life. According to modern chemistry, the physical properties of materials are generally determined by their structure at the atomic scale which is determined by the properties and energies of the interactions. ==Introduction== [[Image:Lab bench.jpg|thumb|300px|Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne]] Chemistry is often called the central science because it connects other sciences, such as [[physics]], [[material science]], [[nanotechnology]], [[biology]] and [[geology]]. Chemistry encompasses many specific specialized sub-disciplines that often overlap with significant portions of other sciences. Sub-disciplines, however, are very specific to chemistry, for example, they allow the manufacturing and testing of stronger materials, the synthesis of [[pharmaceuticals]] to treat disease, and determination of the mechanisms behind life processes. A fundamental component of chemistry is that matter is involved. Chemistry may involve the interaction of matter with matter, or, involve matter with non-material phenomena such as energy. Most central and traditional to chemistry is the interaction of one [[chemical substance|substance]] with another such as in a [[chemical reaction]] where one substance or substances is transformed into another. This may involve [[electromagnetic radiation]] (as in [[photochemistry]]) where a chemical reaction is driven by the stimulation of light energy. However the chemical reaction is only part of a larger field that also studies matter in other ways. Chemical [[spectroscope|spectroscopists]] for example study the interaction of light with matter often without any reaction occurring. [[Scientists]] who study chemistry are known as [[chemists]]. According to contemporary chemists all ordinary matter consists of [[atom]]s or the sub atomic components that make up atoms; protons, electrons and neutrons. Atoms may be combined to produce more complex forms of matter such as [[ion]]s, [[molecule]]s or [[crystal]]s. The structure of the world we commonly experience and the properties of the matter we commonly interact with are determined by properties of chemical substances and their interactions. [[Steel]] is harder than iron because its atoms are bound together in a more rigid [[crystalline lattice]]. Wood burns or undergoes rapid [[oxidation]] because it can react spontaneously with [[oxygen]] in a [[chemical reaction]] above a certain [[temperature]]. Substances tend to be classified in terms of their energy or phase as well as their chemical compositions. The three [[phases of matter]] at low energy are [[Solid]], [[Liquid]] and [[Gas]]. [[Solids]] have fixed structures at room temperature which can resist gravity and other weak forces attempting to rearrange them, due to their tight bonds. [[Liquids]] have limited bonds, with no structure and flow with gravity. [[Gases]] have no bonds and act as free particles. [[Water]] is a [[liquid]] at room temperature because its molecules are bound by weak polar molecular interactions:[[van der Waals force]], which have enough energy to keep the waters molecules from separating from each other but not from sliding around, giving it liquid properties at temperatures above 0 degrees C or [[Celsius]], to below 100 degrees C at sea level. Lowering the temperature or energy further, allows tighter organized bonds to form, which requires work or [[heat of fusion]] to disrupt, creating a solid. The organized structure actually increases the average interatomic spacing, which is why ice floats. Increasing the energy (see [[heat of vaporization]]) enough to break the weak polar bonds at 100 degrees C, allows water to disperse enough to be a [[gas]]. Note in each case, there is energy required to break the bonds, and more energy to move the molecules away from each other. Chemistry is divided into many areas of study called sub-disciplines in which chemists specialize. The chemistry taught at the high school or early college level is often called "general chemistry" and is intended to be an introduction to a wide variety of fundamental concepts and to give the student the tools to continue on to more advanced subjects. Many concepts presented at this level are often incomplete and technically inaccurate, yet they are of extraordinary utility. Chemists regularly use these simple, elegant tools and explanations in their work because the best solution possible is often so overwhelmingly difficult and the true solution is usually unobtainable. The science of chemistry is historically a recent development but has its roots in [[alchemy]] which has been practiced for [[millennia]] throughout the world. The word chemistry is directly derived from the word alchemy; however, the etymology of alchemy is unclear (see [[alchemy]]). ==History of chemistry== {{main|History of chemistry}} The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of [[combustion|burning]]. [[Fire]] was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of [[iron]] and [[glass]]. After [[gold]] was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the [[protoscience]] called [[Alchemy]]. Alchemists discovered many chemical [[processes]] that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today was invented by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] with his law of [[Conservation of mass]] in 1783. The [[discoveries of the chemical elements]] has a long history culminating in the creation of the [[periodic table]] of the chemical elements by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]. The [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery in the past 100 years. The [[chemical industry]] represents an important economic activity. The global top 50 chemical producers in 2004 has sales of 587 billion [[dollars]] with a profit margin of 8.1% and [[research and development]] spending of 2.1% both against sales.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Top 50 Chemical Producers | journal = [[Chemical & Engineering News]] | date = [[July 18]], [[2005]] | volume = 83 | issue = 29 | pages = 20–23 | url = http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/83/8329globaltop50.html}}</ref> ==Subdisciplines of chemistry== [[Image:Pipetten.JPG|thumb|Lab [[pipette]]s]] Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. *[[Analytical chemistry]] is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their [[chemical composition]] and [[structure]]. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdiciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. *[[Biochemistry]] is the study of the [[chemical compound|chemicals]], [[chemical reaction]]s and chemical [[interaction]]s that take place in living [[organism]]s. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in [[medicinal chemistry]]. Biochemistry is also associated with [[molecular biology]] and [[genetics]]. *[[Inorganic chemistry]] is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of [[organometallic chemistry]]. *[[Organic chemistry]] is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and [[chemical reaction|reactions]] of [[organic compound]]s. An organic compound is formally defined as any compound bearing one or more covalent bonds between two or more carbon atoms. *[[Physical chemistry]] is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include [[chemical thermodynamics]], [[chemical kinetics]], [[electrochemistry]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[spectroscopy]]. Physical chemistry has large overlap with [[molecular physics]]. Physical chemistry involves the use of [[calculus]] in deriving equations. It is usually associated with [[quantum chemistry]] and theoretical chemistry. *[[Theoretical chemistry]] is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within [[mathematics]] or [[physics]]). In particular the application of [[quantum mechanics]] to chemistry is called [[quantum chemistry]]. Since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of [[computational chemistry]], which is the art of developing and applying [[computer program]]s for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) [[condensed matter physics]] and [[molecular physics]]. Essentially from [[reductionism]] theoretical chemistry is just physics, just like fundamental biology is just chemistry and physics. *[[Nuclear chemistry]] is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern [[Transmutation]] is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the [[table of nuclides]] is an important result and tool for this field. Other fields include [[Astrochemistry]], [[Atmospheric chemistry]], [[Chemical Engineering]], [[Chemo-informatics]], [[Electrochemistry]], [[Environmental chemistry]], [[Geochemistry]], [[Green chemistry]], [[History of chemistry]], [[Materials science]], [[Medicinal chemistry]], [[Molecular Biology]], [[Molecular genetics]], [[Nanotechnology]], [[Organometallic chemistry]], [[Petrochemistry]], [[Pharmacology]], [[Photochemistry]], [[Phytochemistry]], [[Polymer chemistry]], [[Solid-state chemistry]], [[Sonochemistry]], [[Supramolecular chemistry]], [[Surface chemistry]], and [[Thermochemistry]]. ==Fundamental concepts== ===Nomenclature=== {{main|IUPAC nomenclature}} Nomenclature refers to the system for naming [[chemical compound]]s. There are well-defined systems in place for naming chemical species. [[Organic compound]]s are named according to the [[organic nomenclature]] system. [[Inorganic compound]]s are named according to the [[inorganic nomenclature]] system. ===Atoms=== {{main|Atom}} An ''atom'' is a collection of matter consisting of a positively charged core (the [[atomic nucleus]]) which contains [[protons]] and [[neutrons]], and which maintains a number of [[electron]]s to balance the positive charge in the nucleus. ===Elements=== {{main|Chemical element}} An ''element'' is a class of atoms which have the same number of [[proton]]s in the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]]. This number is known as the [[atomic number]] of the element. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element [[carbon]], and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the element [[uranium]]. The most convenient presentation of the chemical elements is in the [[periodic table]] of the chemical elements, which groups elements by atomic number. Due to its ingenious arrangement, [[groups]], or columns, and [[periods]], or rows, of elements in the table either share several chemical properties, or follow a certain trend in characteristics such as [[atomic radius]], [[electronegativity]], [[electron affinity]], and etc. Lists of the elements [[List of elements by name|by name]], [[List of elements by symbol|by symbol]], and by [[List of elements by number|atomic number]] are also available. In addition, several [[isotope]]s of an element may exist. ===Ions=== {{main|Ion}} An ''ion'' is a charged species, or an atom or a molecule that has lost or gained one or more electrons. Positively charged [[cations]] (e.g. [[sodium]] cation Na⁺) and negatively charged [[anions]] (e.g. [[chloride]] Cl^-) can form neutral [[salt]]s (e.g. [[sodium chloride]] NaCl). Examples of [[polyatomic ion]]s that do not split up during [[Acid-base reaction theories|acid-base reactions]] are [[hydroxide]] (OH^-), or [[phosphate]] (PO₄^3-). ===Compounds=== {{main|Chemical compound}} A ''compound'' is a substance with a ''fixed ratio'' of [[chemical element]]s which determines the composition, and a particular organization which determines chemical properties. For example, [[water (molecule)|water]] is a compound containing [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] in the ratio of two to one, with the oxygen between the hydrogens, and an angle of 104.5° between them. Compounds are formed and interconverted by [[chemical reaction]]s. ===Molecules=== {{main|Molecule}} A ''molecule'' is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure [[Chemical compound|compound]] or [[chemical element|element]] that retains a set of unique chemical properties. ===Substance=== {{main|Chemical substance}} A chemical substance can be an element, compound or a mixture of compounds, elements or compounds and elements. Most of the matter we encounter in our daily life are one or another kind of mixtures, e.g. [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], [[alloy]]s, [[biomass]] etc. ===Bonding=== [[Image:Electron orbitals.png|right|thumb|350px|[[Electron]] atomic and [[molecular orbital|molecular]] orbitals]] {{main|Chemical bond}} A ''chemical bond'' is an [[interaction]] which holds together [[atom]]s in [[molecule]]s or [[crystal]]s. In many simple compounds, [[Valence Bond Theory]], the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model ([[VSEPR]]), and the concept of [[oxidation number]] can be used to predict molecular structure and composition. Similarly, theories from [[classical physics]] can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as [[complex (chemistry)|metal complexes]], valence bond theory fails and alternative approaches, primarily based on principles of [[quantum chemistry]] such as the [[molecular orbital]] theory, are necessary. See diagram on electronic orbitals. ===States of matter=== {{main|Phase (matter)}} A ''phase'' is a [[set]] of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as [[pressure]] or [[temperature]]. Physical properties, such as [[density]] and [[refractive index]] tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the ''[[phase transition]]'', which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a [[triple point]] and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. The most familiar examples of phases are [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s, and [[gas]]es. Less familiar phases include [[Plasma physics|plasmas]], [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]s and [[fermionic condensate]]s and the [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] and [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] phases of [[magnet]]ic materials. Even the familiar [[ice]] has many different phases, depending on the pressure and temperature of the system. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in [[biology]]. ===Chemical reactions=== {{main|Chemical reaction}} A ''Chemical reaction'' is a process that results in the interconversion of [[chemical substance]]s. Such reactions can result in molecules attaching to each other to form larger molecules, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of [[atom]]s within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of [[chemical bond]]s. For example, substances that react with oxygen to produce other substances are said to undergo [[oxidation]]; similarly a group of substances called [[acid]]s or [[alkali]]s can react with one another to neutralize each other's effect, a phenomenon known as [[neutralization]]. [[chemical substance|Substances]] can also be [[chemical decomposition|dissociated]] or synthesized from other substances by various different chemical [[processes]]. ===Quantum chemistry=== {{main|Quantum chemistry}} ''Quantum chemistry'' mathematically describes the fundamental behavior of [[matter]] at the [[molecule|molecular]] scale. It is, in principle, possible to describe all chemical systems using this theory. In practice, only the simplest chemical systems may realistically be investigated in purely [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] terms, and approximations must be made for most practical purposes (e.g., [[Hartree-Fock]], [[post Hartree-Fock]] or [[Density functional theory]], see [[computational chemistry]] for more details). Hence a detailed understanding of [[quantum mechanics]] is not necessary for most chemistry, as the important implications of the theory (principally the [[atomic orbital|orbital approximation]]) can be understood and applied in simpler terms. In quantum mechanics (several applications in computational chemistry and quantum chemistry), the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]], or the physical state, of a particle can be expressed as the sum of two operators, one corresponding to [[kinetic energy]] and the other to [[potential energy]]. The Hamiltonian of a particle with no [[electric charge]] and no [[spin (physics)|spin]] is described by the [[ Schrödinger wave equation]]. Solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom gives the form of the wave function for [[atomic orbital]]s, and the relative energy of say the 1s,2s,2p and 3s orbitals. The orbital approximation can be used to understand the other atoms e.g. [[helium]], [[lithium]] and [[carbon]]. ===Chemical Laws=== {{main|Chemical law}} The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the [[law of conservation of mass]], which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary [[chemical reaction]]. Modern physics shows that it is actually [[energy]] that is conserved, and that energy and mass are [[Einstein#Energy equivalency|related]]; a concept which becomes important in [[nuclear chemistry]]. [[Conservation of energy]] leads to the important concepts of [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]], [[thermodynamics]], and [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]]. Further laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass. [[Joseph Proust]]'s [[law of definite composition]] says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important. [[John Dalton|Dalton's]] [[law of multiple proportions]] says that these chemicals will present themselves in proportions that are small whole numbers (i.e. 1:2 O:H in water); although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. Such compounds are known as [[non-stoichiometric compound]]s. ==Etymology== :''Main article: [[Alchemy#Etymology|Etymology of chemistry]]'' The [[Etymology]] of the word chemistry comes directly from the Greek word ''χημεια'', and can be also met in the old French ''alkemie;'' or the Arabic ''al-kimia:'' ''the art of transformation.'' ==See also== * [[List of chemists]] * [[List of chemistry topics]] * [[List of compounds]] * [[List of publications in chemistry|List of important publications in chemistry]] * [[Royal Society of Chemistry]] * [[Unsolved problems in chemistry]] * [[Perfection#Perfection in physics and chemistry|Perfection]] (''"Perfection in physics and chemistry"'') ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Chemistry}} {{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Chemistry}} {{portal}} * [http://chemie-wereld.uwstart.nl Chemie-Wereld: Startpage (chemistry-world)] * [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Chemistry/index.htm MIT OpenCourseWare | Chemistry] * [http://www.chemportal.sk/ Chemportal - The navigator for the slovak and czech chemical industry (slovak)] * [http://wikidchem.org/ Wikidchem, The Free Chemistry Archive Wiki] * [http://www.allchemicals.info/ Chemical Glossary] * [http://www.webqc.org/ Chemical Portal] * [http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ Chemistry Information Database] * [http://www.chemicalforums.com/ Chemistry Forum] * [http://www.chemistryguide.org/ Chemistry Guide] * [http://www.iupac.org/dhtml_home.html International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry] * [http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/ IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page], see especially the "Gold Book" containing definitions of standard chemical terms * [http://www.cci.ethz.ch/index.html Experiments] videos and photos of the techniques and results * [http://81.207.88.128/science/ More experiments] - lots of information about the elements too. * [http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ Material safety data sheets for a variety of chemicals] * [http://www.flinnsci.com/search_MSDS.asp Material Safety Data Sheets] * [http://www.chemicalblogs.com Chemical Blogs] For a full list of external links and suppliers see [[Wikipedia:Chemical sources]] ==References== <references/> ==Further reading== * Chang, Raymond. ''Chemistry'' 6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. ISBN 0071152210. * Pauling, L. ''The Nature of the chemical bond'' (Cornell University Press) ISBN 0801403332 *Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. ''Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry'' (Dover Publications) ISBN 0486648710 *Pauling, L. ''General Chemistry'' (Dover Publications) ISBN 0486656225 *Atkins, P.W. ''Galileo's Finger'' (Oxford University Press) ==Reading list for university students== *Atkins,P.W. ''Physical Chemistry'' (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0198792859 *Atkins,P.W. et al. ''Molecular Quantum Mechanics'' (Oxford University Press) *McWeeny, R. ''Coulson's Valence'' (Oxford Science Publications) ISBN 0198551444 *Stephenson, G. ''Mathematical Methods for Science Students'' (Longman)ISBN 0582444160 *Smart and Moore ''Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction'' (Chapman and Hall) ISBN 0412400405 *Atkins,P.W., Overton,T., Rourke,J., Weller,M. and Armstrong,F. ''Shriver and Atkins inorganic chemistry''(4th edition) 2006(Oxford University Press) ISBN 0199264635 *Clayden,J., Greeves,N., Warren,S., Wothers,P. ''Organic Chemistry'' 2000 (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0198503466 *Voet and Voet ''Biochemistry'' (Wiley) ISBN 047158651-X 258 3074 2006-10-14T20:39:23Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[रसायनशास्त्र]]''' # [[जीवरसायनशास्त्र]] # [[रसायनिक कम्पाउन्ड]] ## [[अम्ल]] ## [[लवण]] ## [[क्षार]] # '''[[रसायनशास्त्र एलेमेन्ट]]''' ## [[एलेमेन्टयागु सुची]] ## [[पिरियोडिक टेबल]] ## [[एलुमिनियम]] ## [[कार्बोन]] ## [[कपर]] ## '''[[लुं]]''' ## [[हेलियम]] ## '''[[हाइड्रोजन]]''' ## '''[[न]]''' ## [[नियोन]] ## [[नाइट्रोजन]] ## '''[[अक्सिजन]]''' ## [[वह]] ## [[टिन]] ## [[जिन्क]] # '''[[धातु]]''' ## [[अलोय]] ### [[ब्रास]] ### [[ब्रोन्ज]] ### [[स्टील]] # [[जैविक रसायनशास्त्र]] ## [[अल्कोहोल]] ## [[कार्बोहाइड्रेट]] ## [[हर्मोन]] ## [[दा]] # '''[[फेज (पदार्थ)]]''' ## [[वायु]] ## [[तरल]] ## [[प्लाज्मा]] ## [[ठोस पदार्थ]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 259 2288 2006-10-10T20:33:33Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[राजनीति]]''' # [[अव्यवस्थावादी]] # [[साम्यवादी]] # [[लोकतन्त्र]] # [[सामन्तवादी]] # [[कूटनीति]] # [[फासीवादी]] # [[हलिमिकरण]] # '''[[सरकार]]''' # [[जहानियावाद]] # [[लिबरलवाद]] # [[मार्क्सवाद]] # [[राजतन्त्र]] # [[राष्ट्रवाद]] # [[गणतन्त्र]] # [[शक्तियागु बायेज्या]] # [[समाजवाद]] # '''[[राष्ट्र]]''' # [[राजनैतिक खल]] # [[धर्मवाद]] [[Category:समाज]] 260 1379 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/राजनीतिज्ञ, नेता व जहांनिया]] moved to [[राजनीतिज्ञ, नेता व जहांनिया]] # [[अकबर]] # [[अलेक्जेन्डर महान]] # [[कोफी अन्नान]] # [[केमेल अतातुर्क]] # [[अटिल्ला हन]] # [[अगस्टस्]] # [[ह्यास्टिङ्स् बान्डा]] # [[पोप बेनेडिक्ट झिन्खुम्ह]] # [[सिल्भिओ बर्लुस्कोनी]] # [[ओटो भोन बिस्मार्क]] # [[टोनी ब्लेर]] # [[सिमोन बोलिभार]] # [[फ्रान्सयाम्ह नेपोलियन प्रथम]] # [[लुक्रेजिया बोर्गिया]] # [[ग्रो हार्लेम ब्रुन्ट्ल्यान्ड]] # '''[[जोर्ज डबल्यु बुश]]''' # [[फिडेल कास्त्रो]] # [[रसियाम्ह क्याथरिन निम्ह]] # [[चार्ल्मेज्न]] # [[ज्याक शिराक]] # [[महालानी डोवाजर किक्सि]] # [[विन्स्टन चर्चिल]] # [[मिश्रयाम्ह क्लीयोप्यात्रा न्हेम्ह]] # [[डायना, वेल्सया राजकुमारी]] # [[ईन्दिरा गान्धी]] # [[कन्स्टान्टिन प्रथम (जुजु)]] # [[बेलायतयाम्ह एलिजाबेथ प्रथम]] # [[संयुक्त अधिराज्ययाम्ह एलिजाबेथ निम्ह]] # [[अस्ट्रीयाम्ह आर्कड्युक फ्रान्ज् फर्डिन्यान्ड]] # [[चार्ल्स डे गौल]] # [[मिखाइल गोर्बाचोभ]] # [[हाम्मुरबी]] # [[ह्यान्निबल]] # [[हिरोहितो]] # '''[[एडोल्फ हिटलर]]''' # [[थोमस जेफरसन]] # [[पोप जोन पल निम्ह]] # [[जुलियस सिजर]] # [[गेङिस खान]] # [[ली क्वान यु]] # '''[[भ्लादिमिर लेनिन]]''' # [[अब्राहम लिन्कन]] # [[नेल्सन मन्डेला]] # [[माओ जेदोङ]] # [[मारिया टेरेसा]] # [[मेरी प्रथम स्कटल्यान्डयाम्ह]] # [[गोल्डा मेयर]] # [[कृस्टियन माइकेल्सेन्]] # [[महाथिर मोहमद]] # [[बेनिटो मुसोलिनी]] # [[नेफेरतिति]] # [[क्वाम न्क्रुमह्]] # [[एवा पेरोन]] # [[पीटर प्रथम रसियायाम्ह]] # [[जोसेफ् पिल्सुड्स्की]] # [[पोल पोट]] # [[भ्लडिमिर पुटिन]] # [[किन् शि हुआङ्]] # [[एलेनोर रूजभेल्त]] # [[फ्र्यान्क्लिन डिलानो रूजभेल्ट]] # [[सलादिन]] # [[गेर्हार्ड श्रोडर]] # [[सेमिरामिस]] # [[शाका जुलु]] # [[शेबायिम्ह लानी]] # [[सिटिङ बुल]] # [[जोसेफ स्टालिन]] # [[मार्गरेट थ्याचर]] # [[टिमुर]] # [[लीयो ट्रोट्स्की]] # [[ह्यारी एस् ट्र्युम्यान]] # [[भिक्टोरिया संयुक्त अधिराज्ययाम्ह]] # [[लेक वालेसा]] # [[जोर्ज वाशिंगटन]] # [[विल्हेम निम्ह जर्मनीयाम्ह]] 261 1381 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/राज्य]] moved to [[राज्य]] '''राज्य''' (Nation) 262 1383 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/राज्यनीति]] moved to [[राज्यनीति]] '''राज्यनीति''' (Politics) 263 3842 2006-10-16T15:39:56Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 264 1387 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/रिचार्ड वाग्नर]] moved to [[रिचार्ड वाग्नर]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 265 2775 2006-10-14T19:02:56Z Eukesh 11 '''रेडियो''' (Radio) [[Category:संस्कृति]] 266 4007 2006-10-16T17:36:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Rembrandt van rijn-self portrait.jpg|thumb|right|रेम्ब्रान्ड्ट]] {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 267 1393 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/रैनेर मारिया रिल्के]] moved to [[रैनेर मारिया रिल्के]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 268 1395 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/रोआल्ड अ म्युन्ड्सेन]] moved to [[रोआल्ड अ म्युन्ड्सेन]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 269 1397 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/रोबर्ट लुइ स्टेभेन्सन]] moved to [[रोबर्ट लुइ स्टेभेन्सन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 270 1399 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लया समुह]] moved to [[लया समुह]] #REDIRECT [[लया समुहत:]] 271 1401 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लया समुहत:]] moved to [[लया समुहत:]] # [[अमेजन खुसी]] # [[अराल सागर]] # [[आर्टिक महासागर]] # '''[[एट्लान्टिक महासागर]]''' # [[बाल्टिक सागर]] # [[हाकु सागर]] # [[क्यारिबियन सागर]] # [[क्यास्पियन सागर]] # [[कङो खुसी]] # [[डेन्युब]] # [[मृत सागर]] # [[युफ्रेटस]] # [[गंगा खुसी]] # [[तधंगु बेरियर रीफ]] # [[तधंगु पुकु]] # '''[[भारतीय महासागर]]''' # [[सिन्धु खुसी]] # [[बैकाल पुकु]] # [[टाङान्यिका पुकु]] # [[टिटिकाका पुकु]] # [[भिक्टोरिया पुकु]] # [[मेडिटेरेनियन सागर]] # [[मिसिसिपी खुसी]] # [[नायग्रा झरना]] # [[नाइजर खुसी]] # '''[[नाइल]]''' # [[उत्तर सागर]] # '''[[प्रशान्त महासागर]]''' # [[पनामा नहर]] # [[राइन]] # [[सुयज नहर]] # [[दक्षिणी महासागर]] # [[टिग्रीस]] # [[भोल्गा खुसी]] # [[याङ्जे खुसी]] # [[म्हास्सु खुसी]] 272 1403 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लर्ड बाईरोन]] moved to [[लर्ड बाईरोन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 273 1405 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लसकुस]] moved to [[लसकुस]] ज्वजलपा न्हुम्ह पासा! छित विकिपिडियाले लसकुस दु| विकिपिडिया छगु स्वतन्त्र हलिमसफु (Encyclopedia) ख| विकिपिडियाले न्ह्यम्ह मनुनं नं सम्पादन याये फु (छिं नं!)| 274 1407 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लाईबिलेयागु ज्याखं (हब्बि)]] moved to [[लाईबिलेयागु ज्याखं (हब्बि)]] '''लाईबिलेयागु ज्याखं''' (हब्बि, Hobby) 275 1409 2006-10-02T11:48:10Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लियो टोल्स्टोय]] moved to [[लियो टोल्स्टोय]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 276 1411 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ली बै]] moved to [[ली बै]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 277 1413 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लीफ् इरिकसन]] moved to [[लीफ् इरिकसन]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 278 1415 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लुडविग भ्यान बीथोवेन]] moved to [[लुडविग भ्यान बीथोवेन]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 279 3845 2006-10-16T15:40:44Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 280 4009 2006-10-16T17:43:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:10 und 20 CHF.jpg|right|thumb|स्विस नोटले किपा: (देपा:)]] {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 281 1421 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लेखक व कवि]] moved to [[लेखक व कवि]] #REDIRECT [[च्वमि व कवि]] 282 1423 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/लेखाधिकार]] moved to [[लेखाधिकार]] The license [[Wikipedia]] uses grants free access to our content in the same sense as [[free software]] is licensed freely. This principle is known as '''[[copyleft]]'''. That is to say, Wikipedia content can be copied, modified, and redistributed ''so long as'' the new version grants the same freedoms to others and acknowledges the authors of the Wikipedia article used (a direct link back to the article satisfies our author credit requirement). Wikipedia articles therefore will remain free forever and can be used by anybody subject to certain restrictions, most of which serve to ensure that freedom. To fulfill the above goals, the text contained in Wikipedia is licensed to the public under the '''[[GNU Free Documentation License]]''' (GFDL). The full text of this license is at [[Wikipedia:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License]]. <!-- the text below should not be changed for legal reasons --> :'''Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the [[Free Software Foundation]]; with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover Texts.''' :'''A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "[[Wikipedia:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License|GNU Free Documentation License]]".''' :'''Content on Wikipedia is covered by [[Wikipedia:general disclaimer|disclaimers]].''' <!--- see Text of the GFDL, "How to use this license" for why we use this specific form of words (+discussion in Talk) ---> The English text of the GFDL is the only legally binding document; what follows is our interpretation of the GFDL: the rights and obligations of users and contributors. <font size="+1">IMPORTANT: If you want to use content from Wikipedia, first read the [[Wikipedia:Copyrights#Users'_rights_and_obligations|Users' rights and obligations]] section. You should then read the [[Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License|GNU Free Documentation License]].</font> == Users' rights and obligations == If you want to use Wikipedia materials in your own books/articles/web sites or other publications, you can do so, but you have to follow the GFDL. If you are simply duplicating the Wikipedia article, you must follow [[Wikipedia:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License#VERBATIM COPYING|section two]] of the GFDL on ''verbatim copying'', as discussed at [[Wikipedia:Verbatim copying]]. If you create a derivative version by changing or adding content, this entails the following: * your materials in turn have to be licensed under GFDL, * you must acknowledge the authorship of the article (section 4B), and * you must provide access to the "transparent copy" of the material (section 4J). (The "transparent copy" of a Wikipedia article is any of a number of formats available from us, including the wiki text, the html web pages, xml feed, etc.) You may be able to partially fulfill the latter two obligations by providing a conspicuous direct link back to the Wikipedia article hosted on this website. You also need to provide access to a transparent copy of the new text. However, please note that the Wikimedia Foundation makes no guarantee to retain authorship information and a transparent copy of articles. Therefore, you are encouraged to provide this authorship information and a transparent copy with your derived works. === Example notice === An example notice, for an article that uses the Wikipedia article [[Metasyntactic variable]] might read as follows: : This article is licensed under the <a href="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. It uses material from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metasyntactic_variable">Wikipedia article "Metasyntactic variable"</a>. ("Metasyntactic variable" and the Wikipedia URL must of course be substituted accordingly.) Alternatively you can distribute your copy of "Metasyntactic variable" along with a copy of the GFDL (as explained in the text) and list at least five (or all if fewer than five) principal authors on the title page (or top of the document). The external [http://vs.aka-online.de/wppagehiststat/ Page History Stats] tool can help you identify the principal authors. === Fair use materials and special requirements === All original Wikipedia text is distributed under the [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]]. Occasionally, Wikipedia articles may include images, sounds, or text quotes used under the U.S. Copyright law "[[Wikipedia:Fair use|fair use]]" doctrine. It is preferred that these be obtained under the most free ([[libre]]) license (such as the GFDL or public domain) practical. In cases where no such images/sounds are currently available, then fair use images are acceptable (until such time as free images become available). ''In Wikipedia'', such "fair use" material should be identified as from an external source (on the image description page, or history page, as appropriate). This also leads to possible restrictions on the use, outside of Wikipedia, of such "fair use" content retrieved from Wikipedia: this "fair use" content does not fall under the GFDL license as such, but under the "fair use" (or similar/different) regulations in the country where the media are retrieved. Wikipedia does use some text under licenses that are compatible with the GFDL but may require additional terms that we do not require for original Wikipedia text (such as including Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts, or Back-Cover Texts). When wanting to contribute such texts that include Invariant Sections or Cover Texts to Wikipedia, see ''[[#Introducing invariant sections or cover texts in Wikipedia|Introducing invariant sections or cover texts in Wikipedia]]'' below. == Image guidelines == Images and photographs, like written works, are subject to [[copyright]]. Someone owns them unless they have been explicitly placed in the [[Wikipedia:public domain|public domain]]. Images on the internet need to be licensed directly from the copyright holder or someone able to license on their behalf. In some cases, [[fair use]] guidelines may allow a photograph to be used. === Tagging === Image description pages can be tagged with a special tag to indicate the legal status of the images, as described at [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags]]. It is currently unclear what should happen in cases where the same image has been uploaded more than once with different respective copyright statements. === U.S. government photographs === Works produced by civilian and military employees of the [[United States]] federal government in the scope of their employment are public domain by statute. However, note that, despite popular misconception, the U.S. Federal Government can own copyrights that are assigned to it by others (for example, works created by contractors). Be careful, however: not all images on .mil and .gov websites are public domain. Among other reasons, the site may be using commercial [[stock photography]] owned by others. It may be useful to check the privacy and security notice of the website, but only with an email to the webmaster can you be confident that an image is in the public domain. It should also be noted that governments outside the U.S. often do claim copyright over works produced by their employees (for example, [[Crown Copyright]] in the [[United Kingdom]]). Also, most state and local governments in the United States do not place their work into the public domain and do in fact own the copyright to their work. Please be careful to check ownership information before copying. === UK Crown Copyright === The UK [[Office of Public Sector Information]], formerly [[HMSO]], has told us: : ''[[Crown copyright]] protection in published material lasts for fifty years from the end of the year in which the material was first published. Therefore [for example] material published [fifty-one years ago], and any Crown copyright material published before that date, would now be out of copyright, and may be freely reproduced throughout the world.'' [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2005-May/039688.html] === Celebrity photographs === This is based on the image guidelines at [[IMDB]], so it especially applies to celebrity photographs, but also can apply to other pictures. Legitimate photographs generally come from three different places '''with permission'''. # The studios, producers, magazine publisher, or media outlet that originally shot the photograph. # Agencies that represent the photographers who shot the photos or the photographer themself (the latter especially for amateur photographs) # Submissions from the celebrity himself or herself or a legal representative of the celebrity. == Comments on copyright laws by country == ===Russia: copyright exemptions === According to the Russian copyright law of 1993 ([http://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D1%82_9.07.1993_%E2%84%96_5351-1 Федеральный закон от 9.07.1993 № 5351-1]), the following items are not subject to copyrights: *Official documents (laws, court decisions, other texts of legislative, administrative or judicial character); *State symbols and tokens (flags, coats of arms, [[order (decoration)|order]]s, banknotes and other state symbols and tokens); *Folk creative works; *Reports about events and facts, of informative character. Russian copyrights generally expire in 70 years after the death of the author. Items by authors who died prior to 1953 are public domain, because the expiration term was 50 years before 2004, and this change of the term wasn't retroactive, according to [http://www.copyrighter.ru/full/index.html?apispnew.htm Law 72-FZ, 2004 (in Russian)], article 2, part 3). If an item was not published during author's life, its copyright expire in 70 years after its first lawful publication (if the item wasn't moved into [[Public domain|PD]] before). This gives maximum term for unpublished or posthumously published works of 140 (if the author died after 1953) or 120 years (if the author died before 1953, AND his work was published before 2003). If an item was published anonymously or pseudonymously, and its author remains unknown, its copyright expires in 70 years after its first lawful publication. If the author is discovered, usual rule applies. PD status of a work in Russia can differ with that in the US, where Wikipedia servers are located. ===Algeria=== Article 9 of Algeria's [http://lexinter.net/DZ/ordonnance_relative_aux_droits_d%27auteur_et_aux_droits_voisins.htm Ordonnance N°97-10 du 27 Chaoual 1417 correspondant au 6 mars 1997 relative aux droits d'auteur et aux droits voisins.] states that: "Works of the State made licitly accessible to the public may be freely used for non-profit purposes, subject to respect for the integrity of the work and indication of its source. By "works of the State", in this article, are meant works produced and published by the various organs of the State, local communities, or public establishments of an administrative character." (original is in French.) In short, they are available for non-commercial use - which is deprecated on Wikipedia. ===Iran=== Although there has been no treaty between Iran and the United States regarding copyright protection, according to [[Jimbo Wales]], Wikipedia contributors should respect Iranian copyright law as best they can, the same as they do for other countries around the world. [http://mail.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikien-l/2005-August/027373.html] == Contributors' rights and obligations == If you contribute material to Wikipedia, you thereby license it to the public under the GFDL (with no invariant sections, front-cover texts, or back-cover texts). In order to contribute, you therefore must be in a position to grant this license, which means that either * you own the copyright to the material, for instance because you produced it yourself, or * you acquired the material from a source that allows the licensing under GFDL, for instance because the material is in the [[public domain]] or is itself published under GFDL. In the first case, you retain copyright to your materials. You can later republish and relicense them in any way you like. However, you can never retract the GFDL license for the versions you placed here: that material will remain under GFDL forever. In the second case, if you incorporate external GFDL materials, as a requirement of the GFDL, you need to acknowledge the authorship and provide a link back to the network location of the original copy. ===Introducing invariant sections or cover texts in Wikipedia=== Under Wikipedia's current copyright conditions, and with the current facilities of the MediaWiki software, it is only possible to include in Wikipedia external GFDL materials that contain invariant sections or cover texts, if all of the following apply, # You are the copyright holder of these external GFDL materials (or: you have the explicit, i.e. written, permission of the copyright holder to do what follows); # The length and nature of these invariant sections and cover texts does not exceed what can be placed in an [[wikipedia:edit summary|edit summary]]; # You are satisfied that these invariant sections and cover texts are not listed elsewhere than in the "page history" of the page where these external materials are placed; # You are satisfied that further copies of Wikipedia content are distributed under the standard GFDL application of "with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover Texts" (in other words, for the copies derived from wikipedia, you agree that these parts of the text contributed by you will no longer be considered as "invariant sections" or "cover texts" in the GFDL sense); # The original invariant sections and/or cover texts are contained in the edit summary of the edit with which you introduce the thus GFDLed materials in wikipedia (so, that if "permanent deletion" would be applied to that edit, both the thus GFDLed material and its invariant sections and cover texts are jointly deleted). Seen the stringent conditions above, it is very desirable to replace GFDL texts with invariant sections (or with cover texts) by original content without invariant sections (or cover texts) whenever possible. === Using copyrighted work from others === If you use part of a copyrighted work under "[[Wikipedia:fair use|fair use]]", or if you obtain special permission to use a copyrighted work from the copyright holder under the terms of our license, you must make a note of that fact (along with names and dates). It is our goal to be able to freely redistribute as much of Wikipedia's material as possible, so original images and sound files licensed under the GFDL or in the [[public domain]] are greatly preferred to copyrighted media files used under fair use. See [[Wikipedia:Boilerplate request for permission]] for a form letter asking a copyright holder to grant us a license to use their work under terms of the GFDL. Never use materials that infringe the copyrights of others. This could create legal liabilities and seriously hurt the project. If in doubt, write it yourself. Note that copyright law governs the ''creative expression'' of ideas, not the ideas or information themselves. Therefore, it is legal to read an encyclopedia article or other work, reformulate the concepts in your own words, and submit it to Wikipedia. However, it would still be unethical (but not illegal) to do so without citing the original as a reference. See [[plagiarism]] and [[fair use]] for discussions of how much reformulation is necessary in a general context. === Linking to copyrighted works === Linking to copyrighted works is usually not a problem, as long as you have made a reasonable effort to determine that the page in question is not violating ''someone else's'' copyright. If it is, please do ''not'' link to the page. Whether such a link is contributory infringement is currently being debated in the courts,{{fact}} but in any case, linking to a site that illegally distributes someone else's work sheds a bad light on us. If the site in question is making fair use of the material, linking is OK. === If you find a copyright infringement === It is not the job of rank-and-file Wikipedians to police content for possible copyright infringement, but if you suspect one, you should at the very least bring up the issue on that page's talk page. Others can then examine the situation and take action if needed. The most helpful piece of information you can provide is a URL or other reference to what you believe may be the source of the text. Some cases will be false alarms. For example, if the contributor was in fact the author of the text that is published elsewhere under different terms, that does not affect their right to post it here under the GFDL. Also, sometimes you will find text elsewhere on the Web that was copied from Wikipedia. In both of these cases, it is a good idea to make a note in the talk page to discourage such false alarms in the future. If some of the content of a page really is an infringement, then the infringing content should be removed, and a note to that effect should be made on the talk page, along with the original source. If the author's permission is obtained later, the text can be restored. If ''all'' of the content of a page is a suspected copyright infringement, then the page should be listed on [[Wikipedia:Copyright problems]] and the content of the page replaced by the standard notice which you can find there. If, after a week, the page still appears to be a copyright infringement, then it may be deleted following the procedures on the votes page. In extreme cases of contributors continuing to post copyrighted material after appropriate warnings, such users may be blocked from editing to protect the project. == See also == * [[Wikipedia:Copyright FAQ]] * The [[Wikipedia:Contributing FAQ]] for questions on copyright. * Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:designated agent|designated agent]] under [[OCILLA]] * [[Wikipedia:Sites that use Wikipedia as a source]] * [[Wikipedia:Standard GFDL violation letter]] * [[Wikipedia:Possible copyright infringements]] * [[Wikipedia:Spotting possible copyright violations]] * [[Wikipedia:Fair use]] * [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags]] * [[Wikipedia:Boilerplate request for permission]] Further discussion... * [[Wikipedia:Copyright issues]] * [[m:Wikipedia and copyright issues]] * [[m:Avoid Copyright Paranoia]] * [[m:Permission grant extent]] 283 1425 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/ल्याङ्स्टन ह्युएज्]] moved to [[ल्याङ्स्टन ह्युएज्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 284 3000 2006-10-14T20:17:41Z Eukesh 11 '''ल्वे''' धागु म्ह वा नुग मफैगु ख:| थे मफुया व मनुयात वा व नापं गु पिं मनुपिन्त मछिनिगु(डिस्कम्फर्ट), ज्या या मफैगु (डिस्फन्क्सन) व नुगमछिनिगु (डिस्ट्रेस्) जुई| [[Category:विज्ञान]] 285 1429 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/वल्त् व्हित्मन्]] moved to [[वल्त् व्हित्मन्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 286 1431 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/वाइटस बेरिंग]] moved to [[वाइटस बेरिंग]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 287 1433 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/वातावरण विज्ञान]] moved to [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] '''वातावरण विज्ञान'''(Environmental Science)ये [[वातावरण]] यागु ज्याखं सिकिगु कुत जुइ| 288 2768 2006-10-14T15:54:09Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[वास्तुशास्त्र]]''' # [[आर्च]] # [[तां]] # [[नहर]] # [[ड्याम]] # [[डोम]] # '''[[छें]]''' # [[नंकी]] # निस्चित वास्तुत ## [[अस्वन ड्याम]] ## [[कोलोजियम]] ## [[चीनयागु तधंगु पखा]] ## [[आइफेल स्तम्भ]] ## [[एम्पायर स्टेट भवन]] ## [[फरबिडन नगर]] ## [[हेजिया सोफिया]] ## [[वेस्टमिन्स्टरयागु लायकु]] ## [[पार्थेनन्]] ## [[गिजायागु पिरामिड]] ## [[सन्त पिटरयागु बासिलिका]] ## [[ताज महल]] # [[पिरामिड]] # [[स्तम्भ]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 289 1437 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] moved to [[वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकारतेगु जीवनीयागु बारेये लेख| == म्हसिका == # [[पल सेजान्]] # [[ले कोर्बुसिएर्]] # [[साल्भाडोर् डाली]] # [[अल्ब्रेच्त् डेरर]] # '''[[विन्सेन्ट भ्यान ग:]]''' # [[फ्रान्सिस्को गोया]] # [[विलियम होगर्थ्]] # [[होकुसाइ]] # [[फ्रीदा काह्लो]] # [[एडुआर्ड म्यानेट]] # [[हेन्री मतिसे]] # '''[[माइकेलएन्जेलो]]''' # [[क्लाउड मोनेट]] # [[ज्योर्जिया ओ'कीफ]] # '''[[पाब्लो पिकासो]]''' # [[ज्याक्सन पोलक]] # [[निकोलस पुस्सिन]] # [[राफेल]] # '''[[रेम्ब्रान्ड्ट]]''' # [[अगस्त् रोडिन]] # [[लुद्विग् माइस् भ्यान डर रोहे]] # [[डिएगो भेलाज्कुएज्]] # [[जोहानेस भर्मीर]] # [[भर्चुभियस]] # [[एन्डी वार्होल]] # [[क्रीस्टोफर व्रेन]] # [[फ्र्यान्क लोईड राइट]] [[Category:जीवनी]] 290 1439 2006-10-02T11:48:11Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/विकिपिडियाम्हि]] moved to [[विकिपिडियाम्हि]] '''Wikipedians''' are the people who write and edit articles for [[Wikipedia]]. Some people might think that '''Wikipedist''' would be a more appropriate name, as an [[encyclopedist]] is someone who contributes to an [[encyclopedia]]. The ending of '''Wikipedian''', though, suggests being part of a group or community. So in this sense, Wikipedians are people who form '''[[Wikipedia:Community Portal|The Wikipedia Community]]'''. The number of Wikipedians has grown to more than 1.6 million (1 600 000 &mdash; counting registered user accounts), plus an unknown, but quite large, number of unregistered contributors. Detailed statistical information about Wikipedia is available at [[Wikipedia:Statistics]]. The diversity of Wikipedians renders it nearly impossible to make many categorical statements about Wikipedians as a whole. Information about many registered Wikipedians is available on their user pages. However, users are not required to create these pages or post information on them. You could think of Wikipedians as a global ant colony, except there's no queen, and users choose their own roles. Some Wikipedians [[WP:WC|welcome newcomers]]; some Wikipedians [[WP:KC|award those whom they feel deserve awards]]. Some upload images; some work on history articles; and still others work on reverting vandalism. Many take on all of these tasks. Whatever you decide to do, every Wikipedian is valuable. This page contains lists of Wikipedians by country, as well as various other groupings. Different categories have been created due to demand. Individual Wikipedians may add themselves to appropriate lists if they wish. It is suggested that if you put your name on one of the more specific lists, you should also include it on the alphabetical list. ==Listing by area of responsibility== Some Wikipedians have additional responsibility or authority. Here is a list of functional groups at Wikipedia itself: * [[Wikipedia:Arbitration committee|Arbitration committee]] * [[m:OTRS/personnel|OTRS personnel who answer email sent to the Wikipedia contact address]] (list includes other languages and projects as well) * [[Wikipedia:Bureaucrats|"Bureaucrats" who can change user names, and make certain user rights changes]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Administrators]] * [[Wikipedia:IRC]] - Wikipedians who can deal with management issues regarding the #wikipedia IRC channel at Freenode * [[Wikipedia:Requests for checkuser]] - Involved in certain types of abuse investigations * [[Wikipedia:Mailing list]] - Mailing list moderation and management In addition there are some groups that serve the entire Wikimedia foundation, including Wikipedians in languages other than English and sister projects such as commons, Wiktionary, and Wikibooks: * [[m:Board of Trustees]] - Oversight * [[m:Developers]] - Technical access to servers * [[m:IRC Group Contacts|Freenode IRC contacts]] - dealing with permissions, hostname cloaks, and related IRC matters * [[m:Stewards]] - Can revoke permissions when necessary and will grant permissions on small projects that lack an internal process for doing so Finally there are several key individuals who have special responsibilities unique to them: * [[User:Jimbo Wales|Jimbo Wales]], project founder * [[User:Danny|Danny Wool]], deals with most inquries by phone and U.S. mail and coordinates handling of legal complaints * [[User:BradPatrick|Brad Patrick]], attorney who volunteers his time to serve Wikipedia [[Image:ducks in a pram.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Wikipedians are a colorful group of individuals that enjoy contributing to society by compiling and distributing useful information over the Internet in their ample free time.]] == Listing by region == See [[:Category:Wikipedians]] and [[:Category:Wikipedians by location]] for more info. '''Please see the new project page at [[Wikipedia:User categorisation]] to help!''' ==Other listings== All lists are strictly voluntary. We encourage you to spend your time categorising our encyclopedic content, rather than categorising yourself! '''Many of these lists are eligible for replacement by categories.''' '''Please see [[Wikipedia:User categorization]] to help!''' * [[Wikipedia:Deceased Wikipedians|Deceased Wikipedians]] * [[:Category:Wikipedians in high school|by those attending high school]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians by alma mater|by alma mater]] (current or former higher education institution) **[[:Category:Wikipedians by alma mater]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by culture|by culture]] * [[:Category:Wikipedians by D&D Alignment|by D&D alignment]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians by Erdős number|Wikipedians by Erdős number]] **[[:Category:Wikipedians by Erdős number]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians by fields of interest|by field of interest]] **[[:Category:Wikipedians by fields of interest]] * [[Wikipedia:Instant Messaging Wikipedians|by instant messaging service used]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians with articles|with articles]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by number of edits|by number of edits]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians by organization|by organization]] **[[:Category:Wikipedians by organization]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians by pet|by pet]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians in order of arrival|in order of arrival]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by martial art|by martial art]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by military branch|by military branch]] * [[Wikipedia:Missing Wikipedians|missing Wikipedians]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians/Green users|by support for environmental causes]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians/Punks|by interest in punk music]] * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians/Surrealist Wikipedians|by degree of surrealism]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by language|by language]] **[[:Category:Wikipedians by language]] and [[:Category:User languages]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by interest in literature|by interest in literature]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by age|by age]] * [[Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by interest in sport|by interest in sport]] * [[Wikipedia:Userboxes/Interests]] ===Listings on [[meta:|Meta-Wiki]]=== * [[meta:Wikimedians by birthday|by birthday]] * [[meta:Wikipedians by college major or degree|by college major or degree]] * [[meta:Wikipedians#Gender and sexuality|by gender]] * [[meta:Wikimedians by MBTI type|by MBTI type]] * [[meta:Wikipedians by race|by race]] * [[meta:Wikipedians by religion|by religion]] * [[meta:Wikipedians categorized by sub-cultural affiliation|by sub-cultural affiliation]] * [[meta:Wikipedians who use thefacebook|by thefacebook name and location]] * [[meta:Wikipedians by age|by year of birth]] ==Skills-based listings== We can all string a few words together (some better than others), but Wikipedia is in need of contributors with ''other'' skills. If you are proficient in any of the following skills, please add your ''technological distinctiveness to the collective''. * [[/Cartographers|Cartographers]] * [[/Graphic Artists|Graphic Artists]] * [[/Photographers|Photographers]] * [[/Transcribers|Transcribers]] * [[/Translators|Translators]] * [[/Technical Communicators|Technical Communicators]] * [[/Historians|Historians]] ==Wikipedian associations== Some Wikipedians have formed [[voluntary association]]s to participate in various activities on Wikipedia. Consult their pages if you are interested in joining. ==See also== * [[Wikipedia:List of administrators]] * [[Meta:Wikipedian]] * [[Wikipedia:Facebook]], for pictures of Wikipedians * [[Wikipedia:Wikipediholic]] * [[M:Wikipedians who blog]] 291 1441 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/विकिमीडिया कथंया ख्य:त]] moved to [[विकिमीडिया कथंया ख्य:त]] 292 1443 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/विचा, व्यवहार व भावना]] moved to [[विचा, व्यवहार व भावना]] # [[चानाच्वंगु अवस्था]] # [[भावना]] ## [[तं]] ## [[ग्याईगु]] ## [[लेताईगु]] ## [[मयैगु]] ## [[मतिना]] ## [[नुग मछिनिगु]] # [[मस्तिस्क]] # [[न्ह्य]] ## [[म्हग:स]] # [[बिचा:]] 293 2630 2006-10-12T21:36:40Z Eukesh 11 {{portal}} # [[विज्ञान]] # [[वैज्ञानिक तव]] ==म्हसीका== '''विज्ञान''' दक्ले तधंगु कथलं प्रमाण बीफैगु कथलं मुंकातगु ज्ञानयागु व्यवसथा ख:| भछ कुण्ठित कथंन धायेमासा विज्ञान धागु ज्ञान आर्जन याइगु चगु व्यवस्था ख:| थ्व व्यवस्था यागु जग [[ईम्पेरिसिजम्]], [[प्रयोग]], व पध्दतीय प्रारितिवाद (अप्राअकृतिकयात माने मयायेगु), व मनु तेसं मालेज्यायाना लुइकु ज्ञानयागु संघ ख| विज्ञान प्रकृतियागु जटिलतायात सामान्य, सीकातगु व हानं क्येनेफैगु तवलं थुइकिगु छगु कुत ख:| [[Category:विज्ञान]] 294 2316 2006-10-10T20:42:29Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[विधान]]''' # [[अपराध]] # [[संविधान]] # निश्चित भ्वं त ## [[म्याग्ना कार्टा]] ## [[लेभियाथन]] ## [[रिपब्लिक (प्लेटो)]] ## [[द कम्युनिस्ट म्यानिफेस्टो]] [[Category:समाज]] 295 4005 2006-10-16T17:33:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:VanGogh 1887 Selbstbildnis.jpg|thumb|right|विन्सेन्ट भ्यान ग:]] {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 296 1451 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/विलियम बट्लर यिट्स्]] moved to [[विलियम बट्लर यिट्स्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 297 1453 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/विलियम ब्लेक]] moved to [[विलियम ब्लेक]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 298 1455 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/विलियम शेक्स्पियर]] moved to [[विलियम शेक्स्पियर]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 299 3831 2006-10-16T15:36:12Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 300 1459 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/विल्लेम् वारेन्ट्स्]] moved to [[विल्लेम् वारेन्ट्स्]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 301 1461 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/वुल्फग्यांग अमेडियस मोजार्ट]] moved to [[वुल्फग्यांग अमेडियस मोजार्ट]] [[Category:रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] 302 1463 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/शहर]] moved to [[शहर]] # [[एम्स्टर्ड्याम]] # [[एथेन्स]] # [[बग्दाद]] # [[बैंकक]] # [[बार्सेलोना]] # [[बेइजिङ्]] # [[बेइरुत्]] # [[बेल्ग्रेड]] # [[बर्लिन्]] # [[ब्रसेल्स्]] # [[बुडापेस्ट]] # [[ब्युनोस आइरेस]] # [[काइरो]] # [[केप टाउन]] # [[चेन्नाई]] # [[सिकागो]] # [[कोपेनहेगन]] # [[दमास्कस]] # [[डब्लिन]] # [[एडिन्बर्ग]] # [[फ्लोरेन्स]] # [[फ्र्यान्कफर्ट]] # [[ह्याम्बर्ग]] # [[हनोइ]] # [[हो चि मिन्ह् सहर]] # '''[[हङ कङ]]''' # [[इस्तान्बुल]] # [[जकार्ता]] # '''[[जेरुसालेम]]''' # [[जोहन्नेस्बर्ग]] # [[करांची]] # [[कोलकाता]] # [[क्योटो]] # [[लिस्बोन]] # '''[[लन्डन]]''' # [[लस एन्जेल्स्]] # [[मनिला]] # [[माद्री]] # [[मेक्का]] # [[मेलबोर्न]] # [[मेक्सिको सहर]] # [[मिलान]] # [[मोन्तृयल]] # [[मस्को]] # [[मुम्बै]] # [[म्युनिख]] # [[नैरोबी]] # [[नान्जिङ]] # [[नेपल्स]] # [[न्हु दिल्ली]] # '''[[पेरिस]]''' # [[प्राग]] # [[रियो दि ज्यानेरियो]] # '''[[रोम]]''' # [[सन्त पिटरस्बर्ग]] # [[साओ पौलो]] # [[सोल]] # [[शाङ्हाइ]] # [[सिङ्गापोर]] # [[स्टकहोम]] # [[सिड्नी]] # [[टाईपेई]] # [[तेहरान]] # [[तेल अभिभ]] # '''[[टोक्यो]]''' # [[टोरोन्टो]] # [[भेनिस]] # [[भियना]] # [[वार्स]] # [[वाशिङटन, डी सी]] 303 1465 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/शून्यता]] moved to [[शून्यता]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 304 2769 2006-10-14T19:00:52Z Eukesh 11 '''संकिपा''' (Motion Picture) [[Category:संस्कृति]] 305 2774 2006-10-14T19:02:44Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[संकिपा]]''' ## [[संकिपा (देकातगु)]] ## [[स:मदु संकिपा]] ## [[स्टुडियो व्यवस्था]] # '''[[रेडियो]]''' # '''[[टेलेभिजन]]''' [[Category:संस्कृति]] 306 1471 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/संकिपा निर्देशक व लेखक]] moved to [[संकिपा निर्देशक व लेखक]] # [[इङमार् बर्गम्यान]] # [[वाल्ट डिज्नी]] # [[सेर्गेइ आइसेन्स्टाइन]] # [[अल्फ्रेड हिच्कक्]] # [[अकिरा कुरोसावा]] # [[फृत्ज् लाङ्]] # [[ज्योर्ज लुकास्]] # [[फ्रान्सेस् मारियोन]] # [[लेनी रीफेन्स्टाल]] # [[मार्टिन स्कोर्सेसे]] # [[स्टिभन स्पिलबर्ग]] 307 2777 2006-10-14T19:06:27Z Eukesh 11 # '''[[संगीत]]''' # [[कम्प्याक्ट डिस्क]] # [[म्ये]] # निस्चित संगीत विधा ## [[युरोपेली शास्त्रीय संगीत]] ### [[ओपेरा]] ### [[सिम्फोनी]] ## [[लोक संगीत]] ### [[गेमेलान]] ### [[भारतीय शास्त्रीय संगीत]] ## [[ज्याज्]] ## [[पप संगीत]] ## [[रेगे]] ## [[रीदम एन्ड ब्लुज्]] ### [[सोल संगीत]] ## [[रक एन्ड रोल]] ### [[हेभी मेटल संगीत]] # निस्चित बाजं ## [[ड्रम]] ## [[बांसुरी]] ## [[गीतार]] ## [[पियानो]] ## [[तार बाजं]] ## [[ट्रम्पेट]] ## [[भायोलिन]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 308 3215 2006-10-14T21:17:25Z Eukesh 11 # [[संचार]] # [[जानकरी]] # [[पत्रकारिता]] ## [[बुखंपौ]] ## [[मास मिडिया]] # [[छापेज्या]] # [[रेल लं]] # [[टेलेग्राफी]] # [[टेलेफोन]] ## [[मोबाइल टेलेफोन]] [[Category:प्रविधि]] 309 1477 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/संविधान]] moved to [[संविधान]] '''संविधान''' (Constitution) 310 2382 2006-10-12T05:53:23Z 128.12.61.106 Interwiki links; I am [[en:User:Mxn]] [[vi:Thành viên:Mxn]] {{portal}} संकृतियात "सारा समाजयागु म्वायेगु पह" धाये छिं| थुकिया कथं संस्कृतिले ज्यायायेगु पह, वस, भाय, धर्म, परम्परा, व्यवहारयायेगु तव, व आस्थायागु व्यवस्था आदि ला वै। सस्कृतियात मनुयागु ज्या थींथीं कथंयागु थुयिगु सिद्धान्तया आधारे थींथीं कथलं परिभाषित यागु दु| # '''[[संस्कृति]]''' # '''[[कला]]''' ## [[कमिक]] ## [[किपा खेस्रा]] ## [[किपा]] ## [[शील्पकला]] ### [[कुमालज्या]] # '''[[प्याखं]]''' # [[फेसन]] # '''[[दबु]]''' ## [[ब्रोडवे दबु]] ## [[नोह्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] [[ar:ثقافة]] [[an:Cultura]] [[ast:Cultura]] [[bn:সংস্কৃতি]] [[zh-min-nan:Bûn-hoà]] [[be:Культура]] [[bs:Kultura]] [[ca:Cultura]] [[cs:Kultura]] [[da:Kultur]] [[de:Kultur]] [[el:Πολιτισμός]] [[en:संस्कृति]] [[es:Cultura]] [[eo:Kulturo]] [[eu:Kultura]] [[fr:Culture]] [[fy:Kultuer]] [[fur:Culture]] [[ko:문화]] [[hi:संस्कृति]] [[hr:Kultura]] [[io:Kulturo]] [[ia:Cultura]] [[is:Menning]] [[it:Cultura]] [[he:תרבות]] [[csb:Kùltura]] [[ku:Çand]] [[lad:Kultura]] [[lt:Kultūra]] [[jbo:kulnu]] [[hu:Kultúra]] [[mk:Култура]] [[ml:സംസ്കാരം]] [[mo:Културэ]] [[nah:Cultura]] [[nl:Cultuur]] [[ja:文化]] [[no:Kultur]] [[nn:Kultur]] [[ng:Hastangi]] [[ug:مەدەنىيەت]] [[pap:Kultura]] [[nds:Kultur]] [[pl:Kultura]] [[pt:Cultura]] [[ro:Cultură]] [[ru:Культура]] [[sq:Kultura]] [[scn:Cultura]] [[simple:Culture]] [[sk:Kultúra (spoločenské vedy)]] [[sl:Kultura]] [[sr:Култура]] [[fi:Kulttuuri]] [[sv:Kultur]] [[tl:Kultura]] [[ta:பண்பாடு]] [[tt:Mädäniät]] [[vi:Văn hóa]] [[tr:Kültür]] [[uk:Культура]] [[ur:ثقافت]] [[zh-yue:文化]] [[zh:文化]] 311 2699 2006-10-14T15:41:35Z Eukesh 11 /* डिजिटल् रूपे परिवर्तन */ '''सफु'''(अंग्रेजी:Book) धागु च्वया तगु वा च्वेत देका तगु भों यात सुका, स्टिच आदि नं छपं देका तगु ज्ञान यागु मंका ख:|कम्प्युटरले ब्वोनिगु [[ई-सफु]] थ्व धापु यागु अपवाद ख:| == सफु यागु ईतिहास == === सुरुवात === मनु नं म्हुतुं ल्ह्यागु भाय् यागु आविष्कार याना छम्ह मनु न मेम्ह मनु नाप थगु न्हेपुले वगु धापु कने फत| तर म्हुतुं ल्ह्यागु भाय् यागु येक्क्व कम्जोरी त खने दत| विशेष याना थन्यागु भाय् नं मनु यागु धापु तापागु थाय् व ता ई ले येंके मफुगु छगु कमजोरी खने दत| उकिया धुन्का च्वेगु संस्कृति या विकास जुल| दक्ले न्हापा मनु तेसं लोंह, सिमाया ह:, चा, सीं, काप, धातु आदि येक्व वस्तुले च्वे सुरु यात| तर छगु थाय् नं मेगु थाय् ले येन्केत व स्वथना तेत अपुईगुलीं सीं, पौ व कापले आलेख त च्वेगु चलन अप्वया वल| येक्क्व ई तक्क तुइगु व मौसम नं मस्येन्किगु जुसां ध्येबा अप्व तुइगु, च्वेत व स्वथनेत थाकुइगु जुलीं लोहं व धातु लेच्वेगु चलन सार्वजनिक थासे तैगु शिलालेख ले जक्क सिमित जुल|येक्व बिचा चिकिचा धंगु थासे स्वथनेत व तौल कम जुगुलीं छगु थासं मेगु थासे येन्केत दक्ले अपुगु माध्यम पौ व काप हे जुल| === पौ === मनु यागु बिचा भ्वं व कापते च्वैगु चलन जुल| कापते च्वेगु थिके जुइगु व कापते च्वेत थाकुइगु जुगुलीं लिपा वना भ्वंया पौ ले च्वेगु चलन वल| भ्वंया पौ ले च्वे बिले न्हापा न्हापा मिश्र व युनानले छगु हे ता हाकगु भ्वंते फुकं बिचा च्वया उकित तुला ब्वनिगु पध्दति या विकास जुल| थन्यागु सफु यात स्क्रोल(अंग्रेजी:scroll) धाई| तर स्क्रोलले ब्व्नेत थाकुइगुलीं पौ तेत छगु आकारले चाना फुकं चाना तगु पौ तेत छ्गु प्व ले चिनातेगु व मालीबिले जक्क लिकाना ब्वनिगु छगु पध्दतिया विकास जुल। थन्यागु सफुत थौं कन्हे नं स्तोत्र ले छ्येला तगु दु| थन्यागु सफुया पौ त तने फैगु जुलीं फुकं पौ त चिना छगु हे सफुले पौ या मंका देकिगु ज्या जुल| थन्यागु भ्वोंया पौ चिना तगु विचाया मंका या सफु थौं तक्क न छ्येला च्वंगु दु| === पाण्डुलिपि === भ्वंया पौ यात चिना तैगु सफु च्वेगु ज्या येक्व ई तक्क जुल| थन्यागु ल्हातं च्वैगु सफु यात पाण्डुलिपि धाई| रोमन साम्राज्यया पतन धुंका थन्यागु पाण्डुलिपि या सफु तेसं ज्ञान स्वथना तेत व उकित परिमार्जित यात येक्व ग्वालि यागु दु| तर ल्हातं च्वेगु सफु येक्व मनुतेत छकलं बि थाकुइगु व ल्हातं च्वेबिले गलती जुइगु जुगुलीं थ्व स्वया नं दक्ष छगु व्यवस्था मागु जुल| === ब्लक छापा === ब्लक छापाया विकास छम्ह जर्मन मनु योहान गुटेन्बर्ग नं यात| === आधुनिक हलिम === == सफु यागु स्वरूप == छगु सफुले आम रूपे क्वे बिया तगु खण्ड त दै:- * सफुया आवरण * आवरण पौ * ल्याखं दुगु पौत * देछाना पौ * विषय सूची * मू पौ * मू सफु * ईन्डेक्स् (अंग्रेजी:Index) == संरक्षण == सफु धागु ज्ञानयागु मंका जुगुलीं थुकिगु संरक्षण याये मा| पूलांगु सफु तेसं व सफु यागु ई यु मनु यागु विचार यात प्रतिविम्बित याई| हानं अन्यागु सफुया मूलरूप संरक्षण यानाते फुसा अब्ले यागु मनु तेगु ज्ञानयागु बारे लिपा या मनु तेसं न ज्ञान काये फै| अथे जुलीं पूलांगु सफु तेगु संरक्षण यात येक्क्व कुत जुया च्वंगु दु| == सफुया मंका == मनु यागु ईतिहासे कम्प्युटर यात ल्या मखासा वैचारिक क्रान्तिले दक्ले तधंगु योगदान सफु नं बिया तगु दु|अथे जुगुलीं सफु तेत मनु यागु समाजया दुने मूंका तेगु व अन्यागु मूंका तगु सफु यात मनु तेसं ब्वने फैगु छगु व्यवस्थाया विकास जुगु दु| थन्यागु सफु या मंका यात [[सफुधुकु]] (अंग्रेजी: Library) धाई| == सफुया व्यवस्थापन == == डिजिटल् रूपे परिवर्तन == [[Category:संस्कृति]] 312 1483 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/सफो]] moved to [[सफो]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 313 2244 2006-10-10T20:19:10Z Eukesh 11 {{portal}} # '''[[समाज]]''' # [[मानवशास्त्र]] # [[सभ्यता]] # [[कम्युनिटी]] # [[म्हल्याखं]] # '''[[शिक्षा]]''' # [[नुगखंशास्त्र]] # [[समाजशास्त्र]] [[Category:समाज]] 314 1487 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/समाज विज्ञान]] moved to [[समाज विज्ञान]] '''समाज विज्ञान''' (Sociology) 315 1489 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/समाज शास्त्री (विचारक, अर्थशास्त्री व ईतिहासकार)]] moved to [[समाज शास्त्री (विचारक, अर्थशास्त्री व ई� # [[थोमस ईकुइनास]] # '''[[एरिस्टोटल]]''' # [[हिप्पोयाम्ह अगस्टिन]] # [[आवेरोस्]] # [[सिमोन् दे बीउभ्वा]] # [[रेने डेस्कार्टेस्]] # [[ईमिली डर्खीम]] # [[राल्फ वाल्डो इमरसन]] # [[माइकल फोकल्ट]] # '''[[सिग्मन्ड फ्राईड]]''' # [[एडवार्ड गिबन]] # [[योहान् वुल्फ्ग्याङ भोन् गोथे]] # [[जेर्माइन ग्रीर्]] # [[हेरोडोटस]] # [[जोर्ज विल्हेम फ्रेडरिच हेगेल]] # [[हिप्पोक्रेटस]] # [[इम्यानुयल केन्ट]] # [[मार्टिन लुथर]] # [[रोजा लक्जेम्बर्ग]] 316 1491 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/सरकार]] moved to [[सरकार]] '''सरकार''' (Government) 317 1493 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/सरगया विज्ञान]] moved to [[सरगया विज्ञान]] थुकिले दुने निगु कथंया विज्ञान ला:- [[एस्ट्रोनोमी]] (Astronomy) व [[ज्योतिषि शास्त्र]] (Astrology)| 318 2363 2006-10-10T21:02:19Z Eukesh 11 # [[एबोर्सन]] # [[जन्म दिकिगु]] # '''[[मृत्युदण्ड]]''' # [[स्वतन्त्रता]] # [[लिंग]] # '''[[मनु अधिकार]]''' # [[रंगभेदी]] # [[लिंगभेदी]] # '''[[दासप्रथा]]''' # [[हलिम शान्ति]] [[Category:समाज]] 319 1497 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/सामाजिक विज्ञान]] moved to [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''सामाजिक विज्ञान''' (Sociology) 320 4010 2006-10-16T17:50:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Salvador_Dal%C3%AD_1954.jpg|thumb|right|साल्भाडोर् डाली]] {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 321 1766 2006-10-10T17:09:20Z Eukesh 11 {{wp/new/प्राचीन मेसोपोटामिया}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 322 1503 2006-10-02T11:48:12Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/सेना]] moved to [[सेना]] '''सेना''' (Army) 323 1505 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/सोफोकल्स्]] moved to [[सोफोकल्स्]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 324 1507 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/स्कन्ध]] moved to [[स्कन्ध]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 325 3300 2006-10-14T21:45:30Z Eukesh 11 # [[हतियार]] # [[बन्चरो]] # [[मुइगु वस्तु]] ## [[बन्दुकचूं]] # [[मि अस्त्र]] # [[मेशिन बन्दुक]] # [[आणविक हतियार]] # [[तरवार]] # [[ट्यान्क]] [[Category:प्रविधि]] 326 1511 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/हलिम (बौद्ध)]] moved to [[हलिम (बौद्ध)]] {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} [[Category:बौद्ध]] 327 1513 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/हलिम विज्ञान]] moved to [[हलिम विज्ञान]] हलिम वा पृथ्वि विज्ञान (Geology) ले हलिमयागु खं सिका कायेगु ज्या जुइ| 328 1515 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/हान्स् क्रीस्टियन एन्डर्सेन]] moved to [[हान्स् क्रीस्टियन एन्डर्सेन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 329 1517 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/हेनृक इब्सेन]] moved to [[हेनृक इब्सेन]] [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 330 3834 2006-10-16T15:37:13Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 331 1521 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/हेर्न्यान कोर्टीस]] moved to [[हेर्न्यान कोर्टीस]] [[Category:अनवेषक]] 332 3830 2006-10-16T15:35:50Z Eukesh 11 {{वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार}} [[Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 333 1525 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Wp/new/होमर]] moved to [[होमर]] '''होमर''' (युनानी भाय:Ὅμηρος ''होमेरोस्'') छम्ह नांजाम्ह [[प्राचीन युनान|प्राचीन युनानी]] कवि ख:| अन्दाजी ८औ शताव्दी ई पू ले म्वानादिम्ह वेकलं "[[ईलियाड]]" व "[[ओडिसी]]" च्वया दिगु धागु विश्वास दु| == म्हसीका == [[Image:William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - Homer and his Guide (1874).jpg|thumb|right|होमर व वेकयागु पथप्रदर्शक, [[विलियम-अडोल्फ बुजुयेरु]] (१८२५-१९०५)यागु किपा]] युनानी बाखंया कथं होमर छम्ह कां मनु ख:| वेक बुगु था गन ख: धका आ तक्क नं विभिन्न [[आयोनिक]] थायया दथुई वादविवाद दु| शास्त्री तेगु दथुई होमर धाम्ह छम्ह मनु हे ख: कि छगु विधायागु काव्य ब्वनिपिं कवित: ख: धका नं वादविवाद दु| युनानीले "होमेरोस" धागु "अपहरित मनु" ख:| छगु सिद्धान्तयागु कथं थ्व नां होमेरिडे अर्थात अपहरित व्यक्तित: वा युद्धबन्दी नं उत्पत्ति जुल| थन्यापिं युद्धबन्दी तेत थगु युद्धले छ्वे बिले ईमान तैइ मखु धका साक्षरता वे स्वया न्ह्य ईपिन्त ऐतिहासिक काव्यत: लुमंका तेगु व मे पिन्त मालिबिले कनिगु ज्या बिया तगु जुइमा धका व सिद्धान्तले विचा मुंका तगु दु| ''इलियाड'' व ''ओडिसी''छम्ह हे मनु नं च्वगु विषयले येक्व वादविवाद दु। येक्व मनुतेत ओडिसी हे छम्ह मनु नं च्वगु जुईफैमखु धाइगु विचा दु धासा मेपिनिगु विचाले छ्वेगु शैली यागु समानता व छगु हे कथलं वनाच्वनिगु लेख(कन्सिस्टेन्सी)या आधारे उकिगु च्वमि छम्ह हे जुइमा धैगु मत दु| ''ब्याट्रकोमायोम्याचिया'', होमरिय हिम्न्, व चाकृक काव्य ईलियाड व ओडिसी स्वया लिपायागु रचना ख: धका प्राय फुकेस्यां स्वीकार या|ईलियाड व ओडिसीयागु प्रमुख खण्ड होमरं च्वगु धका साधारण रुपे निगु मत मदु| [[Category:लेखक व कवि]] 334 1811 2006-10-10T17:30:22Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 336 1529 2006-10-02T11:48:13Z 127.0.0.1 [[Template:Wp/new/Template:Browsebar]] moved to [[Template:Template:Browsebar]] <div id="browsebar"></div> <div style="margin-top:-3px; margin-bottom:0.2em; text-align: center; font-size: 98%;"><!-- These should be fundamental portals --> [[Portal:जीवनी|जीवनी]] | [[Portal:ईतिहास|ईतिहास]] | [[Portal:भूगोल|भूगोल]] | [[Portal:समाज|समाज]] | [[Portal:संस्कृति|संस्कृति]] | [[Portal:विज्ञान|विज्ञान]] | [[Portal:प्रविधि|प्रविधि]] | [[Portal:नसला|नसला]] | [[Portal:गणित|गणित]]</div> 337 3552 2006-10-15T21:01:24Z Eukesh 11 {{Wikipedia:Wikiportal/box-footer | {{{1}}} }} 338 840 2006-09-27T18:29:05Z Eukesh [[Wp/new/Template:पोर्टल:Box-header]] moved to [[Template:Wp/new/पोर्टल:Box-header]] <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div style="position: relative;<!-- -->border: 1px solid {{{titleborder|{{{border|#ababab}}}}}};<!-- -->background: {{{titlebackground|#bcbcbc}}};<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};<!-- -->padding: .1em;<!-- -->text-align: center;<!-- -->font-weight: bold;<!-- -->font-size: 100%;<!-- -->margin-bottom: 0px;<!-- -->border-bottom: none;"><!-- --><span class="plainlinks" <!-- -->style="position: absolute;<!-- -->top: 1px;<!-- -->right: 1px;<!-- -->background: transparent;<!-- -->border: 0px;<!-- -->margin-bottom:.1em;<!-- -->font-size:80%;<!-- -->font-weight: normal;<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};"><!-- -->[{{fullurl:{{{editpage|/}}}|action=edit}} <span style="color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">edit</span>]{{{top| }}}&nbsp;<!-- --></span ><!-- --><h2 style="font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;border: none; margin: 0; padding:0; padding-bottom:.1em; color:{{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">{{{title}}}</h2><!-- --></div> <div style="display: block;<!-- -->border: {{{border-width|1}}}px solid {{{border|#ababab}}};<!-- -->vertical-align: top;<!-- -->background: {{{background|#fefeef}}};<!-- -->color: {{{foreground|#000000}}};<!-- -->margin-bottom: 10px;<!-- -->padding: 1em;<!-- -->margin-top: 0em;<!-- -->padding-top: .3em;"><!-- -->__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__<noinclude>Test text with [[link]] Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum.{{Portal:Box-footer}} [[sr:Портал:Заглавље]] </noinclude> 339 1768 2006-10-10T17:11:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Template:Wp/new/प्राचीन मेसोपोटामिया]] moved to [[Template:प्राचीन मेसोपोटामिया]] {| class="infobox" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%;" ! style="background:#F6E6AE;" | '''[[मेसोपोटामिया|प्राचीन मेसोपोटामिया]]''' |- | [[युफ्रेटस]] &ndash; [[टिग्रीस]] |- | [[असीरियाशास्त्र]] |- ! style="background:#F6E6AE;" | '''नगर / साम्राज्य''' |- | '''[[सुमेर]]''': [[उरुक]] &ndash; [[उर]] &ndash; [[ईरिदु]] |- | [[किश (सुमेर)|किश]] &ndash; [[लगाश]] &ndash; [[निप्पुर]] |- | '''[[अक्काडिय साम्राज्य]]''': [[अक्काड]] |- | [[बेबिलोन]] &ndash; [[इसिन]] &ndash; [[सुस]] |- | '''[[असीरिया]]''': [[असुर]] &ndash; [[निनेभे]] |- | [[डर-शरुकिन|शरुकिन]] &ndash; [[निम्रुड]] |- | '''[[बेबिलोनिया]]''' &ndash; '''[[चाल्देय]]''' |- | '''[[एलाम]]''' &ndash; '''[[अमोराइट]]''' |- | '''[[हुरियन]]''' &ndash; '''[[मितानी]]''' |- |'''[[कस्साइट]]''' &ndash; '''[[उरारतु]]''' |- ! style="background:#F6E6AE;" | '''[[प्राचीन नापं पूर्वयागु कालचक्र|कालचक्र]]''' |- | [[सुमेरयागु जुजुपिं]] |- | [[असीरियायागु जुजुपिं]] |- | [[बेबिलोनयागु जुजुपिं]] |- ! style="background:#F6E6AE;" | '''भाय''' |- | [[क्युनिफर्म लिपि]] |- | [[सुमेरी भाय]] &ndash; [[अक्काडी भाय]] |- | [[एलामेली भाय]] &ndash; [[हुरीय भाय]] |- ! style="background:#F6E6AE;" | '''[[मेसोपोटामियाली मिथोलोजी|मिथोलोजी]]''' |- | [[एनुमा एलिश]] |- | [[गिल्गामेश]] &ndash; [[मार्दुक]] |- |} 340 869 2006-10-02T11:41:24Z Incubator import 6 Fixing internal links {| class="infobox" style="float: right; text-align: center; font-size: 85%; clear:right; border: 3px solid #af4630;" |- | style="background:#FFFFCC;" colspan="2" |<font size=4>'''[[बौद्ध धर्म]]'''</font> <small>[[:Category:बौद्ध|<span style="color:#8B7B8B">श्रेणी</span>]] </small><br /> <br /> ----- [[Image:Lotus75.png]]<br> |- | '''[[बौद्ध धर्मयागु ईतिहास]]'''<br /> [[बौद्ध धर्मयागु कालचक्र]]<br /> [[बौद्ध संघ]]<br /> |- | '''[[बौद्ध शब्दावली व विचार|जग]]'''<br /> [[चत्तरी आर्य सच्छनि]]<br /> [[अरियो अट्ठङ्गीको मग्गो]]<br /> [[पञ्चशील]]<br /> [[निर्वाण]] · [[त्रिरत्न]]<br /> |- | '''[[बौद्ध शब्दावली व विचार|प्रमुख विचार]]'''<br /> [[त्रिलक्षण]]<br /> [[स्कन्ध]] · [[बौद्ध ब्रह्माण्ड|ब्रह्माण्ड]] · [[धर्म (बौद्ध)|धर्म]] <br /> [[हलिम (बौद्ध)|हलिम]] · [[पूर्नजन्म (बौद्ध)|पूर्नजन्म]] · [[शून्यता]]<br /> [[प्रतित्य-समुत्पाद]] · [[कर्म (बौद्ध)|कर्म]]<br /> |- | '''[[बौद्ध सूची|मू मनुत:]]'''<br /> [[गौतम बुद्ध]]<br /> [[:Category:बुद्धयागु चेलात:|बुद्धयागु चेलात:]] · [[:Category:बुद्धयागु जहान|बुद्धयागु जहान]]<br /> |- | '''[[:Category:बौद्ध ध्यान|प्रयास व उपलब्धि]]'''<br> [[बुद्ध|बुद्धत्त्व]] · [[बोधिसत्त्व]]<br> [[अर्हतयागु प्यंगु त्वाथत:]]<br> [[पारमिता]] · [[ध्यान (बौद्ध)|ध्यान]]<br> |- | '''[[थाय कथंयागु बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी]]'''<br /> [[दक्षिणपूर्वी एसियाली बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी|दक्षिणपूर्वी एसियाली]] · [[पूर्वी एसियाली बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी|पूर्वी एसियाली]] <br> [[तिब्बती बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी|तिब्बती]] · [[भारतीय बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी|भारतीय]] · [[पाश्चात्य बौद्ध धर्मावलम्बी|पाश्चात्य]]<br /> |- | '''[[बौद्ध धर्मयागु ख्य:त:]]'''<br /> [[थेरवाद]] · [[महायान]]<br /> [[बज्रयान]] · [[प्राचीन मेमेगु ख्य:त:]]<br /> |- | '''[[बौद्ध ग्रन्थ|ग्रन्थ]]'''<br /> [[सुत्त पिटक]] · [[महायान सुत्र]] <br /> [[बिनय पिटक]] · [[अभिधम्म पिटक]]<br /> |- | '''[[:Category:कम्पेरेटिभ बौद्ध धर्म]]''' <br /> '''[[बौद्ध धर्मयागु सांस्कृतिक पक्ष|सांस्कृतिक पक्ष]]''' · '''[[बौद्ध धर्मयागु विषय|विषय]]''' <br /> '''[[Portal:Wp/new/बौद्ध धर्म|बौद्ध धर्म]]'''<br> [[Image:Dharma_wheel_1.png]] <center>{{Tnavbar|बौद्ध}}</center> |} 341 870 2006-10-02T11:41:24Z Incubator import 6 Fixing internal links {| class="infobox" width=220px cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:center; border: 1px solid #aaa; font-size:12px" |- !style="background:#B0C4DE; font-size:130%"| '''[[होलोकस्ट]]''' |- | |- !style="background: #d6e7ff; font-size:110%; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa;"| न्हापायागु तत्वत: |- | [[नाजी जर्मनीयागु जातीय नीति]]&nbsp;&middot; [[नाजी युजेनिक्स]]&nbsp;&middot; [[नुरेम्बर्ग विधानत:]]&nbsp;&middot; [[टी-४ युथेनेसियाअ ज्याझ्व]]&nbsp;&middot; [[नाजी कन्सन्ट्रेसन क्याम्प]]&nbsp;{{smaller|([[नाजी कन्सन्ट्रेसन क्याम्पयागु सुची]])}} |- !style="background:#d6e7ff; font-size:110%; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa;"| [[यहुदीतेगु विश्व युद्ध २ यागु ईतिहास]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| [[नाजी जर्मनीले यहुदी]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; [[होलोकस्टयागु नरसंहार]] : [[कृस्टलनाश्ट्]]&nbsp;&middot; [[एयासी नरसंहार]]&nbsp;&middot; [[जेद्वाब्न नरसंहार]]&nbsp;&middot; [[ल्वोव नरसंहार व होलोकस्ट]]&nbsp;&middot; [[लिजनेरतेगु प्रतिकार व बुचारेस्ट नरसंहार]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; [[१९३९-१९४४ले कब्जायनातगु युरोपयागु गेट्टोत:]] : [[वारस: गेट्टो]]&nbsp;&middot; [[लोड्ज गेट्टो]]&nbsp;&middot; [[ल्वोव गेट्टो]]&nbsp;&middot; [[क्राको गेट्टो]]&nbsp;&middot; [[थेरेसाइन्स्टाट कन्सन्ट्रेसन क्याम्प]]&nbsp;&middot; [[कोभ्नो गेट्टो]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; [[आइन्सात्ज्ग्रुपेन्]] : [[बाबि यार]]&nbsp;&middot; [[रुम्बुला]]&nbsp;&middot; [[पानेरियाइ]]&nbsp;&middot; [[ओडेसा नरसंहार]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; [[अन्तिम हल]] : [[वानसी कन्फरेन्स]]&nbsp;&middot; [[अपरेसन रीनहार्ड]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; [[स्याइगु क्याम्प]] : [[केल्म्नो स्याइगु क्याम्प]]&nbsp;&middot; [[बेल्जेक स्याइगु क्याम्प|बेल्जेक]]&nbsp;&middot; [[सोबिबोर स्याइगु क्याम्प|सोबिबोर]]&nbsp;&middot; [[माज्डानेक]]&nbsp;&middot; [[ट्रेब्लिन्का स्याइगु क्याम्प|ट्रेब्लिन्का]]&nbsp;&middot; [[अश्विज कन्सन्ट्रेसन क्याम्प|अश्विज]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; [[यहुदी प्रतिकार ज्याखं]] : [[यहुदी पार्टिसान]]<br>[[गेट्टो प्रतिकार]]: [[वारस: गेट्टो प्रतिकार]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; विश्व युद्ध २ यागु अन्त्य : [[होलोकस्ट डेथ मार्च]]&nbsp;&middot; [[बेरिहा]]&nbsp;&middot; [[शेरित हा-प्लेटा]] |- !style="background:#d6e7ff; font-size:110%; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa;"| मेमेपिं पीडितपिं |- style="text-style:bold;" | [[जेनेरलप्लान ओस्ट]]&nbsp;&middot; [[विश्वयुद्ध २ ले पोल्याण्डये जुगु अत्याचार]]&nbsp;&middot; [[उस्टासे]]&nbsp;&middot; [[पोरास्मस्]]&nbsp;&middot; [[नाजी जर्मनीले समलिंगि]]&nbsp;&middot; [[नाजी जर्मनीले येहोवानयागु विट्नेस]]<!--&nbsp;&middot; [[फ्रीमेसन]] - not linked to a Holocaust-related article--> |- !style="background:#d6e7ff; font-size:110%; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa;" | सम्बन्धित पक्ष |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; [[नाजी जर्मनी]] : [[एडोल्फ हिटलर]]&nbsp;&middot; [[एडोल्फ आइशम्यान]]&nbsp;&middot; [[रीनहार्ड हेदृश्]]&nbsp;&middot; [[हीनृश हिमलर]]&nbsp;&middot; [[शुट्ज्स्टाफl|शुट्ज्स्टाफ]]&nbsp;&middot; [[गेस्टापो]]&nbsp;&middot; [[स्टर्माब्टील्याअंग]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; [[विश्व युद्ध २ले गैह्र-जर्मन नाजी समर्थक]] |- |style="text-align:left;"| ; परिणाम : [[नुरेमबर्ग ट्रायल]]&nbsp;&middot; [[अनाजीकरण]] |- !style="background:#d6e7ff; font-size:110%; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa;" | म्वापिं, पीडित व ग्वालियाईपिं |- | [[होलोकस्ट म्वापिनिगु सुची]]&nbsp;&middot; [[होलोकस्ट पीडितपिनिगु सुची]]&nbsp;&middot; [[होलोकस्टे यहुदीपिन्त ग्वालि यापिनिगु सुची]] |- !style="background:#d6e7ff; font-size:110%; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa;" | [[होलोकस्ट (स्रोत)|स्रोत]] |- | ''[[द डिस्ट्रक्सन अफ युरोपियन जीउज्]](युरोपेली यहुदीतेगु नाश)''<br>[[फेजेस् अफ होलोकस्ट]](होलोकस्टयागु चरणत:)<br>[[फंक्सनलिजम भर्सस इन्टेन्सनलिजम]](कार्यवाद बनाम मतिवाद) ---- |- |style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"| {{Tnavbar|The Holocaust}} |}<noinclude> <!-- {{sprotected}} --> </noinclude> 677 3373 2006-10-14T22:31:37Z Eukesh 11 <div style="float:left;border:solid #6ef7a7 1px;margin:1px;"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#c5fcdc;"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#6ef7a7;text-align:center;font-size:14pt;">'''[[नेपाल भाषा|new]]'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em;">वेक:या '''[[:Category:User new-N| मांभाय्]]''' '''[[:Category:User new|नेपाल भाषा]]''' ख:।</td> [[Category:User new|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:User new-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> 678 1545 2006-10-05T18:45:50Z Eukesh 11 वेक:या मांभाय् नेपाल भाषा ख:। 679 1549 2006-10-05T19:13:31Z Eukesh 11 <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div style="position: relative;<!-- -->border: 1px solid {{{titleborder|{{{border|#ababab}}}}}};<!-- -->background: {{{titlebackground|#bcbcbc}}};<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};<!-- -->padding: .1em;<!-- -->text-align: center;<!-- -->font-weight: bold;<!-- -->font-size: 100%;<!-- -->margin-bottom: 0px;<!-- -->border-bottom: none;"><!-- --><span class="plainlinks" <!-- -->style="position: absolute;<!-- -->top: 1px;<!-- -->right: 1px;<!-- -->background: transparent;<!-- -->border: 0px;<!-- -->margin-bottom:.1em;<!-- -->font-size:80%;<!-- -->font-weight: normal;<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};"><!-- -->[{{fullurl:{{{editpage|/}}}|action=edit{{#if:{{{section|}}}|&section={{{section|}}}}}}} <span style="color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">edit</span>]{{{top| }}}&nbsp;<!-- --></span ><!-- --><h2 style="font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;border: none; margin: 0; padding:0; padding-bottom:.1em; color:{{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">{{{title}}}</h2><!-- --></div> <div style="display: block;<!-- -->border: {{{border-width|1}}}px solid {{{border|#ababab}}};<!-- -->vertical-align: top;<!-- -->background: {{{background|#fefeef}}};<!-- -->color: {{{foreground|#000000}}};<!-- -->margin-bottom: 10px;<!-- -->padding: 1em;<!-- -->margin-top: 0em;<!-- -->padding-top: .3em;"><!-- -->__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ 680 1550 2006-10-05T19:16:01Z Eukesh 11 <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div style="position: relative;<!-- -->border: 1px solid {{{titleborder|{{{border|#ababab}}}}}};<!-- -->background: {{{titlebackground|#bcbcbc}}};<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};<!-- -->padding: .1em;<!-- -->text-align: center;<!-- -->font-weight: bold;<!-- -->font-size: 100%;<!-- -->margin-bottom: 0px;<!-- -->border-bottom: none;"><!-- --><span class="plainlinks" <!-- -->style="position: absolute;<!-- -->top: 1px;<!-- -->right: 1px;<!-- -->background: transparent;<!-- -->border: 0px;<!-- -->margin-bottom:.1em;<!-- -->font-size:80%;<!-- -->font-weight: normal;<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};"><!-- -->[{{fullurl:{{{editpage|/}}}|action=edit{{#if:{{{section|}}}|&section={{{section|}}}}}}} <span style="color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">edit</span>]{{{top| }}}&nbsp;<!-- --></span ><!-- --><h2 style="font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;border: none; margin: 0; padding:0; padding-bottom:.1em; color:{{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">{{{title}}}</h2><!-- --></div> <div style="display: block;<!-- -->border: {{{border-width|1}}}px solid {{{border|#ababab}}};<!-- -->vertical-align: top;<!-- -->background: {{{background|#fefeef}}};<!-- -->color: {{{foreground|#000000}}};<!-- -->margin-bottom: 10px;<!-- -->padding: 1em;<!-- -->margin-top: 0em;<!-- -->padding-top: .3em;"><!-- -->__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ 681 1551 2006-10-05T19:18:19Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div> 682 1553 2006-10-05T20:05:02Z Eukesh 11 |<noinclude>{{/doc}}</noinclude> 683 1554 2006-10-05T22:55:46Z Eukesh 11 <includeonly>{{#if:{{{nodiv|}}}|&nbsp;<span class="noprint plainlinksneverexpand" id="Tnavbar-nodiv" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size:xx-small;">|<div class="noprint plainlinksneverexpand" id="Tnavbar" style="background-color: transparent; padding: 0; font-size:xx-small; color:#000000; white-space: nowrap;">}}{{#ifeq:{{{mini|}}}{{{plain|}}}|1||This box:&nbsp;}}{{#if:{{{mini|}}}|[{{fullurl:Template:{{{1}}}}} <span style="color:#002bb8;" title="View this template.">v</span>]&middot;[{{fullurl:Template_talk:{{{1}}}}} <span style="color:#002bb8;" title="Discussion about this template.">d</span>]&middot;[{{fullurl:Template:{{{1}}}|action=edit}} <span style="color:#002bb8;" title="You can edit this template. Please use the preview button before saving.">e</span>]}}{{#if:{{{mini|}}}||[{{fullurl:Template:{{{1}}}}} <span style="color:#002bb8;" title="View this template.">view</span>] • [{{fullurl:Template_talk:{{{1}}}}} <span style="color:#002bb8;" title="Discussion about this template.">talk</span>] • [{{fullurl:Template:{{{1}}}|action=edit}} <span style="color:#002bb8;" title="You can edit this template. Please use the preview button before saving.">edit</span>]}}{{#if:{{{nodiv|}}}|</span>&nbsp;|</div>}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{/doc}}</noinclude> 684 1555 2006-10-05T22:57:03Z Eukesh 11 <includeonly>:''This template documentation is [[Wikipedia:Template doc page pattern|transcluded]] from [[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/doc]]'' [<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAMEE}}/doc|action=edit}} edit]</span>]</includeonly> <!-- EDIT TEMPLATE DOCUMENTATION BELOW THIS LINE --> <includeonly> {{esoteric}} </includeonly> ==Usage== Copyable empty example: <nowiki>{{Tnavbar|Name of Template|mini= |nodiv= |plain= }}</nowiki> inside a given [[Wikipedia:Navigational templates|template]] to add Tnavbar navigational functionality. <nowiki>{{Tnavbar|Tnavbar}}</nowiki> gives: {{Tnavbar|Tnavbar}} ==Note to editors== This template is represented across [[Special:Whatlinkshere/Template:Tnavbar|thousands of pages]] please tread lightly when editing here. Conducting sufficient [[Template:Template sandbox|sandbox testing]] to establish the validity of edits relative to Tnavbar is '''strongly''' encouraged prior to attempting to integrate changes. ==Examples== <pre>{{Tnavbar|Name of Template|mini= |nodiv= |plain= }}</pre> === Required parameters === *<code><nowiki>{{Tnavbar|Name of Template}}</nowiki></code> the template name is required. === Optional parameters === {| class="wikitable" ! Optional parameter !! colspan=2 | Produces... |- |Makes Tnavbar display in a mini version: <nowiki>{{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|mini=1}}</nowiki> like so. || → || Makes Tnavbar display in a mini version: {{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|mini=1}} like so. |- |<nowiki>{{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|nodiv=1}}</nowiki> Good for "blending" into text. || → || {{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|nodiv=1}} Good for "blending" into text. |- |<nowiki>{{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|mini=1|nodiv=1}}</nowiki> Good for "blending" into text. || → || {{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|mini=1|nodiv=1}} Good for "blending" into text. |- |<nowiki>No "This box:" text. {{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|plain=1}}</nowiki> || → ||No "This box:" text. {{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|plain=1}} |- |<nowiki>Blended no "This box:" text. {{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|plain=1|nodiv=1}}</nowiki> || → ||Blended no "This box:" text. {{Tnavbar|Tnavbar|plain=1|nodiv=1}} |} <includeonly> <!-- ADD CATEGORIES BELOW THIS LINE --> [[Category:Internal link templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] <!-- ADD INTERWIKIS BELOW THIS LINE --> [[ang:Template:Tnavbar-mini-nodiv]] [[ar:قالب:Tnavbar]] [[bn:Template:তথ্যছক-Tnavbar]] [[el:Πρότυπο:Tnavbar-mini-nodiv]] [[fa:الگو:نوارپیونددان]] [[hr:Predložak:Tnavbar-mini]] [[hu:Sablon:Tnavbar]] [[ka:თარგი:Tnavbar]] [[kn:ಟೆಂಪ್ಲೇಟು:Tnavbar]] [[lt:Šablonas:Tnavbar-mini]] [[nl:Sjabloon:Tnavbar-plain]] [[ps:Template:Tnavbar]] [[ro:Format:Tnavbar-plain]] [[ru:Шаблон:Tnavbar]] [[si:Template:Tnavbar]] [[sl:Predloga:Prednavmeni]] [[su:Citakan:Tnavbar]] [[ta:வார்ப்புரு:Tnavbar]] [[tr:Şablon:Dçubuğu]] [[yi:מוסטער:Tnavbar]] [[zh:Template:Tnavbar]] </includeonly> 685 1556 2006-10-05T23:19:08Z Eukesh 11 {| align="center" class="toccolours" style="clear:both;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color:#fada00;" | {| style="background: transparent; border: 0px; padding: 0px; spacing:0px;width:100%;" |- | width="20%" | &nbsp; | width="60%" style="text-align:center" | '''''[[द सिम्प्सनस्]]''''' | width="20%" style="text-align:right" | {{Tnavbar|द सिम्प्सनस्|plain=1}} |} |- style="font-size:110%;" || '''पात्रपिं:''' || [[होमर सिम्प्सन]] · [[मार्ज सिम्प्सन]] · [[बार्ट सिम्प्सन]] · [[लिजा सिम्प्सन]] · [[म्यागी सिम्प्सन]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् यागु पात्रतेगु सूची|मेमेपिं पात्र]] |- style="font-size:110%;" || '''निर्माण:''' || [[द सिम्प्सनस् ले स: बिपिं कलाकारत:|स: बिपिं कलाकारत:]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् या च्वमित:|च्वमित:]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् यागु प्रसारण|प्रसारण]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् नं त्यागु सिरपा त:|सिरपा त:|]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् ये हायेकुगु म्येत:|म्येत:]] |- style="font-size:110%;" || '''मीडिया रिलिजत:''' || [[द सिम्प्सनस् यागु भाग त:|भाग त:|]] · [[द ट्रेसी वुलम्यान शो शर्टस्]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् यागु मीडियात:|मीडियात:]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् संकिपा]] |- style="font-size:110%;" || '''सीजनत:''' || [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १)|१]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन २)|२]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन ३)|३]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन ४)|४]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन ५)|५]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन ६)|६]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन ७)|७]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन ८)|८]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन ९)|९]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १०)|१०]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन ११)|११]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १२)|१२]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १३)|१३]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १४)|१४]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १५)|१५]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १६)|१६]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १७)|१७]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १८)|१८]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् (सीजन १९)|१९]] |- style="font-size:110%;" || '''प्रकृति:''' || [[द सिम्प्सनस् न्ह्येथालिगु तव|न्ह्येथालिगु तव]] · [[बार्टनं हाकुपाटीले च्वैइगु ख्यालिखं]] · [[लिजायागु याक:चा स्याक्सोफोन थाईगु ख्यालिखं|लिजायागु याक: स्याक्सोफोन]] · [[काउच ख्यालिखं]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् ह्यालोविन भागपिं|ह्यालोविन भागपिं]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् ले वैच्वनिगु ख्यालिखंत:|वैच्वनिगु ख्यालिखंत:]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् ले वयादिपिं गेस्ट कलाकारत:|गेस्ट कलाकारत:]] |- style="font-size:110%;" || '''थायत:''' || [[स्प्रींगफिल्ड (द सिम्प्सनस्)|स्प्रींगफिल्ड]] · [[शेल्बीभिल् (द सिम्प्सनस्)|शेल्बीभिल्]] · [[क्यापिटल सिटी (द सिम्प्सनस्)|क्यापिटल सिटी]] · [[७४२ एभरग्रीन टेरेस]] <br> [[स्प्रींगफिल्ड एलेमेन्टरी स्कूल]] · [[स्प्रींगफिल्ड न्युक्लियर पावर प्लान्ट]] · [[मोअज् ट्याभर्न]] · [[क्विक्-इ-मार्ट]] · [[क्रस्टी बर्गर]] |- style="font-size:110%;" || '''प्रकाशणत:''' || [[द सिम्प्सनस् डिभिडि|डिभिडि]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् डिभिडि सेट|डिभिडि सेट]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् भिडियो गेम|भिडियो गेम]] · [[सिम्प्सनस् कमिक]] · [[बार्ट सिम्प्सन (कमिक शृंखला)|बार्ट सिम्प्सन कमिक]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् प्रकाशणत:|मेमेगु प्रकाशणत:]] |- style="font-size:110%;" || '''मेमेगु:''' || [[Portal:द सिम्प्सनस्|पोर्टल]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् ले छ्येलातगु न्हु खंग्वत:|न्हु खंग्वत:]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् ले छ्येलातगु बाहनत:|बाहनत:]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् ले क्येनातगु सामानत:|सामानत:]] · [[द सिम्प्सनस् यागु काल्पनिक आविष्कार व उपकरणत:|आविष्कार]] · [[डु द बार्टम्यान]] · [[होमरयागु ज्या(सिम्प्सनस्)|होमरयागु ज्या]] · [[होमरयागु जीवनदछियागु म्हगस: (सिम्प्सनस्)|होमरयागु जीवनदछियागु म्हगस:]] |} 686 1567 2006-10-06T16:22:10Z Eukesh 11 [[The Simpsons]] moved to [[द सिम्प्सनस्]] {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] 687 1558 2006-10-05T23:22:03Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] 688 1559 2006-10-05T23:22:54Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] 689 1560 2006-10-06T11:21:45Z Timichal 7 fix मू पौ 690 4038 2006-10-17T23:50:29Z Eukesh 11 {| style="background-color:transparent; padding:0px;" | valign="top" style="width:180px; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#fff; padding:4px 2px 4px 10px;" | <span style="padding-left:50px;">'''धल पौ:'''</span><br /> [[#गुथियागु बुखं पौ|१ गुथियागु बुखं पौ]]<br /> [[#यायेमागु ज्याखंत:|२ यायेमागु ज्याखंत:]]<br /> | valign="top" style="padding:0px 1px 0px 8px;" | '''गुथि दबु'''(Community Portal) विकिपिडियाले जुया च्वंगु ज्याखंतेगु बारे सिकिगु मू थाय ख:| छु ज्या यायेमानी, गुपति पुच:ले ज्यायाये मागु दु आदियागु बारेले थन सुचं व जानकारी कयादिसं व बियादिसं| |} <!-- BULLETIN BOARD --> {| id="CBB" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width=100% style="border:2px solid #B1A3BF; padding:0px;" |- | colspan="2" style="background:#E0CEF2; text-align:center; padding:2px; border-bottom:1px #B1A3BF solid;" | <h2 style="margin:.5em; margin-top:.1em; border-bottom:0; font-weight:bold;"> गुथियागु बुखं पौ </h2> <!-- 3 line spacing of h2 is important for subsection edit links to work correctly, PLEASE DO NOT FIX --> थन छिपिंन्सं थ्व विकिपिडियायात न्ह्यथनेयागु ज्यातेगु बारे च्वयादिफै| |- | valign="top" style="padding:8px 8px 0px 8px; background:#FAF5FF;" | <!-- Please add content to the CBB on that page, not here. --> {{प्रतिकृया/गुथियागु बुखं पौ}} |} <!-- TO DO LISTS --> {| id="Todo" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%; border:2px #A3BFB1 solid;" |- | colspan="2" style="background:#CEF2E0; text-align:center; padding:2px; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid;" | <h2 style="margin:.5em; margin-top:.1em; border-bottom:0; font-weight:bold;"> यायेमागु ज्याखंत: </h2> <!-- 3 line spacing of h2 is important for subsection edit links to work correctly, PLEASE DO NOT FIX --> |- | style="width:50%; background:#F5FFFA; padding:1.2em;" valign="top" | <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> ==यायेमागु ज्याखंत:== *फतिंफत्तले थ्व विकिपिडियाले अप्व स्वया अप्व लेख, किपा व मेमेगु मल्टीमिडिया नं जायेका दित: सकल भाजुमैजुपिंके ईनाप दु| * लेख च्वेबिले लेखाधिकार हनन यानादिमते| ==एडमिनिस्ट्रेटरयागु ईनाप== जि थ्व भाय विकिपिडियायागु एडमिनिस्ट्रेटरयागु लागि विकिमिडियाले उम्मेदवारी बिया|--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 23:50, 17 October 2006 (UTC) [[af:Wikipedia:Gebruikersportaal]] [[als:Wikipedia:Gemeinschafts-Portal]] [[an:Wikipedia:Comunidá]] [[ang:Wikipedia:Gemǣnscipe Ingang]] [[ar:ويكيبيديا:بوابة المجتمع]] [[ast:Uiquipedia:Portal de la comunidá]] [[be:Вікіпэдыя:Суполка]] [[bg:Уикипедия:Портал]] [[br:Wikipedia:Kumuniezh/Degemer]] [[bs:Wikipedia:Vrata zajednice]] [[ca:Viquipèdia:Portal]] [[ceb:Wikipedia:Katilingban]] [[co:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] [[cs:Wikipedie:Portál Wikipedie]] [[csb:Wiki:Pòrtal wëcmaniznë]] [[cv:Wikipedia:Портал]] [[da:Wikipedia:Forside]] [[de:Wikipedia:Portal]] [[el:Βικιπαίδεια:Πύλη Κοινότητας]] [[eo:Vikipedio:Komunuma Portalo]] [[es:Wikipedia:Portal de la comunidad]] [[et:Vikipeedia:Kogukonnavärav]] [[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:ورودی کاربران]] [[fo:Wikipedia:Forsíða]] [[fr:Wikipédia:Accueil]] [[fy:Wikipedy:Mienskip]] [[ga:Vicipéid:Lárionad comhphobail]] [[gd:Wikipedia:Doras na coimhearsnachd]] [[gl:Wikipedia:Portal da comunidade]] [[got:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] [[gv:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] [[he:ויקיפדיה:שער הקהילה]] [[hi:विकिपीडिया:समाज मुखपृष्ठ]] [[hu:Wikipédia:Közösségi Portál]] [[ia:Wikipedia:Portal del communitate]] [[id:Portal:Komunitas]] [[io:Wikipedio:Komuneso-portalo]] [[is:Wikipedia:Samfélagsgátt]] [[it:Portale:Comunità]] [[ja:Wikipedia:コミュニティ・ポータル]] [[ka:ვიკიპედია:საზოგადოების გვერდები]] [[kk:Wikipedia:Қауым порталы]] [[ko:위키백과:사용자_모임]] [[ku:Wîkîpediya:Portala komê]] [[la:Vicipaedia:Porta communis]] [[lb:Wikipedia:Kommunautéitssäit]] [[li:Wikipedia:Gebroekersportaol]] [[lmo:Wikipedia:Purtaal da cumünitaa]] [[lt:Wikipedia:Bendruomenė]] [[mg:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] [[mi:Wikipedia:Tomokanga hapori]] [[ml:വിക്കിപീഡിയ:വിക്കി സമൂഹം]] [[ms:Portal:Masyarakat]] [[na:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] [[nap:Wikipedia:Porta d%27%27a cummunetà]] [[nds:Wikipedia:Portal]] [[nds-nl:Wikipedie:Gebrukerspertaol]] [[nl:Portaal:Gebruikersportaal]] [[nn:Wikipedia:Brukarportal]] [[no:Wikipedia:Portal]] [[oc:Wikipèdia:Comunautat]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Portal wikipedystów]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Portal comunitário]] [[ro:Portal:Comunitate]] [[ru:Википедия:Портал сообщества]] [[sc:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] [[scn:Porta dâ Cumunità]] [[sco:Wikipedia:Commonty Yett]] [[simple:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] [[sk:Wikipédia:Portál komunity]] [[sl:Wikipedija:Portal občestva]] [[sm:Wikipedia:Puso o le ʻaʻai]] [[sr:Википедија:Радионица]] [[su:Wikipedia:Panglawungan]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Portalen]] [[ta:Wikipedia:சமுதாய வலைவாசல்]] [[th:วิกิพีเดีย:ศาลาประชาคม]] [[tl:Wikipedia:Portal ng komunidad]] [[tr:Vikipedi:Topluluk portalı]] [[tt:Wikipedia:Cämğiät Üzäge]] [[uk:Вікіпедія:Портал спільноти]] [[ur:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] [[vi:Wikipedia:Cộng đồng]] [[zh:Wikipedia:社区主页]] [[zh-min-nan:Wikipedia:Siā-lí mn̂g-chhùi-kháu]] [[zh-yue:Wikipedia:社區大堂]] 691 1563 2006-10-06T15:42:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Wikipedia:Community Portal]] moved to [[विकिपिडिया:गुथि दबु]] #REDIRECT [[विकिपिडिया:गुथि दबु]] 693 1568 2006-10-06T16:22:10Z Eukesh 11 [[The Simpsons]] moved to [[द सिम्प्सनस्]] #REDIRECT [[द सिम्प्सनस्]] 694 1569 2006-10-06T16:24:29Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] 695 1570 2006-10-06T16:28:53Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] 696 1571 2006-10-06T16:29:49Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] 699 1580 2006-10-07T04:59:01Z Eukesh 11 {| align="left" class="toccolours" style="clear:both;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | {| style="background:orange; border: 0px; padding: 0px; spacing:0px;width:100%;" |- | width="60%"; style="text-align:center; font-size:120%;" | '''[[हिन्दू धर्म]]''' |} {| |align="right" style="font-size: 110%; " |'''[[श्रुति(हिन्दू धर्म)|श्रुति]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[वेद]] · [[उपनिषद]] · [[श्रुत]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 110%;" |'''[[स्मृति(हिन्दू धर्म)|स्मृति]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[ईतिहास (हिन्दू धर्म)|ईतिहास]] ([[रामायण]], [[महाभारत]], [[श्रीमदभागवत गीता]]) · [[पुराण]] · [[सुत्र]] · [[आगम(धर्म)|आगम]] ([[तन्त्र]], [[यन्त्र]]) · [[वेदान्त]] |- |valign="top" align=right style="font-size: 110%;" |'''विचा:त:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[अवतार]] · [[आत्मा (हिन्दू धर्म)|आत्मा]] · [[ब्राह्मन]] · [[कोसस]] · [[धर्म(हिन्दू धर्म)|धर्म]] · [[कर्म (हिन्दू धर्म)|कर्म]] · [[मोक्ष]] · [[माया (हिन्दू धर्म)|माया]] · [[इष्ट-देव]] · [[मुर्ति]] · [[पूनर्जन्म(हिन्दू धर्म)|पूनर्जन्म]] · [[हलिम(हिन्दू धर्म)|हलिम]] · [[तत्त्व(हिन्दू धर्म)|तत्त्व]] · [[त्रिमुर्ति]] · [[कतुर्थ]];· [[गुरु-शिष्य परम्परा|गुरु]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 110%;" |'''[[हिन्दू दर्शन|दर्शन]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[हिन्दू मान्यता|मान्यता]] · [[प्राचीन हिन्दू धर्म]] · [[साँख्य(हिन्दू धर्म)|साँख्य]] · [[न्याय(हिन्दू धर्म)|न्याय]] · [[वैशेषिक]] · [[योग]] · [[मीमांसा]] · [[वेदान्त]] · [[तन्त्र]] · [[भक्ति योग|भक्ति]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 110%;" |'''[[परम्परा(हिन्दू धर्म)|परम्परा]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[ज्योतिष]] · [[आयुर्वेद]] · [[आरति]] · [[भजन]] · [[दर्शन(हिन्दू धर्म)|दर्शन]] · [[दिक्षा]] · [[मन्त्र|मन्त्र]] · [[पुजा]] · [[सत्संग]] · [[स्तोत्र]] · [[हिन्दू ईहिपा:|ईहिपा:]] · [[यज्ञ]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 110%;" | '''[[गुरु]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[आदि शंकर|शंकर]] · [[रामानुज]] · [[श्री माधवाचार्य|माधवाचार्य]] · [[रामकृष्ण परमहंस|रामकृष्ण]] · [[शारदा देवी|शारदा देवी]] · [[स्वमी विवेकानन्द|विवेकानन्द]] · [[नारायण गुरु]] · [[श्री औरोबिन्दो|औरोबिन्दो]] · [[रमन महार्षि]] · [[स्वामी शिवानन्द सरस्वती|शिवानन्द]] · [[स्‍वामी चिन्‍मयानन्‍द|चिन्‍मयानन्‍द]] · [[सत्गुरु शिवाय शुब्रमुनियस्वामी|शुब्रमुनियस्वामी]] · [[स्वामीनारायण]] · [[ए सी भक्तिवेदान्त स्वमी प्रभुपद|प्रभुपद]] · [[लोकेनाथ]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 110%;"| '''[[हिन्दू विभाजन|विभाजन]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[वैष्णभ]] · [[शैव]] · [[शक्ति]] · [[स्मृति]] · [[हिन्दू पूनरुत्थान ज्याझ्व]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 110%;"|'''[[हिन्दू द्यत:|द्य]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[द्यतेगु नां]] · [[हिन्दू बाखं]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 110%;"|'''[[युग]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[सत्य युग]] · [[त्रेता युग]] · [[द्वापर युग]] · [[कलि युग]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 110%;" |'''[[हिन्दू वर्ण व्यवस्था|वर्ण]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[ब्राह्मन]] · [[क्षत्रीय]] · [[वैश्य]] · [[शुद्र]] · [[दलित]] · [[वर्णाश्रम धर्म]] | |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" | |<div style="float:right">{{Tnavbar|हिन्दू धर्म|mini=1}}</div> |} </div> </div> <noinclude> [[en:Hinduism]] [[pt:Predefinição:Hinduísmo]] </noinclude> 700 2866 2006-10-14T19:32:59Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 701 1581 2006-10-07T06:16:07Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] 702 2869 2006-10-14T19:34:08Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 703 1583 2006-10-07T06:16:40Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] 704 2868 2006-10-14T19:33:51Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 705 1585 2006-10-07T06:17:35Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] 706 1586 2006-10-07T06:17:36Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] 707 1590 2006-10-07T10:14:03Z 202.161.131.76 <includeonly>{{ #if: {{#if: {{{url|}}} | {{#if: {{{title|}}} |1}}}} ||Error on call to [[Template:cite web]]: Parameters '''url''' and '''title''' must be specified }}{{ #if: {{{archiveurl|}}}{{{archivedate|}}} | {{#if: {{#if: {{{archiveurl|}}}| {{#if: {{{archivedate|}}} |1}}}} ||Error on call to [[template:cite web]]: Parameters '''archiveurl''' and '''archivedate''' must be both specified or both omitted }} }}{{#if: {{{author|}}}{{{last|}}} | {{#if: {{{authorlink|}}} | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: {{{last|}}} | {{{last}}}{{#if: {{{first|}}} | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{#if: {{{last|}}} | {{{last}}}{{#if: {{{first|}}} | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{#if: {{{author|}}}{{{last|}}} | {{#if: {{{coauthors|}}}| <nowiki>;</nowiki>&#32;{{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{#if: {{{author|}}}{{{last|}}}| {{#if: {{{date|}}} | &#32;({{{date}}}) | {{#if: {{{year|}}} | {{#if: {{{month|}}} | &#32;({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | &#32;({{{year}}}) }} }} |}} }}{{#if: {{{last|}}}{{{author|}}} | .&#32;}}{{#if: {{{archiveurl|}}} | {{#if: {{{archiveurl|}}} | {{#if: {{{title|}}} | [{{{archiveurl}}} {{{title}}}] }}}} | {{#if: {{{url|}}} | {{#if: {{{title|}}} | [{{{url}}} {{{title}}}] }}}} }}{{#if: {{{language|}}} | &#32;<span style="font-size: 0.95em; font-weight: bold; color:#555; position: relative;">({{{language}}})</span> }}{{#if: {{{format|}}} | &#32;({{{format|}}}) }}{{#if: {{{work|}}} | .&#32;''{{{work}}}'' }}{{#if: {{{pages|}}} | &#32;pp. {{{pages}}} }}{{#if: {{{publisher|}}} | .&#32;{{{publisher}}}{{#if: {{{author|}}}{{{last|}}} | | {{#if: {{{date|}}}{{{year|}}}{{{month|}}} || }} }} }}{{#if: {{{author|}}}{{{last|}}} ||{{#if: {{{date|}}} | &#32;({{{date}}}) | {{#if: {{{year|}}} | {{#if: {{{month|}}} | &#32;({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | &#32;({{{year}}}) }} }} }} }}.{{#if: {{{archivedate|}}} | &#32;Archived from [{{{url}}} the original] on [[{{{archivedate}}}]]. }}{{#if: {{{accessdate|}}} | &#32;Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]]{{#if: {{{accessyear|}}} | , [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}. }}{{#if: {{{accessmonthday|}}} | &#32;Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}}. }}{{#if: {{{quote|}}} | &nbsp;“{{{quote}}}” }}</includeonly><noinclude> {{/doc}} </noinclude> 708 1594 2006-10-07T13:39:58Z Eukesh 11 <div style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: auto; text-align: center; font-size: 90%; line-height: 1.4em;"> <!-- start of floated right section --> <div style="border:1px solid #ccd2d9; width:24.5em; background:#f9f9f9; text-align:left; padding:0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em; text-align:center;"> <!-- start of slate grey box --> {| style="background:transparent; text-align:left; table-layout:auto; border-collapse:collapse; padding:0; font-size:100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |+ style="margin-left:inherit; font-size:135%; padding-bottom:0.5em; line-height:1.1em;"| '''{{{native_name}}}'''{{#if:{{{conventional_long_name|}}}|<br />'''{{{conventional_long_name|}}}'''}} |- style="border-top-style:hidden;" |colspan="2"| {| width=100% style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:none;" |- |width=50% style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;"| <span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;">[[Image:{{{image_flag}}}|125px|{{{common_name}}}यागु ध्वांय]]</span> |width=50% style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;"| [[Image:{{{image_coat}}}|110px|{{{symbol_type|राष्ट्रीय चिं}}} {{{common_name}}}यागु]] |- style="font-size: 95%;" |style="border:0; text-align:center;"| [[{{{common_name}}}यागु ध्वांय|ध्वांय]] |style="border:0; text-align:center;"| [[{{{symbol_type_article|{{{symbol_type|राष्ट्रीय चिं}}}}}} यागु {{{common_name}}}|{{{symbol_type|राष्ट्रीय चिं}}}]] |} {{#if: {{{राष्ट्रीय उद्देश्य|}}} | {{!}}- <!----- Motto -----> {{!}} colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;" {{!}} [[राष्ट्रीय उद्देश्य|उद्देश्य]]: {{{राष्ट्रीय उद्देश्य}}} }} |- <!----- Anthem -----> |colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;"| [[राष्ट्र म्ये|म्ये]]: {{{national_anthem}}} |- <!----- Map -----> |colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;"| <br>[[Image:{{{image_map}}}|250px|center|{{{common_name}}}यागु नक्सा]]<br><br> |- <!----- Capital -----> |width=50% style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"| '''[[राजधानीयागु सुची|राजधानी]]''' |width=50% style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"| {{{capital}}}{{#if: {{{latd|}}}|<br /> <small>{{coor dm|{{{latd}}}|{{{latm}}}|{{{latNS}}}|{{{longd}}}|{{{longm}}}|{{{longEW}}}|type:country({{{area}}})}}</small>}} |- <!----- Largest city-----> |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[{{{common_name}}}यागु तथ्यांक |{{{largest_settlement_type|तधंगु सहर}}}]]''' |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"| {{{largest_settlement|{{{largest_city}}}}}} |- <!----- Official language(s) -----> |style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[औपचारिक भाय|औपचारिक भाय]]''' |style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"| {{{official_languages}}} |- <!----- Government -----> |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[सरकारतेगु सुची|सरकार]]''' |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top;"| {{{government_type}}} |- {{#if:{{{leader_titles|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.4em 0; text-align:left;" {{!}} {{{leader_titles}}} {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.4em 0; text-align:left;" {{!}} {{{leader_names}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{leader_title1|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{leader_title1}}} {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} {{{leader_name1}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{leader_title2|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{leader_title2}}} {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} {{{leader_name2}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{leader_title3|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{leader_title3}}} {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} {{{leader_name3}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{leader_title4|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{leader_title4}}} {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} {{{leader_name4}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{leader_title5|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{leader_title5}}} {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top" {{!}} {{{leader_name5}}} }} |- <!----- Sovereignty type, events -----> {{#if:{{{established_event1|}}}{{{sovereignty_note|}}} | {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" {{!}} '''{{{sovereignty_type}}}''' {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{{sovereignty_note|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- | {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" {{!}} '''{{{sovereignty_type}}}'''<br />{{{established_events}}} {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{{established_dates}}} {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{established_event1|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{established_event1}}} {{!}}{{!}} {{{established_date1|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{established_event2|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{established_event2}}} {{!}}{{!}} {{{established_date2|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{established_event3|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{established_event3}}} {{!}}{{!}} {{{established_date3|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{established_event4|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{established_event4}}} {{!}}{{!}} {{{established_date4|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{established_event5|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{established_event5}}} {{!}}{{!}} {{{established_date5|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{established_event6|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{established_event6}}} {{!}}{{!}} {{{established_date6|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{established_event7|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{established_event7}}} {{!}}{{!}} {{{established_date7|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{established_event8|}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{established_event8}}} {{!}}{{!}} {{{established_date8|}}}&nbsp; {{!}}- }} {{#if: {{{accessionEUdate|}}} | {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" {{!}} '''[[European Union|Accession to EU]]''' {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{{accessionEUdate|}}} }} |- <!----- Area -----> |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[देतेगु क्षेत्रफल कथंयागु सुची|क्षेत्रफल]]''' |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0;"| &nbsp; |- style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left;" | &nbsp;- फुकं {{{foot4|}}} || [[{{{area_magnitude}}}वर्ग मि |{{{area}}}&nbsp;km²]]&nbsp;{{#if: {{{area_rank|}}}|([[देतेगु क्षेत्रफल कथंयागु सुची|{{{area_rank}}}]])}} |- style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left;" | &nbsp; || ({{{areami²}}}&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi)&nbsp; |- {{#if: {{{percent_water|<noinclude>-</noinclude>}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} &nbsp;- लयागु प्रतिशत (%) {{!}} {{{percent_water}}} }} |- {{#if: {{{metropole_area|<noinclude>-</noinclude>}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{metropole}}} {{!}} [[{{{metropole_area_magnitude}}} m²|{{{metropole_area}}}&nbsp;km²]] {{{foot2}}}&nbsp;([[List of countries and outlying territories by area|{{{metropole_area_rank}}}]]) {{!}}- {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{!}} ({{{metropole_areami²}}}&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi)&nbsp; {{!}}- {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{!}} [[{{{land_area_magnitude}}} m²|{{{land_area}}}&nbsp;km²]] {{{foot3}}}&nbsp;([[List of countries and outlying territories by area|{{{land_area_rank}}}]]) {{!}}- {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{!}} ({{{land_areami²}}}&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi)&nbsp; }} |- <!----- Population -----> |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[देतेगु जनसंख्या कथंयागु सुची|जनसंख्या]]''' |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| &nbsp; |- {{#if: {{{population_estimate_year|<noinclude>-</noinclude>}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{population_estimate_year}}} est. {{!}} {{{population_estimate}}}&nbsp;([[देतेगु जनसंख्या कथंयागु सुची|{{{population_estimate_rank}}}]]) }} |- {{#if: {{{population_census|<noinclude>-</noinclude>}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{population_census_year}}} census {{!}} {{{population_census}}} }} |- {{#if: {{{metropole_population|<noinclude>-</noinclude>}}} | {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{{total_population_estimate_year}}} {{!}}- {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} &nbsp;- Total{{{foot}}} {{!}} {{{total_population_estimate}}}&nbsp;([[List of countries by population|{{{total_population_estimate_rank}}}]]) {{!}}- {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} &nbsp;- {{{metropole}}} {{!}} {{{metropole_population}}}&nbsp;([[List of countries by population|{{{metropole_population_estimate_rank}}}]]) }} |- |style="padding:0 1em 0.4em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"| &nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]{{{foot5|}}} |style="padding:0 1em 0.4em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"| {{{population_density}}}/km²&nbsp;([[List of countries by population density|{{{population_density_rank}}}]])<br />({{{population_densitymi²}}}/sq&nbsp;mi)&nbsp; |- <!----- GDP -----> {{#if: {{{GDP_PPP|<noinclude>-</noinclude>}}} | {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" {{!}} '''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]''' ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} {{{GDP_PPP_year}}} estimate {{!}}- {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} &nbsp;- Total {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{{GDP_PPP}}}&nbsp;([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|{{{GDP_PPP_rank}}}]]) {{!}}- {{!}} style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} &nbsp;- Per capita {{!}}style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{!}} {{{GDP_PPP_per_capita}}}&nbsp;([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|{{{GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank}}}]]) }} |- <!----- HDI -----> {{#if: {{{HDI|<noinclude>-</noinclude>}}} | {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;" {{!}} '''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ({{{HDI_year}}}) {{!}} style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} {{{HDI}}}&nbsp;([[List of countries by Human Development Index|{{{HDI_rank}}}]])&nbsp;–&nbsp;{{{HDI_category}}} }} |- <!----- Currency -----> |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[Currency]]''' |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;"| {{{currency}}} (<code>[[ISO 4217|{{{currency_code}}}]]</code>) |- <!----- Time zone -----> |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[Time zone]]''' |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"| {{{time_zone}}} ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]{{{utc_offset}}}) |- style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{#if: {{{utc_offset_DST|}}} | {{!}}&nbsp;- Summer&nbsp;([[Daylight saving time|DST]]) {{!}}{{{DST|{{{time_zone_DST}}} ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]{{{utc_offset_DST}}})}}}}} |- style="padding:0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" {{#if:{{{DST_note|}}} | {{!}}&nbsp; {{!}}{{!}} {{{DST_note}}}}} |- <!----- Internet TLD -----> |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[List of Internet top-level domains|Internet TLD]]''' |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"| {{{cctld}}} |- <!----- Calling code -----> |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]''' |style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"| <code>+{{{calling_code}}}</code> |- <!----- Footnotes -----> {{#if: {{{footnotes|}}} | {{!}} colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top" {{!}} <small>{{{footnotes|}}}</small> }} |}</div> <!-- end of slate grey box --> </div> 709 1593 2006-10-07T13:29:51Z Eukesh 11 <includeonly><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" {{ #if: {{{ref|}}} |{{#ifeq:{{{ref}}}|none||id="{{{ref}}}"}} |{{#if:{{{last|}}} | {{#if:{{{year|}}} | id="Reference-{{{last}}}-{{{year}}}" }} }} }}>{{ #if: {{{author|{{{last|}}}}}} | {{ #if: {{{authorlink|}}} | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: {{{last|}}} | {{{last}}}{{ #if: {{{first|}}} | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: {{{last|}}} | {{{last}}}{{ #if: {{{first|}}} | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: {{{author|{{{last|}}}}}} | {{ #if: {{{coauthors|}}} | ,&#32;{{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: {{{origdate|}}} | &#32;<nowiki>[</nowiki>{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: {{{origyear|}}} | {{ #if: {{{origmonth|}}} | &#32;<nowiki>[</nowiki>{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | &#32;<nowiki>[</nowiki>{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: {{{date|}}} | &#32;({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: {{{year|}}} | {{ #if: {{{month|}}} | &#32;({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | &#32;({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{ #if: {{{author|{{{last|}}}}}} | . }}{{ #if: {{{chapter|}}} | &#32;“{{ #if: {{{chapterurl|}}} | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}”,}}{{ #if: {{{editor|}}} | &#32;{{{editor}}} }} ''{{ #if: {{{url|}}} | [{{{url}}} {{{title}}}] | {{{title}}} }}''{{ #if: {{{format|}}} | &#32;({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: {{{others|}}} | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: {{{edition|}}} | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: {{{language|}}} | &#32;(in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: {{{publisher|}}} | {{#if: {{{format|}}}{{{others|}}}{{{edition|}}} | ,&#32; | .&#32; }}{{ #if: {{{location|}}} | {{{location}}}:&#32; }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{ #if: {{{pages|}}} | ,&#32;{{{pages}}} }}{{ #if: {{{doi|}}} | . [[Digital object identifier|DOI]]:[http://dx.doi.org/{{{doi}}} {{{doi}}}] }}{{ #if: {{{id|}}} | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: {{{accessdate|}}} | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: {{{accessyear|}}} | . Retrieved {{ #if: {{{accessmonth|}}} | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }} }} }}.{{ #if: {{{quote|}}} | &nbsp;“{{{quote}}}” }}</cite></includeonly><noinclude>{{/doc}}</noinclude> 710 1598 2006-10-07T13:56:46Z Eukesh 11 {| class="infobox bordered" style="width:270px;" ! colspan="3" style="text-align: center; font-size:110%; color: {{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|black|1}} |white |{{{fontcolor|black}}}}}; background-color: {{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}} |black |{{ #if:{{{signers|}}} |silver |{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|Default}}}}}}} }};" |{{{name|Instructions at [[Template talk:Infobox Language]]}}} {{ #if:{{{nativename|}}} |<br />{{{nativename|}}}}}{{ #if:{{{image|}}} |{{Infobox Language/image|{{{caption|}}}|{{{image|}}}}} }}{{ #if:{{{pronunciation|}}} |{{Infobox Language/pronunciation|{{{pronunciation|}}}}}}} |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|black|1}} |Created&nbsp;by |{{ #if:{{{signers|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|silver|1}} |Signed |Spoken}}&nbsp;in}}: | colspan="{{ #if:{{{date|}}} |1 |2}}" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|black|1}} |{{{creator|—}}}{{ #if:{{{date|}}} |{{Infobox Language/creationdate|{{{date}}}}} }} |{{{states|{{{region|—}}}}}}}}{{ #ifexpr:{{#if:{{{states|}}}|1|0}}+{{#if:{{{region|}}}|1|0}}!=1 |{{Infobox Language/statesregion |{{{creator|}}} |{{{setting|}}} |{{{familycolor|}}} |{{{region|—}}}}}}} |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{ #if:{{{extinct|}}} |[[Extinct language|Language extinction]] |Total&nbsp;{{ #if:{{{signers|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|silver|1}} |signers |speakers}}}}: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{ #if:{{{extinct|}}} |{{{extinct}}} |{{ #if:{{{signers|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|silver|1}} |{{{signers|—}}} |{{{speakers|—}}}}}}}{{ #if:{{{rank|}}} |{{Infobox Language/rank|{{{rank|}}}}}}} |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|black|1}} |Category (purpose) |[[Language family]]}}: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left;" | {{{family|{{{fam1|{{ #if:{{{signers|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|silver|1}} |''unknown'' |{{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}} |[[constructed language]] |{{Infobox Language/genetic2|{{{familycolor|Default}}}}}}}}}}}}{{ #if:{{{fam2|}}} |<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;</span>{{{fam2|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam3|}}} |{{{fam3|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam4|}}} |{{{fam4|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam5|}}} |{{{fam5|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam6|}}} |{{{fam6|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam7|}}} |{{{fam7|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam8|}}} |{{{fam8|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam9|}}} |{{{fam9|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam10|}}} |{{{fam10|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam11|}}} |{{{fam11|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam12|}}} |{{{fam12|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam13|}}} |{{{fam13|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam14|}}} |{{{fam14|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>{{ #if:{{{fam15|}}} |{{{fam15|}}}<br /><span style="font-size:66%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>'''{{{name|}}}''' |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 15--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 14--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 13--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 12--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 11--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 10--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 9--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 8--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 7--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 6--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 5--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 4--> |'''{{{name| }}}'''}}<!--close 3--> |{{ #ifexpr:{{#if:{{{name|}}}|1|0}} and {{#if:{{{signers|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|Default}}}}}|silver|1}}|0|1}} |'''<br />&nbsp;{{{name|}}}}}'''}}<!--close 2-->}}}{{ #if:{{{script|}}} |{{Infobox Language/script|{{{script}}}}}}}{{ #if:{{{posteriori|}}} |{{Infobox Language/aposteriori|{{{posteriori}}}}}}}{{ #ifexpr:{{#if:{{{agency|}}}|1|0}} and {{#if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|Default}}}}}|black|1}}|1|0}} |{{Infobox Language/agency|{{{agency}}}}} |{{ #if:{{{nation|}}}{{{agency|}}} |{{Infobox Language/official |1={{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|black|1}} |white |{{{fontcolor|black}}}}} |2={{ #if:{{{signers|}}} |silver |{{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}} |black |{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|Default}}}}}}}}} |3={{{nation|''none''}}} |4={{{agency|''no official regulation''}}}}}}}}} |- ! colspan="3" style="text-align: center; color: {{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|black|1}} |white |{{{fontcolor|black}}}}}; background-color: {{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}} |black |{{ #if:{{{signers|}}} |silver |{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|Default}}}}}}}}};" |Language codes |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |[[ISO 639-1]]: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{ #if:{{{iso1|}}} |<tt>{{{iso1}}}</tt> |''none''}} |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |[[ISO 639-2]]: | colspan="{{ #if:{{{iso2b|}}}{{{iso2t|}}} |1 |2}}" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |<tt>{{ #if:{{{iso2b|}}}{{{iso2t|}}} |{{{iso2b|{{{iso2|—}}}}}}&nbsp;(B) |{{ #if:{{{signers|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|silver|1}} |{{{iso2|sgn}}} |{{ #if:{{{creator|}}}{{{setting|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|black|1}} |{{{iso2|art}}} |{{{iso2|to be added}}}}}}}}}</tt>{{ #if:{{{iso2b|}}}{{{iso2t|}}} |{{Infobox Language/terminological|{{{iso2t|{{{iso2|}}}}}}}}}} |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |[[ISO 639-3|ISO/FDIS&nbsp;639-3]]: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{ #ifexpr:{{#if:{{{lc1|}}}|1|0}} and {{#if:{{{lc2|}}}|1|0}} |{{ #if:{{{lc3|}}} |variously |either}}:{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc1|}}}|{{{ld1|}}}|{{{ll1|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc2|}}}|{{{ld2|}}}|{{{ll2|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc3|}}}|{{{ld3|}}}|{{{ll3|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc4|}}}|{{{ld4|}}}|{{{ll4|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc5|}}}|{{{ld5|}}}|{{{ll5|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc6|}}}|{{{ld6|}}}|{{{ll6|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc7|}}}|{{{ld7|}}}|{{{ll7|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc8|}}}|{{{ld8|}}}|{{{ll8|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc9|}}}|{{{ld9|}}}|{{{ll9|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc10|}}}|{{{ld10|}}}|{{{ll10|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc11|}}}|{{{ld11|}}}|{{{ll11|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc12|}}}|{{{ld12|}}}|{{{ll12|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc13|}}}|{{{ld13|}}}|{{{ll13|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc14|}}}|{{{ld14|}}}|{{{ll14|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc15|}}}|{{{ld15|}}}|{{{ll15|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc16|}}}|{{{ld16|}}}|{{{ll16|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc17|}}}|{{{ld17|}}}|{{{ll17|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc18|}}}|{{{ld18|}}}|{{{ll18|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc19|}}}|{{{ld19|}}}|{{{ll19|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc20|}}}|{{{ld20|}}}|{{{ll20|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc21|}}}|{{{ld21|}}}|{{{ll21|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc22|}}}|{{{ld22|}}}|{{{ll22|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc23|}}}|{{{ld23|}}}|{{{ll23|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc24|}}}|{{{ld24|}}}|{{{ll24|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc25|}}}|{{{ld25|}}}|{{{ll25|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc26|}}}|{{{ld26|}}}|{{{ll26|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc27|}}}|{{{ld27|}}}|{{{ll27|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc28|}}}|{{{ld28|}}}|{{{ll28|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc29|}}}|{{{ld29|}}}|{{{ll29|}}}}}{{Infobox Language/codelist |{{{lc30|}}}|{{{ld30|}}}|{{{ll30|}}}}} |{{ #if:{{{lc1|}}} |<tt>[http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id={{{lc1}}} {{{lc1}}}]</tt>&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;{{ #if:{{{ll1|}}} |{{#ifeq:{{{ll1|}}}|none |{{{ld1|}}} |[[{{{ll1}}}|{{{ld1|}}}]]}} |[[{{{ld1|}}}]]}} |{{#if:{{{iso3|}}} |{{#ifeq:{{{iso3|}}}|none |''none'' |<tt>[http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id={{{iso3}}} {{{iso3}}}]</tt>}} |—}}}}}}{{#if: {{{map|}}} |{{Infobox Language/map|{{{map|}}}}}}}{{Infobox Language/{{ #if:{{{signers|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox Language/family-color|{{{familycolor|}}}}}|silver|1}} |signnotice |{{{notice|IPA notice}}}}}}} |} 711 1599 2006-10-07T14:22:58Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- |class="boilerplate metadata" colspan="3" style="padding: 0.5em;"|<small>'''Note''': This page may contain [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] [[phonetics|phonetic]] symbols in [[Unicode]]. See [[IPA chart for English]] for an [[English language|English]]-{{unicode|​}}based pronunciation key.</small><includeonly></includeonly><noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/NAF oharra]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language IPA notice]] </noinclude> 712 1600 2006-10-07T14:24:13Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |[[List of language regulators|Regulated by]]: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"|{{{1|''none''}}}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/araugilea]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language agency]] </noinclude> 713 1601 2006-10-07T14:25:11Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |Category (sources): | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left;" | {{{1}}}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/ondoren]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language aposteriori]] </noinclude> 714 1602 2006-10-07T14:27:07Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; | style="padding-left: 0.5em;"|{{{1}}}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/sortze data]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language creationdate]] </noinclude> 715 1603 2006-10-07T14:27:35Z Eukesh 11 {{#if:{{{1|}}} |<br /><tt>[http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id={{{1}}} {{{1}}}]</tt>&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;{{#if:{{{3|}}} |{{#ifeq:{{{3|}}}|none |{{{2|}}} |[[{{{3}}}|{{{2|}}}]] }} |[[{{{2|}}}]] }} }} 716 1604 2006-10-07T14:42:55Z Eukesh 11 <noinclude>'''Usage:''' <nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[template:Infobox Language|Infobox Language]]<nowiki>/family-color|<family/color>}}</nowiki><br>Replace <family/color> with the language family or specific color to display.<br><br></noinclude><includeonly>{{ #switch:{{{1|}}} | Default | default | white = white | Afro-Asiatic | Afro-asiatic | yellow = yellow | Altaic | yellowgreen = yellowgreen | American | lightblue = lightblue | Australian | orchid = <nowiki>#eba9ee</nowiki> | Austroasiatic | Austro-Asiatic | Austro-asiatic | lightcoral = lightcoral | Austronesian | tomato = pink | pink = tomato | Caucasian = lightgreen | Conlang | conlang | constructed language | black = black | Creole | creole = tan | Dravidian | mediumspringgreen = mediumspringgreen | Eskimo-Aleut | lightcyan = lightcyan | Hmong-Mien = <nowiki>#ff0033</nowiki> | Indo-European | lawngreen = lawngreen | isolate | language isolate | Isolate | #dddddd = <nowiki>#dddddd</nowiki> | Khoisan | goldenrod = goldenrod | Mixed | mixed = tan | Na-Dene | Na-Dené | deepskyblue = deepskyblue | Niger-Congo | orange = orange | Nilo-Saharan | gold = gold | Palaeosiberian | Palaeo-Siberian | Palaeo-siberian | Paleosiberian | Paleo-Siberian | Paleo-siberian = darkseagreen | Papuan | violet = <nowiki>#fd79da</nowiki> | Pidgin | pidgin = tan | Sign | sign | sign language | silver = silver | lightgreen = lightgreen | Sino-Tibetan = tomato | Tai-Kadai | lavender = lavender | Uralic | limegreen = limegreen | }}</includeonly><noinclude> [[Category:Templates using ParserFunctions|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/familiaren kolorea]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language familycolor]] </noinclude> 717 1605 2006-10-07T14:44:15Z Eukesh 11 <noinclude> '''Usage:''' <nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[template:Infobox Language|Infobox Language]]<nowiki>/genetic2|<family/color>}}</nowiki><br>Replace <family/color> with the language family or specific color to display genetic classification for.<br><br></noinclude>{{ #switch:{{{1|}}} | Afro-Asiatic | Afro-asiatic | yellow = [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] | Niger-Congo | orange = [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] | Nilo-Saharan | gold = [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] | Khoisan | goldenrod = [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] | Indo-European | lawngreen = [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] | Caucasian | lightgreen = [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian]] | Altaic | yellowgreen = [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] | Uralic | limegreen = [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] | Dravidian | mediumspringgreen = [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] | Paleosiberian | Paleo-Siberian | Paleo-siberian | Palaeosiberian | Palaeo-Siberian | Palaeo-siberian = [[Paleosiberian languages|Paleosiberian]] | Austronesian | pink = [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] | Austro-Asiatic | Austro-asiatic | Austroasiatic | lightcoral = [[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]] | Sino-Tibetan | tomato = [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] | Hmong-Mien = [[Hmong-Mien languages|Hmong-Mien]] | Australian | orchid = [[Australian Aboriginal languages|Australian]] | Papuan | violet = [[Papuan languages|Papuan]] | Tai-Kadai | lavender = [[Tai-Kadai languages|Tai-Kadai]] | American | lightblue = [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|American]] | Na-Dene | Na-Dené | deepskyblue = [[Na-Dené languages|Na-Dené]] | Eskimo-Aleut | lightcyan = [[Eskimo-Aleut languages|Eskimo-Aleut]] | Creole | creole = [[Creole language|Creole]] | Pidgin | pidgin = [[Pidgin|Pidgin]] | Mixed | mixed = [[Mixed language|Mixed]] | Isolate | isolate | language isolate | #dddddd = [[language isolate]] | Sign | sign | sign language | silver = [[sign language]] | Conlang | conlang | constructed language | black = [[constructed language]] | Default | default | white = — | }}<noinclude> [[Category:Templates using ParserFunctions|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/genetiko 2]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language genetic]] </noinclude> 718 1606 2006-10-07T14:45:07Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- | style="vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{{1|}}}: | colspan="2" |{{{2|}}}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/irudia]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language image]] [[uk:Template:Infobox Language/image]] </noinclude> 719 1607 2006-10-07T14:45:45Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- | colspan="3" style="padding: 0; vertical-align: middle;" |{{{1|}}}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/mapa]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language map]] </noinclude> 720 1608 2006-10-07T14:46:58Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- ! colspan="3" style="text-align: center; color: {{{1}}}; background-color: {{{2}}};"|Official status |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |Official language of: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"|{{{3|''none''}}} |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |[[List of language regulators|Regulated by]]: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"|{{{4|''none''}}}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/ofiziala]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language official]] </noinclude> 721 1609 2006-10-07T14:48:31Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Pronunciation: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: <span title="Pronunciation in IPA" class="IPA">{{{1|''will be added''}}}</span><noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/ahoskera]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language pronunciation]] [[zh-yue:Template:Infobox Language/pronunciation]] </noinclude> 722 1610 2006-10-07T14:49:06Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |[[List of languages by number of native speakers|Ranking]]: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"|{{{1|''Not in top 100''}}}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/rankina]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language rank]] </noinclude> 723 1611 2006-10-07T14:51:04Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- | style="top; padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{#if:{{{1|}}}{{{2|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox_Language/family-color|{{{3|}}}}}|black}} | Setting and usage | Region }}: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" |{{#if:{{{1|}}}{{{2|}}}{{#ifeq:{{Infobox_Language/family-color|{{{3|}}}}}|black}} | {{{2|—}}} | {{{4|—}}} }}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/estatuak-eskualdea]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language statesregion]] [[Category:Templates using ParserFunctions|{{PAGENAME}}]] </noinclude> 724 1612 2006-10-07T14:51:36Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; |- | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | [[Writing system]]: | colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | {{{1|''to be added''}}}<noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/idazkera]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language script]] </noinclude> 725 1613 2006-10-07T14:52:51Z Eukesh 11 &nbsp; | style="vertical-align: top; padding-left: 0.5em;"|<tt>{{{1|—}}}&nbsp;(T)</tt><noinclude> [[eu:Txantiloi:Hizkuntza infotaula/terminologikoa]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Language terminological]] </noinclude> 726 1618 2006-10-07T22:38:53Z 69.221.133.148 Yep, this is a test. Thanks! 727 4026 2006-10-17T23:04:20Z Eukesh 11 /* Deaths */ ==Events== ==Births== ==Deaths== [[af:2006]] [[als:2006]] [[am:2006 እ.ኤ.አ.]] [[ar:2006]] [[an:2006]] [[ast:2006]] [[zh-min-nan:2006 nî]] [[be:2006]] [[bs:2006]] [[br:2006]] [[bg:2006]] [[ca:2006]] [[cv:2006]] [[cs:2006]] [[co:2006]] [[cy:2006]] [[da:2006]] [[de:2006]] [[et:2006]] [[el:2006]] [[en:2006]] [[es:2006]] [[eo:2006]] [[eu:2006]] [[fo:2006]] [[fr:2006]] [[fy:2006]] [[fur:2006]] [[ga:2006]] [[gl:2006]] [[ko:2006년]] [[hr:2006]] [[io:2006]] [[ilo:2006]] [[id:2006]] [[ia:2006]] [[os:2006]] [[is:2006]] [[it:2006]] [[he:2006]] [[kn:೨೦೦೫]] [[ka:2006]] [[csb:2006]] [[kw:2006]] [[ku:2006]] [[la:2006]] [[lb:2006]] [[lt:2006]] [[li:2006]] [[hu:2006]] [[mk:2006]] [[ml:2006]] [[mi:2006]] [[ms:2006]] [[mo:2006]] [[nl:2006]] [[ja:2006年]] [[nap:2006]] [[no:2006]] [[nn:2006]] [[oc:2006]] [[pap:2006]] [[pl:2006]] [[pt:2006]] [[ro:2006]] [[qu:2006]] [[ru:2006]] [[se:2006]] [[sco:2006]] [[sq:2006]] [[scn:2006]] [[simple:2006]] [[sk:2006]] [[sl:2006]] [[sr:2006]] [[sh:2006]] [[fi:2006]] [[sv:2006]] [[tl:2006]] [[tt:2006]] [[te:2006]] [[th:พ.ศ. 2549]] [[vi:2006]] [[tpi:2006]] [[tr:2006]] [[uk:2006]] [[wa:2006]] [[yi:ה'תשס"ו]] [[zh-yue:2006年]] [[bat-smg:2006]] [[zh:2006年]] [[zu:2006]] 728 1622 2006-10-09T15:56:25Z Eukesh 11 [[2006]] moved to [[ई सं २००६]] #REDIRECT [[ई सं २००६]] 729 1623 2006-10-09T18:57:24Z Eukesh 11 ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिली (अंग्रेजी: Galileo Galilei, फेब्रुअरी १५, १५६४ – ज्यानुअरी ८, १६४२) छम्ह ईटालियन (भेनिसी) भौतिकशास्त्री, खगोलशास्त्री, व दार्शनिक ख| वेक यागु वैज्ञानिक क्रान्तिले तधंगु योगदान दु| वेकयागु योगदान दूरविनयागु सुधार, खगोलिय अनुसन्धान, गतियागु छता व निता नियम, कोपरनिकसवादयात ग्वालि आदिले खने दु| वेक यात "न्हुगु खगोल शास्त्रया अबु", "न्हुगु भौतिकशास्त्रया अबु" व " न्हुगु विज्ञानया अबु" धका नं सम्बोधन याई| वेक योहान केप्लेरया समकालिन मनु ख:| 730 1624 2006-10-09T18:59:07Z Eukesh 11 नेवा तेगु समाजे गुथि यागु येक्व महत्त्व दु| थगु जात वा ज्याया कथं देकिगु गुथि नं नेवा तेगु सामाजिक नियम त देकिगु व पालना यायेगु ज्या याई|सुं न मनु बुई बिले निसें सी बिले तक्क हनिगु दक्व ज्याखं गुथि यागु नियमया कथं जुइ| गुथियागु नियम पालना मयासा मनुयात गुथि नं पींथना छ्वेगु तक्क यागु व्यवस्था गुथिले दै| गुथि नं पींतने धुंका मनु यागु सामाजिक जीवन हने थाकुई|गुथि तेसं येक्व रुढिवादी नियम त देका व पालना याना च्वंगुलिं थौ कन्हे गुथियागु महत्त्व क्षीण जुया च्वंगु दु| == नेवा गुथियागु ईतिहास == == नेवा गुथियागु प्रकार == 731 1625 2006-10-09T19:00:01Z Eukesh 11 '''पशु कोष'''(English: Animal Cell) ले छगु नाईसेच्वंगु तखथें न्यागु पदार्थयात मेम्ब्रेनं भुनातगु दै| व पदार्थले थाय् थासे ताकुगु पदार्थ नं दैइ|थंयागु व्यवस्था दुगु कोषयात छगु पूर्ण कोष धाये छिं छयेधासां म्हयागु अप्व थें कोष त पिनेयागु रूप भतिचा पासां उकियागु प्रकृति थ्व हे कथं यागु जुई| विकसित प्राणीयागु कोषयात "छगु न्युक्लियस दुगु प्रोटोप्लाजमयागु सुक्ष्मिय धी" धाये छिं| अत: कोषयागु नीगु महत्वपूर्ण अंग ख- * नाईसेच्वंगु तख थें न्यागु, अप्वयाना साईटोप्लाजमले व्यवस्थित जुगु, वस्तु व * उकिया दुने दुगु छगु चाक्लागु न्युक्लियस धागु अंग| गूं-गूं छगुकोषीय प्रोटोजूवाले न्युक्लियस दै मखु| 732 1626 2006-10-09T19:01:41Z Eukesh 11 '''भ्रूणशास्त्र''' (अंग्रेजी: Embryology) धागु दक्ले तधंगु अर्थले [[प्राणी]] यागु प्राण न्ह्येथेईगु अर्थात छगु [[कोष]] यागु अवस्थानिसें उकिगु वयस्क अवस्थातक्क उकिगु म्हे जुइगु परिवर्तनयागु सीकेज्या ख:| तर ज्याझ्वया अर्थले प्राणी बुइ न्ह्य तक्क यागु परिवर्तन यात जक्क थ्व शास्त्रले सीकेज्या याई| == सीका कायेगु तव == भ्रूणशास्त्र निगु कथंलं सीके ज्यु:- * अन्टोजेनी (अंग्रेजी: Ontogeny), छम्ह प्राणीयागु विकास सीकिगु ; व * फाईलोजेनी,(अंग्रेजी:Phylogeny) जनावर जगतया विकासक्रमया ईतिहासनाप स्वाना सीकिगु| == विकास प्रकृया == [[जंक्वें दुगु पशु]] (अंग्रेजी:Vertaebrata)ले छम्ह न्हुम्ह प्राणीया विकास जुईत छगु मिसा जर्म [[कोष]] ([[ओभम्]])यात छगु मिजं जर्म कोष (स्पर्म्याटोजूआ)नं फर्टिलाईज यायेमा| ओभम् धागु छगु न्युक्लियटेड कोष ख:| थ्व फर्टिलाईज जुइधूंका म्हयागु थीथी कथंया तन्तु व अंग थुकिलीं हे बुया वै| थथे बुया वैगु निगु प्रकृयाया लीच्व ख:| व निगु प्रकृयाय '''सेग्मेन्टेसन''' व '''डिफ्रेन्सियसन''' ख:| अत:, फर्टिलाईजेसन जुगु ओभम् येक्व सेग्मेन्टेसन जुया येक्व कोषत देकी| दक्ले न्हापा ला फुकं कोषत छता थें हे खने दै| तर लिपा कोष नीगू कथंया जुया वनी| थ्व नीगु कथं ख- * म्हयागु कोष, थुकिगु ज्या म्हयागु तन्तु देकिगु ख: व * जर्म कोष, थ्व कोषत प्रजनन ग्रन्थिले थाई — मिस्तले ओभरीले व मिजंले टेस्टेसले— व जातीयागु अमरत्व यागु लागी थयित देछाई == स्वया दिसं == * [[कोष]] * [[ओभम्]] == विकिपिडिया पिनेयागु सम्बन्धित वेबपौ == 733 4033 2006-10-17T23:24:52Z Eukesh 11 /* External links */ [[Image:Wfm wallace monument.jpg|250px|thumbnail|right|विलियम वालेस लुमंती]] सर '''विलियम वालेस'''(१२७० – २३ अगस्त, १३०५) छम्ह स्कटिस नाइट ख| वेकलं स्कटिसयात अंग्रेजतेगु विरुद्धयागु स्वतन्त्रता संग्रामले नेतृत्व बिया दिल| William was the inspiration for the [[historical novel]] ''The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie'' written by the [[15th century]] [[minstrel]] [[Blind Harry]]. This work is more of a novel than a biography and is responsible for much of the [[legend]] encompassing the history of William Wallace. == Origins == Tradition often describes Wallace as "one of the common people," in contrast to his countryman, [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]], who came from the upper [[nobility]]. Wallace's family were minor nobles [[gentry]], descending from Richard Wallace the [[Wales|Welshman]] (the name ''Wallace'' means "Welsh"), a landowner under an early member of the [[House of Stuart]], which later became the Royal House of Scotland. While some suggest Wallace was born around 1272, the [[16th century]] work ''History of William Wallace and Scottish Affairs'' claims 1276 as his year of birth. Due to the lack of conclusive evidence, Wallace's birthdate and birthplace are disputed. Traditionally, the birthplace of William Wallace is claimed to be [[Elderslie]], near [[Paisley]] in [[Renfrewshire]]; although it has been suggested that his birthplace was closer to [[Ellerslie]], an alternative name for Riccarton, near Hurlford and [[Kilmarnock]] in [[Ayrshire]]. In support of the Ellerslie origins, some proposed that William's traditional father, Alan Wallace of Elderslie (was known as Malcolm Wallace until recently when they rediscovered William Wallace's seal), a knight and [[vassal]] to James the Steward, actually came from [[Riccarton]], Ayrshire, from nearby [[Loudoun]]. There are also strong family connections to Craigie Castle, southeast of Kilmarnock. Some of Wallace's earliest actions were in Ayrshire, and local tradition has the dispute with English soldiers over fish not in [[Lanark]] but west of Riccarton at a site known as the "Bickering Bush". To the contrary, the Elderslie origins are defended with the arguments that Ellerslie is a former mining village known only from the 19th century, whereas Elderslie is known from earlier. Wallace's first action was at Lanark, which is near neither Elderslie nor Ellerslie, and afterward he moved into Ayrshire to join some Scottish nobles who were fighting the English at [[Irvine, Scotland|Irvine]]. The [[1999]] rediscovery of William Wallace's seal further enshrouds Wallace's early history in mystery. While tradition claims Sir [[Malcolm Wallace]] of Elderslie as the father of three sons, Malcolm, John, and William Wallace, the seal identifies William as the son of Alan Wallace of Ayrshire, who appears in the [[Ragman Roll]] of [[1296]] as "crown tenant of Ayrshire". Dr. Fiona Watson in ''"A Report into Sir William Wallace's connections with Ayrshire"'', published in March 1999, reassesses the early life of William Wallace and concludes, "Sir William Wallace was a younger son of Alan Wallace, a crown tenant in Ayrshire". Historian Andrew Fisher, author of ''William Wallace'' ([[2002]]), writes, "If the Alan of the Ragman Roll was indeed the patriot's father, then the current argument in favour of an Ayrshire rather than a Renfrewshire origin for Wallace can be settled". Wallace was allegedly educated in [[French language|French]] and [[Latin]] by two uncles who had become priests. Blind Harry does not mention Wallace's departure from Scotland or that Wallace had combat experience prior to [[1297]]. A record from August [[1296]] references "a thief, one William le Waleys" in Perth where his cousin William Crawford owned a farm nearby the present-day Elcho Castle. == वालेसयागु ईले स्कटल्याण्ड == [[Image:Braveheart_edinburghcastle.jpg|thumb|left|200px|एडिनबरा किल्लाया पिने वालेसयागु प्रतिमा ]]]] At the time of Wallace's birth, King [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] had reigned for over twenty years. His rule had seen a period of peace and economic stability, and he had successfully fended off continuing English claims to [[suzerainty]]. In 1286, Alexander died after falling from his horse; none of his children survived him. The Scottish lords declared Alexander's four year-old granddaughter, [[Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]] (called "the Maid of Norway"), Queen. Due to her age, they set up an interim government to administer Scotland until she came of age. King [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] took advantage of the potential instability by arranging the Treaty of Birgham with the lords, betrothing Margaret to his son, Edward, on the understanding that Scotland would preserve its status as a separate [[nation]]. But Margaret fell ill and died at only eight years old (1290) on her way from her native [[Norway]] to Scotland. A number of claimants to the Scottish throne came forward almost immediately. With Scotland threatening to descend into a dynastic war, the leading men of the realm invited Edward's arbitration. Before the process could begin, he insisted that all of the contendors recognize him as Lord Paramount of Scotland. After some initial resistance, all, including [[John of Scotland|John Balliol]] and Robert Bruce, the chief contendors, accepted this precondition. Finally, in early November 1292, at a great feudal court held in the castle at Berwick-upon-Tweed, judgment was given in favour of John Balliol, having the strongest claim in law. Formal announcement of the judgment was given by Edward on 17 November. Although the outcome of the Great Cause had been both fair and legal, Edward proceeded to use the political concessions he had gained to undermine the independence of Scotland, and to make King John's position intolerable. Goaded beyond endurance, Balliol renounced his [[homage]] in March 1296, and by the end of the month Edward had stormed [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]], sacking the then Scottish border town with much bloodshed. He slaughtered almost everyone who resided there, even if they fled to the churches. In April, the Scots were defeated at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1296)]] in [[Lothian]], and by July Edward had forced Balliol to abdicate at [[Kincardine Castle]]. Edward went to Berwick in August to receive formal homage from some 2,000 Scottish nobles (see [[Ragman Roll]]), having previously removed the [[Stone of Scone|Stone of Destiny]] from [[Scone Palace]], the stone on which all of the Kings of Scots had been crowned. == Wallace's exploits begin == Harry notes that Wallace's father was killed in a skirmish at Loudon Hill in 1291. This planted the seed of hatred for the foreign occupation of Scotland. According to local Ayrshire legend, two English soldiers challenged Wallace in the Lanark marketplace regarding his catching of fish. The argument escalated into a brawl in which the two soldiers were killed. Blind Harry places this incident along the River Irvine with five soldiers being killed. The authorities issued a warrant for his arrest shortly thereafter. According to a plaque outside St Paul's Cathedral in the City of [[Dundee]] however, William Wallace began his war for independence by murdering the son of the English governor of Dundee after he had made a constant habit of bullying him and his family. This story perhaps has more weight because it is speculated that Wallace may have attended what is now the [[High School of Dundee]], and spent some of his time growing up in the nearby village of Kilspindie. Blind Harry places this bullying incident in Lanark which led to a series of incidents described next. Wallace murdered Sir [[William Heselrig]], the English [[Sheriff]] of Lanark, in May [[1297]], and dismembered his corpse, supposedly to avenge the death of [[Marion Braidfute]] of [[Lamington]] &mdash; the young maiden Wallace allegedly courted and married in Blind Harry's tale. No evidence exists to corroborate or refute this detail. Soon, he achieved victory in skirmishes at [[Loudoun Hill]] (near [[Darvel]], Ayrshire) and Ayr; he also fought alongside Sir [[William Douglas]] in [[Scone, Perthshire|Scone]], routing the English [[justiciar]], [[William Ormesby]]. Supporters of the growing revolt suffered a major blow when Scottish nobles agreed to terms with the English at [[Irvine, Scotland|Irvine]] in July. In August, Wallace left Selkirk Forest with his following to join [[Andrew Moray]]'s following at [[Stirling]]. Moray began another uprising, and their forces combined at Stirling, where they prepared to meet the English in battle. It is not confirmed what Wallace was doing between 1294 and 1296, but Harry states that Wallace was under the protection of his uncle Sir [[Ronald Crawford]], Sheriff of Ayrshire. In the period from 1291 until 1297 Wallace was involved in several actions where the English invariably lost. Harry states that Wallace continually sought the protection of his uncle Crawford from the outrage of the English. It is said he sneaked into Lanark and killed the English Sheriff to avenge [[Marion Braidfute]] (his wife according to [[Blind Harry]]). This would be an ambush. Around 40 or so of his supporters went with him. Thanks to his tactics, towns such as Aberdeen, Perth, Glasgow, Scone, Dundee, and all land north of the Forth were freed. According to Harry, these guerrilla tactics eventually led King Edward to solve the problem by eliminating most of the Council of Barons by murdering them in the Barns of Ayr (June 1297), an incident speculated to be invented by Blind Harry. A similar hanging party simultaneously convened in Renfrewshire. Sir Ronald Crawford was the first to be hanged, sending Wallace, who had arrived at the location late after running an errand for his uncle, into action and killing the entire English garrison in Ayr in a traditional Scottish method, locking the doors as the garrison slept and firing the flamable structures. Wallace and his men retired to Selkirk Forest for safety. When word reached the Crawford family that Sir Ronald had been killed, Sir Ronald's son, William, joined Wallace in the forest. As Wallace's ranks swelled, information obtained by [[John_Graham_%28soldier%29|John Graham]] prompted Wallace to move his force from Selkirk Forest to the Highlands. But on the way to the Highlands, Wallace met up with Andrew Moray at Stirling. From this point, the guerrilla war became open war. == स्टर्लिंग तां या ल्वापू == On [[11 September]], 1297, Wallace achieved victory at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]]. Although vastly outnumbered, the Scottish forces led by Wallace and [[Andrew Moray]] (a more prominent noble, being a first son), routed the English army. The [[Earl of Surrey]]'s professional army of 300 cavalry and 10,000 infantry met disaster as they crossed over to the north side of the river. The narrowness of the bridge prevented many soldiers from crossing together (possibly as few as three men abreast), so while the English soldiers crossed, the Scots held back until half of them had passed and then killed the English as quickly as they could cross. A pivotal charge was led by [[Hamish Campbell]], Wallace's long time companion and one of his captains. English soldiers started to retreat as others pushed forward, and under the overwhelming weight, the bridge collapsed and many English soldiers drowned. Harry claims that the bridge was rigged to collapse by the action of a man hidden beneath the bridge. The Scots won a significant victory which hugely boosted the confidence of their army. [[Hugh Cressingham]], Edward's treasurer in Scotland, died in the fighting. Harry claims Cressingham's skin was tanned and used to make trophy belts and sporrans. Moray died of wounds suffered on the battlefield three months after the Battle of Stirling Bridge. William Crawford led 400 Scottish heavy cavalry to complete the action by running the English out of Scotland. Upon his return from the Battle of Stirling Bridge, Wallace was knighted along with his second-in-command John Graham and his third-in-command [[William Crawford]], possibly by Robert the Bruce, and Wallace was named "Guardian of Scotland and Leader of its armies", now Sir William Wallace. In the six months following Stirling Bridge, Wallace led a force to York, at first cleansing the countryside, then laying siege to the City. His intent was to take the battle to English soil to demonstrate to Edward that Scotland also had the power to inflict the same sort of damage south of the border. Naturally, Edward was infuriated and refused to be intimidated. == फल्किर्कया ल्वापू == A year later the military tables turned at the [[Battle of Falkirk (1298)|Battle of Falkirk]]. On [[1 April]], [[1298]], the English had invaded Scotland at [[Roxburgh]]. They plundered [[Lothian]] and regained some castles, but had failed to bring Wallace to combat. The Scots had adopted a [[scorched earth|scorched-earth policy]], and English suppliers' mistakes had left morale and food low, but Edward's search for Wallace would end at [[Falkirk]]. Wallace had arranged his spearmen in four "[[schiltron]]s" &mdash; circular, hedgehog formations surrounded by a defensive wall of wooden stakes. The English gained the upper hand, however, attacking first with [[cavalry]], and wreaking havoc through the Scottish [[Archery|archers]]. The Scottish knights were pulled back by command, and Edward's men began to attack the schiltrons. It remains unclear whether the infantry throwing bolts, arrows and stones at the spearmen proved the deciding factor, although it is very likely that it was the arrows of Edward's bowmen. Either way, gaps in the schiltrons soon appeared, and the English exploited these to crush the remaining resistance. The Scots lost many men, but Wallace escaped, though his military reputation suffered badly. John Graham was killed and William Crawford became Wallace's second. According to one account, during his flight Wallace fought and killed [[Brian de Jay]], master of the English [[Knights Templar|Templars]] in a thicket at Callendar. By September 1298, Wallace had decided to resign as Guardian of Scotland in favour of Robert Bruce, [[Earl of Carrick]], and [[John Comyn]] of [[Badenoch]], ex-King John Balliol's brother-in-law because of the discouraging lack of commitment and support from the Scottish nobility. Bruce became reconciled with King Edward in [[1302]], while Wallace spurned such moves towards peace. According to Harry, Wallace left with William Crawford in late 1298 on a mission to the court of King [[Philip IV of France]], Le Bel of [[France]] to plead the case for assistance in the Scottish struggle for independence. On their trip down the English coast, the small convoy ran into the infamous pirate Richard Longoville, also known as the Red Reiver for his red sails and ruthless raids. Hiding in the hold of the ship while Crawford and a small contingent of men sailed the ship, Wallace surprised the pirates as they boarded the ship after grappling them together. Longoville was captured and taken to Paris where the Scots convinced Phillip to grant amnesty so that Longoville could wreak havoc on English ships. But after serving with the Scots Guard in France in two supposed military victories over the English as well as a side trip to Rome to plead for Scotland, in 1303 Wallace and his men returned to Scotland where they slipped in under the cover of darkness to recover on the farm of William Crawford, near Elcho Wood. Having heard rumors of Wallace's appearance in the area, the English moved in on the farm. A chase ensued and the band of men slipped away after being completely surrounded in Elcho Wood. It is at this point in the chase where Wallace took the life of one of his men that he suspected of hidden loyalty, in order to divert the English from the trail. == वालेसयागु ज्वनेज्या व वेकया वीरगति == Sir William evaded capture by the English until [[5 August]], [[1305]], when Sir [[John de Menteith]], a Scottish knight loyal to Edward, turned Wallace over to English soldiers at [[Robroyston]], near [[Glasgow]]. Wallace was transported to London and tried for treason at [[Westminster Hall]] where he was crowned with a garland of oak to suggest that he was the king of [[outlaw]]s. He responded to the charge, "I could not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject." The absent John Balliol was officially his king; however, Wallace was declared guilty. On [[23 August]], [[1305]], following the trial Wallace was removed from the courtroom, stripped naked and dragged at the heels of a horse to [[Smithfield Market]]. He was [[drawing and quartering|drawn and quartered]]: strangled by hanging but released near death, [[emasculation|emasculated]], [[Disembowelment|eviscerated]], beheaded, then divided into four parts ([[the four horrors]]) at the Elms in [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]]. His head was placed on a pike atop London Bridge, which was later joined by the heads of his brother, John, and Sir [[Simon Fraser (patriot)|Simon Fraser]]. His limbs were displayed, separately, in [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[Berwick-upon-Tweed|Berwick]], [[Stirling]], and [[Aberdeen, Scotland|Aberdeen]]. A sword which supposedly belonged to Wallace was held for many years in [[Dumbarton Castle]], and is now in the [[Wallace National Monument]] near [[Stirling]]. However, examination of the sword by experts has concluded that its design belongs to a period a few centuries after Wallace. == Portrayal in fiction == An insignificant amount of comprehensive and historically accurate information was written about Wallace. Many stories, however, are based on the wandering [[15th century]] minstrel Blind Harry's epic poem, "The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie", written around [[1470]]. Historians disagree with parts of Blind Harry's tale, or dismiss the entire composition. Although Blind Harry wrote from oral tradition describing events 170 years earlier, giving rise to alterations of fact, Harry's work still remains the most authoritative description of Wallace's exploits. Indeed, much of Harry's work is supported by circumstantial evidence including names from land charters, the [[Ragman Roll]], and religious and public office holders and their archives. While not all details are consistent, the general flow is consistent with contemporary histories. It should be noted that the Bishop of St. Andrew's did commission a friar to write a first-hand account of Wallace's exploits, but the disposition of this manuscript is not known. Blind Harry's poem "Barns of Ayr", for example, describes the incident when three hundred and sixty Scottish nobles, led by Wallace’s uncle, Sir [[Ronald Crawford]], were summoned by the English to a conference in Spring of 1297. As each passed through a narrow entry, a rope was dropped around his neck, and he was hanged. It is speculated this incident did not occur assuming Blind Harry misread a line from an earlier poem about Robert the Bruce, which tells how certain Scottish nobles were hanged "in ar" (a legal term meaning "by a circuit court"). However, there is no evidence that Harry ever read the earlier poem. The incident as described by Blind Harry does appear in the 1995 film ''[[Braveheart]]'' with much less accuracy, placing the event in the childhood of Wallace and igoring the murder of his uncle Crawford. Nevertheless, Sir Ronald Crawford did die at this time and his son replaced him as Sheriff of Ayrshire, giving some credence to the story. In the early [[19th century]], [[Sir Walter Scott]] wrote of Wallace in ''Exploits and Death of William Wallace, the "Hero of Scotland"''', and [[Jane Porter]] penned a romantic version of the Wallace legend in ''The Scottish Chiefs'' in [[1810]]. [[G. A. Henty|G.A. Henty]] wrote a novel in [[1885]] about this time period titled ''In Freedom's Cause''. Henty, a producer of ''[[Boys Own]]'' fiction who wrote for that magazine, portrays the life of William Wallace, Robert the Bruce, [[James Douglas (the Black)|The Black Douglas]], and others, while dovetailing the novel with [[historical fiction]]. [[Nigel Tranter]] authored an intended fiction titled ''[[The Wallace (novel)|The Wallace]]'', published in [[1975]], which is said by academics to be more accurate than its literary predecessors. Perhaps the best known account of the life of William Wallace is the [[1995]] film, ''[[Braveheart]]'', directed by and starring [[Mel Gibson]] and written by [[Randall Wallace]]. This film has been criticized for its considerable historical inaccuracies, but was a commercial and critical success, winning five [[Academy Awards]], including Best Picture and Best Director. The game [[Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings]] contains several of Wallace's battles in its Campaign mode, including the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]]. == 700th anniversary of Wallace's execution == In [[2005]], the 700th anniversary of Wallace's execution, his sword became the most popular feature of an exhibition in [[New York, New York|New York]] during the celebrations of [[Tartan Day|Tartan Week]]. This marked the first time the sword, weighing 6 pounds (2.5 kilograms) and measuring five feet and four inches, was removed from Scotland. Historian [[David R Ross]] walked 450 miles from [[Robroyston]] in [[Glasgow]], Scotland to London to mark the anniversary of Wallace's capture and execution. A symbolic funeral was then held at the site of Wallace's execution in [[Smithfield, London]] with an empty coffin. While the event hosted 300 attendees, more than 900 people unsuccessfully applied for tickets to the event &mdash; a testament to Wallace's enduring legacy. == Bibliography == <!-- Please do not use superscript citation for factual references in the article until this article is reasonably written and verified. --> *Brown, Chris. ''William Wallace. The True Story of Braveheart''. Stroud: Tempus Publishing Ltd, 2005. ISBN 0752434322. *Clater-Roszak, Christine. "Sir William Wallace ignited a flame." ''Military History'' 14 (1997): 12&ndash;15. . *''Folklore, Myths and Legends of Britain''. London: The Reader’s Digest Association, 1973, 519-20. *Harris, Nathaniel. ''Heritage of Scotland: A Cultural History of Scotland & Its People''. London: Hamlyn, 2000. ISBN 0600598349.. *MacLean, Fitzroy. ''Scotland: A Concise History''. London: Thames & Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0500277060. *Morton, Graeme. ''William Wallace''. London: Sutton, 2004. ISBN 0750935235. *Reese, Peter. ''William Wallace: A Biography''. Edinburgh: Canongate, 1998. ISBN 0862416078. *Scott, Sir Walter. "Exploits and death of William Wallace, the 'Hero of Scotland'." *Stead, Michael J., and Alan Young. ''In the Footsteps of William Wallace''. London: Sutton, 2002. *Wallace, Margaret. ''William Wallace: Champion of Scotland''. Musselborough: Goblinshead, 1999. ISBN 1899874194. == See also == * [[Clan Wallace]] * [[Lugar Water]] == External links == * [http://www.braveheart.co.uk/macbrave/history/wallace/elder01.htm Location of William Wallace's home] * [http://worldconnect.rootsweb.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=PED&db=maclaren&id=I13137&style=TEXT William Wallace's ancestors tree] * [http://worldconnect.rootsweb.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=DESC&db=maclaren&id=I13137 William Wallace's descendants] * [http://www.stirling.gov.uk/wallace-bruce Wallace & Bruce] [[Category:जीवनी]] 734 1832 2006-10-10T17:43:48Z Eukesh 11 == ९ अक्टोबर, २००६== * [[उत्तर कोरिया]] नं [[आणविक परिक्षण]]याना हलिमयागु ८औं आणविक दे जुगु दु| == १० अक्टोबर, २००६ == * [[गूगल]]नं [[यु ट्युब]] १.६५ [[डलर|डलरे]] न्याये त्येंगु दु| 735 1630 2006-10-09T19:25:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Current events]] moved to [[जुयाच्वंगु बुखं]] #REDIRECT [[जुयाच्वंगु बुखं]] 736 1633 2006-10-09T19:38:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Yen.JPG|thumb|right|ञे यागु किपा:]] ञे नेपालयागु राजधानी व दक्ले तधंगु सहर ख:| 737 1632 2006-10-09T19:33:10Z Eukesh 11 ञे यागु किपा:| ञे यागु किपा:| 738 1634 2006-10-09T19:44:28Z Eukesh 11 विकिपिडिया छगु सितिकं स्वे ज्युगु व सम्पादन याये ज्युगु [[हलिमसफु]] ख:| 739 1635 2006-10-09T22:16:57Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२१औं शताब्दी]] 740 1636 2006-10-09T22:18:13Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२१औं शताब्दी]] 741 1637 2006-10-09T22:19:16Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२१औं शताब्दी]] 742 1638 2006-10-09T22:20:13Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२१औं शताब्दी]] 743 1639 2006-10-09T22:20:59Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२१औं शताब्दी]] 744 1640 2006-10-09T22:21:30Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२१औं शताब्दी]] 745 2453 2006-10-12T16:38:06Z Eukesh 11 '''भारत''' [[दक्षिण एसिया]]ये लागु छगु [[दे]] ख:| थ्व दे हलिमे दक्ले तधंगु [[प्रजातन्त्र]] दुगु दे ख:| भारतयागु जनसंख्या [[चीन]] धुंका हलिमे दक्ले अप्व ख:| भारत छगु आणविक दे ख:| ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 746 1642 2006-10-09T22:29:34Z Eukesh 11 '''हलिमसफु''' धागु छगु कथंयागु [[सफु]] ख:|थ्व सफुले हलिमयागु यक्व ख्यतेगु विषयले लेख त च्वतातगु दै| 748 1646 2006-10-09T22:31:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Book]] moved to [[सफु]] #REDIRECT [[सफु]] 749 1648 2006-10-10T15:46:11Z Eukesh 11 #[[ई सं १९००]] #[[ई सं १९०१]] #[[ई सं १९०२]] #[[ई सं १९०३]] #[[ई सं १९०४]] #[[ई सं १९०५]] #[[ई सं १९०६]] #[[ई सं १९०७]] #[[ई सं १९०८]] #[[ई सं १९०९]] #[[ई सं १९१०]] #[[ई सं १९११]] #[[ई सं १९१२]] #[[ई सं १९१३]] #[[ई सं १९१४]] #[[ई सं १९१५]] #[[ई सं १९१६]] #[[ई सं १९१७]] #[[ई सं १९१८]] #[[ई सं १९१९]] #[[ई सं १९२०]] #[[ई सं १९२१]] #[[ई सं १९२२]] #[[ई सं १९२३]] #[[ई सं १९२४]] #[[ई सं १९२५]] #[[ई सं १९२६]] #[[ई सं १९२७]] #[[ई सं १९२८]] #[[ई सं १९२९]] #[[ई सं १९३०]] #[[ई सं १९३१]] #[[ई सं १९३२]] #[[ई सं १९३३]] #[[ई सं १९३४]] #[[ई सं १९३५]] #[[ई सं १९३६]] #[[ई सं १९३७]] #[[ई सं १९३८]] #[[ई सं १९३९]] #[[ई सं १९४०]] #[[ई सं १९४१]] #[[ई सं १९४२]] #[[ई सं १९४३]] #[[ई सं १९४४]] #[[ई सं १९४५]] #[[ई सं १९४६]] #[[ई सं १९४७]] #[[ई सं १९४८]] #[[ई सं १९४९]] #[[ई सं १९५०]] #[[ई सं १९५१]] #[[ई सं १९५२]] #[[ई सं १९५३]] #[[ई सं १९५४]] #[[ई सं १९५५]] #[[ई सं १९५६]] #[[ई सं १९५७]] #[[ई सं १९५८]] #[[ई सं १९५९]] #[[ई सं १९६०]] #[[ई सं १९६१]] #[[ई सं १९६२]] #[[ई सं १९६३]] #[[ई सं १९६४]] #[[ई सं १९६५]] #[[ई सं १९६६]] #[[ई सं १९६७]] #[[ई सं १९६८]] #[[ई सं १९६९]] #[[ई सं १९७०]] #[[ई सं १९७१]] #[[ई सं १९७२]] #[[ई सं १९७३]] #[[ई सं १९७४]] #[[ई सं १९७५]] #[[ई सं १९७६]] #[[ई सं १९७७]] #[[ई सं १९७८]] #[[ई सं १९७९]] #[[ई सं १९८०]] #[[ई सं १९८१]] #[[ई सं १९८२]] #[[ई सं १९८३]] #[[ई सं १९८४]] #[[ई सं १९८५]] #[[ई सं १९८६]] #[[ई सं १९८७]] #[[ई सं १९८८]] #[[ई सं १९८९]] #[[ई सं १९९०]] #[[ई सं १९९१]] #[[ई सं १९९२]] #[[ई सं १९९३]] #[[ई सं १९९४]] #[[ई सं १९९५]] #[[ई सं १९९६]] #[[ई सं १९९७]] #[[ई सं १९९८]] #[[ई सं १९९९]] [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] [[Category:ईतिहास]] 750 1649 2006-10-10T15:52:05Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== * २०औं शताब्दी न्ह्येथाल:| == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 751 1650 2006-10-10T15:55:47Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 752 1651 2006-10-10T15:56:50Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 753 1652 2006-10-10T15:59:02Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 754 1653 2006-10-10T16:10:17Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 755 1654 2006-10-10T16:10:50Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 756 1655 2006-10-10T16:12:00Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 757 1656 2006-10-10T16:12:10Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 758 1657 2006-10-10T16:13:07Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 759 1658 2006-10-10T16:13:52Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 760 1659 2006-10-10T16:14:32Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 761 1660 2006-10-10T16:15:15Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 762 1661 2006-10-10T16:16:36Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 763 1662 2006-10-10T16:16:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 764 1663 2006-10-10T16:19:43Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== * प्रथम हलिम ल्वापु न्ह्येथाल| == जन्म == == मृत्यु == * [[फ्रान्ज फर्डिन्यान्ड]]यागु हत्या| [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 765 1664 2006-10-10T16:20:15Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 766 1665 2006-10-10T16:20:38Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 767 1666 2006-10-10T16:20:58Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 768 1667 2006-10-10T16:22:03Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== * [[प्रथम हलिम ल्वापु]] क्वचाल| == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 769 1668 2006-10-10T16:23:03Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 770 1669 2006-10-10T16:23:03Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 771 1670 2006-10-10T16:24:25Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 772 1671 2006-10-10T16:24:47Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 773 1672 2006-10-10T16:25:28Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 774 1673 2006-10-10T16:26:09Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 775 1674 2006-10-10T16:26:40Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 776 1675 2006-10-10T16:26:55Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 777 1676 2006-10-10T16:27:43Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 778 1677 2006-10-10T16:28:02Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 779 1678 2006-10-10T16:28:42Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 780 1679 2006-10-10T16:29:52Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 781 1680 2006-10-10T16:30:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 782 1681 2006-10-10T16:31:18Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 783 1682 2006-10-10T16:31:45Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 784 1683 2006-10-10T16:32:11Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 785 1684 2006-10-10T16:32:47Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 786 1685 2006-10-10T16:33:17Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 787 1686 2006-10-10T16:34:08Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 788 1687 2006-10-10T16:34:15Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 789 1688 2006-10-10T16:36:07Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== * द्वितीय हलिम ल्वापु न्ह्येथाल| == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 790 1689 2006-10-10T16:36:35Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 791 1690 2006-10-10T16:36:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 792 1691 2006-10-10T16:37:16Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 793 1692 2006-10-10T16:37:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 794 1693 2006-10-10T16:38:11Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 795 1694 2006-10-10T16:41:59Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== * [[द्वितीय हलिम ल्वापु]] क्वचाल| * हलिमयागु दक्ले न्हापांगु [[आणविक अस्त्र]]यागु छ्येलेज्या:| == जन्म == == मृत्यु == * एडोल्फ हिटलरयागु आत्महत्या| [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 796 1695 2006-10-10T16:42:31Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 797 1696 2006-10-10T16:43:02Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 798 1697 2006-10-10T16:43:32Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 799 1698 2006-10-10T16:43:35Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 800 1699 2006-10-10T16:43:57Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 801 1700 2006-10-10T16:44:32Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 802 1701 2006-10-10T16:44:38Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 803 1702 2006-10-10T16:45:09Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 804 1703 2006-10-10T16:45:31Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 805 1704 2006-10-10T16:45:34Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 806 1705 2006-10-10T16:46:02Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 807 1706 2006-10-10T16:46:26Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 808 1707 2006-10-10T16:46:29Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 809 1708 2006-10-10T16:46:55Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 810 1709 2006-10-10T16:46:57Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 811 1710 2006-10-10T16:47:21Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 812 1711 2006-10-10T16:47:36Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 813 1712 2006-10-10T16:47:40Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 814 1713 2006-10-10T16:47:59Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 815 1714 2006-10-10T16:48:26Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 816 1715 2006-10-10T16:48:33Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 817 1716 2006-10-10T16:48:55Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 818 1717 2006-10-10T16:49:18Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 819 1718 2006-10-10T16:49:19Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 820 1719 2006-10-10T16:50:18Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 821 1720 2006-10-10T16:50:31Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 822 1721 2006-10-10T16:50:32Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 823 1722 2006-10-10T16:50:53Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 824 1723 2006-10-10T16:51:18Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 825 1724 2006-10-10T16:51:26Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 826 1725 2006-10-10T16:51:51Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 827 1726 2006-10-10T16:51:54Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 828 1727 2006-10-10T16:52:30Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 829 1728 2006-10-10T16:53:01Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 830 1729 2006-10-10T16:53:03Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 831 1730 2006-10-10T16:53:37Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 832 1731 2006-10-10T16:53:57Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 833 1732 2006-10-10T16:54:02Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 834 1733 2006-10-10T16:54:39Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 835 1734 2006-10-10T16:54:52Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 836 1735 2006-10-10T16:55:09Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 837 1736 2006-10-10T16:55:20Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 838 1737 2006-10-10T16:55:31Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 839 1738 2006-10-10T16:56:04Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 840 1739 2006-10-10T16:56:19Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 841 1740 2006-10-10T16:56:29Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 842 1741 2006-10-10T16:56:55Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 843 1742 2006-10-10T16:57:09Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 844 1743 2006-10-10T16:57:40Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 845 1744 2006-10-10T16:57:47Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 846 1745 2006-10-10T16:58:30Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 847 1746 2006-10-10T16:58:40Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 848 1747 2006-10-10T16:58:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 849 1748 2006-10-10T16:59:07Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:२०औं शताब्दी]] 850 1749 2006-10-10T17:00:49Z Eukesh 11 २०औं शताब्दी नाप स्वापू दुगु पौ तेगु श्रेणी| 851 1750 2006-10-10T17:01:14Z Eukesh 11 ईतिहास नाप स्वापू दुगु पौ तेगु श्रेणी| 852 1751 2006-10-10T17:02:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 853 1752 2006-10-10T17:03:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 854 1753 2006-10-10T17:03:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 855 1754 2006-10-10T17:04:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 856 1755 2006-10-10T17:04:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 857 1756 2006-10-10T17:04:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 858 1757 2006-10-10T17:05:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 859 1758 2006-10-10T17:05:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 860 1759 2006-10-10T17:06:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 861 1760 2006-10-10T17:06:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 862 1761 2006-10-10T17:06:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 863 1762 2006-10-10T17:07:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 864 1763 2006-10-10T17:08:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 865 1764 2006-10-10T17:08:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 866 1765 2006-10-10T17:08:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 867 1767 2006-10-10T17:11:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 868 1769 2006-10-10T17:11:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Template:Wp/new/प्राचीन मेसोपोटामिया]] moved to [[Template:प्राचीन मेसोपोटामिया]] #REDIRECT [[Template:प्राचीन मेसोपोटामिया]] 869 1771 2006-10-10T17:13:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 870 1772 2006-10-10T17:14:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 871 1773 2006-10-10T17:14:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 872 1774 2006-10-10T17:14:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 873 1776 2006-10-10T17:16:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 874 1777 2006-10-10T17:16:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 875 1778 2006-10-10T17:16:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 876 1779 2006-10-10T17:16:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 877 1780 2006-10-10T17:16:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 878 1781 2006-10-10T17:17:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 879 1782 2006-10-10T17:17:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 880 1783 2006-10-10T17:18:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 881 1784 2006-10-10T17:18:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 882 1785 2006-10-10T17:19:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 883 1786 2006-10-10T17:19:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 884 1787 2006-10-10T17:19:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 885 1788 2006-10-10T17:19:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 886 1789 2006-10-10T17:20:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 887 1790 2006-10-10T17:20:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 888 1791 2006-10-10T17:21:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 889 1792 2006-10-10T17:21:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 890 1793 2006-10-10T17:22:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 891 1794 2006-10-10T17:22:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 892 1795 2006-10-10T17:23:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 893 1796 2006-10-10T17:23:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 894 1797 2006-10-10T17:24:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 895 1798 2006-10-10T17:25:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 896 1799 2006-10-10T17:25:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 897 1800 2006-10-10T17:26:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 898 1801 2006-10-10T17:26:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 899 1802 2006-10-10T17:26:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 900 1803 2006-10-10T17:26:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 901 1804 2006-10-10T17:26:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 902 1805 2006-10-10T17:27:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 903 1806 2006-10-10T17:27:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 904 1807 2006-10-10T17:27:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 905 1808 2006-10-10T17:28:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 906 1810 2006-10-10T17:29:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 907 1813 2006-10-10T17:31:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 908 1814 2006-10-10T17:32:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 909 1815 2006-10-10T17:32:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 910 1816 2006-10-10T17:33:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 911 1817 2006-10-10T17:33:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 912 1818 2006-10-10T17:33:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 913 1819 2006-10-10T17:34:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 914 1820 2006-10-10T17:34:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 915 1821 2006-10-10T17:34:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 916 1822 2006-10-10T17:34:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 917 1823 2006-10-10T17:35:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 918 1824 2006-10-10T17:35:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 919 1825 2006-10-10T17:35:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 920 1826 2006-10-10T17:36:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 921 1827 2006-10-10T17:37:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 922 1828 2006-10-10T17:37:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 923 1829 2006-10-10T17:37:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 924 1830 2006-10-10T17:37:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 925 1831 2006-10-10T17:38:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:ईतिहास]] 926 3527 2006-10-15T20:13:51Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> '''अंग्रेजी भाय''' [[बेलायत]] नं न्ह्येथाना वगु छगु [[भारोपेली भाय]] ख:| थ्व भाय हलिमे दक्ले अप्व मनु तेसं छ्येलिगु द्वितीय भाय ख:| [[Category:संस्कृति]] 927 1835 2006-10-10T18:02:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 928 1836 2006-10-10T18:02:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 929 1837 2006-10-10T18:03:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 930 1838 2006-10-10T18:14:49Z Eukesh 11 #[[ई सं १८००]] #[[ई सं १८०१]] #[[ई सं १८०२]] #[[ई सं १८०३]] #[[ई सं १८०४]] #[[ई सं १८०५]] #[[ई सं १८०६]] #[[ई सं १८०७]] #[[ई सं १८०८]] #[[ई सं १८०९]] #[[ई सं १८१०]] #[[ई सं १८११]] #[[ई सं १८१२]] #[[ई सं १८१३]] #[[ई सं १८१४]] #[[ई सं १८१५]] #[[ई सं १८१६]] #[[ई सं १८१७]] #[[ई सं १८१८]] #[[ई सं १८१९]] #[[ई सं १८२०]] #[[ई सं १८२१]] #[[ई सं १८२२]] #[[ई सं १८२३]] #[[ई सं १८२४]] #[[ई सं १८२५]] #[[ई सं १८२६]] #[[ई सं १८२७]] #[[ई सं १८२८]] #[[ई सं १८२९]] #[[ई सं १८३०]] #[[ई सं १८३१]] #[[ई सं १८३२]] #[[ई सं १८३३]] #[[ई सं १८३४]] #[[ई सं १८३५]] #[[ई सं १८३६]] #[[ई सं १८३७]] #[[ई सं १८३८]] #[[ई सं १८३९]] #[[ई सं १८४०]] #[[ई सं १८४१]] #[[ई सं १८४२]] #[[ई सं १८४३]] #[[ई सं १८४४]] #[[ई सं १८४५]] #[[ई सं १८४६]] #[[ई सं १८४७]] #[[ई सं १८४८]] #[[ई सं १८४९]] #[[ई सं १८५०]] #[[ई सं १८५१]] #[[ई सं १८५२]] #[[ई सं १८५३]] #[[ई सं १८५४]] #[[ई सं १८५५]] #[[ई सं १८५६]] #[[ई सं १८५७]] #[[ई सं १८५८]] #[[ई सं १८५९]] #[[ई सं १८६०]] #[[ई सं १८६१]] #[[ई सं १८६२]] #[[ई सं १८६३]] #[[ई सं १८६४]] #[[ई सं १८६५]] #[[ई सं १८६६]] #[[ई सं १८६७]] #[[ई सं १८६८]] #[[ई सं १८६९]] #[[ई सं १८७०]] #[[ई सं १८७१]] #[[ई सं १८७२]] #[[ई सं १८७३]] #[[ई सं १८७४]] #[[ई सं १८७५]] #[[ई सं १८७६]] #[[ई सं १८७७]] #[[ई सं १८७८]] #[[ई सं १८७९]] #[[ई सं १८८०]] #[[ई सं १८८१]] #[[ई सं १८८२]] #[[ई सं १८८३]] #[[ई सं १८८४]] #[[ई सं १८८५]] #[[ई सं १८८६]] #[[ई सं १८८७]] #[[ई सं १८८८]] #[[ई सं १८८९]] #[[ई सं १८९०]] #[[ई सं १८९१]] #[[ई सं १८९२]] #[[ई सं १८९३]] #[[ई सं १८९४]] #[[ई सं १८९५]] #[[ई सं १८९६]] #[[ई सं १८९७]] #[[ई सं १८९८]] #[[ई सं १८९९]] [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] [[Category:ईतिहास]] 931 1839 2006-10-10T18:16:23Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 932 1840 2006-10-10T18:16:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 933 1841 2006-10-10T18:16:58Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 934 1842 2006-10-10T18:17:51Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 935 1843 2006-10-10T18:17:57Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 936 1844 2006-10-10T18:18:11Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 937 1845 2006-10-10T18:18:27Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 938 1846 2006-10-10T18:19:16Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 939 1847 2006-10-10T18:19:17Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 940 1848 2006-10-10T18:19:34Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 941 1849 2006-10-10T18:19:40Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 942 1850 2006-10-10T18:20:12Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 943 1851 2006-10-10T18:20:16Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 944 1852 2006-10-10T18:20:22Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 945 1853 2006-10-10T18:20:30Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 946 1854 2006-10-10T18:20:34Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 947 1855 2006-10-10T18:21:11Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 948 1856 2006-10-10T18:21:22Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 949 1857 2006-10-10T18:21:33Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 950 1858 2006-10-10T18:21:47Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 951 1859 2006-10-10T18:21:52Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 952 1860 2006-10-10T18:22:30Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 953 1861 2006-10-10T18:22:40Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 954 1862 2006-10-10T18:22:45Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 955 1863 2006-10-10T18:23:02Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 956 1864 2006-10-10T18:23:10Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 957 1865 2006-10-10T18:23:16Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 958 1866 2006-10-10T18:23:47Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 959 1867 2006-10-10T18:23:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 960 1868 2006-10-10T18:24:39Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 961 1869 2006-10-10T18:24:42Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 962 1870 2006-10-10T18:24:44Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 963 1871 2006-10-10T18:25:05Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 964 1872 2006-10-10T18:25:12Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 965 1873 2006-10-10T18:25:48Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 966 1874 2006-10-10T18:25:59Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 967 1875 2006-10-10T18:26:02Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 968 1876 2006-10-10T18:26:04Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 969 1877 2006-10-10T18:26:34Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 970 1878 2006-10-10T18:26:39Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 971 1879 2006-10-10T18:26:50Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 972 1880 2006-10-10T18:26:55Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 973 1881 2006-10-10T18:27:08Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 974 1882 2006-10-10T18:27:32Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 975 1883 2006-10-10T18:27:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 976 1884 2006-10-10T18:28:09Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 977 1885 2006-10-10T18:28:11Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 978 1886 2006-10-10T18:28:36Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 979 1887 2006-10-10T18:28:41Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 980 1888 2006-10-10T18:29:17Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 981 1889 2006-10-10T18:29:19Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 982 1890 2006-10-10T18:29:27Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 983 1891 2006-10-10T18:29:43Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 984 1892 2006-10-10T18:29:57Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 985 1893 2006-10-10T18:30:34Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 986 1894 2006-10-10T18:30:39Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 987 1895 2006-10-10T18:30:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 988 1896 2006-10-10T18:31:00Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 989 1897 2006-10-10T18:31:38Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 990 1898 2006-10-10T18:31:39Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 991 1899 2006-10-10T18:31:45Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 992 1900 2006-10-10T18:31:52Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 993 1901 2006-10-10T18:32:18Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 994 1902 2006-10-10T18:33:05Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 995 1903 2006-10-10T18:33:22Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 996 1904 2006-10-10T18:33:27Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 997 1905 2006-10-10T18:33:28Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 998 1906 2006-10-10T18:33:58Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 999 1907 2006-10-10T18:34:04Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1000 1908 2006-10-10T18:34:23Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1001 1909 2006-10-10T18:34:28Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1002 1910 2006-10-10T18:35:25Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1003 1911 2006-10-10T18:35:31Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1004 1912 2006-10-10T18:35:47Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1005 1913 2006-10-10T18:36:05Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1006 1914 2006-10-10T18:36:24Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1007 1915 2006-10-10T18:36:37Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1008 1916 2006-10-10T18:36:46Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1009 1917 2006-10-10T18:37:15Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1010 1918 2006-10-10T18:37:20Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1011 1919 2006-10-10T18:37:31Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1012 1920 2006-10-10T18:37:50Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1013 1921 2006-10-10T18:37:56Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1014 1922 2006-10-10T18:38:01Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1015 1923 2006-10-10T18:38:32Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1016 1924 2006-10-10T18:38:42Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1017 1925 2006-10-10T18:38:46Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1018 1926 2006-10-10T18:39:17Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1019 1927 2006-10-10T18:39:20Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1020 1928 2006-10-10T18:39:38Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1021 1929 2006-10-10T18:39:42Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1022 1930 2006-10-10T18:40:12Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1023 1931 2006-10-10T18:40:21Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1024 1932 2006-10-10T18:40:31Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1025 1933 2006-10-10T18:40:32Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1026 1934 2006-10-10T18:41:07Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1027 1935 2006-10-10T18:41:32Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1028 1936 2006-10-10T18:41:39Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1029 1937 2006-10-10T18:42:01Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1030 1938 2006-10-10T18:42:09Z Eukesh 11 ==प्रमुख घटनात:== == जन्म == == मृत्यु == [[Category:१९औं शताब्दी]] 1031 1939 2006-10-10T18:43:28Z Eukesh 11 १९औं शताब्दीयागु घटना तेगु श्रेणी| 1032 1940 2006-10-10T18:45:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1033 2383 2006-10-12T15:42:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Gandhi_studio_1931.jpg|right|thumb|महात्मा गान्धी]] '''महात्मा गान्धी''' (जन्म नां: मोहनदास करमचन्द गान्धी) छम्ह विचारक, [[क्रान्तिकारी]] व [[गान्धीवाद]]यागु [[प्रवर्तक]] ख:| वेकयागु अहिंसावादी क्रान्तिकारी नीति [[बेलायत]]या अधीने लानाच्वंगु [[भारत]]यागु स्वतन्त्रताले येक्व ग्वालि यात:| अथे जुगुलिं वेकयात हिन्दूस्थानले "बापू" (अबु) धका सम्मान याई| २०औं शताब्दीयागु दक्ले प्रभावशाली नेता मध्य वेक नं छम्ह ख:| [[Category:जीवनी]] [[af:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[ar:مهاتما غاندي]] [[ast:Mohandas Gandhi]] [[bs:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[br:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[bg:Махатма Ганди]] [[ca:Mohandas Gandhi]] [[cs:Móhandás Karamčand Gándhí]] [[cy:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[da:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[de:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[en:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[el:Μαχάτμα Γκάντι]] [[es:Mohandas Gandhi]] [[eo:Mohandas Karamchand GANDHI]] [[eu:Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] [[fa:ماهاتما گاندی]] [[fr:Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] [[ga:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[gl:Mahatma Gandhi - મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી]] [[gu:મહાત્મા ગાંધી]] [[ko:마하트마 간디]] [[hi:महात्मा गांधी]] [[hr:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[io:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[id:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[ia:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[is:Mohandas Gandhi]] [[it:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[he:מוהנדס קרמצ'נד גאנדי]] [[kn:ಮಹಾತ್ಮ ಗಾಂಧಿ]] [[ka:განდი, მოჰანდას კარამჩანდ]] [[ku:Mahatma Gandî]] [[la:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[lt:Mohandas Gandhi]] [[hu:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[ml:മഹാത്മാഗാന്ധി]] [[mr:महात्मा मोहनदास करमचंद गांधी]] [[ms:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[nl:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[ja:マハトマ・ガンジー]] [[no:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[nn:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[ps:مهاتماګاندهي]] [[pl:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[pt:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[ro:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[rmy:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[ru:Ганди, Мохандас Карамчанд]] [[sa:मोहनदास करमचन्द गान्धी]] [[sq:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[scn:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[simple:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[sk:Móhandás Karamčand Gándhí]] [[sl:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[sr:Махатма Ганди]] [[fi:Mohandas Gandhi]] [[sv:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[tl:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[ta:மோகன்தாஸ் கரம்சந்த் காந்தி]] [[te:మహాత్మా గాంధీ]] [[th:มหาตมะ คานธี]] [[vi:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[tpi:Gandi]] [[tr:Mahatma Gandhi]] [[zh:圣雄甘地]] 1034 1942 2006-10-10T18:45:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1035 1943 2006-10-10T18:46:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1036 1944 2006-10-10T18:46:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1037 1945 2006-10-10T18:46:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1038 1946 2006-10-10T18:47:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1039 1947 2006-10-10T18:47:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1040 1948 2006-10-10T18:47:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1041 1949 2006-10-10T18:47:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1042 1950 2006-10-10T18:48:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1043 1951 2006-10-10T18:48:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1044 1952 2006-10-10T18:48:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1045 1953 2006-10-10T18:48:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1046 1954 2006-10-10T18:49:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1047 1955 2006-10-10T18:49:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1048 1956 2006-10-10T18:49:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1049 1957 2006-10-10T18:50:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1050 3385 2006-10-15T15:02:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Checa-HunCharge.jpg|right|thumb]] '''अट्टिला''' छम्ह [[हन]]जुजु ख:| वेकलं पूर्वीय व पश्चीम [[रोमन साम्राज्य]]यात कमजोर याना रोमन साम्राज्ययागु पतनले ग्वाहालि याना दिल| वेकलं [[रोम]]ये आक्रमण याये त्यंबिले पोप लियो प्रथमयागु मध्यस्तता याना दिल परिणाम स्वरूप वेकलं रोम सहर गब्लें थगु अधीनले तयादि मफुत| तर वेकयागु साहस व नीति नं याना पश्चिमी युरोपये रोमयागु अधिपत्य क्वांहा वन| उकिगु परिणामया कथलं लिपा [[गथ]], [[भ्याण्डल]] व मेमेगु बर्बरीय जातितेसं रोमन साम्राज्ययात ध्वस्त यानाबिल व युरोपये छगु एकिकृत नियन्त्रण मदया युरोप [[हाकु ई]]ले थ्यन| [[Category:जीवनी]] 1051 1959 2006-10-10T18:51:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1052 1960 2006-10-10T18:51:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1053 1961 2006-10-10T18:51:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1054 1962 2006-10-10T18:51:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1055 1963 2006-10-10T18:52:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1056 1964 2006-10-10T18:52:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1057 1965 2006-10-10T18:52:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1058 1966 2006-10-10T18:53:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1059 1967 2006-10-10T18:53:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1060 1968 2006-10-10T18:53:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1061 1969 2006-10-10T18:54:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1062 1970 2006-10-10T18:54:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1063 1971 2006-10-10T18:54:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1064 1972 2006-10-10T18:54:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1065 1973 2006-10-10T18:54:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1066 1974 2006-10-10T18:55:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1067 1975 2006-10-10T18:55:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1068 1976 2006-10-10T18:55:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1069 1977 2006-10-10T18:55:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1070 1978 2006-10-10T18:56:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1071 1979 2006-10-10T18:56:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1072 1980 2006-10-10T18:56:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1073 1981 2006-10-10T18:57:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1074 1982 2006-10-10T18:57:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1075 1983 2006-10-10T18:57:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1076 1984 2006-10-10T18:57:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1077 1985 2006-10-10T18:57:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1078 1986 2006-10-10T18:58:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1079 1987 2006-10-10T18:58:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1080 1988 2006-10-10T18:58:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1081 1989 2006-10-10T18:58:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1082 1990 2006-10-10T18:59:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1083 1991 2006-10-10T18:59:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1084 1992 2006-10-10T19:00:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1085 1993 2006-10-10T19:00:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1086 1994 2006-10-10T19:00:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1087 3386 2006-10-15T15:04:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Abraham Lincoln head on shoulders photo portrait.jpg|thumb|right|अब्राहम लिन्कन]] '''अब्राहम लिंकन'''(ई सं १८०९- ई सं १८६५) [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]यागु १६औं राष्ट्रपति ख:| वेकयात अ मेरिकायागु दक्ले प्रभावशाली राष्ट्रपति व हलिमयागु हे दक्ले तधंम्ह नेता त दथुई छम्ह नं माने याई| वेकलं अ मेरिका नं [[दास प्रथा]] उन्मुलन याना दिल| दास प्रथायागु हे खं नं याना अमेरिकाले उत्तरी युनियनी व दक्षिणी कन्फेडरेटीयागु दथुई गृहयुद्ध नं जुल|वेकयात कट्टर दक्षिणयागु समर्थक [[जोह्न विल्किस बूथ]] नं स्याना बिल| [[Category:जीवनी]] 1088 1996 2006-10-10T19:00:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1089 1997 2006-10-10T19:01:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1090 1998 2006-10-10T19:01:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1091 1999 2006-10-10T19:01:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1092 2000 2006-10-10T19:01:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1093 2001 2006-10-10T19:02:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1094 2002 2006-10-10T19:02:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1095 2003 2006-10-10T19:03:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1096 2004 2006-10-10T19:03:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1097 2005 2006-10-10T19:03:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1098 2006 2006-10-10T19:03:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1099 2007 2006-10-10T19:04:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1100 2008 2006-10-10T19:04:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1101 2009 2006-10-10T19:04:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1102 2010 2006-10-10T19:04:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1103 2011 2006-10-10T19:05:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1104 2012 2006-10-10T19:05:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1105 2013 2006-10-10T19:05:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1106 2014 2006-10-10T19:06:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1107 2015 2006-10-10T19:06:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1108 2016 2006-10-10T19:06:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1109 2017 2006-10-10T19:06:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1110 2018 2006-10-10T19:07:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1111 2019 2006-10-10T19:07:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1112 2020 2006-10-10T19:07:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1113 2021 2006-10-10T19:07:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1114 2022 2006-10-10T19:07:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1115 2023 2006-10-10T19:08:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1116 2024 2006-10-10T19:08:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1117 2025 2006-10-10T19:08:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1118 2026 2006-10-10T19:09:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1119 2027 2006-10-10T19:09:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1120 2028 2006-10-10T19:09:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1121 2029 2006-10-10T19:13:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1122 2030 2006-10-10T19:14:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1123 2031 2006-10-10T19:14:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1124 2032 2006-10-10T19:14:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1125 2033 2006-10-10T19:15:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1126 2034 2006-10-10T19:15:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1127 2035 2006-10-10T19:15:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1128 2036 2006-10-10T19:15:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1129 2037 2006-10-10T19:15:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1130 2038 2006-10-10T19:16:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1131 2039 2006-10-10T19:16:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1132 2040 2006-10-10T19:16:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1133 2041 2006-10-10T19:17:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1134 2042 2006-10-10T19:17:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1135 2043 2006-10-10T19:17:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1136 2044 2006-10-10T19:17:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1137 2045 2006-10-10T19:18:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1138 2046 2006-10-10T19:18:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1139 2047 2006-10-10T19:18:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1140 2048 2006-10-10T19:19:46Z Eukesh 11 जीवनीयागु श्रेणी| 1141 2049 2006-10-10T19:20:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1142 2050 2006-10-10T19:20:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1143 2051 2006-10-10T19:20:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1144 2052 2006-10-10T19:20:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1145 2053 2006-10-10T19:21:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1146 2054 2006-10-10T19:21:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1147 2055 2006-10-10T19:22:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1148 2056 2006-10-10T19:22:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1149 2057 2006-10-10T19:22:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1150 2058 2006-10-10T19:22:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1151 2059 2006-10-10T19:22:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1152 2060 2006-10-10T19:23:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1153 2061 2006-10-10T19:23:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1154 2062 2006-10-10T19:23:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1155 2063 2006-10-10T19:23:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1156 2064 2006-10-10T19:24:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1157 2065 2006-10-10T19:24:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1158 2066 2006-10-10T19:24:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1159 2067 2006-10-10T19:25:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1160 2068 2006-10-10T19:25:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1161 2069 2006-10-10T19:25:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1162 2070 2006-10-10T19:25:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1163 2071 2006-10-10T19:26:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1164 2072 2006-10-10T19:26:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1165 2073 2006-10-10T19:26:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1166 2074 2006-10-10T19:26:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1167 2075 2006-10-10T19:27:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1168 2076 2006-10-10T19:28:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1169 2077 2006-10-10T19:28:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1170 2078 2006-10-10T19:28:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1171 2079 2006-10-10T19:29:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1172 2080 2006-10-10T19:29:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1173 2081 2006-10-10T19:29:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1174 2082 2006-10-10T19:29:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1175 2083 2006-10-10T19:29:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1176 2084 2006-10-10T19:29:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1177 2085 2006-10-10T19:30:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1178 2086 2006-10-10T19:30:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1179 2087 2006-10-10T19:30:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1180 2088 2006-10-10T19:31:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1181 2089 2006-10-10T19:31:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1182 2090 2006-10-10T19:32:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1183 2091 2006-10-10T19:32:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1184 2092 2006-10-10T19:32:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1185 2093 2006-10-10T19:32:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1186 2094 2006-10-10T19:32:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1187 2095 2006-10-10T19:33:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1188 2096 2006-10-10T19:33:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1189 2097 2006-10-10T19:33:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1190 2098 2006-10-10T19:34:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1191 2099 2006-10-10T19:34:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1192 2100 2006-10-10T19:34:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1193 2101 2006-10-10T19:34:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1194 2102 2006-10-10T19:35:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1195 2103 2006-10-10T19:36:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1196 2104 2006-10-10T19:36:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1197 2105 2006-10-10T19:36:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1198 2106 2006-10-10T19:36:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1199 2107 2006-10-10T19:37:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1200 2108 2006-10-10T19:37:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1201 2109 2006-10-10T19:37:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1202 2110 2006-10-10T19:37:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1203 2111 2006-10-10T19:37:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1204 2112 2006-10-10T19:38:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1205 2113 2006-10-10T19:38:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:जीवनी]] 1206 2114 2006-10-10T19:41:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1207 2115 2006-10-10T19:41:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1208 2116 2006-10-10T19:41:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1209 2117 2006-10-10T19:41:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1210 2118 2006-10-10T19:41:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1211 2119 2006-10-10T19:42:36Z Eukesh 11 भूगोलयागु श्रेणी| 1212 2120 2006-10-10T19:44:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1213 2121 2006-10-10T19:44:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1214 2122 2006-10-10T19:44:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1215 2123 2006-10-10T19:44:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1216 2124 2006-10-10T19:44:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1217 2125 2006-10-10T19:45:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1218 2126 2006-10-10T19:45:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1219 2127 2006-10-10T19:46:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1220 2128 2006-10-10T19:46:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1221 2129 2006-10-10T19:46:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1222 2130 2006-10-10T19:46:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1223 2131 2006-10-10T19:47:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1224 2132 2006-10-10T19:47:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1225 2133 2006-10-10T19:47:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1226 2134 2006-10-10T19:47:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1227 2135 2006-10-10T19:47:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1228 2136 2006-10-10T19:48:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1229 2137 2006-10-10T19:48:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1230 2138 2006-10-10T19:48:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1231 2139 2006-10-10T19:49:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1232 2140 2006-10-10T19:49:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1233 2141 2006-10-10T19:49:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1234 2142 2006-10-10T19:49:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1235 2143 2006-10-10T19:50:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1236 2144 2006-10-10T19:50:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1237 3613 2006-10-16T00:48:43Z Eukesh 11 '''इस्तान्बुल''' [[टर्की]]यागु छगु सहर ख:| [[Category:भूगोल]] 1238 2146 2006-10-10T19:51:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1239 2147 2006-10-10T19:51:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1240 2148 2006-10-10T19:51:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1241 2149 2006-10-10T19:51:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1242 2150 2006-10-10T19:52:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1243 2151 2006-10-10T19:52:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1244 2152 2006-10-10T19:52:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1245 2153 2006-10-10T19:52:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1246 2154 2006-10-10T19:53:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1247 2155 2006-10-10T19:53:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1248 2156 2006-10-10T19:53:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1249 2157 2006-10-10T19:53:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1250 2158 2006-10-10T19:53:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1251 2159 2006-10-10T19:53:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1252 2160 2006-10-10T19:54:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1253 2161 2006-10-10T19:54:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1254 2162 2006-10-10T19:54:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1255 2163 2006-10-10T19:54:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1256 2164 2006-10-10T19:55:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1257 2165 2006-10-10T19:55:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1258 2166 2006-10-10T19:56:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1259 2167 2006-10-10T19:56:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1260 2168 2006-10-10T19:56:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1261 2169 2006-10-10T19:56:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1262 2170 2006-10-10T19:57:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1263 2171 2006-10-10T19:57:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1264 2172 2006-10-10T19:57:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1265 2173 2006-10-10T19:57:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1266 2174 2006-10-10T19:58:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1267 2175 2006-10-10T19:58:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1268 2176 2006-10-10T19:58:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1269 2177 2006-10-10T19:59:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1270 2178 2006-10-10T19:59:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1271 2179 2006-10-10T19:59:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1272 2180 2006-10-10T20:00:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1273 2181 2006-10-10T20:00:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1274 2182 2006-10-10T20:00:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1275 2183 2006-10-10T20:00:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1276 2184 2006-10-10T20:01:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1277 2185 2006-10-10T20:01:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1278 2186 2006-10-10T20:01:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1279 2187 2006-10-10T20:01:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1280 2188 2006-10-10T20:01:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1281 2189 2006-10-10T20:03:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1282 2190 2006-10-10T20:03:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1283 2191 2006-10-10T20:03:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1284 2192 2006-10-10T20:03:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1285 2193 2006-10-10T20:04:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1286 2194 2006-10-10T20:04:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1287 2195 2006-10-10T20:04:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1288 2196 2006-10-10T20:04:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1289 3383 2006-10-15T14:56:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Brazzaville ISS007-E-6305.jpg|right|thumb]] '''कंगो खुसि''' अफ्रीकायागु छगु प्रमुख खुसि ख:| थ्व खुसि हलिमे हे दक्ले तधंगु व नांजागु खुसित: ये ला वैइ| [[Category:खुसि]] [[Category:भूगोल]] 1290 2198 2006-10-10T20:05:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1291 2199 2006-10-10T20:05:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1292 2200 2006-10-10T20:06:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1293 2201 2006-10-10T20:06:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1294 2202 2006-10-10T20:06:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1295 2203 2006-10-10T20:06:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1296 2204 2006-10-10T20:06:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1297 2205 2006-10-10T20:07:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1298 2206 2006-10-10T20:07:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1299 2207 2006-10-10T20:07:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1300 2208 2006-10-10T20:07:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1301 2209 2006-10-10T20:08:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1302 2210 2006-10-10T20:08:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1303 2211 2006-10-10T20:08:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1304 2212 2006-10-10T20:08:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1305 2213 2006-10-10T20:09:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1306 2214 2006-10-10T20:09:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1307 2215 2006-10-10T20:09:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1308 2216 2006-10-10T20:09:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1309 2217 2006-10-10T20:10:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1310 2218 2006-10-10T20:10:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1311 2219 2006-10-10T20:10:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1312 2220 2006-10-10T20:11:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1313 2221 2006-10-10T20:11:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1314 2222 2006-10-10T20:11:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1315 2223 2006-10-10T20:11:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1316 2224 2006-10-10T20:12:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1317 2225 2006-10-10T20:13:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1318 2226 2006-10-10T20:13:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1319 2227 2006-10-10T20:13:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1320 2228 2006-10-10T20:13:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1321 2229 2006-10-10T20:14:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1322 2230 2006-10-10T20:14:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1323 2231 2006-10-10T20:14:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1324 2232 2006-10-10T20:14:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1325 2233 2006-10-10T20:14:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1326 4048 2006-10-19T15:28:30Z Eukesh 11 /* भूगोल */ '''अफगानिस्तान''' दक्षिण एसियायागु छगु दे ख:|थ्व दे यागु राजधानी [[काबुल]] ख:| ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== थुकिगु उत्तरे [[चीन]] व [[ताजिकिस्तान]], [[उज्बेकिस्तान]], [[तुर्केमिनिस्तान]] ला धासा दक्षिणे [[पाकिस्तान]]ला, पश्चीमे [[ईरान]] व पूर्वे [[चीन]] व [[पाकिस्तान]] ला:| ==अर्थतन्त्र== थ्व देयागु मू ज्या [[बुंज्या]] ख:| ==राजनीति== {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] [[Category:भूगोल]] 1327 2235 2006-10-10T20:16:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1328 2236 2006-10-10T20:16:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1329 2237 2006-10-10T20:18:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1330 2238 2006-10-10T20:18:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1331 2239 2006-10-10T20:18:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1332 2240 2006-10-10T20:18:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1333 2241 2006-10-10T20:18:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1334 2242 2006-10-10T20:18:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1335 2243 2006-10-10T20:18:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1336 2245 2006-10-10T20:21:05Z Eukesh 11 समाजयागु श्रेणी| 1337 2246 2006-10-10T20:22:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1338 2247 2006-10-10T20:22:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1339 2248 2006-10-10T20:22:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1340 2249 2006-10-10T20:22:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1341 2250 2006-10-10T20:22:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1342 2251 2006-10-10T20:23:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1343 2252 2006-10-10T20:23:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1344 2953 2006-10-14T20:02:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1345 2254 2006-10-10T20:23:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1346 2255 2006-10-10T20:23:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1347 2952 2006-10-14T20:02:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1348 2257 2006-10-10T20:25:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1349 2258 2006-10-10T20:26:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1350 2259 2006-10-10T20:26:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1351 2260 2006-10-10T20:26:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1352 2261 2006-10-10T20:26:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1353 2262 2006-10-10T20:26:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1354 2263 2006-10-10T20:26:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1355 2264 2006-10-10T20:26:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1356 2681 2006-10-14T06:30:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1357 2266 2006-10-10T20:26:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1358 2267 2006-10-10T20:26:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1359 2268 2006-10-10T20:27:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1360 2269 2006-10-10T20:28:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1361 2270 2006-10-10T20:29:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1362 2271 2006-10-10T20:29:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1363 2272 2006-10-10T20:29:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1364 2273 2006-10-10T20:29:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1365 2274 2006-10-10T20:29:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1366 2275 2006-10-10T20:30:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1367 2277 2006-10-10T20:31:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1368 2278 2006-10-10T20:31:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1369 2279 2006-10-10T20:31:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1370 2280 2006-10-10T20:31:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1371 2281 2006-10-10T20:32:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1372 2282 2006-10-10T20:32:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1373 2283 2006-10-10T20:32:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1374 2284 2006-10-10T20:32:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1375 2285 2006-10-10T20:33:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1376 2286 2006-10-10T20:33:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1377 2287 2006-10-10T20:33:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1378 2289 2006-10-10T20:35:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1379 2290 2006-10-10T20:35:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1380 2291 2006-10-10T20:35:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1381 2292 2006-10-10T20:35:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1382 2293 2006-10-10T20:36:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1383 2294 2006-10-10T20:36:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1384 2295 2006-10-10T20:36:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1385 2296 2006-10-10T20:37:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1386 2297 2006-10-10T20:37:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1387 2298 2006-10-10T20:37:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1388 2299 2006-10-10T20:37:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1389 2300 2006-10-10T20:38:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1390 2301 2006-10-10T20:38:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1391 2302 2006-10-10T20:38:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1392 2303 2006-10-10T20:38:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1393 2304 2006-10-10T20:39:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1394 2305 2006-10-10T20:39:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1395 3117 2006-10-14T20:50:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1396 2307 2006-10-10T20:39:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1397 2308 2006-10-10T20:39:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1398 2309 2006-10-10T20:40:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1399 2310 2006-10-10T20:40:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1400 2311 2006-10-10T20:40:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1401 2312 2006-10-10T20:41:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1402 2313 2006-10-10T20:42:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1403 2314 2006-10-10T20:42:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1404 2315 2006-10-10T20:42:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1405 2317 2006-10-10T20:42:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1406 2318 2006-10-10T20:44:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1407 2319 2006-10-10T20:44:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1408 2320 2006-10-10T20:44:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1409 2321 2006-10-10T20:44:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1410 2322 2006-10-10T20:45:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1411 2323 2006-10-10T20:45:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1412 2324 2006-10-10T20:45:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1413 2325 2006-10-10T20:45:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1414 2326 2006-10-10T20:46:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1415 2327 2006-10-10T20:46:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1416 2328 2006-10-10T20:46:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1417 2329 2006-10-10T20:46:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1418 2330 2006-10-10T20:47:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1419 2331 2006-10-10T20:47:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1420 2333 2006-10-10T20:48:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1421 2334 2006-10-10T20:49:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1422 2335 2006-10-10T20:49:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1423 2336 2006-10-10T20:49:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1424 2337 2006-10-10T20:49:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1425 2338 2006-10-10T20:50:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1426 2339 2006-10-10T20:50:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1427 2340 2006-10-10T20:50:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1428 2341 2006-10-10T20:50:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1429 2342 2006-10-10T20:51:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1430 2343 2006-10-10T20:51:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1431 2344 2006-10-10T20:51:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1432 2345 2006-10-10T20:51:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1433 2347 2006-10-10T20:57:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1434 2348 2006-10-10T20:57:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1435 2349 2006-10-10T20:58:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1436 2350 2006-10-10T20:58:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1437 2351 2006-10-10T20:58:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1438 2352 2006-10-10T20:58:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1439 2353 2006-10-10T20:58:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1440 2354 2006-10-10T20:58:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1441 2356 2006-10-10T21:00:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1442 2357 2006-10-10T21:00:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1443 2358 2006-10-10T21:00:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1444 2359 2006-10-10T21:00:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1445 2360 2006-10-10T21:00:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1446 2361 2006-10-10T21:01:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1447 2364 2006-10-10T21:03:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1448 2365 2006-10-10T21:03:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1449 2366 2006-10-10T21:03:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:समाज]] 1450 2369 2006-10-11T21:20:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1451 2370 2006-10-11T21:21:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1452 2371 2006-10-11T21:22:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1453 2372 2006-10-11T21:22:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1454 2374 2006-10-11T21:24:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1455 2376 2006-10-11T21:27:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1456 2377 2006-10-11T21:27:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1457 2379 2006-10-11T21:27:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1458 2380 2006-10-11T21:44:56Z Eukesh 11 संस्कृति 1460 3957 2006-10-16T16:43:49Z Eukesh 11 /* राजनीति */ ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 1461 3956 2006-10-16T16:43:17Z Eukesh 11 /* राजनीति */ ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 1462 2391 2006-10-12T16:25:43Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1463 2392 2006-10-12T16:26:02Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1464 2393 2006-10-12T16:26:07Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1465 2394 2006-10-12T16:26:14Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1466 2395 2006-10-12T16:26:44Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1467 2396 2006-10-12T16:26:49Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1468 2397 2006-10-12T16:26:55Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1469 2398 2006-10-12T16:27:00Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1470 2399 2006-10-12T16:27:05Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1471 2400 2006-10-12T16:27:36Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1472 2401 2006-10-12T16:27:39Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1473 2402 2006-10-12T16:27:44Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1474 2403 2006-10-12T16:27:50Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1475 2404 2006-10-12T16:27:55Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1476 2405 2006-10-12T16:28:24Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1477 2406 2006-10-12T16:28:30Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1478 2407 2006-10-12T16:28:39Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1479 2408 2006-10-12T16:28:42Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1480 2409 2006-10-12T16:28:48Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1481 2410 2006-10-12T16:29:23Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1482 2411 2006-10-12T16:29:28Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1483 2412 2006-10-12T16:29:33Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1484 2413 2006-10-12T16:29:38Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1485 2414 2006-10-12T16:30:00Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1486 2415 2006-10-12T16:30:28Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1487 2416 2006-10-12T16:30:34Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1488 2417 2006-10-12T16:30:39Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1489 2418 2006-10-12T16:30:45Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1490 2419 2006-10-12T16:30:50Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1491 2420 2006-10-12T16:31:25Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1492 2421 2006-10-12T16:31:31Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1493 2422 2006-10-12T16:31:38Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1494 2423 2006-10-12T16:31:44Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1495 2424 2006-10-12T16:31:50Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1496 2425 2006-10-12T16:31:55Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1497 2426 2006-10-12T16:32:47Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1498 2427 2006-10-12T16:32:53Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1499 2428 2006-10-12T16:33:00Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1500 2429 2006-10-12T16:33:03Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1501 2430 2006-10-12T16:33:10Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1502 2431 2006-10-12T16:33:41Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1503 2432 2006-10-12T16:33:52Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1504 2433 2006-10-12T16:33:58Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1505 4043 2006-10-19T15:21:41Z Eukesh 11 '''तान्जानिया''' [[दक्षिण-पूर्वी अफ्रीका]]यागु छगु दे ख:|थ्व दे यागु राजधानी दार एस सलाम ख:| ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== थुकिगु उत्तरे [[केन्या]] व [[युगाण्डा]] ला धासा दक्षिणे [[मोजाम्बिक]], [[मलावी]] व [[जाम्बिया]] ला:| थुकिगु पूर्वे भारतीय सागर ला व पश्चीमे [[प्रजातान्तृक गणतन्त्र कंगो]], [[बुरुण्डी]], [[रुवाण्डा]] ला}| ==अर्थतन्त्र== थ्व देयागु मू ज्या बुंज्या ख:| ==राजनीति== {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 1506 2435 2006-10-12T16:34:37Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1507 2436 2006-10-12T16:34:42Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1508 2437 2006-10-12T16:34:50Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1509 2438 2006-10-12T16:34:57Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1510 2439 2006-10-12T16:35:09Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1511 2441 2006-10-12T16:35:57Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1512 2442 2006-10-12T16:36:06Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1513 2443 2006-10-12T16:36:12Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1514 2444 2006-10-12T16:36:20Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1515 2445 2006-10-12T16:36:44Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1516 2446 2006-10-12T16:36:50Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1517 2447 2006-10-12T16:36:56Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1518 2448 2006-10-12T16:37:01Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1519 2449 2006-10-12T16:37:30Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1520 2450 2006-10-12T16:37:35Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1521 2451 2006-10-12T16:37:41Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1522 2452 2006-10-12T16:37:53Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1523 2454 2006-10-12T16:38:41Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1524 2455 2006-10-12T16:38:47Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1525 2456 2006-10-12T16:38:52Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1526 2457 2006-10-12T16:39:01Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1527 2458 2006-10-12T16:39:03Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1528 2459 2006-10-12T16:39:09Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1529 2460 2006-10-12T16:39:42Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1530 2461 2006-10-12T16:39:47Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1531 2462 2006-10-12T16:39:52Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1532 2463 2006-10-12T16:39:57Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1533 2464 2006-10-12T16:40:03Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1534 2465 2006-10-12T16:40:08Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1535 2466 2006-10-12T16:40:36Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1536 2467 2006-10-12T16:40:41Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1537 4044 2006-10-19T15:24:05Z Eukesh 11 '''मंगोलिया''' पूर्वी एसियायागु छगु दे ख:|थ्व दे यागु राजधानी [[उलान बाटोर]] ख:| ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== थुकिगु उत्तरे [[रुस]] ला धासा दक्षिणे, पश्चीमे व पूर्वे[[चीन]] ला:| ==अर्थतन्त्र== थ्व देयागु मू ज्या बुंज्या ख:| ==राजनीति== {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 1538 2469 2006-10-12T16:40:53Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1539 2471 2006-10-12T16:42:14Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1540 4046 2006-10-19T15:26:24Z Eukesh 11 /* भूगोल */ '''पाकिस्तान''' दक्षिण एसियायागु छगु दे ख:| थ्व दे यागु राजधानी [[इस्लामावाद]] ख:| ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== थुकिगु उत्तरे [[चीन]] व [[अफगानिस्तान]] ला धासा दक्षिणे [[अरबी सागर]], पश्चीमे [[ईरान]] व अफ्गानिस्तान व पूर्वे[[भारत]] ला:| ==अर्थतन्त्र== थ्व देयागु मू ज्या [[बुंज्या]] ख:| ==राजनीति== {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 1541 2473 2006-10-12T16:42:39Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1542 2474 2006-10-12T16:42:44Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1543 2475 2006-10-12T16:42:51Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1544 2476 2006-10-12T16:42:56Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1545 2477 2006-10-12T16:43:29Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1546 2478 2006-10-12T16:43:39Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1547 2479 2006-10-12T16:43:39Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1548 2480 2006-10-12T16:43:44Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1549 2481 2006-10-12T16:44:25Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1550 2482 2006-10-12T16:44:30Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1551 2483 2006-10-12T16:44:37Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1552 2484 2006-10-12T16:44:40Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1553 2485 2006-10-12T16:44:47Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1554 2486 2006-10-12T16:44:52Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1555 2487 2006-10-12T16:44:59Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1556 2488 2006-10-12T16:45:33Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1557 2489 2006-10-12T16:45:43Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1558 2490 2006-10-12T16:45:48Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1559 2491 2006-10-12T16:45:55Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1560 2492 2006-10-12T16:46:01Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1561 2493 2006-10-12T16:46:30Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1562 2494 2006-10-12T16:46:35Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1563 2495 2006-10-12T16:46:41Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1564 2496 2006-10-12T16:46:45Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1565 2497 2006-10-12T16:46:50Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1566 2498 2006-10-12T16:47:23Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1567 2499 2006-10-12T16:47:28Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1568 2500 2006-10-12T16:47:32Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1569 2501 2006-10-12T16:47:38Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1570 2502 2006-10-12T16:47:43Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1571 2503 2006-10-12T16:48:13Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1572 2504 2006-10-12T16:48:18Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1573 2505 2006-10-12T16:48:25Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1574 2506 2006-10-12T16:48:31Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1575 2507 2006-10-12T16:48:37Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1576 2508 2006-10-12T16:49:08Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1577 2509 2006-10-12T16:49:13Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1578 2510 2006-10-12T16:49:18Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1579 2511 2006-10-12T16:49:24Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1580 2512 2006-10-12T16:49:28Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1581 2513 2006-10-12T16:49:58Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1582 2514 2006-10-12T16:50:03Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1583 2515 2006-10-12T16:50:09Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1584 2516 2006-10-12T16:50:14Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1585 2517 2006-10-12T16:50:20Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1586 2518 2006-10-12T16:50:49Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1587 2519 2006-10-12T16:51:01Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1588 2520 2006-10-12T16:51:07Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1589 2521 2006-10-12T16:51:43Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1590 2522 2006-10-12T16:51:51Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1591 2523 2006-10-12T16:51:57Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1592 2524 2006-10-12T16:52:01Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1593 2525 2006-10-12T16:52:06Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1594 2526 2006-10-12T16:52:44Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1595 2527 2006-10-12T16:52:49Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1596 2528 2006-10-12T16:52:55Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1597 2529 2006-10-12T16:53:01Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1598 2530 2006-10-12T16:53:32Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1599 2531 2006-10-12T16:53:37Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1600 2532 2006-10-12T16:53:42Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1601 2533 2006-10-12T16:53:47Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1602 2534 2006-10-12T16:53:52Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1603 2535 2006-10-12T16:54:25Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1604 2536 2006-10-12T16:54:31Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1605 2537 2006-10-12T16:54:36Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1606 2538 2006-10-12T16:54:41Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1607 2539 2006-10-12T16:54:46Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1608 2540 2006-10-12T16:55:20Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1609 2541 2006-10-12T16:55:25Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1610 2542 2006-10-12T16:55:30Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1611 2543 2006-10-12T16:55:36Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1612 2544 2006-10-12T16:55:42Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1613 2545 2006-10-12T16:56:14Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1614 2546 2006-10-12T16:56:23Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1615 2547 2006-10-12T16:56:27Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1616 2548 2006-10-12T16:56:36Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1617 2549 2006-10-12T16:57:00Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1618 2550 2006-10-12T16:57:05Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1619 2551 2006-10-12T16:57:11Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1620 2552 2006-10-12T16:57:15Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1621 2553 2006-10-12T16:57:47Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1622 2554 2006-10-12T16:57:52Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1623 2555 2006-10-12T16:57:57Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1624 2556 2006-10-12T16:58:03Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1625 2557 2006-10-12T16:58:08Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1626 2558 2006-10-12T16:58:33Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1627 2559 2006-10-12T16:58:38Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1628 2560 2006-10-12T16:58:43Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1629 2561 2006-10-12T16:58:49Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1630 2562 2006-10-12T16:59:17Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1631 2563 2006-10-12T16:59:23Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1632 2564 2006-10-12T16:59:28Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1633 2565 2006-10-12T16:59:33Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1634 2566 2006-10-12T17:00:04Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1635 2567 2006-10-12T17:00:07Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1636 2568 2006-10-12T17:00:13Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1637 2569 2006-10-12T17:00:18Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1638 2570 2006-10-12T17:00:45Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1639 2571 2006-10-12T17:00:50Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1640 2572 2006-10-12T17:00:57Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1641 2573 2006-10-12T17:01:02Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1642 2574 2006-10-12T17:01:36Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1643 2575 2006-10-12T17:01:42Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1644 2576 2006-10-12T17:01:47Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1645 2577 2006-10-12T17:01:52Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1646 2578 2006-10-12T17:02:22Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1647 2579 2006-10-12T17:02:27Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1648 2580 2006-10-12T17:02:33Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1649 2581 2006-10-12T17:02:38Z Eukesh 11 ==ईतिहास== ==भूगोल== ==अर्थतन्त्र== ==राजनीति== [[Category:दे]] 1650 2582 2006-10-12T17:03:46Z Eukesh 11 हलिमयागु सार्वभौमसत्ता सम्पन्न दे तेगु लेखयागु श्रेणी| 1651 2583 2006-10-12T17:05:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1652 2584 2006-10-12T17:05:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1653 2585 2006-10-12T17:05:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भूगोल]] 1654 4030 2006-10-17T23:09:52Z Eukesh 11 /* External links */ {{Table Unicode}} {{SpecialChars}} '''Unicode''' is an [[industry standard]] designed to allow [[text]] and symbols from all of the [[writing systems]] of the world to be consistently represented and manipulated by [[computer]]s. Developed in tandem with the [[Universal Character Set]] standard and published in book form as ''The Unicode Standard'', Unicode consists of a [[character (computing)|character]] repertoire, an [[encode|encoding]] methodology and set of standard [[character encoding]]s, a set of code charts for visual reference, an enumeration of character properties such as upper and lower [[letter case|case]], a set of reference data [[computer file]]s, and rules for normalization, decomposition, [[collation]] and rendering. The [[Unicode Consortium]], the non-profit organization that coordinates Unicode's development, has the ambitious goal of eventually replacing existing character encoding schemes with Unicode and its standard Unicode Transformation Format (UTF) schemes, as many of the existing schemes are limited in size and scope, and are incompatible with [[multilingualism|multilingual]] environments. Unicode's success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread and predominant use in the [[internationalization]] and [[localization]] of [[computer software]]. The standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including [[XML]], the [[Java programming language]], and modern [[operating system]]s. == Origin and development == Unicode has the explicit aim of transcending the limitations of traditional [[character encoding]]s, such as those defined by the [[ISO 8859]] standard which find wide usage in various countries of the world, but remain largely incompatible with each other. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing (usually using [[Roman character]]s and the local language), but not multilingual computer processing (computer processing of arbitrary languages mixed with each other). Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying [[character (computing)|character]]s — [[grapheme]]s and grapheme-like units — rather than the variant [[glyph]]s (renderings) for such characters. In the case of [[Chinese character]]s, this sometimes leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs (see [[Han unification]]). In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique ''code point'' — a number, not a glyph — for each character. In other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way, and leaves the visual rendering (size, shape, [[font]] or style) to other software, such as a [[web browser]] or [[word processor]]. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, by concessions made by Unicode's designers, in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode. The first 256 code points were made identical to the content of [[ISO 8859-1]], to make it trivial to convert existing western text. A lot of essentially identical characters were encoded multiple times at different code points to preserve distinctions used by legacy encodings and therefore allow conversion from those encodings to Unicode (and back) without losing any information. For example, the "[[fullwidth form]]s" section of code points encompasses a full Latin alphabet that is separate from the main Latin alphabet section. In Chinese, Japanese, and Korean (CJK) fonts, these characters are rendered at the same width as [[CJK]] [[ideograph]]s rather than at half the width. For other examples, see [[Duplicate characters in Unicode]]. Also, while Unicode allows for [[combining character]]s, it also contains [[precomposed character|precomposed]] versions of most letter/diacritic combinations in normal use. These make conversion to and from legacy encodings simpler and allow applications to use Unicode as an internal text format without having to implement combining characters. For example ''é'' can be represented in Unicode as {{U|0065}} (Latin small letter e) followed by U+0301 (combining acute) but it can also be represented as the precomposed character U+00E9 (Latin small letter e with acute). The Unicode standard also includes a number of related items, such as character properties, text normalisation forms, and bidirectional display order (for the correct display of text containing both right-to-left scripts, such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]] or [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and left-to-right scripts). == Scripts covered == Unicode covers almost all scripts ([[writing system]]s) in current use today, including: {{Col-begin}} {{Col-3}} * [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] * [[Armenian alphabet|Armenian]] * [[Bengali script|Bengali]] * [[Braille]] embossing patterns * [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]] * [[Cherokee language#Cherokee Syllabary|Cherokee]] * [[Coptic Alphabet|Coptic]] * [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] * [[Devanāgarī]] * [[Ge'ez language#Writing system|Ethiopic]] * [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian]] {{Col-break}} * [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] * [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]] * [[Gurmukhi script|Gurmukhi]] ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]) * [[Chinese character|Han]] ([[Kanji]], [[Hanja]], [[Chinese character|Hanzi]]) * [[Hangul]] ([[Korean language|Korean]]) * [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] * [[Hiragana]] and [[Katakana]] ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]) * [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) * [[Khmer script|Khmer]] (Cambodian) * [[Kannada script|Kannada]] * [[Lao alphabet|Lao]] * [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] {{Col-break}} * [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]] * [[Mongolian alphabet|Mongolian]] * [[Burmese alphabet|Myanmar]] (Burmese) * [[Oriya alphabet|Oriya]] * [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]] * [[Tamil script|Tamil]] * [[Telugu script|Telugu]] * [[Thai alphabet|Thai]] * [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]] * [[Tifinagh]] * [[Yi script|Yi]] * [[Zhuyin]] (Bopomofo) {{Col-end}} Unicode has added further scripts and will cover even more, including historic scripts less commonly used as well as extinct ones for academic purposes: * [[Cuneiform script|Cuneiform]] * [[Deseret alphabet|Deseret]] * [[Linear B]] * [[Ogham]] * [[Old Italic alphabet|Old Italic]] (Etruscan) * [[Old Persian cuneiform script|Old Persian]] * [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] * [[Runic alphabet|Runic]] * [[Shavian alphabet|Shavian]] * [[Ugaritic alphabet|Ugaritic]] Further additions of characters to the already-encoded scripts, as well as symbols, in particular for [[mathematics]] and [[music]] (in the form of notes and rhythmic symbols), also occur. The [http://www.unicode.org/roadmaps/ Unicode Roadmap] lists scripts not yet in Unicode with tentative assignments to code blocks. Invented scripts, most of which do not qualify for inclusion in Unicode due to lack of real-world usage, are listed in the [[ConScript Unicode Registry]], along with unofficial but widely-used [[Private Use Area]] code assignments. Similarly, many medieval letter variants and ligatures not in Unicode are encoded in the [[Medieval Unicode Font Initiative]]. == Mapping and encodings == {{see also|Mapping of Unicode characters}} === Standard === The [[Unicode Consortium]], based in [[California]], develops the Unicode standard. Any company or individual willing to pay the membership dues may join this organization. Members include virtually all of the main computer software and hardware companies with any interest in text-processing standards, such as [[Apple Computer]], [[Microsoft]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]], [[Xerox]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[Adobe Systems]] and many others. The Consortium first published ''The Unicode Standard'' (ISBN 0-321-18578-1) in [[1991]], and continues to develop standards based on that original work. Unicode developed in conjunction with the [[International Organization for Standardization]], and it shares its character repertoire with [[ISO/IEC 10646]]: the Universal Character Set. Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 function equivalently as character encodings, but ''The Unicode Standard'' contains much more information for implementers, covering — in depth — topics such as bitwise encoding, [[Unicode collation algorithm|collation]], and rendering. The Unicode Standard enumerates a multitude of character properties, including those needed for supporting [[Bi-directional text|bidirectional text]]. The two standards do use slightly different terminology. <!-- Template:U links to this paragraph --><p id="Upluslink">When writing about a Unicode character, it is normal to write "U+" followed by a [[hexadecimal]] number indicating the character's code point. For code points in the [[Basic Multilingual Plane|BMP]], four digits are used; for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Older versions of the standard used similar notations, but with slightly different rules. For example, Unicode 3.0 used "U-" followed by eight digits, and allowed "U+" to be used only with exactly four digits in order to indicate a code unit, not a code point.</p> ==== Unicode revision history ==== {| style="vertical-align: top;" | {{CT-16}} width="0*" | [[1991#October|October,&nbsp;1991]] || {{CT-15}} width="0*" | Unicode&nbsp;1.0 || width="80%" | ISBN 0-201-56788-1. |- | {{CT-16}} | [[1992#June|June,&nbsp;1992]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;1.0.1 || ISBN 0-201-60845-6. |- | {{CT-16}} | [[1993#June|June,&nbsp;1993]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;1.1 || Previous 2 Publications, and, Unicode Technical Report #4:The Unicode Standard, Version 1.1 by Mark Davis. |- | {{CT-16}} | [[1996#July|July,&nbsp;1996]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;2.0 || ISBN 0-201-48345-9. |- | {{CT-16}} | [[1998#May|May,&nbsp;1998]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;2.1 || &nbsp; |- | {{CT-16}} | [[1998#May|May,&nbsp;1998]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;2.1.2&nbsp; || Previous 3 Publications, and, Unicode Technical Report #8, The Unicode Standard, Version 2.1 by Lisa Moore. |- | {{CT-16}} | [[1999#September|September,&nbsp;1999]] || {{CT-15}}|Unicode&nbsp;3.0 || Covered 16-bit [[Universal character set|UCS]] Basic Multilingual Plane ([[Basic Multilingual Plane|BMP]]) from ISO 10646-1:2000. ISBN 0-201-61633-5. |- | {{CT-16}} | [[2001#March|March,&nbsp;2001]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;3.1 || Added [[Mapping_of_Unicode_characters|Supplementary Planes]] from ISO 10646-2, providing supplementary characters |- | {{CT-16}} | [[2002#March|March,&nbsp;2002]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;3.2 || &nbsp; |- | {{CT-16}} | [[2003#April|April,&nbsp;2003]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;4.0 || ISBN 0-321-18578-1. |- | {{CT-16}} | [[2004#March|March,&nbsp;2004]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;4.0.1 || &nbsp; |- | {{CT-16}} | [[2005#March|March,&nbsp;2005]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;4.1 || &nbsp; |- | {{CT-16}} | [[2006#July|July,&nbsp;2006]] || {{CT-15}} | Unicode&nbsp;5.0 || {{CT-12}}|(The character database, aka. ''UCD'', published on [[July 18]], but the book, ''The Unicode Standard, Version 5.0'', expected to be released in fourth quarter of 2006. ISBN 0-321-4801-0.) |} === Storage, transfer, and processing === So far, Unicode has appeared simply as a means to assign a unique number to each character used in the written languages of the world. The storage of these numbers in text processing comprises another topic; problems result from the fact that much [[software]] written in the [[Western world]] deals with 8-bit or lower character encodings only, with Unicode support added only slowly in recent years. Similarly, in representing the scripts of [[Asia]], the [[ASCII]] based double-byte character encodings cannot even in principle encode more than 32,768 characters, and in practice the architectures chosen impose lower limits. Such limits do not suffice for the needs of scholars of the [[Chinese language]] alone. The internal logic of much 8-bit legacy software typically permits only 8 bits for each character, making it impossible to use more than 256 code points without special processing. Sixteen-bit software can support only some tens of thousands of characters. Unicode, on the other hand, has already defined more than 100,000 encoded characters. Systems designers have therefore suggested several mechanisms for implementing Unicode; which one implementers choose depends on available storage space, [[source code]] compatibility, and interoperability with other systems. Unicode defines two mapping methods: * the '''UTF''' ('''[[UTF-8|Unicode Transformation Format]]''') encodings * the '''UCS''' ('''[[Universal Character Set]]''') encodings The encodings include: * [[UTF-7]] — a relatively unpopular 7-bit encoding, suited for transmission and storage only; it is often considered obsolete * [[UTF-8]] — an 8-bit, variable-width encoding, compatible with [[ASCII]]. * [[UCS-2]] — a 16-bit, fixed-width encoding that only supports the [[Mapping of Unicode characters#Basic Multilingual Plane|BMP]] * [[UTF-16]] — a 16-bit, variable-width encoding that supports the full [[Mapping of Unicode characters|Unicode character mapping]] * [[UCS-4]] and [[UTF-32]] — functionally identical 32-bit fixed-width encodings * [[UTF-EBCDIC]] — an encoding intended for [[EBCDIC]] based mainframe systems The numbers in the names of the encodings indicate the number of bits in one code value (for UTF encodings) or the number of bytes per code value (for UCS) encodings. UTF-8 and UTF-16 are probably the most commonly used encodings. UTF-8 uses one to four bytes per code point and, being relatively compact (for Latin script) and ASCII-compatible, provides the ''de facto'' standard encoding for interchange of Unicode text. It is also used by most recent Linux distributions as a direct replacement for legacy encodings in general text handling. UTF-16 is similar to UCS-2 but can include one or two 16-bit words in order to cover the supplementary characters (introduced from Unicode 3.1 onwards). UTF-16 is used by many APIs, often for upward compatibility with APIs that were developed when Unicode was UCS-2 based, or for compatibility with other APIs that use UTF-16. UTF-16 is the standard format for the [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] API (though surrogate support is not enabled by default) and for the [[Java_(programming_language)|Java]] (J2SE 1.5 or higher) and .NET bytecode environments. UCS-2 is an obsolete, 16-bit fixed-width encoding covering the [[Basic Multilingual Plane]] only. For characters in the Basic Multilingual Plane (16 bit range), UCS-2 and UTF-16 are identical. Therefore they can be considered as different implementation levels of the same encoding. The UCS-2 and UTF-16 encodings specify the Unicode [[Byte Order Mark]] (BOM) for use at the beginnings of text files. Some software developers have adopted it for other encodings, including UTF-8, which does not need an indication of byte order. In this case it attempts to mark the file as containing Unicode text. The BOM, code point U+FEFF has the important property of unambiguity, regardless of the Unicode encoding used. The units <code>FE</code> and <code>FF</code> never appear in [[UTF-8]]; U+FFFE (the result of byte-swapping U+FEFF) does not equate to a legal character, and U+FEFF conveys the zero-width no-break space (a character with no appearance and no effect other than preventing the formation of [[ligature (typography)|ligature]]s). The same character converted to UTF-8 becomes the byte sequence <code>EF BB BF</code>. In UTF-32 and UCS-4, one 32-bit code value serves as a fairly direct representation of any character's code point (although the [[endianness]], which varies across different platforms, affects how the code value actually manifests as an octet (byte) sequence). In the other cases, each code point may be represented by a variable number of code values. UCS-4 and UTF-32 are not commonly used, since no more than 21 of the 32 bits allocated per code point would ever be used, but it is becoming increasingly common for programming language implementations to use UCS-4 for their internal storage of encoded text<!--- which ones? -->. [[Punycode]], another encoding form, enables the encoding of Unicode strings into the limited character set supported by the [[ASCII]]-based [[Domain Name System]]. The encoding is used as part of [[IDNA]], which is a system enabling the use of [[Internationalized Domain Names]] in all languages that are supported by Unicode. [[GB18030]] is another encoding form for Unicode, from the [[Standardization Administration of China]]. It is the official [[character set]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC). === Ready-made versus composite characters === Unicode includes a mechanism for modifying character shape and so greatly extending the supported glyph repertoire. This covers the use of [[combining diacritical mark]]s. They get inserted after the main character (one can stack several combining diacritics over the same character). However, for reasons of compatibility, Unicode also includes a large quantity of [[precomposed character|pre-composed character]]s. So in many cases, users have many ways of encoding the same character. To deal with this, Unicode provides the mechanism of [[canonical equivalence]]. An example of this arises with [[Hangul]], the Korean alphabet. Unicode provides the mechanism for composing Hangul syllables with their individual subcomponents, known as [[Hangul Jamo]]. However, it also provides all 11,172 combinations of precomposed Hangul syllables. The [[CJK]] ideographs currently have codes only for their precomposed form. Still, most of those ideographs evidently comprise simpler elements (radicals), so in principle Unicode could decompose them just as happens with [[Hangul]]. This would greatly reduce the number of required code points, while allowing the display of virtually every conceivable ideograph (which might do away with some of the problems caused by the [[Han unification]]). A similar idea covers some [[input method]]s, such as [[Cangjie method|Cangjie]] and [[Wubi method|Wubi]]. However, attempts to do this for character encoding have stumbled over the fact that ideographs do not actually decompose as simply or as regularly as it seems they should. A set of [[Radical (Chinese character)|radicals]] was provided in Unicode 3.0 (CJK radicals between U+2E80 and U+2EFF, KangXi radicals in U+2F00 to U+2FDF, and ideographic description characters from U+2FF0 to U+2FFB), but the Unicode standard (ch. 11.1 of Unicode 4.1) warns against using ideographic description sequences as an alternate representation for previously encoded characters: :This process is different from a formal encoding of an ideograph. There is no canonical description of unencoded ideographs; there is no semantic assigned to described ideographs; there is no equivalence defined for described ideographs. Conceptually, ideograph descriptions are more akin to the English phrase, “an ‘e’ with an acute accent on it,” than to the character sequence &lt;U+006E, U+0301&gt;. ==== Ligatures ==== Many languages, including [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Devanāgarī|Hindi]], have special orthographic rules which require that certain combinations of letterforms be combined into special [[ligature (typography)|ligature forms]]. The rules governing ligature formation can be quite complex, requiring special script-shaping technologies such as [[OpenType]] (by Adobe and Microsoft), [[Graphite (SIL)|Graphite]] (by [[SIL International]]), or [[Apple Advanced Typography|AAT]] (by Apple). [[Font language|Instructions]] are also embedded in fonts to tell the [[operating system]] how to properly output different character sequences. In simpler cases, such as the placement of combining marks or diacritics, fixed-width fonts sometimes employ a method known as "[[sidebearing]]" in which the special marks preceed the main letterform in the datastream and the font rendering software knows to combine the marks into a final form.{{citationneeded}} This method works only for some diacritics, and may fail to properly handle stacked marks. [[As of 2004]], most software still cannot reliably handle many features not supported by older font formats, so combining characters generally will not work correctly. For example, {{unicode|ḗ}} (precomposed e with macron and acute above) and {{unicode|ḗ}} (e followed by the combining macron above and combining acute above) should be rendered identically, both appearing as an [[e]] with a [[macron]] and [[acute accent]], but in practice, their appearance can vary greatly across software applications. Similarly, [[dot (diacritic)|underdot]]s, as needed in the [[romanization]] of [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]], will often be placed incorrectly. As a workaround, Unicode characters that map to precomposed glyphs can be used for many such characters. The need for such alternatives inherits from the limitations of fonts and rendering technology, not weaknesses of Unicode itself. == Unicode in use == === Operating systems === Unicode has become the dominant scheme for internal processing and sometimes storage (though a lot of text is still stored in legacy encodings) of text. Early adopters tended to use UCS-2 and later moved to UTF-16 (as this was the least disruptive way to add support for non-bmp characters). The best known such system is [[Windows NT]] (and its descendants, [[Windows 2000]] and [[Windows XP]]). The [[Java virtual machine|Java]] and [[.NET Framework|.NET]] bytecode environments, Mac OS X, and also Unix desktops such as KDE and GNOME, also use it. [[UTF-8]] (originally developed for [[Plan 9 from Bell Labs|Plan 9]]) has become the main encoding on most [[Unix-like]] operating systems (though others are also used by some libraries) because it is a relatively easy replacement for traditional [[extended ASCII]] character sets. === E-mail === {{main|Unicode and e-mail}} [[MIME]] defines two different mechanisms for encoding non-ASCII characters in [[e-mail]], depending on whether the characters are in e-mail headers such as the "Subject:" or in the text body of the message. In both cases, the original character set is identified as well as a transfer encoding. For e-mail transmission of Unicode the UTF-8 character set and the [[Base64]] transfer encoding are recommended. The details of the two different mechanisms are specified in the MIME standards and are generally hidden from users of e-mail software. The adoption of Unicode in [[e-mail]] has been very slow. Most East-Asian text is still encoded in a local encoding such as [[Shift-JIS]], and many commonly used e-mail programs still cannot handle Unicode data correctly, if they have any support at all. This situation is not expected to change in the foreseeable future. === Web === {{main|Unicode and HTML}} Web browsers have been supporting severals UTFs, especially UTF-8, for many years now. Display problems result primarily from [[typeface|font]] related issues. In particular [[Internet Explorer]] does not render many code points unless it is explicitly told to use a font that contains them. All [[W3C]] recommendations are using Unicode as their ''document character set'', the encoding being variable, ever since HTML 4.0. It replaces the 8-bit ASCII superset [[ISO-8859-1]], which had been the standard character set and encoding before. Although syntax rules may affect the order in which characters are allowed to appear, both [[HTML|HTML 4]] and [[XML]] (including [[XHTML]]) documents, by definition, comprise characters from most of the Unicode code points, with the exception of: * most of the [[C0 and C1 control codes]] * the permanently-unassigned code points D800–DFFF * any code point ending in FFFE or FFFF * any code point above 10FFFF. These characters manifest either directly as [[byte]]s according to document's encoding, if the encoding supports them, or users may write them as numeric character references based on the character's Unicode code point. For example, the references <code>&amp;#916;</code>, <code>&amp;#1049;</code>, <code>&amp;#1511;</code>, <code>&amp;#1605;</code>, <code>&amp;#3671;</code>, <code>&amp;#12354;</code>, <code>&amp;#21494;</code>, <code>&amp;#33865;</code>, and <code>&amp;#45307;</code> (or the same numeric values expressed in hexadecimal, with <code>&amp;#x</code> as the prefix) display on browsers as Δ, Й, ק,‎ م, ๗, あ, 叶, 葉 and 냻. If the proper fonts exist, these symbols look like the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] capital letter "[[Delta (letter)|Delta]]", [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] capital letter "[[Short I]]", [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] letter "Qof", [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] letter "Meem", [[Thai language|Thai]] [[numeral]] [[7 (number)|7]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[Hiragana]] "A", [[simplified Chinese]] "[[Leaf]]", [[traditional Chinese]] "Leaf", and [[Korean language|Korean]] [[Hangul]] syllable "Nyaelh", respectively. In [[HTTP]] requests, [[Uniform Resource Locator|URLs]] must be [[percent-encoding|percent-encoded]], usually using the [[UTF-8]] encoding to represent Unicode. === Fonts === Free and retail [[Unicode fonts|fonts]] based on Unicode occur commonly, since first [[TrueType]] and now [[OpenType]] support Unicode. These font formats map Unicode code points to glyphs. Thousands of [[List of typefaces|fonts]] exist on the market, but fewer than a dozen fonts — sometimes described as "pan-Unicode" fonts — attempt to support the majority of Unicode's character repertoire. Instead, Unicode-based [[List of typefaces#Unicode fonts|fonts]] typically focus on supporting only basic ASCII and particular scripts or sets of characters or symbols. Several reasons justify this approach: applications and documents rarely need to render characters from more than one or two writing systems; fonts tend to demand resources in computing environments; and operating systems and applications show increasing intelligence in regard to obtaining glyph information from separate font files as needed. Furthermore, designing a consistent set of rendering instructions for tens of thousands of glyphs constitutes a monumental task; such a venture passes the point of [[diminishing returns]] for most typefaces. Several subsets of Unicode are standardized: Microsoft Windows since Windows NT 4.0 supports [[WGL-4]] with 652 characters, which is considered to support all contemporary European languages using the Latin, Greek or Cyrillic script. Other standardized subsets of Unicode include MES-1 (335 characters) and MES-2 (1062 characters) (CWA 13873:2000, Multilingual European Subsets in ISO/IEC 10646-1). {| class="wikitable" style="font-family: monospace;" |+style="font-family:sans-serif; font-style: normal;"| '''WGL-4''', ''MES-1''<ref>[http://www.kostis.net/charsets/iso10646.mes-1.htm MES-1]</ref> and MES-2<ref>[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/mes-2-rationale.html MES-2]</ref> |-style="font-family:serif;"| ! Row !! Cells !! Range(s) |- !rowspan="2"| 00 | '''''20–7E''''' | Basic Latin (00–7F) |- | '''''A0–FF''''' | Latin-1 Supplement (80–FF) |- !rowspan="2"| 01 | '''''00–13,'' 14–15, ''16–2B,'' 2C–2D, ''2E–4D,'' 4E–4F, ''50–7E,'' 7F''' | Latin Extended-A (00–7F) |- | 8F, '''92,''' B7, DE-EF, '''FA–FF''' | Latin Extended-B (80–FF <span title="U+024F">…</span>) |- !rowspan="3"| 02 | 18–1B, 1E–1F | Latin Extended-B (<span title="U+00180">…</span> 00–4F) |- | 59, 7C, 92 | IPA Extensions (50–AF) |- | BB–BD, '''C6, ''C7,'' C9,''' D6, '''''D8–DB,'' DC, ''DD,''''' DF, EE | Spacing Modifier Letters (B0–FF) |- ! 03 | 74–75, 7A, 7E, '''84–8A, 8C, 8E–A1, A3–CE,''' D7, DA–E1 | Greek (70–FF) |- ! 04 | 00, '''01–0C,''' 0D, '''0E–4F,''' 50, '''51–5C,''' 5D, '''5E–5F, 90–91,''' 92–C4, C7–C8, CB–CC, D0–EB, EE–F5, F8–F9 | Cyrillic (00–FF) |- ! 1E | 02–03, 0A–0B, 1E–1F, 40–41, 56–57, 60–61, 6A–6B, '''80–85,''' 9B, '''F2–F3''' | Latin Extended Additional (00–FF) |- ! 1F | 00–15, 18–1D, 20–45, 48–4D, 50–57, 59, 5B, 5D, 5F–7D, 80–B4, B6–C4, C6–D3, D6–DB, DD–EF, F2–F4, F6–FE | Greek Extended (00–FF) |- !rowspan="3"| 20 | '''13–14, ''15,'' 17, ''18–19,'' 1A–1B, ''1C–1D,'' 1E, 20–22, 26, 30, 32–33, 39–3A, 3C, 3E''' | General Punctuation (00–6F) |- | '''44,''' 4A, '''7F''', 82 | Superscripts and Subscripts (70–9F) |- | '''A3–A4, A7, ''AC,''''' AF | Currency Symbols (A0–CF) |- !rowspan="3"| 21 | '''05, 13, 16, ''22, 26,'' 2E''' | Letterlike Symbols (00–4F) |- | '''''5B–5E''''' | Number Forms (50–8F) |- | '''''90–93,'' 94–95, A8''' | Arrows (90–FF) |- ! 22 | 00, '''02,''' 03, '''06,''' 08-09, '''0F, 11–12, 15, 19–1A, 1E–1F,''' 27-28, '''29,''' 2A, '''2B, 48,''' 59, '''60–61, 64–65,''' 82–83, 95, 97 | Mathematical Operators (00–FF) |- ! 23 | '''02, 0A, 20–21,''' 29–2A | Miscellaneous Technical (00–FF) |- !rowspan="3"| 25 | '''00, 02, 0C, 10, 14, 18, 1C, 24, 2C, 34, 3C, 50–6C''' | Box Drawing (00–7F) |- | '''80, 84, 88, 8C, 90–93''' | Block Elements (80–9F) |- | '''A0–A1, AA–AC, B2, BA, BC, C4, CA–CB, CF, D8–D9, E6''' | Geometric Shapes (A0–FF) |- ! 26 | '''3A–3C, 40, 42, 60, 63, 65–66, ''6A,'' 6B''' | Miscellaneous Symbols (00–FF) |- ! F0 | (01–02)<!--in WGL-4, but not in MES-2--> | Private Use Area (00–FF …) |- ! FB | '''01–02''' | Alphabetic Presentation Forms (00–4F) |- ! FF | FD | Specials |} Rendering software which cannot process a Unicode character appropriately most often display it as only an open rectangle, or the Unicode "Replacement Character" (U+FFFD, �), to indicate the position of the unrecognized character. Some systems have made attempts to provide more information about such characters. The Apple ''[[LastResort]]'' font will display a substitute glyph indicating the Unicode range of the character and the [[SIL International|SIL]] [[Unicode fallback font]] will display a box showing the hexadecimal scalar value of the character. === Multilingual text-rendering engines === *[[Uniscribe]] — [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] *[[Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging]] — new engine for [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] *[[WorldScript]] — old engine for [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] *[[Pango]] — [[Open Source]], used by [[GTK+]] (and hence [[GNOME]]) *[[International Components for Unicode|ICU Layout Engine]] — Open Source *[[Graphite (SIL)|Graphite]] — (Open Source renderer from [[SIL International|SIL]]) *[[Qt (toolkit)|Scribe]] — Open Source renderer from [[Trolltech]] === Input methods === Because keyboard layouts cannot have simple key combinations for all characters, several operating systems provide alternative input methods that allow access to the entire repertoire. In [[Microsoft Windows]] (since Windows 2000), the "Character Map" program (Start/Programs/Accessories/System Tools/Character Map) provides rich-text editing controls for all Table I characters up to U+FFFF, by selection from a drop-down table, assuming that a Unicode [[font]] is selected. Programs such as [[Microsoft Office Word|Microsoft Word]] have a similar control embedded (Insert/Symbol). Rather more painfully and where the code point of the desired character is known, it is possible to create Unicode characters by pressing <code>Alt + #</code>, where # represents 0 followed by the decimal code point; for example, <code>Alt + 0241</code> will produce the Unicode character ''ñ''. (The # must start with 0 to be considered a Unicode code point and the keys on the numeric pad of the keyboard must be used.) This also works in many other Windows applications, but not in applications that use the standard Windows edit control, and do not make any special provisions to allow this type of input. See [[Alt codes]]. To add Unicode characters to chart titles in [[Microsoft Excel]] first type the title text into a worksheet cell, where the (Insert/Symbol) control can be used. The resulting text can be cut and pasted into chart titles. [[Apple Macintosh]] users have a similar feature with an input method called 'Unicode Hex Input', in [[Mac OS X]] and in [[Mac OS]] 8.5 and later: hold down the Option key, and type the four-hex-digit Unicode code point. Inputting code points above U+FFFF is done by entering [[UTF-16|surrogate pairs]]; the software will convert each pair into a single character automatically. Mac OS X (version 10.2 and newer) also has a 'Character Palette', which allows users to visually select any Unicode character from a table organized numerically, by Unicode block, or by a selected font's available characters. The 'Unicode Hex Input' method must be activated in the International System Preferences in [[Mac OS X]] or the 'Keyboard' Control Panel in [[Mac OS]] 8.5 and later. Once activated, 'Unicode Hex Input' must also be selected in the Keyboard menu (designated by the flag icon) before a Unicode code point can be entered. [[GNOME]] provides a 'Character Map' utility (Applications/Accessories/Character Map) which displays characters ordered by Unicode block or by writing system, and allows searching by character name or extended description. Where the character's code point is known, it can be entered in accordance with [[ISO 14755]]: hold down Ctrl and Shift and enter the hexadecimal Unicode value, preceded by the letter U if using GNOME 2.15 or later. Because Gnome uses [[UTF-8]] internally, this method works in all applications and surrogate pairs are not needed. At the [[X11|X Input Method]] or GTK+ Input Module level, the input method editor [[SCIM]] provides a “raw code” input method to allow the user to enter the 4-digit hexadecimal Unicode value. All [[X11|X Window]] applications (including [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]], but not only them) support using the [[Compose Key]]. For keyboards which do not have a designated Compose key, another key (e.g., CapsLock) could be redefined as a Compose key. The [[Linux]] [[console]] allows Unicode characters to be entered by holding down Alt and typing the decimal code on the [[numeric keypad]]. (In order for this to work, the console should be placed in Unicode mode with <code>unicode_start(1)</code> and a suitable font selected with <code>setfont(8)</code>.) The AltGr key allows the hexadecimal code to be entered instead, using NumLock-Enter as A-F (clockwise). ISO 14755 compliant input (Ctrl+Shift+hexadecimal code on normal keys) is also available in the <code>unicode</code> keymap. The [[Opera (web browser)|Opera web browser]] in version 7.5 and over allows users to enter any Unicode character directly into a text field by typing its hexadecimal code, selecting it, and pressing <code>Alt + x</code>. To input a Unicode character in a text box in [[Mozilla Firefox]] on Linux, type the hexadecimal character code while holding down the control and shift keys. In the [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]] text editor, Unicode characters can be entered by pressing CTRL-V and then entering a key combination. For more information, type "<code>:help i_CTRL-V_digit</code>" in Vim. (Note that the entered text will be Unicode only if the current encoding is set to UTF-8 or another Unicode encoding; type "<code>:help encoding</code>" in Vim for details.) Many Unicode characters can also be entered using [[Digraph (computing)|digraph]]s; a table of such characters and their corresponding digraphs can be obtained using the "<code>:digraphs</code>" command (again provided the current encoding is set to Unicode). WordPad and Word 2002/2003 for Windows additionally allow for entering Unicode characters by typing the hexadecimal code point, for example 014B for ''ŋ'', and then pressing <code>Alt + x</code> to substitute the string to the left by its Unicode character. Usefully, the reverse also applies: if a user positions a cursor to the right of a non-ASCII character and presses <code>Alt + x</code>, then the Microsoft software will substitute the character with the hexadecimal Unicode code point. Several visual keyboards are available that make entering Unicode characters and symbols very easy. *[http://quickkeydotnet.sourceforge.net/ Quick Key] (Open Source) *[http://cjb.ie/u.php Lightweight Unicode Map/Picker] (In-browser character map; operating-system independent. Open Source) *[http://www.ergonis.com/products/popchar/ PopChar Demo Version] == Issues == Some people, mostly in [[Japan]], oppose Unicode in general, claiming technical limitations and political problems in its operation. People working on the Unicode standard regard such claims simply as misunderstandings of the Unicode standard and of the process by which it has evolved. The most common mistake, according to this view, involves confusion between abstract [[character (computing)|characters]] and their highly-variable visual forms ([[glyphs]]). On the other hand, whereas [[Chinese language|Chinese]] can readily read most types of glyphs used by Japanese or [[Korea]]ns, Japanese often can recognize only a particular variant. Some have decried Unicode as a plot against Asian cultures perpetrated by Westerners with no understanding of the characters as used in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese, despite the presence of a majority of experts from all three regions in the [[Ideographic Rapporteur Group]] (IRG). The IRG advises the consortium and ISO on additions to the repertoire and on [[Han unification]], the identification of forms in the three languages which one can treat as stylistic variations of the same historical character. Han unification has become one of the most controversial aspects of Unicode. Unicode is criticized for failing to allow for older and alternate forms of [[kanji]] which, critics argue, complicates the processing of ancient Japanese and uncommon Japanese names, although it follows the recommendations of Japanese language scholars and of the Japanese government. There have been several attempts to create an alternative to Unicode. [http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/unicode/library/u-secret.html] Among them are [[TRON (encoding)|TRON]] (although it is not widely adopted in Japan, some, particularly those who need to handle historical Japanese text, favor this), and [[UTF-2000]]. It is true that many older forms were not included in early versions of the Unicode standard, but Unicode 4.0 contains more than 90,000 Han characters, far more than any dictionary or any other standard, and work continues on adding characters from the early literature of China, Korea, and Japan. Some argue, however, that this is not satisfactory, pointing out as an example the need to create new characters, representing words in various [[Chinese dialects]], more of which may be invented in the future. An alternative way, pursued by people like [[Chu Bong-Foo]], uses encoding which provides information on the radicals making up Han characters. For example, a 1991 Chinese computing system by Chu already provides 60,000 Han characters support, and takes up only 80KB memory space for the generation of glyphs from raw [[Cangjie method|Cangjie]] codes. Their argument against Unicode is that the Unicode approach to Han characters is the same as assigning every English word with a separate code. [[Thai language]] support has been criticized for its illogical ordering of Thai characters. This complication is due to Unicode inheriting the [[TIS-620|Thai Industrial Standard 620]], which worked in the same way. This ordering problem complicates the Unicode collation process. [http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/unicode/library/u-secret.html] [[Indic script|Indic Scripts]] such as [[Tamil script|Tamil]] and [[Telugu script|Telugu]] are each allocated only 128 slots of the Unicode space, matching the [[ISCII]] standard. The correct rendering of Unicode Indic text requires transforming the stored logical order characters into visual order and the forming of compound characters out of components. Local scholars are arguing in favor of an assignment of Unicode codepoint to compound characters. This will most likely not happen, as can be seen of the case of Tibetan script where even the Chinese National Standard organization failed to achieve a similar change. Opponents of Unicode sometimes erroneously claim even now that it cannot handle more than 65,535 characters, even though this limitation was removed in Unicode 2.0. == Trivia == In [[1997]] [[Michael Everson]] made a proposal to encode the characters of the fictional [[Klingon language]] in Plane 1 of [[ISO 10646|ISO/IEC 10646-2]].[http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n1643/n1643.htm] The [[Unicode Consortium]] rejected this proposal in [[2001]] as "inappropriate for encoding" — not because of any technical inadequacy, but because users of Klingon normally read, write and exchange data in [[Latin]] transliteration. Now that some enthusiasts are blogging in [[Klingon language#Writing systems|tlhIngan pIqaD]] (Klingon alphabet) using newly available fonts and keyboard layouts, the possibility of reapplying to ISO has been raised. Proposals suggested the inclusion of the [[Elf (Middle-earth)|elvish]] scripts [[Tengwar]] and [[Cirth]] from [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s fictional [[Middle-earth]] setting in Plane 1 in [[1993]].[http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n1641/n1641.htm][http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n1642/n1642.htm] The Consortium withdrew the draft to incorporate changes suggested by [[Tolkien fandom|Tolkienists]], and as of [[2005]] it remains under consideration. Both Klingon and the Tolkien scripts have assignments in the [[ConScript Unicode Registry]]. In 2005, the 100,000th character to be entered into the pipeline for standardisation was the MALAYALAM PRASLESHAM. It was encoded based on the contribution by [[Rachana Akshara Vedi]]. The [[April Fool's Day RFC]] of 2005 specified two "parody" UTF encodings, [[UTF-9 and UTF-18]]. == See also == * [[Comparison of Unicode encodings]] * [[Free software Unicode fonts]] * [[Mapping of Unicode characters]] * [[Universal Character Set]] * [[List of HTML decimal character references]] * [[Alt codes]] == References == * ''The Complete Manual of Typography'', James Felici, Adobe Press; 1st edition, 2002 * ''Unicode Demystified: A Practical Programmer's Guide to the Encoding Standard'', Richard Gillam, Addison-Wesley Professional; 1st edition, 2002 * ''Unicode Explained'', Jukka K. Korpela, O'Reilly; 1st edition, 2006 == Books about Unicode == * ''The Unicode Standard, Version 5.0, Fifth Edition'', The [[Unicode Consortium]], Addison-Wesley Professional, Oct. 27, 2006. ISBN 0-321-48091-0 * ''The Unicode Standard, Version 4.0'', The Unicode Consortium, Addison-Wesley Professional, Aug. 27, 2003. ISBN 0-321-18578-1 [[Image:Unicodeconsortium_book4.jpg|thumb|right|The Unicode Standard, Version 4.0]] == External links == * Offical ** [http://www.unicode.org The Unicode Consortium] *** Unicode versions: [http://www.unicode.org/unicode/reports/tr27/ 3.1], [http://www.unicode.org/unicode/reports/tr28/ 3.2], [http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode4.0.0 4.0], [http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode4.0.1/ 4.0.1], [http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode4.1.0/ 4.1] [http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode5.0.0/ 5.0.0] *** [http://www.unicode.org/alloc/Pipeline.html new characters], [http://www.unicode.org/pending/pending.html scripts] and [http://www.unicode.org/alloc/investigation.html characters and scripts under investigation] *** [http://www.unicode.org/charts/ Code Charts] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]] files) * Character information ** [http://www.decodeunicode.org/ decodeunicode] Unicode-Wiki with 50.000 gifs in three sizes. English/German. ** [http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/search.htm Unicode Character Search] (search for characters by thier unicode names) ** [http://www.eki.ee/letter/ The Letter Database] Uses forms to present groups in list or grid format by [[hexadecimal]]. * tools ** [http://people.w3.org/rishida/scripts/uniview/conversion Unicode Code Converter v3] **Insert characters instantly with [http://quickkeydotnet.sourceforge.net/ Quick Key Character Grid]. ** [http://billposer.org/Software/unidesc.html A suite of programs for finding out what is in a Unicode file] ** [http://billposer.org/Software/uni2ascii.html Programs for converting between Unicode and various ASCII representations] * Misc<!--much of this should probablly be thrown away but i'm sorting first and editing later in the interests of full disclosure of additions and removals ~~~~ --> ** [http://www.nafeesonline.com/usoft Urdu Unicode Chart] ** [http://unicode.coeurlumiere.com/ Table of Unicode characters from 1 to 65535] ** [http://www.macchiato.com/unicode/charts.html UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32 Code Charts] and a [http://www-atm.physics.ox.ac.uk/user/iwi/charmap.html character map] (requires [[JavaScript]]) ** [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/examples/ Example text files using Unicode] ** [http://www.lazytools.com/unicode-ascii/ Unicode special character map] resembles the Windows version. Click a symbol to obtain either the named or numeric code for HTML. ** [http://www.evertype.com/standards/csur/ ConScript Unicode Registry] a project to standardize part of the Private Use Area for use with [[artificial script]]s and artificial languages. An explanation of how to propose character names in Unicode is available here. ** [http://www.viduranet.com/nuke/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=115 What is Unicode?] ** Tim Bray's [http://www.tbray.org/ongoing/When/200x/2003/04/26/UTF Characters vs Bytes] explains how the different encodings work. ** [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/ Alan Wood's Unicode Resources] Contains lists of word processors with Unicode capability; fonts and characters are grouped by type; characters are presented in lists, not grids. ** Seeing [http://www.ianalbert.com/misc/unichart.php the entirety of Unicode printed out] as a single large poster gives a good feel for the size of the code. * Critiscism ** [http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/library/u-secret.html The secret life of Unicode] "A peek at Unicode's soft underbelly" Describes problems requiring resolution. Includes links to Unicode resources. ** [http://www.hastingsresearch.com/net/04-unicode-limitations.shtml A harshly critical article about Unicode], and a [http://slashdot.org/features/01/06/06/0132203.shtml response to it] (''n.b.'': This article is dated 2001, and much has changed regarding Unicode since that time) * Software development ** [http://icu.sourceforge.net/ International Components for Unicode (ICU)] An open source set of libraries that provide robust and full-featured Unicode services for your applications on a wide variety of platforms. ** [http://www.flexiguided.de/publications.utf8proc.en.html utf8proc] - A free library for Unicode normalization, case-folding and stripping/mapping of certain characters. ** [http://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/Unicode.html The Absolute Minimum Every Software Developer Absolutely, Positively Must Know About Unicode and Character Sets (No Excuses!)] by [[Joel Spolsky]] of JoelonSoftware.com (this is now outdated, but still a reasonable starting point). ** [http://java.sun.com/developer/technicalArticles/Intl/Supplementary/ Supplementary Characters in the Java Platform] from [[Sun Microsystems]] ** [http://www.jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=204 JSR 204] Unicode 3.1 supplementary character support [[Java Specification Request]] * Unicode support information ** [http://freedesktop.org/wiki/Software_2futf_2d8 Freedesktop.Org's Project UTF-8]'s purpose is to document and promote proper Unicode support in free and Open Source software. [[als:Unicode]] [[bn:ইউনিকোড]] [[zh-min-nan:Thong-iōng-bé]] [[bs:Unikod]] [[br:Unicode]] [[bg:Уникод]] [[ca:Unicode]] [[cs:Unicode]] [[da:Unicode]] [[de:Unicode]] [[et:Unicode]] [[el:Unicode]] [[es:Unicode]] [[eo:Unikodo]] [[fa:یونی‌کد]] [[fr:Unicode]] [[gl:Unicode]] [[ko:유니코드]] [[hi:यूनिकोड]] [[ml:യുണിക്കോഡ്]] [[hr:Unicode]] [[ia:Unicode]] [[it:Unicode]] [[he:יוניקוד]] [[kn:ಯುನಿಕೋಡ್]] [[ka:უნიკოდი]] [[ks:यूनिकोड]] [[ku:Unicode]] [[lv:Unikods]] [[lt:Unicode]] [[hu:Unicode]] [[nl:Unicode]] [[ne:युनिकोड]] [[ja:Unicode]] [[no:Unicode]] [[nn:Unicode]] [[pl:Unicode]] [[pt:Unicode]] [[ro:Unicode]] [[ru:Юникод]] [[sq:Unicode]] [[sk:Unicode]] [[sl:Unicode]] [[sr:Уникод]] [[sh:Unikod]] [[fi:Unicode]] [[sv:Unicode]] [[ta:ஒருங்குறி]] [[th:ยูนิโคด]] [[vi:Unicode]] [[chr:Unicode]] [[tr:Unicode]] [[uk:Юнікод]] [[wa:Unicôde]] [[zh:Unicode]] [[zh-yue:統一碼]] 1655 4025 2006-10-17T23:02:38Z Eukesh 11 /* External links */ {{IndicTextRight}} '''Devanāgarī''' ({{Indic|lang=sa|indic=देवनागरी|trans=devanāgarī|defaultipa=ˌdeɪvəˈnɑːɡəɹiː|indicipa=ˌd̪eːʋəˈnäːɡəɾiː}}) is an [[abugida]] [[writing system]] used to [[writing|write]], either along with other scripts, or exclusively, several [[North India]]n languages, including [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Bihari language|Bihari]], [[Bhili language|Bhili]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Nepal Bhasa]] from [[Nepal]] and sometimes [[Kashmiri]] and [[Romani language|Romani]]. It is written and read from left to right. {{Infobox WS |name=Devanāgarī |sample=Rigveda MS2097.jpg |caption=[[Rigveda]] manuscript in Devanagari (early 19th century) |type=[[Abugida]] |languages=Several [[North India]]n languages, including [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Bihari language|Bihari]], [[Bhili language|Bhili]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Nepal Bhasa]] from [[Nepal]] and sometimes [[Kashmiri]] and [[Romani language|Romani]] |time=~1200 A.D. to the present |region=India and Nepal |fam1=[[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|Proto-Sinaitic]] |fam2=[[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] |fam3=[[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] |fam4=[[Brahmi|Brāhmī]] |fam5=[[Gupta script]] |fam6=[[Siddham]] |iso15924=Deva }} The transliteration used in this article follows the popular [[IAST]] conventions. The [[ITRANS]] [http://www.aczoom.com/itrans/#itransencoding] is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī into [[ASCII]] that is widely used on [[Usenet]]. In ITRANS, the word ''Devanāgarī'' is written as "devanaagarii". ==Origins== <!-- [[Image:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|340px|[[Rigveda]] manuscript in Devanagari (early 19th century)]] --> Devanāgarī emerged around [[1200]] AD out of the [[Siddham]] script, gradually replacing the earlier, closely related [[Sharada script]] (which remained in parallel use in [[Kashmir]]). Both are immediate descendants of the [[Gupta script]], ultimately deriving from the [[Brahmi|Brāhmī]] script attested from the [[3rd century BC]]; Nāgarī appeared in approx. the [[8th century]] as an eastern variant of the [[Gupta script]], contemporary to [[Sharada]], its western variant. The descendants of Brahmi form the [[Brahmic family]], including the alphabets employed for many other South and South-East Asian languages. ===Etymology=== {{alphabet}} [[Sanskrit]] ''nāgarī'' is the feminine of ''nāgara'' "urban(e)", an adjectival [[vrddhi]] derivative from ''nagara'' "city"; the feminine form is used because of its original application to qualify the feminine noun ''lipi'' "script" ("urban(e) script", i.e. the script of the cultured). There were several varieties in use, one of which was distinguished by affixing ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]'' "deity" to form a [[tatpurusha]] compound meaning the "urban(e) [script] of the deities (= gods)", i.e. "divine urban(e) [script]". However, the widespread use of "Devanāgarī" is a relatively recent phenomenon; well into the twentieth century, and even today, simply "Nāgari" was also in use for this same script. The rapid spread of the usage of "Devanāgarī" seems also to be connected with the almost exclusive use of this script in colonial times to publish works in Sanskrit, even though traditionally nearly all indigenous scripts have actually been employed for this language. This has led to the establishment of such a close connection between the script and Sanskrit that it is, erroneously, widely regarded as "the Sanskrit script" today. Interpreted by [[popular etymology]] to refer to a "City of the Gods", the name in certain [[Yoga|Yogic]] traditions{{fact}}<!-- which ones?--> was taken to refer to the body of the individual. The philosophy behind this is that when one [[meditation|meditates]] on the specific [[sound]]s of the Devanagari alphabet, the written forms appear spontaneously in the mind. ==Principles== Devanāgarī has 12 ''svara'' (pure sounds, or [[vowel]]s) and 34 ''vyanjana'' (ornamented sounds, [[consonant]]s). An ''[[akshara]]'' is formed by the combination of zero or one ''vyanjana'' and one or more ''svar'', and represents a phonetic unit of the ''[[shabda]]'' (utterance). The ''akshara'' is written by applying standard diacritical modifiers to the ''vyanjana'' corresponding to the ''svara''. An ''akshara'' is usually more basic and predictable than the [[syllable]] in English. For example, the English 'cat' (considered to have just one syllable) is written as two ''aksharas'', the 'k-a' and the 'ta'. The ''svara'' and ''vyanjana'' are ordered and grouped logically for studying or reciting. Thus the pure sounds, 'a', 'i', 'u' and their lengthened versions ('aa', 'ii', 'uu') are followed by the combined ('e', 'ai', 'o', 'au'), nasal ('.m') and aspirated ('.h') forms. The ''vyanjana'' themselves are grouped into 6 groups (rows) of 5 (columns). The first five rows progress as velar, palatal, retroflex, dental and labial, corresponding to utilizing or touching the tongue to progressively outer parts of the mouth when making the sound. Additional ''vyanjana'' are technically sonorants, sibilants or widely used conjunct forms. For each row or group, the columns logically progress to softer sounds, paired with aspirated forms, ending in the nasal form for that group. Devanāgarī is written from left to right. In Sanskrit, words were written together without spaces, so that the top bar is unbroken, although there were some exceptions to this rule. The break of the top line primarily marks [[breath group]]s. In modern languages, word breaks are used. The Devanāgarī writing system can be called an [[abugida]], as each consonant has an inherent vowel (a), that can be changed with the different vowel signs. Most consonants can be joined to one or two other consonants so that the inherent vowel is suppressed. The resulting conjunct form is called a [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]]. Many ligatures appear simply as two individual consonants joined together, and so are a form of ligature. Some ligatures are more elaborately formed and not as easily recognized as containing the individual consonants. When reading Sanskrit written in Devanāgarī, the pronunciation is completely unambiguous. Similarly, any word in Sanskrit is considered to be written only in one manner (discounting modern typesetting variations in depicting conjunct forms). However, for modern languages, certain conventions have been made (e.g. truncating the vowel form of the last consonant while speaking, even as it continues to be written in full form). There are also some modern conventions for writing English words in Devanagari. Certain Sanskrit texts and ''mantras'' are typically written with additional diacritical marks above and below the ''akshara'' to denote pitch and tempo, to ensure completely accurate reproduction of the sound. ==Symbols of Devanāgarī== {{IPA notice}} All the vowels in Devanāgarī are attached to the top or bottom of the consonant or to an &lt;aa&gt; vowel sign attached to the right of the consonant, with the exception of the &lt;i&gt; vowel sign, which is attached on the left. In the Devanāgarī vowel table below, the "Letter" column contains the symbol used when a vowel occurs without a consonant, the "Vowel sign with &lt;p&gt;" column contains the symbol used when a vowel is attached to a consonant, shown with the &lt;p&gt; letter as an example, the "Unicode name" column contains the name given in the [[Unicode]] specification for the vowel, and the "IPA" column contains the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] character(s) corresponding to the Hindi pronunciation of the Devanāgarī character. ===Vowels=== The vowels of the Devanāgarī script with their word-initial Devanāgarī symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant प् (/p/), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and of /p/+vowel) in [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), equivalent in [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]] (IAST) and [[Indian languages transliteration]] (ITRANS) and (approximate) equivalents in Standard English are listed below: {|class="wikitable" |-bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="center" | '''Independent Vowel'''||'''Diacritical mark with “प्”'''||'''Pronunciation'''||'''Pronunciation with /p/'''||[[IAST]] equiv.'''||'''[[ITRANS]] equiv.||'''English eqivalent''' |-align="center" | '''अ'''||'''प'''||{{IPA|/ə/}} or {{IPA|/ä/}}||{{IPA|/pə/}} or {{IPA|/pä/}}||a||a||short [[Schwa]]: as the ''a'' in '''a'''bove or '''a'''go |-align="center" | '''आ'''||'''पा'''||{{IPA|/äː/}}||{{IPA|/päː/}}||ā||A||long [[open central unrounded vowel]]: as the ''a'' in f'''a'''ther |-align="center" | '''इ'''||'''पि'''||{{IPA|/i/}}||{{IPA|/pi/}}||i||i||short [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in b'''i'''t |-align="center" | '''ई'''||'''पी'''||{{IPA|/iː/}}||{{IPA|/piː/}}||ī||I||long [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in mach'''i'''ne |-align="center" | '''उ'''||'''पु'''||{{IPA|/u/}}||{{IPA|/pu/}}||u||u||short [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''u'' in p'''u'''t |-align="center" | '''ऊ'''||'''पू'''||{{IPA|/uː/}}||{{IPA|/puː/}}||ū||U|| long [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''oo'' in sch'''oo'''l |-align="center" | '''ए'''||'''पे'''||{{IPA|/eː/}}||{{IPA|/peː/}}||e||e|| long [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]: as ''a'' in g'''a'''me (not a diphthong), or ''é'' in caf'''é''' |-align="center" | '''ऐ'''||'''पै'''||{{IPA|/əi/ ''or'' /ai/}}||{{IPA|/pəi/ ''or'' /pai/}}||ai||ai|| a long [[diphthong]]: approx. as ''ei'' in h'''ei'''ght |-align="center" | '''ओ'''||'''पो'''||{{IPA|/οː/}}||{{IPA|/poː/}}||o||o|| long [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]: as ''o'' in t'''o'''ne (not a diphthong) |-align="center" | '''औ'''||'''पौ'''||{{IPA|/əu/ ''or'' /au/}}||{{IPA|/pəu/ ''or'' /pau/}}||au||au|| a long [[diphthong]]: approx. as ''ou'' in h'''ou'''se |-align="center" | '''ऋ'''||'''पृ'''||{{IPA|/r̩/}}||{{IPA|/pr̩/}}||{{Unicode|ṛ}}||R|| short syllabic vowel-like [[Alveolar trill]] : |-align="center" | '''ॠ'''||'''पॄ'''||{{IPA|/r̩ː/}}||{{IPA|/pr̩ː/}}||{{Unicode|ṝ}}||RR|| long syllabic vowel-like [[Alveolar trill]]: a longer version of {{IPA|/r̩/}} |-align="center" | '''ऌ''' ||'''पॢ'''||{{IPA|/l̩/}}||{{IPA|/pl̩/}}||{{Unicode|ḷ}}||LR|| short syllabic vowel-like [[Alveolar lateral approximant]]: approx. as hand'''l'''e |-align="center" | '''ॡ''' ||'''पॣ'''||{{IPA|/l̩ː/}}||{{IPA|/pl̩ː/}}||{{Unicode|ḹ}}||LRR|| long syllabic vowel-like [[Alveolar lateral approximant]]: a longer version of {{IPA|/l̩/}} |- |} Additional points: * The vowel {{IPA|/äː/}} in Sanskrit is more central and less back than the closest English equivalent, {{IPA|/ɑː/}}. The [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ə/}}) is always short in Sanskrit. * All vowels in Hindi, short or long, can be nasalized. All vowels can have acute, grave or circumflex pitch accent (in Vedic Sanskrit). * In Hindi, ऋ is pronounced as {{IPA|/ri/}}. The last three vowels in the table above do not occur in Hindi at all. * Note that the ancient Sanskrit grammarians have classified the vowel system as velars, retroflexes, palatals and plosives rather than as back, central and mid vowels. Hence {{Unicode|ए}} and {{Unicode|ओ}} are classified respectively as palato-velar (a+i) labio-velar (a+u) vowels respectively. But the grammarians have classified them as diphthongs and in prosody, each is given two ''mātrās''. This does not necessarily mean that they are proper diphthongs, but neither excludes the possibility that they could have been proper diphthongs at a very ancient stage. These vowels ''are'' pronounced as long {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} respectively by most learned Sanskrit Brahmins and priests of today. Other than the "four" diphthongs, Sanskrit usually disallows any other diphthongs—vowels in succession, if occur, are converted to semivowels according to predetermined rules. * In Sanskrit and in some other dialects of Hindi (as well as in a few words in Standard Hindi), the vowel {{Unicode|ऐ}} is pronounced as a diphthong {{IPA|/əi/}} or {{IPA|/ai/}} rather than {{IPA|/e:/}}. Similarly, the vowel {{Unicode|औ}} is pronounced in some words as the diphthong {{IPA|/əu/}} or {{IPA|/au/}} rather than {{IPA|/ɔ:/}}. Other than these, Hindi does not have true diphthongs—two vowels might occur sequentially but then they are pronounced as two syllables (a glide might come in between while speaking). Otherwise in Standard Hindi, {{Unicode|ऐ}} (ai) is long [[near-open front unrounded vowel]]: {{IPA|/æ/}} as ''a'' in c'''a'''t; {{Unicode|औ}} (au) is long [[open-mid back rounded vowel]]: {{IPA|/ɔː/}} as ''au'' in c'''au'''ght. * The short [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ɛ/}}: as ''e'' in g'''e'''t), does not have any symbol or diacritic in devanagari script. It occurs only as an allophonic variant of [[schwa]] (in place word-middle a, determined only by convention) in certain words in the Standard khariboli dialect of Hindi. E.g., the orthography dictates that {{Unicode|रहना}} must be pronounced as {{IPA|/rəhənä:/}}, but it is actually pronounced as {{IPA|/rɛhnä/}}. It also occurs in loanwords from English, where it might be accorded a new vowel symbol of {{Unicode|ऍ }}(''chandra'': {{Unicode|पॅ}}). The short open-mid back rounded vowel ({{IPA|/ɔ/}}), does not exist in Hindi at all, other than for English loanwords. In orthography, a new symbol has been invented for it: {{Unicode|ऑ (पॉ)}}. * Unicode transliteration scheme differs for some characters from [[IAST]] scheme. The differences are: ā→aa, ī→ii, ū→uu, {{Unicode|ṛ}}→rr, {{Unicode|ḹ}}→ll. ===Consonants=== The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish/Italian. The parentheses give the corresponding transliteration (of the consonant alone) in [[IAST]] scheme—the most popular one. Each consonant shown below is by default followed by the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ə/}}), and is given in the table in this form. {| class="wikitable" |- !align="center" colspan="6"|'''Plosives''' |- ! ![[Unaspirated]]<br>[[Voiceless]] ![[Aspirated]]<br>[[Voiceless]] ![[Unaspirated]]<br>[[Voiced]] ![[Aspirated]]<br>[[Voiced]] ![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |-align="center" |[[Velar]] |[[क]] (k)<br>{{IPA|/kə/}}; English: s'''k'''ip |ख (kh)<br>{{IPA|/kʰə/}}; English: '''c'''at |ग (g)<br>{{IPA|/gə/}}; English: '''g'''ame |घ (gh)<br>{{IPA|/gʱə/}}; English: e'''gg h'''ead |ङ ({{Unicode|ṅ}})<br>{{IPA|/ŋə/}}; English: ri'''ng''' |-align="center" |[[Palatal]] |च (c)<br>{{IPA|/cə/}}; ≈English: '''ch'''at |छ (ch)<br>{{IPA|/cʰə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/c/}} |ज (j)<br>{{IPA|/ɟə/}}; ≈English: '''j'''am |झ (jh)<br>{{IPA|/ɟʱə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ɟ/}} |ञ (ñ)<br>{{IPA|/ɲə/}}; ≈English: fi'''n'''ch |-align="center" |[[Retroflex]] |ट ({{Unicode|ṭ}}) <br>{{IPA|/ʈə/}}; American Eng: hur'''t'''ing |ठ ({{Unicode|ṭh}}) <br>{{IPA|/ʈʰə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ʈ/}} |ड ({{Unicode|ḍ}}) <br>{{IPA|/ɖə/}}; American Eng: mur'''d'''er |ढ ({{Unicode|ḍh}}) <br>{{IPA|/ɖʱə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ɖ/}} |ण ({{Unicode|ṇ}}) <br>{{IPA|/ɳə/}}; No English equivalent |-align="center" |Apico-[[Dental consonant|Dental]] |त (t)<br>{{IPA|/t̪ə/}}; Spanish: '''t'''oma'''t'''e |थ (th)<br>{{IPA|/t̪ʰə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/t̪/}} |द (d)<br>{{IPA|/d̪ə/}}; Spanish: '''d'''on'''d'''e |ध (dh)<br>{{IPA|/d̪ʱə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/d̪/}} |न (n)<br>{{IPA|/nə/}}; Spanish: to'''n'''to |-align="center" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]] |प (p)<br>{{IPA|/pə/}}; English: s'''p'''in |फ (ph)<br>{{IPA|/pʰə/}}; English: '''p'''it |ब (b)<br>{{IPA|/bə/}}; English: '''b'''one |भ (bh)<br>{{IPA|/bʱə/}}; English: a'''bh'''or |म (m)<br>{{IPA|/mə/}}; English: '''m'''ine |- |} {|class="wikitable" |- !align="center" colspan="5"|'''Non-Plosives/Sonorants''' |- ! ![[Palatal]] ![[Retroflex]] ![[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar]] ![[Labiovelar|(Labio)]][[velar]]/<br>[[Glottal]] |-align="center" |[[Approximant]] |य (y)<br>{{IPA|/jə/}}; English: '''y'''ou |र (r)<br>{{IPA|/ɾə/}}; Spanish: ma'''r'''tes |ल (l)<br>{{IPA|/lə/}}; British English: '''l'''ove |व (v)<br>{{IPA|/ʋə/}}; ≈Italian: '''vu'''oto |-align="center" |[[Sibilant]]/<br>[[Fricative]] |श (ś)<br>{{IPA|/ʃə/}}; English: '''sh'''ip |ष ({{Unicode|ṣ}})<br>{{IPA|/ʂə/}}; Retroflex form of {{IPA|/ʃ/}} |स (s)<br>{{IPA|/sə/}}; English: '''s'''ame |ह (h)<br>{{IPA|/ɦə/}}; ≈English '''h'''ome |- |} At the end of the traditional table of alphabets, three cosonantal clusters are also added: क्ष {{IPA|/kʃə/}} (k{{Unicode|ṣ}}) (in Hindi), त्र {{IPA|/t̪ɾə/}} (tr) and ज्ञ {{IPA|/gjə/}} (jñ) (in Hindi; pronounced as {{IPA|/ɟɲə/}} + nasalization in Sanskrit). Other than these, sounds borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic are written with a dot (''bindu'' or ''nukta'') beneath the nearest approximate letter. They are not included in the traditional listing. Many native Hindi speakers, especially those who come from rural backgrounds and do not speak proper Khariboli or Urdu, confuse these sounds (except {{IPA|/ɽ/ and /ɽʱ/}}) and pronounce them as the nearest equivalents in Sanskritized Hindi (listed in column 5). These are: {|class="wikitable" |+'''Extra sounds''' |- !Symbol !IPA Pronunciation and name ![[IAST]] equiv. !English (etc.) equiv. !Confused with: |-align="center" |क़ |{{IPA|/qə/}} [[voiceless uvular plosive]] |q |Arabic: '''Q'''ur'an |{{IPA|/k/}} |-align="center" |ख़ |{{IPA|/xə/}} [[voiceless velar fricative]] |{{Unicode|k͟h}} |German: do'''ch''' |{{IPA|/kʰ/}} |-align="center" |ग़ |{{IPA|/ɣə/}} [[voiced velar fricative]] |ġ |Persian: Mu'''gh'''al |{{IPA|/g/}} |-align="center" |ज़ |{{IPA|/zə/}} [[voiced alveolar fricative]] |z |English: '''z'''oo |{{IPA|/ɟ/ ''or'' /dʒ/}} |-align="center" |फ़ |{{IPA|/fə/}} [[voiceless labiodental fricative]] |f |English: '''f'''un |{{IPA|/pʰ/}} |-align="center" |ड़ |{{IPA|/ɽə/}} [[unaspirated]] [[retroflex flap]] |{{Unicode|ṛ}} |<none> | |-align="center" |ढ़ |{{IPA|/ɽʱə/}} [[aspirated]] [[retroflex flap]] |{{Unicode|ṛh}} |<none> | |- |} Additional points: *The "r" of Sanskrit is as in Standard American English. In modern Sanskrit pronunciation, the vowel "{{Unicode|ṛ}}" is sometimes realised as {{IPA|/ri/}} or {{IPA|/ru/}}, although many people (especially if their native language retains the original Sanskrit sounds, as is the case in [[Malayalam]]) do make the {{IPA|/r/}} sound. In Hindi, {{IPA|/r/}} is pronounced as in Spanish pe'''rr'''o. Also note that both ऋ and ड़ use "{{Unicode|ṛ}}" in [[IAST]] transliteration. *There is no retroflex flap in Sanskrit. In modern Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages, they have sprung up as the allophonic flap variants of Sanskrit's simple voiced retroflex plosives. The {{IPA|/ɳ/}} ({{Unicode|ṇ}} or ण) in Sanskrit is not a flap but a simple nasal stop, although it is pronounced by modern pundits while chanting as a nasal variant of the voiced retroflex flap. Hindi has two proper retroflex flaps. *Aspiration is actually a puff of breath that may follow a plosive consonant. English speakers could try pronouncing the words "kite", "take", "chip" and "pat" with a greater-than-usual puff of breath after the first consonant. The corresponding unaspirated plosives must be pronounced with no significant puff of breath at all. *For practicing the voiced aspirates, one could try: "drag him", "said him", "enrage him", "grab him". The voiced aspirated plosives (also called murmur stops) are extremely important and frequent in Sanskrit. Sanskrit (and its daughters) is the only language that has faithfully preserved these original Proto-Indo-European stops. *The dental consonants in Sanskrit are as in Spanish or French. They can be pronounced by pronouncing {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} (of English) by pressing the tip of the tongue against the back of the teeth rather than against the back of the alveolar ridge as done by English speakers. The normal "t" and "d" in [[IAST]] transliteration are the dental stops; and they occur much, much more frequently than the retroflex stops. *The retroflex consonants are the most difficult to pronounce. They are pronounced by curling the tongue such that its tip touches the roof of the mouth, like how Americans pronounce "r". The retroflex flaps are pronounced in a similar way, by bringing the tongue's tip to the roof of the mouth and giving it a sharp flap downwards. However, bringing the tip of the tongue a bit above the normal alveolar ridge would also work fine. The normal alveolar plosives of English {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} do not exist as such in Sanskrit/Hindi. *The palatal plosives of Sanskrit/Hindi do not have a sharp frictional sound following them, as what happened in English '''ch'''ips and '''j'''am. These are more of pure plosives than affricates. *Sanskrit/Hindi has no {{IPA|/v/}}. Its nearest equivalent is {{IPA|/ʋ/}}, which is very close to {{IPA|/v/}}, but does not a friction or buzzing sound associated with it. But in consonant clusters, this may allophonically change to {{IPA|/w/}}. *The palatal sibilant of Sanskrit ([[IAST]]: ś) is very close to like the English ''sh'' in '''sh'''ip (although the Sanskrit phoneme is the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative {{IPA|/ɕ/}}) while the English phoneme is the voiceless postalveolar fricative {{IPA|/ʃ/}} with lip rounding). Today, speakers of Sanskrit vary the palatal fricative from {{IPA|/ɕ/}} to {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. In Hindi, it is always pronounced as in '''sh'''ip. *The retroflex sibilant {{IPA|/ʂ/}} is pronounced like {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, but with the tongue curled upwards towards the roof of the mouth. In Mādhyandini branch of Yajurveda, this phoneme is allowed to be pronounced at certain places as {{IPA|/ kʰ/}}. In Hindi, this is pronounced as the English ''sh'' in '''sh'''ip. *The Sanskrit {{IPA|/ɦ/}} is a voiced allophone of the normal h. In Hindi, it is pronounced as in '''h'''ome. Another consonant is <span style="font-size:14pt;">ळ</span> is not used in [[Hindi language|Hindi]]. It is retroflex, and used in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], and [[Gujarati_language|Gujarati]]. ==== [[Ligature (typography)|Ligatures]] ==== Consonant clusters of two or more phonemes are realized by combining the aksharas into ligatures. Typically, the preceding akshara loses its vertical stroke and is put in direct contact with the succeeding one. In cases of aksharas that do not have vertical strokes in their independent form, the following aksharas are usually placed underneath the preceding one. In some cases, the ligatures take forms not readily recognizable as composed of the individual aksharas (e.g. &lt;jñ&gt;). Consonant clusters involving &lt;r&gt; are treated as a special case: preceding &lt;r-&gt; is realized as a right-facing hook above the following akshara, and following &lt;-r&gt; appears as a slanted stroke attached to the vertical stroke of the preceding akshara. Similarly for a cluster /XYZa/, both X and Y would be "halved". There are many variants for this consonant cluster writing in Devanāgarī script. The most common system is shown below for the traditional table. Here the second vowel is taken to be /n/, followed by the [[schwa]]. {|class="wikitable" |- |-align="center" |'''ka-group'''||क्न <br>{{IPA|/knə/}} || ख्न <br>{{IPA|/kʰnə/}} ||ग्न <br>{{IPA|/gnə/}} ||घ्न <br>{{IPA|/gʱnə/}} ||ङ्न <br>{{IPA|/ŋnə/}} |-align="center" |'''cha-group'''||च्न <br>{{IPA|/cnə/}} ||छ्न <br>{{IPA|/cʰnə/}} ||ज्न <br>{{IPA|/ɟnə/}} ||झ्न <br>{{IPA|/ɟʱnə/}} ||ञ्न <br>{{IPA|/ɲnə/}} |-align="center" |'''Ta-group'''||ट्न <br>{{IPA|/ʈnə/}} ||ठ्न <br>{{IPA|/ʈʰnə/}} ||ड्न <br>{{IPA|/ɖnə/}} ||ढ्न <br>{{IPA|/ɖʱnə/}} ||ण्न <br>{{IPA|/ɳnə/}} |-align="center" |'''ta-group'''||त्न <br>{{IPA|/t̪nə/}} ||थ्न <br>{{IPA|/t̪ʰnə/}} ||द्न <br>{{IPA|/d̪nə/}} ||ध्न <br>{{IPA|/d̪ʱnə/}} ||न्न <br>{{IPA|/nnə/}} |-align="center" |'''pa-group'''||प्न <br>{{IPA|/pnə/}} ||फ्न <br>{{IPA|/pʰnə/}} ||ब्न <br>{{IPA|/bnə/}} ||भ्न <br>{{IPA|/bʱnə/}} ||म्न <br>{{IPA|/mnə/}} |-align="center" |'''ya-group'''||य्न <br>{{IPA|/ynə/}} ||र्न <br>{{IPA|/rnə/}} ||ल्न <br>{{IPA|/lnə/}} ||व्न <br>{{IPA|/ʋnə/}} || |-align="center" |'''va-group'''||श्न <br>{{IPA|/ɕnə/}} ||ष्न <br>{{IPA|/ʂnə/}} ||स्न <br>{{IPA|/snə/}} ||ह्न <br>{{IPA|/ɦnə/}} || |- |} ===Diacritics=== *अं (called ''[[anusvāra]]''), pronounced as {{IPA|/ⁿ/}} ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ṃ}}) is used for nasalizing the vowel in the syllable, the word-final allophone of /m/ and /n/. The diacritic {{Unicode|ँ}} (called ''chandrabindu''/''anunāsika'') is used in certain shakhas instead of the ''anusvāra'' in certain phonetic contexts. *अः (called ''[[visarga]]''), pronounced as {{IPA|/əh/}} ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ḥ}}) is the word-final allophone of {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/r/}}. *If a lonely consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a ''halanta/[[virāma]]'' diacritic below (प्). *[[avagraha]] &#x93d; is used in western editions to mark elision of a word-initial {{IPA|/a/}} in [[sandhi]]. ====Accent marks==== {{main|Vedic accent}} The [[pitch accent]] of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] is written with various symbols depending on [[shakha]]. In the [[Rigveda]], ''anudatta'' is written with a bar below the line (&#x952;), ''svarita'' with a stroke above the line (&#x951;) while ''udatta'' is unmarked. ===Numerals=== {{Seealso|Indian numerals|Brahmi numerals|Hindu-Arabic numeral system}} {|class="wikitable" |- |+ '''Devanāgarī numerals''' |- style="font-size:14pt;" | ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ | ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९ |- | 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 | 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- |} == Encodings == === ISCII === [[ISCII]] is a [[fixed-length encoding|fixed-length]] 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain [[ASCII]], the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific. It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī, but also various other [[Indic scripts]] as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts. ISCII has largely been obsoleted by [[Unicode]], which has however attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks. ;See: * [[ISCII]] – IS13194:1991 [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf] === Devanāgarī in Unicode === The [[Unicode]] range for Devanāgarī is U+0900 .. U+097F. Grey blocks indicate characters that are undefined. {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="font-size: large; border-collapse:collapse;" |- style="font-size: small; text-align:center;" | &nbsp; || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || A || B || C || D || E || F |- | style="font-size: small;" | U+090x | bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; ||[[ँ]] ||[[ं]] || [[ः]] || ऄ || अ || आ || इ || ई || उ || ऊ || ऋ || ऌ || ऍ || ऎ || ए |- | style="font-size: small;" | U+091x | ऐ || ऑ || ऒ || ओ || औ || क || ख || ग || घ || ङ || च || छ || ज || झ || ञ || ट |- | style="font-size: small;" | U+092x | ठ || ड || ढ || ण || त || थ || द || ध || न || ऩ || प || फ || ब || भ || म || य |- | style="font-size: small;" | U+093x | र || ऱ || ल || ळ || ऴ || व || श || ष || स || ह || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || ़ || [[ऽ]] || ा || ि |- | style="font-size: small;" | U+094x | ी || ु || ू || ृ || ॄ || ॅ || ॆ || े || ै || ॉ || ॊ || ो || ौ || ् || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; ||bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; |- | style="font-size: small;" | U+095x | [[Aum|ॐ]] || ॑ || ॒ || ॓ || ॔ || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || क़ || ख़ || ग़ || ज़ || ड़ || ढ़ || फ़ || य़ |- | style="font-size: small;" | U+096x | ॠ || ॡ || ॢ || ॣ || । || ॥ || ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ || ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९ |- | style="font-size: small;" | U+097x | [[&#x970;]] || &#x971; || &#x972; || &#x973; || &#x974; || &#x975; || &#x976; || &#x977; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; || bgcolor="#CCCCCC" | &nbsp; |- |} ==Devanāgarī Keyboard Layouts== ===Devanāgarī and Devanāgarī-QWERTY keyboard layouts for Mac OS X=== The [[Mac OS X]] operating system supports convenient editing for the Devanāgarī script by insertion of appropriate Unicode characters with two different [[keyboard layout]]s available for use. To input Devanāgarī text, one goes to System Preferences → International → Input Menu and enables the keyboard layout that is to be used. One then views the keyboard layout at the [http://docs.info.apple.com/article.html?artnum=50037 Indian Language Kit Manual] at Apple Docs. {| |+ for example, the Devanāgarī-qwerty layout is: |- | [[Image:devanagari-qwerty-layout.jpg|240px]] || [[Image:devanagari-qwerty-layout-option.jpg|240px]] |} ===INSCRIPT=== [[Image:Devanagari_INSCRIPT.png|frame|none|240px|INSCRIPT Keyboard Layout (Windows, Solaris, Java)]] ===Typewriter=== [[Image:Hindi_typewriter.jpg|frame|none|240px|Standard typewriter keyboard layout used in India]] ===Phonetic=== [[Image:Bolnagri map.png|frame|none|240px|Bolnagri phonetic keyboard layout for Linux]] See [http://www.indlinux.org/wiki/index.php/BolNagri|bolnagri home page] ==See also== *[[Wikipedia:Enabling complex text support for Indic scripts]] ==Software== * [[Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging]] - Macintosh * [[Graphite (Renderer)|Graphite]] - open source ([[SIL International|SIL]]) * [[Pango]] - open source ([[GNOME]]) * [[Uniscribe]] - Windows * [[WorldScript]] - Macintosh, replaced by the Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging, mentioned above * [http://www.baraha.com/downloads.htm Baraha] - Devanāgarī Input using English Keyboard == External links == * [http://www.mpp.org.np/downloads.php Resources for typing in the Nepali language in Devanāgarī] * [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf The official Devanāgarī Document (pdf) from Govt. Of India.] * [http://www.sulekha.com/expressions/column.asp?cid=305897 On history of Indian writing] ===Electronic resources=== * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode Chhahari Syllabic Unicode Editor] * [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/06/free-software-tools-and-fonts-cd.html Request for a free hindi Fonts and Devanāgarī Tools CD from the Government of India] * [http://girish.co.in/projects/indian_languages.html Devanāgarī Tools: Wiki Sandbox, Devanagari Mail, Yahoo/Google Search & Devanāgarī Transliteration] * [http://devanaagarii.net/ Devanāgarī : all about using Devanāgarī on computers] * [http://www.ncst.ernet.in/projects/indix/ IndiX, Indian language support for Linux], a site by the Indian [[National Centre for Software Technology]] * [http://www.writeka.com/hindi.html writeKA English-to-Hindi Online Transliterator] * [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Unicode Chart for Devanāgarī] * [http://www.geocities.com/matthewblackwell/hindiEditor.html Devanāgarī editor] * [http://devanaagarii.net/ Resources for viewing and editing Devanāgarī] * [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/devanagari.html Unicode support for Web browsers] * [http://www.ee.adfa.edu.au/staff/hrp/personal/Sanskrit-External/unicodenotes.html Creating and Viewing Documents in Devanāgarī] * [http://www.avashy.com/hindiscripttutor.htm Hindi/Devanāgarī Script Tutor] * [http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/hindi.html Romanized to Unicode Devanāgarī transliterator] * [http://freetranslationblog.blogspot.com Devanagari Script Translation] Translation for Devanagari Script * [http://lists.sarovar.org/cgi-bin/mailman/listinfo/devanaagarii-lipi Devanāgarī mailing list and discussion group] *[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/deonagari/ Discussion Group and email List Devanāgarī.] *[http://pratibhaas.blogspot.com/2006/01/blog-post_25.html A compilation of Tools and Techniques for Hindi Computing] *[http://www.giitaayan.com/x.htm HiTrans - Roman-Nagari transliteration scheme and conversion tool] [[bg:Деванагари]] [[br:Devanagari]] [[ca:Devanagari]] [[cs:Devanágarí]] [[da:Devanagari]] [[de:Devanagari]] [[es:Devanagari]] [[eo:Nagario]] [[fi:Devanagari]] [[fr:Devanāgarī]] [[gl:Devanāgarī]] [[ko:데바나가리 문자]] [[hi:देवनागरी]] [[id:Aksara Devanagari]] [[it:Devanagari]] [[ks:देवनागरी]] [[lt:Devanagari raštas]] [[mr:देवनागरी]] [[ne:देवनागरी]] [[nl:Devanagari]] [[ja:デーヴァナーガリー]] [[no:Devanagari]] [[nn:Devanagari]] [[pl:Pismo dewanagari]] [[pt:Devanagari]] [[rmy:देवनागरी]] [[ru:Деванагари]] [[sa:देवनागरी]] [[sv:Devanagari]] [[ta:தேவநாகரி]] [[th:อักษรเทวนาครี]] [[zh:天城文]] 1656 2606 2006-10-12T20:22:38Z Eukesh 11 <!--Note:This section will be regularly modified to keep it approximately the same size as template:WikipediaSister--> <div id="lang"> थ्व विकिपिडिया [[नेपाल भाषा]]ले च्वया तगु ख:| नेपाल भाषायागु विकिपिडिया अक्टोबर २, २००६ ले आधिकारिक कथलं न्ह्यथाल धासा अनौपचारिक कथं [http://incubator.wikimedia.org/ इन्क्युबेटर]ले परिक्षणया रुपे ४ जुन, २००६निसें संचालन जुगु ख:| नेपाल भाषाया विकिपिडियाले आ तक्क [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] लेख दु| मेमेगु हलिमसफुले दक्ले तधंगु हलिमसफु क्वे बिया तगु दु: <div id="lang-100000"> *१,००,००० स्वया अप्व लेख दुगु विकिपिडिया:<br/>[[:en:|English]]</div> <div id="lang-50000"> *५०,००० स्वया अप्व लेख दुगु विकिपिडिया:<br/>[[:da:|Dansk]] '''&middot;''' [[:de:|Deutsch]] '''&middot;''' [[:es:|Español]] '''&middot;''' [[:eo:|Esperanto]] '''&middot;''' [[:fr:|Français]] '''&middot;''' [[:it:|Italiano]] '''&middot;''' [[:nl:|Nederlands]] '''&middot;''' [[:ja:|日本語]] '''&middot;''' [[:no:|Norsk bokmål]] '''&middot;''' [[:pl:|Polski]] '''&middot;''' [[:pt:| Português]] '''&middot;''' [[:ru:|Русский]] '''&middot;''' [[:sk:|Slovenčina]] '''&middot;''' [[:fi:|Suomi]] '''&middot;''' [[:sv:|Svenska]] '''&middot;''' [[:zh:|中文]]</div> <div id="lang-20000"> *२०,००० स्वया अप्व लेख दुगु विकिपिडिया:<br/>[[:id:|Bahasa Indonesia]] '''&middot;''' [[:bg:|Български]] '''&middot;''' [[:ca:|Català]] '''&middot;''' [[:cs:|Česky]] '''&middot;''' [[:et:|Eesti]] '''&middot;''' [[:he:|עברית]] '''&middot;''' [[:hr:|Hrvatski]] '''&middot;''' [[:ko:|한국어]] '''&middot;''' [[:lt:|Lietuvių]] '''&middot;''' [[:hu:|Magyar]] '''&middot;''' [[:ro:|Română]] '''&middot;''' [[:sl:|Slovenščina]] '''&middot;''' [[:sr:|Српски]] '''&middot;''' [[:tr:|Türkçe]] '''&middot;''' [[:uk:|Українська]]</div> <div id="lang-10000"> *१०,००० स्वया अप्व लेख दुगु विकिपिडिया:<br/>[[:simple:|Simple English]] '''&middot;''' [[:ar:| <span lang="ar" title="Arabic" dir="rtl" class="spanAr">العربية</span>]] '''&middot;''' [[:ms:|Bahasa Melayu]] '''&middot;''' [[:bn:|বাংলা]] '''&middot;'''[[:bs:|Bosanski]] '''&middot;''' [[:el:|Ελληνικά]] '''&middot;''' [[:eu:|Euskara]] '''&middot;''' [[:fa:|فارسی]] '''&middot;''' [[:gl:|Galego]] '''&middot;''' [[:io:|Ido]] '''&middot;''' [[:is:|Íslenska]] '''&middot;''' [[:ka:|ქართული]] '''&middot;''' [[:lb:|Lëtzebuergesch]] '''&middot;''' [[:nap:|Nnapulitano]] '''&middot;''' [[:nn:|Norsk nynorsk]] '''&middot;''' [[:th:|ภาษาไทย]] '''&middot;''' [[:te:|<span lang="te" title="Telugu" dir="rtl" class="spanAr">తెలుగు</span>]] '''&middot;''' [[:vi:|Tiếng Việt]]</div> <p id="lang-coord" style="text-align:center"> '''[[m:List of Wikipedias|पूवंगु सुची]] &middot; <span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Multilingual_coordination बहुभाषिक समन्वय]</span> &middot; [[m:Help:How to start a new Wikipedia|न्हुगु भाषाले विकिपिडिया न्ह्यथनिगु]]''' </div> <noinclude>[[vi:Tiêu bản:Ngôn ngữ Wikipedia]]</noinclude> 1657 2590 2006-10-12T17:53:25Z Eukesh 11 <!--This template is used in the Main Page. It has been copied form french wiki. It has been protected from editing.--> <includeonly><div style="height:16px; -moz-border-radius: 10px; border:1px solid #{{#switch:{{{1|}}}| bleu=8898BF|vert=97BF87|jaune=AAAA66|orange=AA8833| violet=7755AA|saumon=AA8866|sable=AA9955|vertmoyen=88BB55| bleufoncé=1144AA|rouge=AA8866|#default=AAAAAA }};background:#{{#switch:{{{1|}}}| bleu=C8D8FF|vert=D7FFC7|jaune=FFFFB9|orange=FFDD88| violet=C9AEF1|saumon=FBDFBE|sable=F1E2AE|vertmoyen=99CC66| bleufoncé=003399|rouge=FFDAB9|écarlate=FF3333|#default=E0E0E0 }};font-size:1px;"></div> <div style="font-size:small;margin-bottom:1.5em;border:1px solid #{{#switch:{{{1|}}}| bleu=8898BF|vert=97BF87|jaune=AAAA66|orange=AA8833| violet=7755AA|saumon=AA8866|sable=AA9955|vertmoyen=88BB55| bleufoncé=1144AA|rouge=AA8866|écarlate=AAAAAA|#default=AAAAAA }};border-top:0;background:{{{fond|transparent}}};padding:5px"></includeonly><noinclude>{{Documentation modèle}} Ce modèle dessine un cadre avec une bordure colorée. Il doit impérativement être utilisé avec le modèle {{m|Fin cadre}}. Le premier paramètre (optionnel) peut être : vert, bleu, jaune, orange, rouge, écarlate, violet, sable, saumon et, par défaut, gris (paramètre non obligatoire) ---- {|width="100%" cellspacing="8" cellpadding="0" |- |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|bleu}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|bleu}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|vert}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|vert}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|jaune}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|jaune}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|orange}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|orange}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |- |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|violet}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|violet}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|saumon}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|saumon}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|sable}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|sable}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|vertmoyen}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|vertmoyen}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |- |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|bleufoncé}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|bleufoncé}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|rouge}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|rouge}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|gris}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|gris}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |} D’autre part, la couleur du fond, par défaut "transparent", peut être variée en utilisant l’argument fond=''couleur''. Exemple&nbsp;: {|width="100%" cellspacing="8" cellpadding="0" |- |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|violet|fond=lightblue}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|violet|fond=lightblue}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|bleufoncé|fond=yellow}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|bleufoncé|fond=yellow}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|rouge|fond=#CCFFFF}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|rouge|fond=#CCFFFF}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |width="25%"|{{Début cadre|gris|fond=transparent}}<nowiki>{{</nowiki>Début cadre|gris|fond=transparent}}<br>...<br><nowiki>{{</nowiki>Fin cadre}}{{Fin cadre}} |} [[Category:Templates]] </noinclude> 1658 2591 2006-10-12T17:54:51Z Eukesh 11 <includeonly></div></includeonly><noinclude>{{Documentation modèle}} Ce modèle ferme le modèle {{m|Début cadre}}. [[Category:Templates]] </noinclude> 1659 3544 2006-10-15T20:23:17Z Eukesh 11 {| {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | [[Image:P_vip.png|50px|जीवनी]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; " | '''[[दबु:जीवनी|जीवनी]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[कलाकार, नृतक व मोडेल]] - [[वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] - [[च्वमि व कवि]] - [[रचनाकार व संगीतकार]] - [[अनवेषक]] - [[संकिपा निर्देशक व लेखक]] - [[आविष्कारक, वैज्ञानिक व गणितिज्ञ]] - [[समाज शास्त्री (विचारक, अर्थशास्त्री व ईतिहासकार)]] - [[राजनीतिज्ञ, नेता व जहांनिया]] - [[क्रान्तिकारी]] </font> |- | [[Image:P_history.png|50px|ईतिहास]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[दबु:ईतिहास|ईतिहास]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[ईतिहास]] - [[परापूर्व व प्राचीनकाल]] - [[मध्यकाल व युरोपेली पूनर्जागरण]] - [[औद्योगिक ई]]</font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola_apps_browser.png|50px|भूगोल]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[दबु:भूगोल|भूगोल]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[भूगोल]] - [[महादेश व प्रमुख क्षेत्र]] - [[शहर]] - [[लया समुह]] - [[च्वका, स्वनिग व मरुभूमि]] - [[दे]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola_apps_kuser.png|50px|समाज]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[दबु:समाज|समाज]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[समाज]] - [[जहान व सम्बन्ध]] - [[विचा, व्यवहार व भावना]] - [[राजनीति]] - [[बनेज्या व अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[विधान]] - [[अन्तरराष्ट्रीय गुठी]] - [[युद्ध व सेना]] - [[सामाजिक मुद्दा]] </font> |- | [[Image:P_culture.png|50px|संस्कृति]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[दबु:संस्कृति|संस्कृति]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[संस्कृति]] - [[भाषा व साहित्य]] - [[वास्तुशास्त्र व नगरी यन्त्रशास्त्र]] - [[संकिपा, रडियो व टेलेभिजन]] - [[संगीत]] - [[न्ह्याइपुइकेगु]] - [[धर्म]] - [[दर्शन]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps edu science.png|50px|विज्ञान]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[दबु:विज्ञान|विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[विज्ञान]] - [[खगोलशास्त्र]] - [[जीवशास्त्र]] - [[जैविक प्रकृया]] - [[एनाटोमी]] - [[उसायं व चिकित्सा]] - [[प्राणी]] - [[रसायनशास्त्र]] - [[जलवायु, मौसम व भूशास्त्र]] - [[भौतिकशास्त्र]] - [[ईयागु ल्याखं]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola_apps_kcmprocessor.png|50px|प्रविधि]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[दबु:प्रविधि|प्रविधि]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[प्रविधि]] - [[संचार]] - [[एलेक्ट्रोनिक्स्]] - [[कम्प्युटर व अन्तरजाल]] - [[कच्चा पदार्थ व उर्जा]] - [[यातायात]] - [[हतियार]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola_apps_kteatime.png|50px|नसला]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[दबु:नसला|नसला]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[नेगु]] - [[त्वनिगु]] - [[नसला]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics.png|50px|गणित]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[दबु:गणित|गणित]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[गणित]] - [[दानिगु व युनिट]] </font> |} 1660 2595 2006-10-12T18:50:22Z Eukesh 11 <includeonly><div style="position:relative; width:{{{width}}}; height:{{{height}}}; overflow:hidden;"><div style="position:absolute; font-size:{{{height}}}; overflow:hidden; line-height:{{{height}}}; letter-spacing:{{{width}}};">[[{{{link}}}|<span title="{{{title|{{{link}}}}}}" style="text-decoration:none;">&nbsp; &nbsp;</span>]]</div>[[Image:{{{image}}}|{{{width}}}|{{{title|{{{link}}}}}}]]</div></includeonly> <noinclude> This template attempts to superimpose an invisible link on an image. It doesn't work in [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]], in text-only browsers, and in screen readers for the disabled, and possibly other situations. The technique of using [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] to change page content also completely breaks an article's [[web accessibility]] by contravening a [[WAI]] priority-one checkpoint.[http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-WEBCONTENT/#tech-order-style-sheets] Please try to avoid using this template unless absolutely necessary. See also [[Template:Titled-click]], and [[m:Template:Click]]. [[Category:Wikipedia workaround templates]] [[als:Vorlage:Link-Bild]] [[ar:قالب:Click]] [[da:Skabelon:Klik]] [[de:Vorlage:Link-Bild]] [[eo:Ŝablono:Click]] [[eu:Txantiloi:Lotura iruditik]] [[fr:Modèle:Lien sur image]] [[ko:Template:그림고리]] [[na:Template:Click]] [[nl:Sjabloon:Klik]] [[no:Mal:Klikk]] [[pl:Szablon:Klik]] [[vi:Tiêu bản:Hình tượng]] [[zh:Template:Click]] </noinclude> 1661 2665 2006-10-14T06:12:55Z Eukesh 11 '''विकिपिडिया'''यात [http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Home विकिमिडिया फाउन्डेसन] नं होस्ट याना तगु दु| थ्व फाउन्डेसन छगु नन-प्रोफिट गुथि ख:| थ्व गुथि नं मेमेगु [[Wikimedia:Our_projects|परियोजना]] यात नं होस्ट याना तगु दु : {|width="100%" align="center" cellpadding="4" style="text-align:left;" | align="center" | {{Click || image=Wiktionary-logo-en.png | link=wiktionary: | width=35px | height=35px }} | '''[[wiktionary:|विक्स्नरी]]'''<br />खंग्वसफु व पर्यायवाची खंग्वसफु | align="center" | {{Click || image=Wikinews-logo.png | link=wikinews: | width=51px | height=30px }} | '''[[wikinews:|विकिबुखं]]'''<br />सितिंगु बुखं | align="center" | {{Click || image=Wikiquote-logo.svg| link=wikiquote: | width=35px | height=41px }} | '''[[wikiquote:|धापू]]'''<br />धापूयागु मंका |- | align="center" | {{Click || image=Wikibooks-logo.svg| link=wikibooks: | width=35px | height=35px }} | '''[[wikibooks:|विकिसफु]]'''<br />सितिंगु सफु व स्तोत्र | align="center" | {{Click || image=Wikispecies-logo.png | link=wikispecies: | width=35px | height=41px }} | '''[[wikispecies:|विकिप्रजाति]]'''<br />प्रजातितेगु संकलन | align="center" | {{Click || image=Wikisource-logo.png | link=wikisource: | width=35px | height=37px }} | '''[[wikisource:|विकिस्रोत]]'''<br />सितिंगु सफुधुकु |- | align="center" | {{Click || image=Wikiversity-logo-41px.png | link=v:Wikiversity:Main Page | width=41px | height=31px }} | '''<span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/ विकिभर्सिटी]</span>'''<br />सितिंगु सीकेज्यायागु श्रोत व ज्याखं | align="center" | {{Click || image=Commons-logo.svg | link=commons: | width=31px | height=41px }} | '''[[commons:|मंका]]'''<br />मंका मिडियायागु पुच: | align="center" | {{Click || image=Wikimedia-logo.svg | link=meta: | width=35px | height=36px }} | '''[[meta:|मेटा-विकि]]'''<br />विकिमिडिया ज्याखंयागु संयोजन |} 1662 2686 2006-10-14T15:28:26Z Eukesh 11 {| align="center" width="100%" style="text-align:center" *'''[[विकिपिडिया:न्ह्यस दबु|न्ह्यस दबु]]''' &mdash; विकिपिडिया नाप स्वापू दुगु न्ह्येस न्येना दिसं| *'''[[विकिपिडिया:ग्वाहालि दबु|ग्वाहालि दबु]]''' &mdash; विकिपिडियायागु स्वयमसेवकतेसं सफुधुकुम्हि (लाइब्ररियन)तेसं थें छित छिगु न्ह्येसयागु लिस: माला दि| *'''[[विकिपिडिया:थ दबु|थ दबु]]''' &mdash; विकिपिडियायु थगु बारेये खंलाबंला यायेगु थाय| थन विकिपिडियायागु प्राविधिक व नियमयागु बारेले नं खंलाबंला जुई| *'''[[विकिपिडिया:गुथि दबु|गुथि दबु]]''' &mdash; विकिपिडियायागु येक्व ख्य: नाप स्वापू दुगु बुलेटिन बोर्ड, परियोजनात, श्रोत व ज्याखं| *'''[[विकिपिडिया:बुखं|थाय बुखं]]''' &mdash; विकिपिडिया व विकिमीडिया फाउन्डेसननाप स्वापू दुगु घोषणा, अपडेट, लेख व प्रेस विज्ञप्ति| |} 1663 2603 2006-10-12T20:20:53Z Eukesh 11 <!-- Please note - this template is shown on the Main Page, and any changes or screw-ups you make will show there immediately. Make changes very carefully, and always use the Show Preview button to make sure your changes turn out properly. To show this template on the Main Page, remove the second set of comment marks. --><!-- <div id="mpbanner" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%"><div style="width: 85%; background-color:#fff7cb;padding: .2em 0; border: 1px solid #ffad80; color: #000; margin: 0 auto .5em"><font face="verdana,arial,helvetica">[[Image:WikiThanks.png|30px|Wiki flower]] Happy [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Day|Wikipedia Day]]! <font size=-2>[[History of Wikipedia|''5 years of Wikipedia'']].</font></font> </div> --><noinclude>[[vi:Tiêu bản:Thông báo từ Trang Chính]]</noinclude> 1664 2642 2006-10-13T20:14:11Z Eukesh 11 [[विकिपिडिया:श्रेणी पौ]] moved to [[विकिपिडिया:पुच:]] {{हलिमसफूया ख्य:त}} 1665 2661 2006-10-13T20:56:43Z Eukesh 11 {| style="background:transparent" | {{click|image=Torchlight back.png|link=Help:Contents|width=20px|height=20px}} | <big>[[ग्वाहालि:धल:पौ]]</big> |} 1666 2641 2006-10-13T20:08:45Z Eukesh 11 {| align="right" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px 1px 0px 0px #a3b1bf solid;" | {{shortcut|[[WP:HELP]]}} |} {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center" style="width:100%; border:2px #a3b1bf solid;" |- | colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#cee0f2; text-align:center; border-bottom:1px #a3b1bf solid;" | <h2 style="margin:.5em; margin-top:.1em; border-bottom:0; font-weight:bold;">ग्वाहालि:धल:पौ </h2> <h4>'''[[विकिपिडिया:न्ह्येस:|न्ह्येस:]]''' </h4> |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Getting started|Getting started]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Introduction|Introduction]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Glossary|Glossary of Wikipedia terms]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Policies and guidelines|Policies and guidelines]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Five pillars|The Five Pillars]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Browsing Wikipedia|Browsing Wikipedia]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Searching|Search for an article]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Basic navigation|Find articles and site functions]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Communication|Communication methods]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Village pump|Village pump]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Talk_page_guidelines|Talk pages]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Editing Wikipedia|Editing Wikipedia]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia|Contributing to Wikipedia]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:tutorial|Tutorial]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Cheatsheet|Cheatsheet]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/The Wikipedia community|The Wikipedia community]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Resolving disputes|Resolving disputes]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Community Portal|Community Portal]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Links|Links]]'''</big><br /> [[Help:Link|How to make links]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:External links|External links]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|Citing sources]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Resources and lists|Resources and lists]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting/Stub types|List of stub types]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Pages needing attention|Pages needing attention]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Images and media|Images and media]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Uploading images|Uploading images]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags|Image copyright tags]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Media|Other media]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Account settings and maintenance|Account settings and maintenance]]'''</big><br /> [[Help:Preferences|Change your preferences]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Customisation#User name and signatures|Change your signature]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Tracking changes|Keeping track of changes]]'''</big><br /> [[Help:Page history|Page history]] <tt>|</tt> [[Help:User contributions|User contributions]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|Vandalism]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Technical information|Technical information]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Tools|Tools]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:MediaWiki|The MediaWiki software]] |- | colspan="2" align="center" style="width:100%; background:#f5faff; border-top:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- BOTTOM ROW 1 --> <big>'''[[Wikipedia:Questions|Where to ask questions]]'''</big><br /> '''[[Wikipedia:Help desk|Help Desk]]''' - for questions on how to use Wikipedia<br /> '''[[Wikipedia:Reference desk|Reference Desk]]''' - for general knowledge questions <!-- BOTTOM ROW 2 --> |- style="background:#f5faff;" | align="center" style="border-top:2px solid #cedff2; padding:0.5em;" | ''To view all of the menus on one page, see the'' [[Help:Contents/Site map|Site Map]]. | align="center" style="border-top:2px solid #cedff2; padding:0.5em;" | ''See also:'' [[Wikipedia:Directory]] ''and'' [[Wikipedia:Department directory|Wikipedia department directory]]. |} {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center" style="width:100%; border:2px #a3b1bf solid; margin-top: 1em" <!--TOTD--> |- | id="totdhelp" colspan="2" style="width:100%; margin-top:0em; padding-top:1em; padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em; background:#f5faff;"| <span style="font-size:95%">''Tip of the day...''</span> {{Wikipedia:Tip of the day/{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}, {{CURRENTYEAR}}}} |} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:Wikipedia help| ]] [[af:Wikipedia:Help]] [[als:Wikipedia:Hilfe]] [[am:Help:Contents]] [[an:Wikipedia:Aduya]] [[ang:Help:Innung]] [[ar:ويكيبيديا:مساعدة]] [[ast:Ayuda:Conteníu]] [[ay:Help:Contents]] [[az:Kömək:Mündəricət]] [[be:Дапамога:Зьмест]] [[bg:Помощ:Съдържание]] [[br:Wikipedia:Skoazell]] [[bs:Pomoć:Sadržaj]] [[ca:Viquipèdia:Ajuda]] [[cs:Nápověda:Obsah]] [[cy:Wicipedia:Cymorth]] [[da:Wikipedia:Hjælp]] [[de:Wikipedia:Hilfe]] [[el:Βικιπαίδεια:Βοήθεια]] [[eo:Helpo:Enhavo]] [[es:Wikipedia:Ayuda]] [[et:Juhend:Sisukord]] [[eu:Wikipedia:Laguntza]] [[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:راهنما]] [[fi:Wikipedia:Ohje]] [[fo:Hjálp:Innihald]] [[fr:Aide:Sommaire]] [[fy:Wikipedy:Help]] [[gl:Wikipedia:Axuda]] [[gn:Help:Contents]] [[he:עזרה:תפריט ראשי]] [[hi:विकिपीडिया:सहायता]] [[hr:Wikipedija:Pomoć]] [[hu:Segítség:Tartalom]] [[ia:Wikipedia:Adjuta]] [[id:Wikipedia:Bantuan]] [[ilo:Help:Contents]] [[io:Help:Helpo]] [[is:Wikipedia:Handbók]] [[it:Aiuto:Manuale]] [[ja:Wikipedia:ヘルプ]] [[ka:ვიკიპედია:დახმარება]] [[kn:ಸಹಾಯ:ಪರಿವಿಡಿ]] [[ko:도움말:목차]] [[ksh:Wikipedia:Hilfe]] [[ku:Wîkîpediya:Alîkarî]] [[kw:Wikipedia:Gweres]] [[lb:Hëllef:Hëllef]] [[li:Wikipedia:Help]] [[lt:Pagalba:Turinys]] [[lv:Palīdzība:Contents]] [[map-bms:Wikipedia:Bantuan]] [[mi:Help:Contents]] [[mk:Помош:Помош]] [[mr:Help:Contents]] [[ms:Wikipedia:Bantuan]] [[mt:Għajnuna:Kontenut]] [[nds:Wikipedia:Hülp]] [[nds-nl:Help:Wikipedie]] [[nl:Help:Wikipedia]] [[nn:Hjelp:Innhald]] [[no:Hjelp:Portal]] [[oc:Oiquipedià:Ajuda]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Pomoc]] [[pms:Wikipedia:Agiut]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Ajuda]] [[qu:Wikipedia:Yanapana]] [[ro:Wikipedia:Ajutor]] [[ru:Википедия:Справка]] [[scn:Help:Aiutu]] [[se:Help:Contents]] [[simple:Help:Contents]] [[sk:Pomoc:Obsah]] [[sl:Pomoč:Vsebina]] [[sq:Wikipedia:Ndihmë]] [[sr:Помоћ:Садржај]] [[su:Wikipedia:Pitulung]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Hjälp]] [[sw:Help:Contents]] [[ta:Wikipedia:உதவி]] [[te:Help:Contents]] [[th:วิกิพีเดีย:ความช่วยเหลือ]] [[tr:Yardım:İçindekiler]] [[uk:Вікіпедія:Довідка]] [[ur:معاونت:فہرست]] [[uz:Help:Contents]] [[vi:Trợ giúp:Mục lục]] [[wa:Wikipedia:Aidance]] [[yi:הילף:אינהאַלט]] [[zh:Help:目录]] [[zh-min-nan:Help:Bo̍k-lio̍k]] 1667 2636 2006-10-13T16:06:21Z Eukesh 11 {| style="color:black; background-color:#dfeedf; border:1px solid #33aa33;" cellpadding="15" width="100%" |<div align="center"><span style="font-size: 2.5em; font-weight: bold">ग्वाहालि दबु ले लसकुस!</span><br><br><span style="font-size: 1.2em">'''This is where to ask questions on'''</span><br><br><span style="font-size: 2.3em; font-weight: bold">How to use Wikipedia</span><br><br><span style="font-size: 1.2em">'''such as how to edit articles, how to operate software to use Wikipedia, and how to participate in Wikipedia'''</span><br><br><span style="font-size: 1.2em">'''''Please check the [[Wikipedia:Very Frequently Asked Questions|Very Frequently Asked Questions]] before asking a question here!'''''</span></div> |} <div style="font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.5em"> {| style="background: #dfeedf; border: 1px solid #33aa33; text-align: left" width="100%" | {{Shortcut|[[WP:HD]]}}[[Image:Noia 64 apps help index.png|30px]] <span style="font-size:145%;">'''Where to ask other kinds of questions'''</span><br><br>Factual questions can be answered by [[Wikipedia:Look it up|using the search box]] or at the [[Wikipedia:Reference desk|Reference desk]]. </div> |- | colspan=2 align=center style="background-color:white;" | <div style="float: left; width: 23%; text-align: left"> <div style="float:left;height:3.5em;margin-right:.5em;padding-top:5px">{{Click || image=P_art.png | link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Humanities | width=35px | height=35px }}</div> [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Humanities|'''Humanities''']]<br>Reference desk </div> <div style="float: left; width: 25%; text-align: left"> <div style="float:left;height:3.5em;margin-right:.5em;padding-top:5px">{{Click || image=P_physics.png | link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Science | width=35px | height=36px }}</div> [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Science|'''Science''']]<br>Reference desk </div> <div style="float: left; width: 23%; text-align: left"> <div style="float:left;height:3.5em;margin-right:.5em;padding-top:10px">{{Click || image=P_math.png | link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Mathematics | width=35px | height=36px }}</div> [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Mathematics|'''Mathematics''']]<br>Reference desk </div> <div style="float: left; width: 25%; text-align: left"> <div style="float:left;height:3.5em;margin-right:.5em;padding-top:5px">{{Click || image=P computing.svg | link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Computer | width=35px | height=37px }}</div> [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Computing|'''Computing/IT''']]<br>Reference desk </div> <div style="clear: left"></div> <div style="float: left; width: 23%; text-align: left"> <div style="float:left;height:3.5em;margin-right:.5em;padding-top:5px">{{Click || image=P_literature.png | link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Language | width=35px | height=41px }}</div> [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Language|'''Language''']]<br>Reference desk </div> <div style="float: left; width: 25%; text-align: left"> <div style="float:left;height:3.5em;margin-right:.5em;padding-top:5px">{{Click || image=Refdesk_misc.png | link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Miscellaneous | width=35px | height=41px }}</div> [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Miscellaneous|'''Miscellaneous''']]<br>Reference desk </div> <div style="float: left; width: 23%; text-align: left"> <div style="float:left;height:3.5em;margin-right:.5em">{{Click || image=Wikipedia-logo.png | link=Wikipedia:Village pump (technical) | width=35px | height=48px }}</div> [[Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)|'''Technical''']]<br>Village pump </div> <div style="float: left; width: 25%; text-align: left"> <div style="float:left;height:3.5em;margin-right:.5em;padding-top:5px"><div style="position: relative; width:35px; height: 36px; overflow: hidden"> <div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; font-size: 100px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 100px; z-index: 3">[http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Communication &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;]</div> <div style="position: absolute; top: 0px; left: 0px; z-index: 2">[[Image:MediaWiki logo.png|36px|http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Communication]]</div> </div></div> <span class="plainlinks">[http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Communication '''MediaWiki''']</span><br>Your own installation </div> <!--### END ICON SECTION --> <br clear="all" /> <center>''See also the'' [[Wikipedia:Department directory|Wikipedia department directory]] </center> |} </div> <big>'''Please read the following instructions before asking your question:'''</big> # Make sure your question isn't already answered in the [[Wikipedia:Very Frequently Asked Questions|Very Frequently Asked Questions]]. # To ask a new question, click the "''Click here to ask your question''" link below. # Please sign your question by typing <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code> at the end. # Please do not list your e-mail address. This is to prevent you from receiving [[Spam_(electronic)|spam emails]]. # Check this page for updates. # Please be patient - it can take a while for a response to appear. # Do not post two threads for the same question. If you have any follow-up question, add it by clicking "edit" near the question header. # If you are satisfied with the response given, please leave a note saying so. # Before asking, you can also [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~tangotango/nubio/ search the FAQ] and take a look at [[Wikipedia:Tips|Wikipedia's Tip Library]] and the [[WP:FAQ|Frequently Asked Questions]]. <big>'''Special services:'''</big> #If you place '''<nowiki>{{helpme}}</nowiki>''' on your talkpage, a helper will visit you there ASAP! #Join the [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikipedia-bootcamp #wikipedia-bootcamp] IRC channel for real-time chat. New to IRC? [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~bjelleklang/pjirc/ Click here] to be connected instantly! #To nominate somebody else for help, see [[Wikipedia:Nomination of new users in need of help|Nomination of new users in need of help]]. <div class="plainlinksneverexpand" style="margin: 1em 2em 0 2em; border: 1px dashed blue; padding: 3px; text-align: center; background: #eef"> '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Help_desk&action=edit&section=new Click here to ask your question about using Wikipedia]''' </div> <div align=right> '''[[:Category:Help desk archives|Archives]]'''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br> '''[[Wikipedia:Help desk/How to answer|Volunteer instructions]]'''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </div><includeonly> [[Category:Wikipedia help forums|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[cs:Wikipedie:Potרebuji pomoc]] [[de:Wikipedia:Fragen zur Wikipedia]] [[es:Wikipedia:Café (ayuda)]] [[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:میز راهنما]] [[he:ויקיפדיה:דלפק יעוץ]] [[id:Wikipedia:Meja penolong]] [[nl:Help:helpdesk]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Pytania nowicjuszy]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Contato/Linha direta]] [[sl:Wikipedija:Vpraڑanja glede Wikipedije]] [[th:اش،ش¾صà´صآ:âµêذàإ¢ز]] [[vi:Wikipedia:Bàn giْp ًỡ]] </includeonly> 1668 2617 2006-10-12T21:06:30Z Eukesh 11 __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Help contents back}} {{Wikipedia:Help desk/Header}} __TOC__ <!-- This page is for questions about how to use Wikipedia. --> <!-- For knowledge questions, please use the Reference Desk! --> <!-- --> <!-- --> <!-- Ask your question at the bottom of this page --> <!-- --> <!-- See [[Category:Help_desk_archives]] before archiving this page --> 1669 2687 2006-10-14T15:29:42Z Eukesh 11 {{Help contents back}} {| style="background: #eee; border: 1px solid #aaa; text-align: center" | <font size="4.9">'''विकिपिडिया ग्वाहालि दबु'''</font size> | width=200px | <div id="EnWpMpSearchInner"> <inputbox> type=search2 buttonlabel=Go labeltext=Search Wikipedia: width=22 id=MP </inputbox> </div> |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:left"| {{Shortcut|[[WP:RD]]}} The [[विकिपिडिया:ग्वाहालि दबु|विकिपिडिया ग्वाहालि दबु]] works like a [[library reference desk]]. Before asking a question though, please try [[Wikipedia:Look it up|using the search box]] to find the answer you're looking for. For example, to find out more about the Seven Wonders of the World, you can find our article by entering ''Seven Wonders of the World'' into the box above. |- | colspan=2 | {| style="text-align: center; background-color:white" | colspan=6 style="text-align: left" | If you can't find the answer by searching, and you'd like to ask the volunteers at Wikipedia, please choose a category for your question: |- |width="33%"|<center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=P_art.png|link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Humanities|width=54px|height=54px}}</center> |width="34%"|<center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=P_physics.png|link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Science|width=56px|height=56px}}</center> |width="33%"|<center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=P_mathematics.svg|link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Mathematics|width=58px|height=58px}}</center> |- ! [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Humanities|Humanities]] ! [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Science|Science]] ! [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Mathematics|Mathematics]] |- | valign="top" |History, art, politics, literature, religion, philosophy, law, music, fashion, culture, and society | valign="top" |Science, medicine, and technology | valign="top" |Mathematics |- |width="33%"|<center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=P computing.svg|link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Computing|width=48px|height=48px}}</center> |width="34%"|<center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=P literature.svg|link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Language|width=54px|height=54px}}</center> |width="33%"|<center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=P question.svg|link=Wikipedia:Reference desk/Miscellaneous|width=48px|height=48px}}</center> |- ! [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Computing|Computing/IT]] ! [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Language|Language]] ! [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Miscellaneous|Miscellaneous]] |- | valign="top" |Computer science, software and hardware | valign="top" |Spelling, grammar, word etymology, linguistics and language usage, and requesting translations (check the [[Wikipedia:Reference_desk/Language/FAQs|FAQ]]s too!) | valign="top" |Subjects that don't fit in any of the other categories</small> |}<br clear="all" /><div style="margin-top:-.5em; margin-bottom:.5em; text-align: left">Where to get help with problems using Wikipedia:''</div> {| width="100%" style="text-align: center; background-color:white" | <center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=Wikipedia-logo.png|link=Wikipedia:Help desk|width=36px|height=36px}}</center> | <center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=Wikipedia-logo.png|link=Wikipedia:New contributors' help page|width=36px|height=36px}}</center> | <center style="margin-top: 3px; margin-bottom:-7px;">{{click|image=Wikipedia-logo.png|link=Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)|width=36px|height=36px}}</center> |- ! [[Wikipedia:Help desk|Help Desk:<br>Wikipedia]] ! [[Wikipedia:New contributors' help page|New contributors'<br/>help page]] ! [[Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)|Village Pump:<br/>Technical]] |- | valign="top" style="width:33%"|To ask questions about how to work on articles, how to operate the program to use Wikipedia, and how to participate in Wikipedia | valign="top" style="width:33%"|A range of services to answer newcomers' questions | valign="top" style="width:33%"|To ask really tough questions about using Wikipedia, like how to fix a page glitch, adding special features to a page, java scripting, css, etc. |}<br clear="all" /><div style="margin-top:-.5em; margin-bottom:.5em; text-align: left">''See also:''</div> {| width="100%" style="text-align: center; background-color:white" ! [[Help:Contents|Help manual]] ! [[Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia|Citing Wikipedia]] ! [[Wikipedia:General complaints|General complaints]] ! [[Wikipedia:Resolving disputes|Resolving disputes]] ! [[Wikipedia:Community Portal#Collaborations|Collaborations]] |- | valign="top" style="width:20%"|For our extensive help menu, with information and instructions on every aspect of Wikipedia. | valign="top" style="width:20%"|For help citing Wikipedia as a reference. | valign="top" style="width:20%"|For discussions on things that could be fixed or made better. | valign="top" style="width:20%"|To resolve issues between users. | valign="top" style="width:20%"|Articles and projects that need your help. |} <center>''See also the'' [[Wikipedia:Department directory|Wikipedia department directory]] </center> |}<includeonly>[[Category:Wikipedia help forums|{{PAGENAME}}]]</includeonly> <includeonly>[[Category:Wikipedia resources for researchers]]</includeonly> [[de:Wikipedia:Auskunft]] [[cy:Wicipedia:Y Desg Cyfeirio]] [[es:Wikipedia:Consultas]] [[fr:Wikipédia:Oracle]] [[hi:विकिपीडिया:रेफ़रन्स डेस्क]] [[he:ויקיפדיה:דלפק יעוץ]] [[id:Wikipedia:Meja referensi]] [[ja:Wikipedia:ヘルプデスク]] [[no:Wikipedia:Biblioteket]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Pytania merytoryczne]] [[sl:Wikipedija:Orakelj]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Frågelådan]] [[tl:Wikipedia:Konsultasyon]] [[vi:Wikipedia:Bàn tham khảo]] [[zh:Wikipedia:聊天]] 1670 2619 2006-10-12T21:09:27Z Eukesh 11 <noinclude>{{protected template}}</noinclude>{{{1{{{1|}}}| <table style="border: 1px solid #999; background: #fff; margin: .3em .3em .3em 1em; padding: 3px; float: right" class="noprint"> <th id="shortcut" class="noprint" align="center" valign="top"><small>[[Wikipedia:Shortcut|Shortcut]]:<br />{{{1|}}}</small> </table>}}}<noinclude> ==Usage== This template is primarily used on Wikipedia guideline and policy pages to show the shortest alias of a given page. For example, [[WP:SHORT]] redirects to [[Wikipedia:Shortcut]] Please '''do not use''' this template on other templates, e.g. to state that the shortcut to [[Template:Foo]] is in fact <nowiki>{{Foo}}</nowiki>. There's no need to state the obvious like that, '''each''' template uses its own name as a shortcut, by default. [[Category:Wikipedia header templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[als:Vorlage:Shortcut]] [[de:Vorlage:Shortcut]] [[eo:Ŝablono:Mallongigo]] [[he:תבנית:קיצור דרך]] [[hu:Sablon:Rövidítés]] [[sl:Predloga:Bližnjica]] </noinclude> 1671 2621 2006-10-12T21:11:19Z Eukesh 11 {| class="messagebox protected" style="border:1px solid #88A; padding:0px; font-size:0.9em;" |- | valign="top" | [[Image:Padlock.svg|45px| ]] | '''This [[Wikipedia:High-risk templates|high-risk template]] has been [[Wikipedia:This page is protected|protected]] from editing to prevent [[Wikipedia:dealing with vandalism|vandalism]].''' Please discuss changes on the [[{{NAMESPACE}} talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]]. You may use {{tl|editprotected}} on the [[{{NAMESPACE}} talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]] to ask for an administrator to make an edit for you. |} 1672 2684 2006-10-14T15:27:42Z Eukesh 11 [[विकिपिडिया:ग्वालि दबु]] moved to [[विकिपिडिया:ग्वाहालि दबु]] {{RD header}} <!--This is not the page to post questions; please click on the appropriate sub-page to ask a question. Thank you for using Wikipedia.--> 1673 2624 2006-10-12T21:22:39Z Eukesh 11 :<div class="dablink">''{{{1}}}''</div> 1674 2625 2006-10-12T21:24:29Z Eukesh 11 :<div class="noprint">''मू पौ{{#if:{{{2|}}}|s}}&#58; [[{{{1}}}|{{{l1|{{{1}}}}}}]]{{#if:{{{2| }}} |{{#if:{{{3|}}}|,&#32;|&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{2}}}|{{{l2|{{{2}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{3|}}} |{{#if:{{{4|}}}|,&#32;|,&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{3}}}|{{{l3|{{{3}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{4|}}} |{{#if:{{{5|}}}|,&#32;|,&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{4}}}|{{{l4|{{{4}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{5|}}} |, and [[{{{5}}}|{{{l5|{{{5}}}}}}]]}}''{{#if:{{{6| }}}|&#32; (too many parameters in &#123;&#123;[[Template:main|main]]&#125;&#125;)}}</div> 1675 2635 2006-10-13T16:04:45Z 202.161.131.76 {{dablink|विकिपिडियायागु [[विकिपिडिया|थगु लेख]] दु|}} [[Image:Www.wikipedia.org screenshot.png|thumb|wikipedia.org]] [[विकिपिडियायागु ईतिहास|सन् २००१ले न्ह्येथाये निसें]], विकिपिडिया नं तीब्र कथंलं बढेजुया अन्तरजालयागु तधंगु रिफरेन्स स्रोत जुगु दु|[[सितिंगु स्रोत|विकिपिडियायागु लेख सितिकं स्वे दु]], व लेखत [[मंका लेख|मंका कथलं]] हलिमयागु स्वयमसेवकतेसं च्वया दि| थ्व वेबथाय छगु [[विकि]]ख अर्थात सुं न मनुनं संगणन अन्तरजालयागु माध्यम नं सम्पादन, मखुगु खं मिलेयायेगु, जानकारी तेगु ज्या ''edit this page'' लिन्क तिया याये दि फै(अपवादले छुं सुरक्षित पौ त ला:)। ''[[विकिपिडिया]]'' नन-प्रोफिट संस्था [[विकिमिडिया गुथि]]यागु छगु दर्ता यानातगु [[ट्रेडमार्क]] ख:| थ्व गुथि नं [[विकिपिडिया:फुकी परियोजनायागु बारे|विकिपरियोजना]]यागु छगु जहान् हे देका तगु दु। विकिपिडियाले व थुकिगु फुकी परियोजनाले छित [[विकिपेडिया:सकृय|सकृय]] जुया लेख सम्पादन यायेत, छिगु ज्ञान [[मंका लेख|मंका कथलं]] ईनेत लसकुस दु| लेखये दुगु लिन्कतेसं छित स्वापू दुगु लेखये यंकि, अन्यागु लिन्कं सम्बन्धित विषयले अप्व जानकारी बित ग्वाहालि याई| विकिपिडियायागु सम्पादन नियम पालना याना जानकारी, क्रस-रिफरेन्स, साइटेसन तनेत छित लसकुस दु| छिं मसिया विकिपिडियायागु पौ स्येंकुसां छि ग्याना दि म्वा छायेधासा विकिपिडियायागु स्वयमसेवकतेसं अन्यागु पौ त मिलेयाना छित ग्वाहालि याना दि| हानं मिडियाविकि सफ्टवेर थन्यागु कथलं देका तगु दु कि अन्यागु स्येंगु पौ यात न्हापायागु भिंगु पौ ले अपुइक हे परिवर्तनयाये छिं| विकिपिडिया छगु न्ह्यागु ईले नं परिमार्जन जुया च्वनिगु ज्याखं जुगुलिं छापे जुया वैगु स्रोत स्वया थ्व भतिचा पा| अप्व याना थुकिलि पूलांगु लेखत थुइअपुइगु व पूवंगु जुइ धासा न्हुगु लेखले म्वामदुगु, ज्या मदुगु, हुल्याहा कथंयागु नं जुइ फु|छ्येलेम्हि त अथे जुगु लिं खगु जानकारी कायेत व हुया मछ्वगु मखुगु खं पनेत सजग जुइ मा| ''(पूवंगु जानकारीयागु लागि स्वयादिसं [[विकिपिडिया:विकिपिडियानाप मालेज्या]])''| अथेजुसां छापेयायेगु स्रोतस्वया थ्व स्रोत अप्व अप-टु-डेट जुई छाये धासां थुकिलि लेख मिनेट व घौयागु दुने परिमार्जित जुइ गन धासा छपेयायेगु स्रोत(हलिमसफु)तेगु न्हुगु संस्करण वेत ला व दं पियाच्वने मालि| छित [[विकिपिडिया:विकिपिडिया छु मखु|विकिपिडिया छु ख (व छु मखु)]] व [[विकिपिडिया:विकिपिडियानाप मालेज्या|विकिपिडियानाप मालेज्या]], छक ब्वनादित झिगु ईनाप दु| व पौ त ब्वनादि धुंका छित विकिपिडिय छु याना छ्येलिगु, गुलि विश्वास यायेगु व छिं याना दि फैगु ज्या यागु बारे छित ज्ञान दै| मू विषयले अप्व जानकारी क्वे बिया तगु दु| स्वया दिसं: विकिपिडिया:लसकुस, न्हुम्हमनु। ग्वाहालि, न्ह्यस व थायबाययागु लागि, स्वयादिसं ग्वाहालि:धल:पौ थाययागु बुखंयागु लागि, स्वयादिसं विकिपिडिया:बुखं ==विकिपिडियायागु दक्ले भिंगु छ्येलेज्या यायेगु== === विकिपिडिया अनवेषण=== {{main|विकिपिडिया:अनवेषण}} थन मनु त ज्ञान कायेत व हिलेत झाई। अन्यागु ज्याखंले येक्व हिलेज्या जुयि। थन्यागु हिलेज्या छिं [[स्पेकिअल्:रेकेन्त्चङेस्|हिलेज्या]]ले स्वयादि फै। [[स्पेकिअल्:णेव्पगेस्|न्हु लेख]] नं मुंकेज्या व क्येनेज्या जुया च्वनि| थीं-थीं कथंया मनुतेसं [[विकिपिडिया:सुनां च्वै विकिपिडिया|विकिपिडियाले लेख च्वया दि]]। Wikipedia also has many ongoing [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|projects]]. The hope of any contributor is to provide useful and accurate information to others, and the projects help coordinate efforts. Most articles start as [[WP:STUB|stubs]], but after many contributions, they can become [[Wikipedia:Featured articles|featured articles]]. If you can't find what you are looking for, see '''[[Wikipedia:Questions|Where to ask questions]]''' for a list of departments where our volunteers answer questions, any question you can possibly imagine.<br> Once you've determined that there is no article on Wikipedia on a topic you are interested in, you may want to [[requested articles|request the article]] be written (or you could even research the issue and write it yourself). You can also view [[Special:Randompage|random articles]]. You might also enjoy reading Wikipedia in other languages. Wikipedia has more than two hundred different languages (see [[#Wikipedia_versions_in_other_languages|other language versions]]), including a [http://simple.wikipedia.org Simple English] version, and related projects include a dictionary, quotations, books, manuals and scientific reference sources, and a news service (see [[#Sister_projects|sister projects]]). All of these are maintained, updated and managed by separate communities, and often include thought-provoking information and articles which can be hard to find through other common sources. ===Basic navigation in Wikipedia=== {{main|Wikipedia:Basic navigation}} Wikipedia articles are all [[Hyperlink|linked]], or cross-referenced. Wherever you see highlighted text like [[wikilink|this]], it means there is a link to some relevant article or Wikipedia page with further in-depth information elsewhere if you need it. Holding your mouse over the link will often show you where a link will take you. You are always one click away from more information on any point that has a link attached. There are other links towards the ends of most articles, for other articles of interest, relevant external web sites and pages, reference material, and [[Wikipedia:Category|organized categories of knowledge]] which you can search and traverse in a loose [[hierarchy]] for more information. Some articles may also have links to dictionary definitions, audio-book readings, quotations, or the same article in other languages. You can add further links if a relevant link is missing, and this is one way to contribute. ===Using Wikipedia as a research tool=== :''Main articles: [[Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia|Researching with Wikipedia]], [[Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia|Citing Wikipedia]]'' As a [[wiki]], articles are never complete. They are continually edited and improved over time, and in general this results in an upward trend of quality, and a growing consensus over a fair and balanced representation of information. Users should be aware that not all articles are of encyclopedic quality from the start. Indeed, many articles commence their lives as partisan, and it is after a long process of discussion, debate and argument, that they gradually take on a consensus form. Others may for a while become caught up in a heavily unbalanced viewpoint which can take some time - months perhaps - to extricate themselves and regain a better balanced consensus. In part, this is because Wikipedia operates an internal resolution process when editors cannot agree on content and approach, and such issues take time to come to the attention of more experienced editors. The ''ideal'' Wikipedia article is balanced, neutral and encyclopedic, containing notable verifiable knowledge. An increasing number of articles reach this standard over time, and many already have. However this is a process and can take months or years to be achieved, as each user adds their contribution in turn. Some articles contain statements and claims which have not yet been fully cited. Others will later have entire new sections added. Some information will be considered by later contributors to be insufficiently founded, and may be removed or expounded. While the overall trend is generally upward, it is important to use Wikipedia carefully if it is intended to be used as a research source, since individual articles will, by their nature, vary in standard and maturity. There [[Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia|are guidelines and information pages]] designed to help users and researchers do this effectively, and an article that summarizes third party studies and assessments of the [[reliability of Wikipedia]]. ===Summary of strengths, weaknesses and article quality in Wikipedia=== Wikipedia's greatest strengths, weaknesses and differences arise because it is open to anyone, has a large contributor base, and articles are written by consensus according to editorial guidelines and policies. * Wikipedia is open to a large contributor base - '''so''' it is less susceptible to retaining bias, is very hard for any group to censor, and is far more responsive to new information, especially information not widely known in the West, '''and''' it is more easily vandalized or susceptible to unchecked information later needing removal. * Wikipedia is written by consensus - '''so''' eventually for most articles, all notable views become fairly described and a very neutral stance can be achieved even on emotive subjects, '''and''' the reaching of consensus takes considerably longer than a simple drafting, and is occasionally made harder by extreme-viewpoint contributors. (Articles '''also''' tend to be more fluid or changeable for a long time compared to other reference sources until they find their "neutral approach" that all sides can agree on.) Key strengths: (''[[Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is so great]]'') * Having a very large number of active writers and editors in many languages, Wikipedia often provides access and breadth on subject matter that is otherwise inaccessible or little documented. * Wikipedia often produces excellent encyclopedic articles and resources covering newsworthy events within hours or days of their occurrence. * Wikipedia is one of few sites even attempting neutral, objective, encyclopedic coverage of popular culture. * Regional and cultural bias found in many publications is significantly reduced on Wikipedia. * In comparison with most web-based resources, Wikipedia's open approach tremendously increases the chances that any particular factual error or misleading statement will be relatively promptly corrected. * There is no one central point where censorship can be imposed, and therefore censorship by any given group, restriction to "officially reported" sources, or "pushing" of any particular viewpoint, whether official or unofficial, is difficult to achieve and almost always fails after a time. * In contrast with many web resources, information added to Wikipedia never "vanishes", and is never "lost" or deleted. Key weaknesses: (''[[Wikipedia:Why Wikipedia is not so great]]'') * Wikipedia's radical openness means that any given article may be, at any given moment, in a bad state, such as in the middle of a large edit, a controversial rewrite, or recently vandalized. * Wikipedia operates a full editorial dispute resolution process, that allows time for discussion and resolution in depth, but also permits months-long disagreements before poor quality or biased edits will be removed forcibly. * While blatant vandalism is usually easily spotted and rapidly corrected, Wikipedia is more subject to subtle vandalism and viewpoint promotion than a typical reference work. * There is no systematic process to make sure that [[Wikipedia:List of articles all languages should have|"obviously important" topics]] are written about, so Wikipedia may contain unexpected oversights and omissions. * Articles may be incomplete in ways that would be less usual in a more tightly controlled reference work, for example some aspects may be well covered but others briefly or not at all. * Wikipedia articles may have a tendency to reflect the point-of-view (POV) of the author and by implication the author's cultural and socio-economic background. While ''most'' articles may be altered by anyone, in practice editing will be performed by a certain demographic (younger rather than older, male rather than female, rich enough to afford a computer rather than poor, Christian or Jewish rather than Muslim or Bantu etc.) and will thus necessarily reflect a certain degree of implicit bias. * Many contributors do not yet comply fully with key policies, or may add information without citable sources. Quality of information (''[[Reliability of Wikipedia]], [[Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia|Researching with Wikipedia]]'') :While Wikipedia articles generally attain a good standard after editing, it is important to note that fledgling, or less well monitored, articles may be susceptible to vandalism and insertion of false information, although this usually ceases to be as significant a problem as articles mature. Inappropriate edits are often noticed and corrected within a relatively short time on most articles :Studies suggest that Wikipedia is broadly as reliable as ''[[Encyclopedia Brittanica]]'', with similar error rates on established articles for both major and minor omissions and errors. There is a tentative consensus, backed by a gradual increase in [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia as an academic source|academic citation as a source]], that it provides a good starting point for research, and that articles in general have proven to be reasonably sound. That said, articles and subject areas sometimes suffer from significant omissions, and whilst misinformation and vandalism are usually corrected quickly, this does not always happen. (See for example [[John Seigenthaler Sr. Wikipedia biography controversy|this incident]] in which a person inserted a fake biography linking a prominent journalist to the Kennedy assassinations and Soviet Russia as a joke on a co-worker which went undetected for 4 months, saying afterwards he "didn’t know [Wikipedia] was used as a serious reference tool.") Therefore, a common conclusion is that it is a valuable resource and provides a good reference point on its subjects, but like any online source, unfamiliar information should be checked before relying upon it. :A [[2005]] editorial by a [[BBC]] [[technology]] writer comments that these debates are probably symptomatic of new [[cultural learning]]s which are happening across all sources of information (including search engines and the media), namely "a better sense of how to evaluate information sources." <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4534712.stm What is it with Wikipedia?] 16 December 2005</ref> ===How Wikipedia differs from a paper encyclopedia=== :''Main article: [[m:Wiki is not paper|Wikipedia is not paper]] ===Disclaimers=== {{Disclaimers}} {{main|Wikipedia:Disclaimers}} Reports have sometimes cited the Wikipedia disclaimers to support claims that the Wikipedia is unreliable. A selection of similar disclaimers from places which are often regarded as reliable (including sources such as [[Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica]], [[Associated Press]], and the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]) can be read and compared at [[Wikipedia:Non-Wikipedia disclaimers|Non-Wikipedia disclaimers]]. Wikipedia content advisories can also be found [[:template:UWAYOR|here]]. == Contributing to Wikipedia == :''Main articles: [[Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia|Contributing to Wikipedia]], [[Wikipedia:First steps|First steps in editing articles]], [[Wikipedia:Bootcamp|Bootcamp]]'' Anyone can contribute to Wikipedia by clicking on the ''Edit this page'' tab in an article. Before beginning to contribute however, you should check out some handy helping tools such as the [[Wikipedia:Tutorial|tutorial]] and the [[Wikipedia:policies and guidelines|policies and guidelines]], as well as [[Wikipedia:Welcome, newcomers|our welcome page]]. It is important to realize that in contributing to Wikipedia, users are expected to be [[WP:CIVILITY|civil]] and [[WP:NPOV|neutral]], respecting all points of view, and only add [[WP:V|verifiable]] and factual information rather than [[WP:NOR|personal views and opinions]]. "[[Wikipedia:Five pillars|The five pillars of Wikipedia]]" cover this approach and are recommended reading before editing. ===Who writes Wikipedia?=== :''Main article: [[Wikipedia:Who writes Wikipedia]]'' There are tens of thousands of regular editors - everyone from expert scholars to casual readers. Anyone who visits the site can edit it, and this fact has encouraged contribution of a tremendous amount of content. There are mechanisms that help community members watch for bad edits, a few hundred administrators with special powers to enforce good behavior, and a judicial committee which considers the few situations remaining unresolved, and decides on withdrawal or restriction of editing privileges or other punishments when needed, after all other consensus remedies have been tried. The site is owned by the Wikimedia Foundation, which is largely uninvolved in daily operation and writing. ===Editing Wikipedia pages=== :''Main article, including list of common mark-up shortcuts: [[Wikipedia:How to edit a page]]'' Wikipedia uses a simple yet powerful page [[markup language|layout]] to allow editors to concentrate on adding material rather than page design. These include automatic sections and subsections, automatic references and cross-references, image and table inclusion, indented and listed text, links ISBNs and math, as well as usual formatting elements and most world alphabets and common symbols. Most of these have simple formats that are deliberately very easy and intuitive. Wikipedia has robust [[revision control|version and reversion controls]]. This means that poor quality edits or vandalism can quickly and easily be reversed or brought up to an appropriate standard by any other editors, so inexperienced editors cannot accidentally do permanent harm if they make a mistake in their editing. As there are many more editors intent upon good quality articles than any other kind, articles that are poorly edited are usually corrected rapidly. ===Wikipedia content criteria=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Wikipedia in eight words}} Wikipedia content is intended to be factual, notable, verifiable with external sources, and neutrally presented, with external sources cited. The appropriate policies and guidelines for these are found at: # [[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not]] summarizes what Wikipedia is, and what it is not. # [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view]] Wikipedia's core approach, neutral unbiased article writing. # [[Wikipedia:No original research]] what is, and is not, valid information # [[Wikipedia:Verifiability]] what counts as a verifiable source and how a source can be verified # [[Wikipedia:Citing sources]] sources should be cited, and the manner of doing so. These can be abbreviated to [[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not|WP:NOT]], [[WP:NPOV]], [[WP:NOR]], [[WP:V]], and [[WP:CITE]] respectively. ===Handling disputes and abuse of process=== :''Main articles: [[Wikipedia:Vandalism]], [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution]], [[Wikipedia:Consensus]], [[Wikipedia:Sock puppet]]'' Wikipedia has a rich span of methods to handle most abuses which commonly arise, which are well tested and should be relied upon. * Intentional ''vandalism'' can be [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|reported]] and corrected by anyone. * Unresolved ''disputes'' between editors, whether based upon behavior, editorial approach or validity of content, can be addressed through the [[Wikipedia:Talk page|talk page]] of an article, through [[Wikipedia:Request for comments|requesting comments from other editors]] or through Wikipedia's comprehensive [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution|dispute resolution]] process. * ''Abuse of user accounts'', such as the creation of [[Internet sock puppet]]s or solicitation of friends and other parties to enforce a non-neutral viewpoint or [[Wikipedia:consensus|inappropriate consensus]] within a discussion, or to disrupt other Wikipedia processes in an annoying manner, are addressed through the [[Wikipedia:Sock puppet|sock puppet policy]]. In addition, ''brand new users'' (until they have established themselves a bit) may at the start find that their votes are given less weight by editors in some informal [[Wikipedia:Polls are evil|polls]], in order to prevent abuse of [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account|single purpose accounts]]. ==About Wikipedia== === Wikipedia history === {{details|History of Wikipedia}} Wikipedia was founded as an offshoot of [[Nupedia]], a now-abandoned project to produce a free encyclopedia. Nupedia had an elaborate system of [[peer review]] and required highly qualified contributors, but the writing of articles was seen as very slow. During [[2000]], [[Jimmy Wales]], founder of Nupedia, and [[Larry Sanger]], whom Wales had employed to work on the project, discussed various ways to supplement Nupedia with a more open, complementary project. On the evening of [[January 2]], [[2001]], Sanger had a conversation over dinner with [[WikiWikiWeb:BenKovitz|Ben Kovitz]], a [[computer programmer]], in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], [[California]]. Kovitz, who was a regular on "[[Ward Cunningham|Ward]]'s Wiki" (the [[WikiWikiWeb]]), explained the [[wiki]] concept to Sanger. Sanger saw that a wiki would be an excellent format whereby a more open, less formal encyclopedia project could be pursued. Sanger easily persuaded Wales, who had been introduced to the wiki concept previously, to set up a wiki for Nupedia, and Nupedia's first wiki went online on [[January 10]]. There was considerable resistance on the part of Nupedia's editors and reviewers to the idea of associating Nupedia with a website in the wiki format, however, so the new project was given the name "Wikipedia" and launched on its own domain, wikipedia.com, on [[January 15]] (now humorously called "[[Wikipedia Day]]" by some users). The [[bandwidth]] and [[server (computing)|server]] (located in San Diego) were donated by Wales. Other current and past [[Bomis]] employees who have done some work on the encyclopedia include [[Tim Shell]], one of the co-founders of Bomis and its current CEO, and programmer Jason Richey. In [[May 2001]], the first wave of non-English Wikipedias were launched (in [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[German language|German]], [[Esperanto]], [[French language|French]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], soon joined by [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Announcements_May_2001]). In September, [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Announcements_September_2001] a further commitment to the multilingual provision of Wikipedia was made. At the end of the year, when international statistics first began to be logged, [[Afrikaans]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and [[Serbocroatian language|Serbocroatian]] versions were announced. ===Wikipedia statistics === :''Main articles: [[Wikipedia:Statistics]], [[Wikipedia:Size of Wikipedia]]'' There are [http://en.wikipedia.org/wikistats/EN/TablesWikipediansEditsGt5.htm 67,000 active contributors] working on over [http://en.wikipedia.org/wikistats/EN/TablesArticlesTotal.htm 4,600,000 articles] in more than [http://en.wikipedia.org/wikistats/EN/Sitemap.htm 100 languages]. As of today, there are {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} articles in [[English language|English]]; every day [http://www.wikipedia.org/wikistats/EN/TablesUsageVisits.htm hundreds of thousands] of visitors from around the world make tens of thousands of edits and create thousands of new articles to enhance the amount of knowledge held by the Wikipedia encyclopedia. Visitors do not need any special qualifications to contribute, and people of all ages help to [[Wikipedia:Who writes Wikipedia|write Wikipedia articles]]. All the text in Wikipedia, and most of the images and other content, is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] (GFDL). Contributions remain the property of their creators, while the GFDL license ensures the content will remain freely distributable and reproducible (see the [[Wikipedia:Copyrights|copyright notice]] and the [[Wikipedia:Content disclaimer|content disclaimer]] for more information). === Behind Wikipedia === Wikipedia uses the [[MediaWiki]] software. It's an [[open-source]] program that is used on all [[Wikimedia]] projects. The hardware supporting the various projects is based on almost 100 servers hosted in various hosting centers around the world. Full descriptions of the various servers are available on [[m:Wikimedia_servers|this meta page]]. For technical information about Wikipedia, you can check [[Wikipedia:Technical_FAQ|Technical FAQs]]. ===Culture=== [[:Category:Wikipedia culture]] contains a wealth of content about how [[:Category:Wikipedians|Wikipedians]] see themselves and the project. You will find [[:Category:Wikipedia humor|humor]], [[:Category:Wikipedia essays|essays]], [[:Category:Wikipedia awards|awards]], and more. ===Theories as to why Wikipedia is popular=== Various ideas exist as to why Wikipedia has bewitched so many people: * Wikipedia offers information for almost any subject in a consistent, easy-to-read style. * Wikipedia is mapping out group-behaviour in a way that's never been done before. * People derive pleasure and validation from seeing their edits remain in place. * The real prospect that mass-editing might be less subjective than the conventional editing process. * The "herding effect" that inexplicably gathers around certain aspects of pop culture. * The pleasant surprise that goodwill prevails in Wikipedia, suggesting that humans are basically good, and that evil is overcome by cooperation. * Never before has the boundary between participant and observer been blurred on such a large scale. * Any fact can be noted in Wikipedia when found and it should then always be there for later reference. * If a topic is popular, it will be searched for. If it does not exist it is only a matter of time before someone creates it. From that point all other people searching that popular topic will find the article and many will contribute to it. Therefore finding an article based on ones search criteria is highly likely ever more so with time. It also means the most popular topics are also generally the most heavily edited. * It is regularly updated so that information is relatively fresh as opposed to normal encyclopedic articles which may take months or years to publish. ==Feedback and questions== Wikipedia itself is run as a communal effort. It is a community project whose end result is an encyclopedia. Feedback about content should, in the first instance, be raised on the discussion pages of those articles. You are invited to [[WP:BB|be bold]] and edit the pages yourself to add information or correct mistakes if you are knowledgeable and able to do so. ===Frequently asked questions (FAQ)=== {{main|Wikipedia:FAQ}} :''FAQ index: [[:Category:Wikipedia FAQ|Index of all Wikipedia FAQ pages]]'' ===Giving feedback=== There is an established escalation and dispute process within Wikipedia, as well as pages designed for raising questions, feedback, suggestions and comments: * [[Wikipedia:Talk page|Talk page]]s - the associated discussion page for discussion of an article or policy's contents. This is usually the first place to go. * [[Wikipedia:Vandalism]] - to report vandalism (you're encouraged to fix vandalism yourself as well as report it) * [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution|Dispute resolution]] - for disputes which remain unresolved within an article's talk space. * [[Wikipedia:Village pump|Village pump]] - the Wikipedia discussion area, part of the [[Wikipedia:Community Portal|community portal]]. See also: * [http://bugzilla.wikimedia.org Bug tracker], for reporting issues with the Wikipedia web site or the [[MediaWiki]] software that runs it * [[Wikipedia:Village pump (proposals)|Village pump: proposals page]] for non-policy suggestions * [[Wikipedia:Help desk]] - Wikipedia's general help desk, if other pages haven't answered your query. ===Research help and similar questions=== Facilities for help for users researching specific topics can be found at: * [[Wikipedia:Requested articles]] - to suggest or request articles for future. * [[Wikipedia:Reference desk]] - help finding specific facts. Because of the nature of Wikipedia, it's encouraged that people looking for information should try and find it themselves in the first instance. If however you come across valid information missing from Wikipedia, [[Wikipedia:Be Bold|be bold]] and add it yourself so others can gain from your research too! ===Community discussion=== For specific discussion not related to article content or editor conduct, see the [[Wikipedia:Village pump|Village pump]], which covers such subjects as [[Wikipedia:Village pump (news)|news]] and [[Wikipedia:Announcements|announcements]], [[Wikipedia:Village pump (policy)|policy]] and [[Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)|technical]] discussion, and information on other specialized portals such as the [[Wikipedia:Help desk|help]], [[Wikipedia:Reference desk|reference]] and [[Wikipedia:Peer review|peer review]] desks. For other user discussion of Wikipedia in general, see [[Wikipedia:Community Portal]].whiplash === Contacting individual Wikipedia editors === If you need more information, the first place to go is the [[Help:Contents]]. To contact individual contributors, leave a message on their [[Wikipedia:Talk page|talk page]]. Standard places to ask policy and project-related questions are the [[Wikipedia:Village pump|village pump]], online, and the [[Wikipedia:mailing lists|Wikipedia mailing lists]], over e-mail. You can also reach other [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians|Wikipedians]] via [[Wikipedia:IRC channels|IRC]] and [[Wikipedia:Instant Messaging Wikipedians|instant messenger]]. There is also a [[m:|'''meta'''-Wikipedia]], a site for coordinating the various Wikipedia projects (and abstract discussions of policy and direction), and there are many different places for submitting [[Wikipedia:Bug reports|bug reports and feature requests]]. For a full list of contact options, see: [[Wikipedia:Contact us]]. ==सम्बन्धित भाय व ज्याखं== === विकिपिडिया भाय === {{विकिपिडिया भाय}} === फुकी ज्याझ्व === ---- {{विकिपिडिया फुकी ज्याझ्व}} [[ar:&amp;#1608;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1575;:&amp;#1581;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1604;]] [[ast:Uiquipedia:Sobre]] [[bg:Уикипедия:За Уикипедия]] [[id:Wikipedia:Selamat datang]] [[ms:Wikipedia:Perihal]] [[ca:Viquipèdia:Quant a la Viquipèdia]] [[ceb:Wikipedya:Mahitungod sa Wikipedya]] [[cy:Wicipedia:Ynglŷn â Wicipedia]] [[da:Wikipedia:Om]] [[de:Wikipedia:Über Wikipedia]] [[es:Wikipedia:Acerca de]] [[et:Vikipeedia:Sissejuhatus]] [[eu:Wikipedia:Wikipediari buruz]] [[fo:Wikipedia:Um]] [[fr:Wikip&amp;eacute;dia:&amp;Agrave; propos]] [[fy:Wikipedy:Wat is Wikipedia]] [[gl:Wikipedia:Sobre]] [[he:&amp;#1493;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]] [[ko:위키백과:소개]] [[hi:&amp;#2357;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2325;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2346;&amp;#2368;&amp;#2337;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2351;&amp;#2366;:&amp;#2357;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2325;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2346;&amp;#2368;&amp;#2337;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2351;&amp;#2366; &amp;#2325;&amp;#2375; &amp;#2348;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2375; &amp;#2350;&amp;#2375;&amp;#2306;]] [[hu:Wikipédia:Wikipédiáról]] [[ja:Wikipedia:&amp;#12454;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12461;&amp;#12506;&amp;#12487;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12395;&amp;#12388;&amp;#12356;&amp;#12390;]] [[csb:Wikipedijô:Ò Wikipediji]] [[lb:Wikipedia:Iwwert Wikipedia]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Sobre]] [[ro:Wikipedia:Despre]] [[ru:&amp;#1042;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;:&amp;#1054;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;]] [[simple:Wikipedia:About]] [[sk:Wikipédia:O Wikipédii]] [[su:Wikipedia:Wilujeng sumping]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Om]] [[th:&amp;#3623;&amp;#3636;&amp;#3585;&amp;#3636;&amp;#3614;&amp;#3637;&amp;#3648;&amp;#3604;&amp;#3637;&amp;#3618;]] [[tr:Wikipedia:Om]] [[vi:Wikipedia:N&amp;#243;i v&amp;#7873;]] [[zh:Wikipedia:&amp;#20851;&amp;#20110;]] 1676 2629 2006-10-12T21:35:09Z Eukesh 11 हलिमयागु येक्व विषययागु ज्ञान बियातगु [[सफु]]यात '''हलिमसफु''' धाई| 1677 2631 2006-10-12T21:37:49Z Eukesh 11 विज्ञानयागु लेखतेगु श्रेणी| 1678 2632 2006-10-12T21:38:26Z Eukesh 11 नसलायागु लेखतेगु श्रेणी| 1679 2633 2006-10-12T21:38:47Z Eukesh 11 गणितयागु लेखतेगु श्रेणी| 1680 2634 2006-10-12T21:39:34Z Eukesh 11 प्रविधियागु लेखतेगु श्रेणी| 1681 2639 2006-10-13T20:06:41Z Eukesh 11 [[ग्वालि:धल:पौ]] moved to [[ग्वाहालि:धल:पौ]] #REDIRECT [[ग्वाहालि:धल:पौ]] 1682 2643 2006-10-13T20:14:11Z Eukesh 11 [[विकिपिडिया:श्रेणी पौ]] moved to [[विकिपिडिया:पुच:]] #REDIRECT [[विकिपिडिया:पुच:]] 1683 2645 2006-10-13T20:25:27Z Eukesh 11 {| align="right" |valign="top"| {{Shortcut|[[WP:VP]]<br>[[WP:PUMP]]}} |} '''Welcome''' to the '''village pump'''. This set of pages is used to discuss the technical issues, policies, and operations of [[Wikipedia]], and is divided into six village pump sections. Please use the table below to find the most appropriate section to post in, or post in the miscellaneous section. You can [[Wikipedia:Village pump (all)|view all village pump sections at once here]]. The village pump is not a place to make lasting comments as inactive discussions are archived after seven days, and then permanently removed after a further seven days. Please sign and date your post (by typing <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> or clicking the signature icon in the edit toolbar). {{-}} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="6" align="center" |'''Village pump sections''' |- | align="center" width="15%" valign="top"|'''[[Wikipedia:Village pump (news)|News]]'''<br> <small><span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (news)|action=edit&section=new}} post] | [{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (news)|action=watch}} watch]</span> To announce things that don't fit the [[Wikipedia:Community Portal#Community bulletin board|Community bulletin board]] or [[Wikipedia:Announcements|Announcements]]</small> | align="center" width="15%" valign="top"|'''[[Wikipedia:Village pump (policy)|Policy]]'''<br> <small><span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (policy)|action=edit&section=new}} post] | [{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (policy)|action=watch}} watch]</span> To discuss existing and proposed policies</small> | align="center" width="15%" valign="top"|'''[[Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)|Technical]]'''<br> <small><span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)|action=edit&section=new}} post] | [{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)|action=watch}} watch]</span> To discuss technical issues. For [[wiki]] software bug reports use [[bugzilla:|MediaZilla]]</small> | align="center" width="15%" valign="top"|'''[[Wikipedia:Village pump (proposals)|Proposals]]'''<br> <small><span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (proposals)|action=edit&section=new}} post] | [{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (proposals)|action=watch}} watch]</span> To discuss '''new''' proposals that are not policy related. See also: [[Wikipedia:Village pump (perennial proposals)|perennial proposals]].</small> | align="center" width="15%" valign="top"|'''[[Wikipedia:Village pump (assistance)|Assistance]]'''<br> <small><span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (assistance)|action=edit&section=new}} post] | [{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (assistance)|action=watch}} watch]</span> To post requests for assistance '''not''' covered by the [[Wikipedia:Help desk|Help desk]] or the [[Wikipedia:Reference desk|Reference desk]]</small> | align="center" width="15%" valign="top"|'''[[Wikipedia:Village pump (miscellaneous)|Miscellaneous]]''' <br> <small><span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (miscellaneous)|action=edit&section=new}} post] | [{{fullurl:Wikipedia:Village pump (miscellaneous)|action=watch}} watch]</span> To post messages that do not fit into any other category</small> |} {| class=wikitable !colspan=5| I want... !colspan=2|Where to go |- |colspan=5| To browse all village pump topics at once |colspan=2 align=center| [[Wikipedia:Village pump (all)|Village pump (all)]] |- |colspan=5| Help using Wikipedia |colspan=2 align=center| [[Wikipedia:Help desk|Help desk]] |- |colspan=5| To find my way around Wikipedia |colspan=2 align=center| [[Wikipedia:Department directory|Department directory]] |- |colspan=5| Specific facts (e.g. ''Who was the first [[List of popes|Pope]]?'') |colspan=2 align=center| [[Wikipedia:Reference desk|Reference desk]] |- |colspan=5| Constructive criticisms from others for a specific article |colspan=2 align=center| [[Wikipedia:Peer review|Peer review]] |- |colspan=5| Help resolving a specific article [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution|edit dispute]] or making a ''user conduct dispute'' complaint&nbsp; |colspan=2 align=center| [[Wikipedia:Requests for comment|Requests for comment]] |- |colspan=5| To comment on a specific article |colspan=2 align=center| Article's [[Wikipedia:Talk page|talk page]] |- |colspan=5| To view other [[Wikimedia]] projects |colspan=2 align=center| [[meta:Main page|Wikimedia Meta-wiki]] |- |colspan=5| To know about citing Wikipedia in a bibliography |colspan=2 align=center| [[Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia|Citing Wikipedia]] |- |colspan=5| To report sites that copy Wikipedia content |colspan=2 align=center| [[Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks|Mirrors and forks]] |} 1684 2647 2006-10-13T20:27:33Z Eukesh 11 {{villagepump}} <!-- '''NOTICES! PLEASE READ BEFORE EDITING!''' ** Please do not post to this page directly. To post a new comment, see Wikipedia:Village_pump_sections to choose the best section or post in the miscellaneous section at Wikipedia:Village_pump_(miscellaneous) To reply to a comment, click the [edit] link next to that section ** See Template:Villagepump and Template_talk:Villagepump To edit the boilerplate message (the best edits make the boilerplate shorter) ** Interlanguage links don't work via template pages, so they are inlined here. --> <!--- notes about interwikis: at ca:Viquipèdia:La taverna interwikis are (hidden) in ca:Template:Taverna , at fy:Wikipedy:Oerlis_side interwikis are (hidden) in fy:Template:De_kroech , at he:ויקיפדיה:מזנון interwikis are (hidden) in he:תבנית:מזנון , at is:Wikipedia:Potturinn interwikis are (hidden) in is:Snið:Potturinn , at nl:Wikipedia:De kroeg interwikis are (hidden) in nl:Sjabloon:De kroeg ; to [[User:Gangleri|my]] opinion interwikis should not be used in templates, linking should be easy especially for "newbies" ---> [[af:Wikipedia:Geselshoekie]] [[als:Wikipedia:Ich brauche Hilfe]] [[an:Wikipedia:Tabierna]] [[ang:Wikipedia:Þorpes Wiella]] [[ar:ويكيبيديا:الميدان]] [[ast:Uiquipedia:Chigre]] [[be:Вікіпэдыя:Форум]] [[bg:Уикипедия:Разговори]] [[bm:Wikipedia:Le lavoir]] [[bn:উইকিপেডিয়া:আলোচনা সভা]] [[br:Wikipedia:Kumuniezh/An ti-chopin]] [[bs:Wikipedia:Čaršija]] [[bug:Wikipedia:Warung Kopi]] [[ca:Viquipèdia:La taverna]] [[chr:ᏫᎩᏇᏗᏯ:ᎾᎥ ᏄᎾᏓᎸ ᎾᎿᎢ]] [[cs:Wikipedie:Pod lípou]] [[cv:Википеди:Канашлу]] [[cy:Wicipedia:Y Caffi]] [[da:Wikipedia:Landsbybrønden]] [[de:Wikipedia:Fragen zur Wikipedia]] [[el:Βικιπαίδεια:Αγορά]] [[eo:Vikipedio:Diskutejo]] [[es:Wikipedia:Café]] [[et:Vikipeedia:Üldine arutelu]] [[eu:Wikipedia:Txokoa]] [[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:قهوه‌خانه]] [[fi:Wikipedia:Kahvihuone]] [[fo:Wikipedia:Undirhúsið]] [[fr:Wikipédia:Le Bistro]] [[fur:Vichipedie:Ostarie]] [[fy:Wikipedy:Oerlis side]] [[ga:Vicipéid:Halla baile]] [[gd:Wikipedia:Talla a' Bhaile]] [[gl:Wikipedia:A Taberna]] [[gu:વિકિપીડિયા:ચોતરો]] [[he:ויקיפדיה:מזנון]] [[hi:विकिपीडिया:गाँव का पम्प]] [[hr:Wikipedija:Kafić]] [[hu:Wikipédia:Kocsmafal]] [[ia:Wikipedia:Taverna]] [[id:Wikipedia:Warung Kopi]] [[is:Wikipedia:Potturinn]] [[it:Wikipedia:Bar]] [[ja:Wikipedia:井戸端]] [[ka:ვიკიპედია:ყავახანა]] [[ko:위키백과:사랑방]] [[kw:Wikipedia:Porth Kemmynieth]] [[la:Vicipaedia:Taberna]] [[lb:Wikipedia:De Stamminet]] [[li:Wikipedia:De kaffee]] [[lt:Wikipedia:Forumas]] [[lv:Wikipedia:Kopienas portāls]] [[mi:Wikipedia:Kōrero]] [[mk:Википедија:Портал]] [[ms:Wikipedia:Kedai Kopi]] [[mt:Wikipedija:Pjazza]] [[na:Wikipedia:Domaneab]] [[nah:Wikipedia:Tlatlahtoaloyan]] [[nap:Wikipedia:Circolo]] [[nds:Wikipedia:Ik bruuk Hülp]] [[nl:Wikipedia:De kroeg]] [[nn:Wikipedia:Samfunnshuset]] [[no:Wikipedia:Tinget]] [[oc:Wikipèdia:La tavèrna]] [[os:Википеди:Ныхас]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Kawiarenka pod Wesołym Encyklopedystą]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Esplanada]] [[ro:Wikipedia:Cafenea]] [[roa-rup:Uichipedia:Fântâna]] [[ru:Википедия:Форум]] [[sc:Wikipedia:Tzilleri]] [[scn:Wikipedia:Circulu]] [[sco:Wikipedia:Mercat Cross]] [[se:Wikipedia:Gáffestohpu]] [[sh:Wikipedia:Pijaca-Пијаца]] [[simple:Wikipedia:Simple talk]] [[sk:Wikipédia:Krčma]] [[sl:Wikipedija:Pod lipo]] [[sq:Wikipedia:Kuvendi]] [[sr:Википедија:Трг]] [[su:Wikipedia:Padungdengan]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Bybrunnen]] [[sw:Wikipedia:Jumuia]] [[ta:விக்கிபீடியா:ஆலமரத்தடி]] [[th:วิกิพีเดีย:สภากาแฟ]] [[tl:Wikipedia:Kapihan]] [[tr:Vikipedi:Köy çeşmesi]] [[tt:Wikipedia:Bäxäslek]] [[uk:Вікіпедія:Кнайпа]] [[vec:Wikipedia:Ciacołe]] [[vi:Wikipedia:Thảo luận]] [[wa:Wikipedia:Cåbaret]] [[zh:Wikipedia:互助客栈]] [[zh-min-nan:Wikipedia:Chhiū-á-kha]] [[zh-yue:Wikipedia:城市論壇]] 1685 2648 2006-10-13T20:31:05Z Eukesh 11 <div style="border:solid #aaa 1px; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size:95%; background:#f9f9f9; width:{{{width|23em}}}; padding:0px 8px 0px 8px; text-align:left; float:{{{1|right}}};"><center> [[Image:WikipediaSignpostHead.png|{{{titlewidth|200px}}}|The Wikipedia Signpost]]<br> {{Signpost-textonly|1}} ---- <center><small>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Archives|Archives]]<tt>&middot;</tt>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Newsroom|Newsroom]]<tt>&middot;</tt>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Newsroom/Suggestions|Tip line]]<tt>&middot;</tt>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Tools/Single|Single-page]]<tt>&middot;</tt>[[Template:Signpost-subscription|Subscribe]]</small></center> </div> <noinclude><big>'''Subscribe to the ''Signpost!'''''</big> Get the latest issue delivered straight to your user page! To add the box on the right to any page, copy and paste: '''<nowiki>{{Signpost-subscription}}</nowiki>''' :::or '''<nowiki>{{Signpost-subscription|right}}</nowiki>''' :::or '''<nowiki>{{Signpost-subscription|left}}</nowiki>''' The box will be updated automatically every week with the latest stories. To see the list of subscribers, click [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Whatlinkshere/Template:Signpost-subscription What links here]. If you prefer getting the articles delivered every week, you can sign up for our [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Tools/Spamlist|spamlist]], and you'll get a fresh copy on your user talk page every week. <small><center>{{purge|(Purge articles)}}</center></small> </noinclude> 1686 2649 2006-10-13T20:32:55Z Eukesh 11 {{ #switch: {{{1}}} | 0 = | 1 = <small>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Volume 2, Issue 41]] &mdash; [[9 October]] [[2006]]</small> </center> ---- | 2 = [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Volume 2, Issue 41]] &mdash; [[9 October]] [[2006]] | #default = <small>[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Volume 2, Issue 41]] &mdash; [[9 October]] [[2006]]</small> }} *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-10-09/Eloquence interview|Interview with Board member Erik Möller]] *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-10-09/Grupthink|''Wall Street Journal'' associates Wikipedia with Grupthink]] *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-10-09/MyWikiBiz|Account used to create paid corporate entries shut down]] *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-10-09/Interwiki report|Report from the Portuguese Wikipedia]] *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-10-09/News and notes|News and notes]] *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-10-09/In the news|Wikipedia in the news]] *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-10-09/Features and admins|Features and admins]] *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2006-10-09/Arbitration report|The Report on Lengthy Litigation]] 1687 2650 2006-10-13T20:34:22Z Eukesh 11 <span class="plainlinks" id="purgelink">[{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAME}}|action=purge}} {{{1|purge}}}]</span> 1688 2651 2006-10-13T20:35:03Z Eukesh 11 {{shortcut|[[WP:NEWS]]}} ==News about Wikipedia and related areas== There are various sources of '''news''' about [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia|Wikipedia]] and the [[Wikimedia:Home|Wikimedia Foundation]], the organisation that supports it and the other [[meta:Wikimedia|Wikimedia]] projects. ===Wikipedia=== {{Signpost-subscription|right}} *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Wikipedia:Signpost]] (Shortcut: [[WP:POST]], [http://wikipediasignpost.com/feed.rss RSS]). The community newspaper of this encyclopedia. *[[Wikipedia:Announcements]] (Shortcut: [[WP:A]], [http://jeays.net/wikipedia/announcements.xml RSS]). Important announcements related to Wikipedia. *[[Wikipedia:Village pump (news)]]. The news section of the village pump is used for news or updates that are expected to require public discussion. *[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media|Wikipedia in the media]]. Mentions of Wikipedia as a topic unto itself and as a reference resource. ===Wikimedia=== *[http://www.wikizine.org Wikizine.org], weekly news bulletin about the Wikimedia community sent by e-mail to the announce-l mailing list *[[meta:Wikimedia News|Wikimedia News]]. Cross-project news, primarily project milestones. *[[meta:Goings-on|Wikimedia goings-on]]. More cross-project news. *[http://wikitech.leuksman.com/view/Server_admin_log Server admin log]. Technical software/hardware news. ===Wikimedia Foundation=== *[[Wikimedia:Current_events|Wikimedia Foundation news]]. News about the Wikimedia Foundation, the international non-profit organisation dedicated to encouraging the growth, development and distribution of various Wikimedia Projects. ==Other news sources== There are also places in Wikipedia and its sister projects that publish articles on current events and the latest world news using Wikimedia software. ===Wikipedia news content=== *[[Current events]] *[[template:In the news|In the news]] ===Wikimedia news content=== * [[n:Main Page|'''Wikinews''']] __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ 1689 2652 2006-10-13T20:37:28Z Eukesh 11 {{Shortcut|[[WP:SEARCH]]}}__NOTOC__ This article provides a detailed overview of Wikipedia's search feature, and instructions on using external search engines, such as [[#Google|Google]], to find information. For a short introduction to searching Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Look it up|Look it up]]. {| style="background-color:transparent; padding:0px;" | valign="top" style="width:180px; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:4px 2px 4px 10px;" | <span style="padding-left:50px;">'''Contents:'''</span><br /> [[#Wikipedia search|1 Wikipedia search]]<br /> [[#External search engines|2 External search engines]]<br /> [[#Browser specific help|3 Browser specific help]]<br /> [[#See also|4 See also]] |} ==Wikipedia search== {{HelpTOC}} <div style="border:1px solid #ababff; background: #fdfdff; padding: 1em; margin: 1.1em 1em 1em 0em; font-size:105%"> Put your keyword in the searchbox. * <font face="MS Sans Serif,Arial">'''Go'''</font> - (or ''Enter'' on keyboard) will take you automatically to the article. * <font face="MS Sans Serif,Arial">'''Search'''</font> - will return a list of articles. </div> ===Effective searching=== Here are some really good tips and hints for using the Wikipedia search feature effectively: ====Avoid short and common words==== If your search terms include a common "stop word" (such as "the", "one", "your", "more", "right", "while", "when", "who", "which", "such", "every", "about") it may give a large number of non-relevant results. Historically, these words [[Wikipedia:Common words, searching for which is not possible|could not be searched]] at all, but as of February 2006, Wikipedia's [[Lucene]] index does not use "stop words", so any word can be successfully used in search queries. Lucene still doesn't search for numbers. ====Wildcards==== You can use some limited wildcards if you really want to. See [http://dev.mysql.com/doc/mysql/en/fulltext-boolean.html Boolean fulltext search] for details on their use. However, wildcard searches are slower, so go easy on the poor server. ====Words with special characters==== In a '''search''' for a word with a [[diaeresis]], such as Sint Odili&euml;nberg, it depends whether this ë is stored as one character or as "&amp;euml;". In the first case one can simply search for Odilienberg (or Odili&euml;nberg); in the second case it can only be found by searching for Odili, euml and/or nberg. This is actually a bug that should be fixed -- the entities should be folded into their raw character equivalents so all searches on them are equivalent. See also [[Wikipedia:Special characters]]. ====Words in single quotes==== If a word appears in an article with single quotes, you can only find it if you search for the word with quotes. Since this is rarely desirable, it is better to use double quotes in articles for which this problem does not arise. See the [[wikipedia:manual of style|manual of style]] for more info. An apostrophe is identical to a single quote, therefore the name Mu'ammar can be found only by searching for exactly that (and not otherwise). A word with ''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s'' is an exception in that it can be found also by searching for the word without the apostrophe and the s. ====Namespaces searched by default==== The search only applies to the namespaces selected in the user's [[special:preferences|preferences]]. To search the other namespaces check or uncheck the tickboxes in "Search in namespaces" box found at the bottom of a search results page. Depending on the browser, a box may still be checked from a previous search, but without being effective any longer! To make sure, uncheck and recheck it. Searching the image namespace means searching the image descriptions, i.e. the first parts of the image description pages. ====The source text is searched==== The source text (what one sees in the edit box, also called [[wiki text]]) is searched. This distinction is relevant for [[piped link]]s, for [[Wikipedia:interlanguage link]]s (to find links to Chinese articles, search for zh, not for Zhongwen), special characters (if ê is coded as &amp;ecirc; it is found searching for ecirc), etc. ====Delay in updating the search index==== For reasons of efficiency and priority, very recent changes are not always immediately taken into account in searches. ===Multi-lingual Wikipedia search=== * You can do a multi-lingual Wikipedia search using [http://www.google.com/advanced_search?q=site:.wikipedia.org&hl=en&lr= Google Advanced Search] or entering <tt>site:.wikipedia.org</tt> in the [http://www.google.com/search?q=site:.wikipedia.org Google search box]. * [http://wiki.lumrix.net/en Lumrix: AJAX driven Wikipedia search engine]. Supports other languages such as [http://wiki.lumrix.net/de German], [http://wiki.lumrix.net/es Spanish], or [http://wiki.lumrix.net/fr French]. * Qwika has indexes for [http://www.qwika.com English], [http://www.qwika.com/find-de German], [http://www.qwika.com/find-fr French], [http://www.qwika.com/find-jp Japanese], [http://www.qwika.com/find-it Italian], [http://www.qwika.com/find-nl Dutch], [http://www.qwika.com/find-pt Portuguese], [http://www.qwika.com/find-es Spanish], [http://www.qwika.com/find-el Greek], [http://www.qwika.com/find-ko Korean], [http://www.qwika.com/find-cn Chinese] and [http://www.qwika.com/find-ru Russian] where the original content is combined with machine translated content from/to English. ==External search engines== Various [[search engine]]s can provide domain-specific searches, which lets you search Wikipedia specifically. Searches are based on the text as shown by the browser, so wiki markup is irrelevant. Depending on your browser, you may also be able to use [[Wikipedia:tools|tools]] that allow you to search Wikipedia using [[bookmarklet]]s. In general, external search engines are faster than a Wikipedia search. However, because the search engine's cache is based on when the site was indexed, the search may not return newly created pages. Similarly, the search engine's cached version of the page will not be as up-to-date as the link to Wikipedia itself. Also, when returning Wikipedia articles in a regular search, [[Wikipedia:mirrors and forks|mirrors and forks]] of Wikipedia content frequently rank higher than the actual Wikipedia articles because of [[search engine optimization]] techniques. These issues may be less of a problem when using certain search engines that process Wikipedia differently: * Yahoo! includes Wikipedia as part of its content acquisition program and gets a regular datafeed. * Clusty downloads and processes the database regularly, generating automatic abstracts and image thumbnails and meaningfully parsing [[Wikipedia:Redirect|redirects]], [[Wikipedia:Disambig|disambiguations]], and [[Wikipedia:Category|categories]]. * Qwika only indexes wikis, and thus mirrors do not appear in their results. ===Clusty=== By following the link below, you can use the [[Clusty]] search engine to search and cluster Wikipedia in English only. * [http://wiki.clusty.com/ Search and Cluster English Wikipedia with Clusty] If you frequently search via Clusty, consider installing the [http://clusty.com/toolbar Clusty Toolbar] (beta). Selecting the "Encyclopedia" search source allows you to quickly search the English version of Wikipedia. The Clusty Toolbar is available for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] with [[Internet Explorer]] and [[Mozilla Firefox]] (beta). ===Google=== By following the links below, you can use the [[Google]] search engine to search Wikipedia - either all languages, or English-only. Google indexes all namespaces. * [http://www.google.com/custom?domains=wikipedia.org&sitesearch=wikipedia.org Search all languages] * [http://www.google.com/custom?domains=en.wikipedia.org&sitesearch=en.wikipedia.org Search the English Wikipedia only] * [http://www.google.com/custom?domains=en.wikipedia.org&sitesearch=en.wikipedia.org&hq=-%22Articles+for+deletion%22 Search the English Wikipedia (excluding articles nominated for deletion)] If you frequently search via Google, consider installing the [http://toolbar.google.com/ Google Toolbar]. Using the "search this site" button allows you to quickly search the English version of Wikipedia. The official Google Toolbar is for [[Internet Explorer]] ([[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] and Mac) and for [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]] (works on all operating system platforms for which Firefox is available, such as Windows, [[Linux]] and [[Mac OS X]]). ====How to provide a link to a specific Google Search==== Wikipedia markup allows you to insert links to Google searches by including <tt>google:</tt> as the prefix for the link. This can be useful on talk pages, and sometimes in ''[[Wikipedia:External links|External link]]'' sections. It is done like this: :<tt><nowiki>[[google:Tipster]]</nowiki></tt>. Which looks like this: :[[google:Tipster]] '''Note:''' It is important not to use spaces in the search. To add more parameters to the search, separate them by a plus sign, '''+'''. For a phrase search, use a hyphen (minus sign), '''-''', between each word. E.g. to search for <tt>"Tip of the day"</tt>, use <tt>Tip-of-the-day</tt>. To provide a link to a Wikipedia-specific search, include in the google-link <tt>+site:en.wikipedia.org</tt> (no spaces before or after), like this: :<tt><nowiki>[[google:Tip-of-the-day+site:en.wikipedia.org]]</nowiki></tt>. Which looks like this: :[[google:Tip-of-the-day+site:en.wikipedia.org]] To clean up the link so that only the part you want to show is presented, use the pipe, like this: :<tt><nowiki>[[google:Tipster+site:en.wikipedia.org|"Tip of the day"]]</nowiki></tt> Which makes it look like this: :[[google:Tipster+site:en.wikipedia.org|"Tip of the day"]] ===LuMriX=== LuMriX is a dynamic query tool which uses lookahead to predict search terms in a list, similar to [[List of Google services and tools#Suggest|Google Suggest]]. By following the link below, you can use the LuMriX search engine to search different language versions of Wikipedia. * [http://wiki.lumrix.net/ Search Wikipedias with LuMriX] If you frequently search via LuMriX, consider installing the [http://mycroft.mozdev.org/quick/wikipedia.html LuMriX Firefox Search Plugin] (works on all operating system platforms for which Firefox is available, such as [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Linux]] and [[Mac OS X]]). ===Lycos=== There is a full-featured advanced search engine at [http://www.lycos.co.uk/search/advsearch.html Lycos UK]. It is more powerful than Wikipedia's search box, and you can limit searches to a specific URL, such as the Wikipedia website. Here's how. Click on the provided link above, and then enter your search term. Then scroll down to the domain section and add "wikipedia.org" in the box provided. Then click "Go". ===Qwika=== Qwika is designed specifically to index wikis. Its main index is Wikipedia. It includes: * all namespaces of Wikipedia * English machine-translated into [http://www.qwika.com/find-de German], [http://www.qwika.com/find-fr French], [http://www.qwika.com/find-jp Japanese], [http://www.qwika.com/find-it Italian], [http://www.qwika.com/find-nl Dutch], [http://www.qwika.com/find-pt Portuguese], [http://www.qwika.com/find-es Spanish], [http://www.qwika.com/find-el Greek], [http://www.qwika.com/find-ko Korean], [http://www.qwika.com/find-cn Chinese] and [http://www.qwika.com/find-ru Russian]. * The above languages machine translated into [http://www.qwika.com/ English]. This can assist editors contributing to non-English Wikipedias by being able to search in their own language across the entire English version and then view the machine-translated version in their language. * [http://www.qwika.com Qwika main page and explanation] ===Wikiwax=== Wikiwax is a dynamic query like LuMriX. It only searches English Wikipedia, but shows more list entries. * [http://www.wikiwax.com/ WikiWax Index to Wikipedia] ===Yahoo!=== By following the links below, you can use the [[Yahoo!]] search engine to search Wikipedia - either all languages or English-only. * [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced?vs=wikipedia.org Search all Wikipedias with Yahoo!] * [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced?vs=wikipedia.org&fl=1&vl=lang_en Search English Wikipedias with Yahoo!] If you frequently search via Yahoo!, consider installing the [http://toolbar.yahoo.com/ Yahoo! Companion Toolbar]. Using the "Search Only the Current Site" button allows you to quickly search the English version of Wikipedia. The official Yahoo! Companion Toolbar is only for Windows with Internet Explorer and Mozilla. ===Other=== Here are more [[Wikipedia:Tools]] which make searching more convenient. ==Browser specific help== ===Using Mozilla to automatically search=== Listed below are ways to search Wikipedia with Mozilla-based browsers, including [[Mozilla|Mozilla Suite]], [[Mozilla Firefox]], and [[Netscape (web browser)|Netscape]] 6 and 7. ====Search Wikipedia from the sidebar search tab or address bar==== Works with: Mozilla Suite, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape 6/7. Mozilla and Netscape 6 & 7 come with a sidebar that allows a user to search the Wikipedia site, and Firefox has a toolbar item to do the same. To install the search plugin that tells Mozilla how to search Wikipedia, do the following: #Go to one of the following sources of Wikipedia search plugins. The Mycroft plugins are sometimes out of date, and plugins from the second source may work better. ##[http://mycroft.mozdev.org/quick/wikipedia.html Original search plugins from Mycroft] ##[http://carey.geek.nz/code/wikipedia-searchplugin/ Updated search plugins] #There are versions for many languages, so pick the language local to your area. #If [[JavaScript]] is enabled, clicking on the name of the search plugin will automatically install the search plugin. #If you can't install the search plugin automatically, the second source above lets you right-click on the plugin and save it to disk, or download a [[ZIP file format|ZIP file]] containing all available plugins. Save the downloaded <tt>.src</tt> file in the <tt>searchplugins</tt> directory where Mozilla is installed and restart the browser to use the new plugin. To make Wikipedia your default search engine in Mozilla, Beonex Communicator, and Netscape 6/7: #Go to Edit, Preferences. #Expand the Navigator tree and choose Internet Search. #Choose Wikipedia as your default search engine. With Wikipedia selected as your default engine, searches can be conducted via the search sidebar tab, search box, or the web address bar. ====Search Wikipedia using a custom keyword==== Works with: Mozilla Suite, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape 6/7, Beonex Communicator, Camino. Wikipedia can also be searched via a custom keyword. #Create a new bookmark (Bookmarks/Manage Bookmarks/New Bookmark in Firefox) #Enter "Wikipedia Quicksearch" for the name (without the quotes). #Enter one of the following for the location, again without quotes: #*"<nowiki>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=%s</nowiki>" to search the English Wikipedia #*"<nowiki>http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=%s</nowiki>" to search the German Wikipedia #*"<nowiki>http://www.google.com/search?q=site:wikipedia.org+%s</nowiki>" to use Google to search all Wikipedias #Enter "w" (without the quotes) for the keyword. #Click OK. To search, go to the web address bar (Ctrl-L), enter "w <i>SEARCH_QUERY</i>" (without the quotes), and press Enter. Note: This can also be done with Internet Explorer, see below. ====Searching with bookmarklets==== Javascript can bring additional functionality to your bookmark. The following javascript can be pasted in as the 'Location' of a new bookmark created manually, for example in the 'Manage Bookmarks' window of Firefox. If you highlight a word in a webpage then hit the new bookmark, javascript grabs the word you have selected and uses that to perform the search. If no word is highlighted, you will be prompted to enter one. <nowiki>javascript:x=escape(getSelection());if(!x)%7Bvoid(x=prompt('Enter%20Word:',''))%7D;if(x)window. location='http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search='+x</nowiki> The whole thing should be pasted in as a single line without spaces for it to work. ===Internet Explorer=== To enable a quick search from the Windows and Internet Explorer Address bars, do the following # Open Notepad. # Insert all of the text in the box below this list of steps. # Choose '''File''' | '''Save as''' and save the file as "wikipedia.reg" (either use quote marks around the file name or choose '''All Files''' from the '''Save as''' type drop-down in Notepad's Save dialog). # Double-click on the "wikipedia.reg" file to add the key to your Windows Registry. <pre>Windows Registry Editor Version 5.00 [HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\Internet Explorer\SearchUrl\w] @="http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?search=%s" " "="+" "#"="%23" "&"="%26" "?"="%3F" "+"="%2B" "="="%3D" </pre> This will allow you to for example type "w french revolution" (without the quotes) into the Windows and Internet Explorer Address bars to immediately search Wikipedia for the search term you've specified. '''Note:''' There are other URLs you can specify instead of the Default (@) key given above. For instance, the line <pre> @="http://de.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?search=%s" </pre> will search the German Wikipedia and <pre> @="http://www.google.com/search?q=site:wikipedia.org+%s" </pre> will use Google to search all language Wikipedias. ===K-Meleon=== [[K-Meleon]] has a search button that can be used to search Google. You can change it to search Wikipedia instead, by: #Close K-Meleon. #Open up <tt>prefs.js</tt> with a text editor. The file should be in your <tt>K-Meleon\Profiles\PROFILE_NAME\RANDOM_STRING.slt\</tt> directory. #Add this line, and save <tt>prefs.js</tt>. <nowiki>user_pref("kmeleon.general.searchEngine", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=");</nowiki> Open up K-Meleon and press the search button to search Wikipedia. To go back to Google or to use another search service, edit <tt>prefs.js</tt> and delete the added line Make sure K-Meleon is closed before editing prefs.js. ===Opera=== All [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] versions since v6 use a customizable text file called search.ini. This file should only be edited while Opera is not running. The following example replaces one of the existing pre-defined [[search engine]]s. It is up to the user to avoid conflicts of shortcut key (key=). By default 'w' is taken by the download.com search, so either this or the Wikipedia one should be changed. Furthermore the 'Search Engine ##' should be replaced with a free number: '12' is free by default. The Search.ini editor (see link below, in the "More information" section) makes editing trivial. <pre> [Search Engine ##] Name=&amp;Wikipedia URL=http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?search=%s Query= Key=w Is post=0 Has endseparator=0 Encoding=utf-8 Search Type=8 </pre> ====Opera 8==== Opera appears to take a copy of the "search.ini" and load it into an internal buffer of some type. After editing the file with your new entry you must change the "File Version" at the top of the file to allow for your changes to be seen in the browser. A new kind of search system has been added to Opera, which no longer requires manual editing. This will create a button on the mainbar, which can then be put anywhere you wish, even in the start panel.<br> See http://nontroppo.org/opsed/download.php?dd=e&plugin=100&type=SE7 for a Wikipedia search button. ====Opera 9 (Preview)==== Just right-click on the search field you want to create a search with and click "Create search". The following dialog is really simple. You just have to select a name for the search and a search shortcut. It even alerts you if the shortcut you want is already in use. ====Opera 9 (Final)==== Go to Tools -> Preferences -> Search and either Add a new search engine, or edit an existing one, such as Download.com. Recommended parameters are: <pre> Name: &Wikipedia Keyword: w Address: http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?search=%s </pre> Since at least Build 8502, more than one character is allowed (Last versions "Key" changed to a "Keyword"), so instead of setting "w" as the keyword, you alternativly could use "wiki", or whatever you like. Although this is not as short and handy, it would save you the replacement of an existing engine. ====Older Versions==== Most importantly, in 7.0, you should back up your customized search.ini because the file is overwritten by the Opera installer. This is no longer true in 7.10 and later. In Opera 6 and 7.0, the menu accelerator letter is defined by the &amp; in the name. In current versions the accelerator is automatically generated and may no longer be the same as the key. ====More information==== *[http://opera-info.xorg.pl/en/ Search.ini editing tool &mdash; makes it easier to add search engines] *[http://www.schrode.net/opera/search/search_ini.html How to edit Opera's search.ini] (recommended reading prior to hand-editing search.ini)add the [first name of this website ==Searching with TomeRaider== After downloading the [[Wikipedia:TomeRaider database]] one can search the Wikipedia version offline. One can also search for parts of words. To search the text that appears only in the page history, you must [[special:export|export]] the text to [[XML]] format first. ==If you cannot find an appropriate page on Wikipedia== If there is no appropriate page on Wikipedia, consider [[Wikipedia:How to start a page|creating a page]], since [[Wikipedia:Welcome, newcomers|you]] can edit Wikipedia right now. Or consider adding what you were looking for to the '''[[Wikipedia:Requested articles|Requested articles]]''' page. Or if you have a question, then see '''[[Wikipedia:Questions|Where to ask questions]]''', which is a list of departments where our volunteers answer questions, any question you can possibly imagine. ==See also== * [[Wikipedia:Go button]] * [[:m:Help:Preferences#Search result settings|Help:Preferences]], changing your search result settings [[Category:Wikipedia features|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[als:Wikipedia:Suche]] [[am:Wikipedia:Searching]] [[zh-min-nan:Help:Chhiau-chhoē]] [[cy:Wicipedia:Chwilio am erthygl]] [[da:Wikipedia:Hvordan søger jeg i Wikipedia]] [[de:Hilfe:Suche]] [[el:Βοήθεια:Αναζήτηση]] [[es:Wikipedia:Búsqueda]] [[eo:Helpo:Serĉado]] [[eu:Wikipedia:Bilaketa]] [[fr:Aide:Recherche]] [[ia:Wikipedia:Recerca]] [[it:Aiuto:Ricerca]] [[ka:ვიკიპედია:ძიება]] [[la:Vicipaedia:De quarendo]] [[lb:Hëllef:Sichen]] [[kn:Wikipedia:Searching]] [[nl:Help:Zoeken]] [[ja:Wikipedia:検索]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Przeszukiwanie]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Busca na Wikipédia]] [[ru:Википедия:Поиск]] [[sk:Wikipédia:Vyhľadávanie]] [[sl:Wikipedija:Iskanje]] [[fi:Ohje:Haku]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Sökning]] [[tl:Wikipedia:Paghahanap sa Wikipedia]] [[tr:Vikipedi:Arama]] [[vi:Trợ giúp:Tìm kiếm]] [[uk:Довідка:Пошук]] [[yi:הילף:זוכן]] [[zh:Help:搜索]] 1690 2653 2006-10-13T20:38:42Z Eukesh 11 {| class="infobox" style="float:right; margin-left:5px; margin-right:0px; padding:0px; border-style: solid; width:13em;" |- ! style="padding: 0.3em; font-size: 97%;background-color: #ccf;text-align:center;"|'''Wikipedia''' |- > | style="padding: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 1em; font-size: 93%;" | * [[Wikipedia:About|About (overview)]] * [[Wikipedia:Searching|Search]] * [[Wikipedia:How to edit a page|Editing]] * [[Wikipedia:FAQ|FAQ]] * [[Help:Contents|Help]] |- ! style="padding: 0.3em; font-size: 97%;background-color: #ccf;text-align:center;"|'''Navigation''' |- | style="padding: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 1em; font-size: 93%;" | * [[Portal:List|Portals]] * [[Wikipedia:Categories|Categories]] * [[Wikipedia:Featured content|Featured content]] * [[Wikipedia:Quick index|A-Z index]] |- ! style="padding: 0.3em; font-size: 97%;background-color: #ccf;text-align:center;"|'''[[Wikipedia:Policies_and_guidelines|Policies]]''' |- | style="padding: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 1em; font-size: 93%;" | * [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|Neutral point of view]] * [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|Verifiability]]<br/>- [[Wikipedia:No original research|No original research]] * [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|Citing sources]] * [[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not|What Wikipedia is not]] * [[Wikipedia:External links|External links]] |} 1691 2654 2006-10-13T20:44:23Z Eukesh 11 {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsTop}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab1|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial|Front page]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (Editing)|Editing]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (Formatting)|Formatting]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (Wikipedia links)|Wikipedia links]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (External links)|External links]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (Talk pages)|Talk pages]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (Keep in mind)|Keep&nbsp;in mind]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (Registration)|Registration]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2|[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (Wrap-up and more info)|Wrap&nbsp;- up]]}} {{Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsBottom}} 1692 2655 2006-10-13T20:45:47Z Eukesh 11 __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" valign="top" border="0" |<noinclude> <br clear="all"> ==Usage== To create a set of tabs, use these four elements. Keep the page tabs in the same order on all pages and use "Tab1" for the current page. {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsTop]]}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab1]]|Current page name}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2]]|Other page name(s)}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsBottom]]}} </noinclude> 1693 2656 2006-10-13T20:47:02Z Eukesh 11 <includeonly>| style="padding:0 .3em; background-color:white;border:solid 2px #A3B1BF; border-bottom: 0; text-align:left; font-weight:bold;" width="20" | {{{1|Tab 1}}} | style="border-bottom:2px solid #A3B1BF" width="3" | &nbsp;</includeonly><noinclude> <br clear="all"> ==Usage== To create a set of tabs, use these four elements. Keep the page tabs in the same order on all pages and use "Tab1" for the current page. {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsTop]]}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab1]]|Current page name}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2]]|Other page name(s)}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsBottom]]}} </noinclude> 1694 2657 2006-10-13T20:47:39Z Eukesh 11 <includeonly>| style="padding:0 .3em; background-color:#CEE0F2; border:solid 2px #A3B1BF; text-align:left" width="20" | {{{1|Tab 2}}} | style="border-bottom:2px solid #A3B1BF" width="3" | &nbsp;</includeonly><noinclude> <br clear="all"> ==Usage== To create a set of tabs, use these four elements. Keep the page tabs in the same order on all pages and use "Tab1" for the current page. {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsTop]]}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab1]]|Current page name}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2]]|Other page name(s)}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsBottom]]}} </noinclude> 1695 2658 2006-10-13T20:48:49Z Eukesh 11 <includeonly>| style="border-bottom:2px solid #A3B1BF" width="3000" | &nbsp; |}</includeonly><noinclude> <br clear="all"> ==Usage== To create a set of tabs, use these four elements. Keep the page tabs in the same order on all pages and use "Tab1" for the current page. {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsTop]]}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab1]]|Current page name}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/Tab2]]|Other page name(s)}}<br> {{[[Wikipedia:Tutorial/TabsBottom]]}} </noinclude> 1696 2659 2006-10-13T20:51:00Z Eukesh 11 {{Help contents back}}{{/Header}} <div style="border:2px solid #A3B1BF; padding:.5em 1em 1em 1em; border-top:none; background-color:#fff; color:#000"> == Wikipedia Editing Tutorial - ''Welcome!'' == '''[[Wikipedia]] is a ''collaboratively edited'' encyclopedia to which ''you'' can contribute. This tutorial will help you become a ''[[Wikipedia:Wikipedian|Wikipedian]]''. The following pages will discuss features of Wikipedia, giving style and content guidance, information about the Wikipedia community, and important Wikipedia policies and conventions. This is a basic ''tutorial'', not an extensive manual. If you want more details, there are links to other pages for more information. To read them as you go along, you can open them in a separate window or a tab. There are links to "''sandbox''" pages where you can practice what you're learning. Try things out and play around! Nobody will mind if you mess up an experiment in these practice areas. <p style="font-size:85%">''Note: The tutorial assumes you are using the default page layout. If you're logged in and have changed your preferences, the location of links may differ.''</p> {{-}} <div style="align: left; float:left; margin-top: -1.25em; margin-bottom:3px; background-color: #f5faff; padding: .2em .6em; font-size: 130%; border: 1px solid #cee0f2;"><span style="font-size: larger; font-weight: bold;">&larr;</span> '''Wait! Before you start, have you seen the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|Introduction]]?'''</div> <div style="float:right; margin-top: 0.0em; margin-bottom:3px; background-color: #cee0f2; padding: .2em .6em; font-size: 130%; border:1px solid #A3B1BF;">'''Next:''' '''[[Wikipedia:Tutorial (Editing)|Let's learn about editing]]''' <span style="font-size: larger; font-weight: bold;">&rarr;</span> <div style="clear:both"></div> </div> [[Category:Wikipedia tutorial|*]] <!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --> <!-- Search for Wikipedia:Tutorial --> [[bg:Уикипедия:Наръчник]] [[cs:Wikipedie:Průvodce]] [[de:Wikipedia:Tutorial]] [[el:Οδηγός για νέους χρήστες]] [[es:Ayuda:Tutorial]] [[eu:Wikipedia:Tutorial]] [[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:خودآموز]] [[hr:Wikipedia:Uvodni tečaj]] [[it:Aiuto:Guida essenziale]] [[ja:wikipedia:ガイドブック]] [[lv:Wikipedia:Pamācība]] [[ms:Wikipedia:Tutorial]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Tutorial]] [[sk:Wikipédia:Príručka]] [[sr:Википедија:Упутства]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Nybörjarkurs]] [[vi:Wikipedia:Sách hướng dẫn]] [[zh:Wikipedia:使用指南]] 1697 2660 2006-10-13T20:52:35Z Eukesh 11 __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ <!-- *************************************************************************** **** **** Do not ask your question on this page! Rather, go to one of the **** listed pages instead. **** *************************************************************************** **** **** This page is among the most visible to viewers and the rest of the **** web. **** **** Please keep it very simple. Do not make major changes without first **** achieving a consensus on the talk page: **** **** http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Questions) **** *************************************************************************** --><noinclude>{{Help contents back}} {| width="100%" style="border: solid 2px #A3B1BF; background: #F5FAFF" | |- | <h2 style="background-color:#cedff2; border-bottom:0px; border: 1px solid #a3b0bf; text-align:center; padding-top:4px;">Where to ask questions or make comments </h2> <!-- 3 line spacing of h2 is important for subsection edit links to work correctly, PLEASE DO NOT FIX --> </noinclude> You can find the answers to many of your questions at the following places: {| |- valign=top | style="width:50%"| === Finding information === * '''[[Wikipedia:Look it up|Search]]''' — for many questions it's fastest and easiest to use the search box. <span style="font-size:90%;margin-left:2em;">e.g. To find the capital of South Africa, fill in ''south africa'' in the box on the left and click ''Search''.</span> * '''[[Wikipedia:Reference desk|Reference Desks]]''' — for knowledge questions (about anything other than how to use Wikipedia) you can ask our volunteers. <span style="font-size:90%;margin-left:2em;"> e.g. ''"What country has the world's largest fishing fleet?"''</span><br>[[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Computing|Computing]] - [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Language|Language]] - [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Humanities|Humanities]] - [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Mathematics|Mathematics]] - [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Science|Science]] - [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Miscellaneous|Miscellaneous]] | style="width:50%"| === How to use Wikipedia === {{shortcut|[[WP:Q]]<br>[[WP:DESK]]}} * '''[[Wikipedia:FAQ|FAQ]]''' — Frequently Asked Questions about Wikipedia * '''[[Help:Contents]]''' — information about using Wikipedia. <span style="font-size:90%;margin-left:2em;"> e.g. ''"How do I add an image to an article?"''</span> * '''[[Wikipedia:Help desk|Help Desk]]''' — the place to ask volunteers questions on how to use Wikipedia. *'''[[Wikipedia:New contributors' help page|New contributors' help page]]''' — a range of services to answer newcomers' questions. |- | style="width:50%"| === Asking questions or making comments === * Each article has a '''[[Wikipedia:Talk page|Talk page]]''' — click on the '''article's''' '''''discussion''''' link at the top of the page &mdash; for questions, reporting vandalism or discussions about the article. * '''[[Wikipedia:Village pump|Village pump]]''' is '''the''' discussion forum for many '''technical and policy issues'''. | style="width:50%"| === IRC - help chat === You are also welcome to ask questions in one of Wikipedia's [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] channels. If you have an [[IRC client]] installed you can join a channel by connecting to [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikipedia-bootcamp '''#wikipedia-bootcamp'''] (a help channel for new Wikipedians) or [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikipedia '''#wikipedia'''] (for general chat). You can also use the '''[http://tools.wikimedia.de/~bjelleklang/pjirc/ web-based client]''' to be connected instantly. |} ''Please do not post your question on this page.'' ''Wikipedia is a volunteer-operated site; there is no "documentation service" nor is there paid staff to process enquiries about the content of articles (sources, accuracy, etc.). Please write all enquiries to the relevant reference desk or talk page; we will not respond to email enquiries.'' <noinclude> |}</noinclude> [[Category:Wikipedia help forums]] 1698 3583 2006-10-16T00:00:12Z Eukesh 11 {{browsebar}} {{इन्डेक्स}} 1699 2663 2006-10-13T22:28:45Z Eukesh 11 {|align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style="border:2px solid #e1eaee; border-collapse:separate;font-size:120%" |- |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/०|०-९]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/अ|अ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/आ|आ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; 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border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ज्ञ|ज्ञ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ऋ|ऋ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ॠ়|ॠ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ॐ|ॐ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/श्र|श्र]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/अः|अः]] |} <!-- * <span style="font-size:120%">বিষয়শ্রেণী নির্ঘণ্ট: [[Special:Allpages/Category:!|!]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:०|०-९]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अ|अ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:आ|आ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:इ|इ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ई|ई]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:उ|उ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऊ|ऊ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ए|ए]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऐ|ऐ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ओ|ओ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:औ|औ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अं|अं]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अः|अः]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:क|क]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ख|ख]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ग|ग]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:घ|घ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ङ|ङ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:च|च]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:छ|छ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ज|ज]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:झ|झ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ञ|ञ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ट|ट]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ठ|ठ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ड|ड]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ढ|ढ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ण|ण]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:त|त]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:थ|थ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:द|द]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ध|ध]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:न|न]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:प|प]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:फ|फ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ब|ब]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:भ|भ]][[Special:Allpages/Category:म|म]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:य|य]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:र|र]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ल|ल]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:व|व]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:श|श]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ष|ष]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ह|ह]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:क्ष|क्ष]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:त्र|त्र]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ज्ञ|ज्ञ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऋ|ऋ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ॠ|ॠ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ॐ|ॐ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:श्र|श्र]]</span> --> 1700 2666 2006-10-14T06:18:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1701 2667 2006-10-14T06:18:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1702 2668 2006-10-14T06:20:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1703 2669 2006-10-14T06:20:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1704 2670 2006-10-14T06:23:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1705 2672 2006-10-14T06:26:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1706 2673 2006-10-14T06:27:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1707 2674 2006-10-14T06:27:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1708 2675 2006-10-14T06:27:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1709 2676 2006-10-14T06:28:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1710 2677 2006-10-14T06:28:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1711 2678 2006-10-14T06:29:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1712 2679 2006-10-14T06:30:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1713 2680 2006-10-14T06:30:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1714 2682 2006-10-14T06:34:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1715 2683 2006-10-14T06:34:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category: संस्कृति]] 1716 2685 2006-10-14T15:27:42Z Eukesh 11 [[विकिपिडिया:ग्वालि दबु]] moved to [[विकिपिडिया:ग्वाहालि दबु]] #REDIRECT [[विकिपिडिया:ग्वाहालि दबु]] 1717 2688 2006-10-14T15:36:20Z Eukesh 11 <div style="margin-top: 11px; border: 2px solid {{{1|#B8C7D9}}}; background-color: {{{2|#E6F2FF}}}; padding:1em; text-align: center;" >'''<font size="3">[[Wikipedia:Contents|Wikipedia's content listings]]</font>''' <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 105%;"> Lists:&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Lists of basic topics|Basic topics]] &nbsp;| [[Lists of topics|Topics]] ([[Lists of lists]]&nbsp;• [[List of reference tables|Tables]])&nbsp;| [[List of academic disciplines|Academic disciplines]]&nbsp;| [[List of countries|Countries]]&nbsp;| [[List of cycles|Cycles]]&nbsp;| [[List of glossaries|Glossaries]]&nbsp;| [[List of articles, an overview|Overview]]&nbsp;| [[Lists of people|People]]&nbsp;| [[Portal:List|Portals]]&nbsp;| [[List of timelines|Timelines]] ([[List of centuries|Centuries]]&nbsp;• [[List of decades|Decades]]&nbsp;• [[2006]]&nbsp;• [[List of historical anniversaries|Anniversaries]] ([[{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}} |today]])&nbsp;• [[Portal:Current events|Current events]]&nbsp;• [[Deaths in 2006|Recent deaths]]) </div> <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 105%;"> Indices:&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Wikipedia:Quick index|Alphabetical]]&nbsp;| [[Wikipedia:Categorical index|Categorical]] (<span style="font-size:90%">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Dewey Decimal]]&nbsp;• [[Library of Congress Classification|LOC Classes]]&nbsp;• [[Wikipedia:Outline of Roget's Thesaurus|Roget's]]</span>) </div> <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 105%;"> Featured:&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Wikipedia:Featured content|Featured content]]&nbsp; ([[Wikipedia:Featured articles|Articles]]&nbsp;• [[Wikipedia:Featured pictures|Pictures]]&nbsp;• [[Wikipedia:Featured lists|Lists]]&nbsp;• [[Wikipedia:Featured portals|Portals]]) </div> </div><noinclude> ==See also== * [[Template:Contents pages (header bar)]] [[Category:Wikipedia content navigation templates|Reference pages (footer box)]]</noinclude> 1718 4028 2006-10-17T23:06:38Z Eukesh 11 __NOEDITSECTION__ __NOTOC__ {|style="border-spacing:8px;margin:-8px -8px" | class="MainPageBG" style="padding:0.5em 1em 0em 1em; border:1px solid #dfdfdf;background-color:#FFFAF0;vertical-align:top;color:#000; vertical-align:top;" | <h2 style="font-size:16pt">विकिपिडिया:विशिष्ट लेख</h2> [[Image:Cscr-featured.png|right|40px|The featured content star]] थ्व पौले विकिपिडियायागु दकले बांलागु व पूवंगु लेख, किपा व मेमेगु मिडियायात मुना तैइ| थ्व विकिपिडियायागु दकले सेल्लागु चीजतेगु थाय ख:| छुं न चीज थन तेत छुं नियम त दु| व नियम पालना याये धुंका जक्क छगु लेख यात विशिष्ट दर्जा बिइ| Featured content represents the best of what Wikipedia has to offer. These are the articles, pictures, and other contributions that showcase the polished result of the collaborative efforts that drive Wikipedia. All featured content undergoes a thorough review process to ensure that it meets the highest standards and can serve as an example of our end goals. A small bronze star ([[Image:LinkFA-star.png]]) in the top right corner of a page indicates that the content is featured. This page provides links to all of Wikipedia's featured content and showcases one example of each type of content. The showcase updates constantly to display different randomly selected featured materials. To view updates, you may need to {{purge|purge}} your browser's cache. | width="240px" valign="top" style="padding:0.5em 1em 0em 1em; border:1px solid #dfdfdf; background-color:#FFFAF0" | {{Shortcut|[[WP:FC]]}} {{FCpages}} |}{{/current|{{/SetDate}}|{{/SetDate2}}}} {|cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="width:100%; border:1px solid #f2e0ce; vertical-align:top;background-color:#fffaf5;color:#000; margin:8px 0 0 0" ! <h2 style="margin:0;background-color:#f2e0ce;font-size:120%;font-weight:bold;border:1px solid #bfb1a3;text-align:center;color:#000;padding:0.2em 0.4em;">''[[Wikipedia:Featured lists|Featured list]]: {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Lists}}''</h2> |- |style="color:#000"|{{:{{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Lists}}}}<div align="right"><big>'''[[{{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Lists}}|See full list...]]'''</big></div> |- |} {|cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="width:100%; border:1px solid #A3B1BF; vertical-align:top;background-color:#F5FAFF;color:#000; margin:8px 0 0 0" ! <h2 style="margin:0;background-color:#CEE0F2;font-size:120%;font-weight:bold;border:1px solid #A3B1BF;text-align:center;color:#000;padding:0.2em 0.4em;">''Featured content procedures''</h2> |- |style="color:#000" | {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Info}} |- |} {|cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="width:100%; border:1px solid #dfdfdf; vertical-align:top;background-color:#FFFAF0;color:#000; margin:8px 0 0 0" ! <h2 style="margin:0;background-color:#DCC270;font-size:120%;font-weight:bold;border:1px solid #afa3bf;text-align:center;color:#000;padding:0.2em 0.4em;">''New featured content''</h2> |- |style="color:#000" | {{Announcements/New featured pages}} |- |} {{Contents pages (footer box)}} <div align="right"><small>{{purge|Purge page cache}}</small></div> 1719 2690 2006-10-14T15:40:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1720 2691 2006-10-14T15:40:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1721 2692 2006-10-14T15:40:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1722 2693 2006-10-14T15:40:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1723 2694 2006-10-14T15:40:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1724 2695 2006-10-14T15:40:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1725 2696 2006-10-14T15:41:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1726 2697 2006-10-14T15:41:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1727 2698 2006-10-14T15:41:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1728 2700 2006-10-14T15:41:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1729 2701 2006-10-14T15:42:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1730 2702 2006-10-14T15:42:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1731 2703 2006-10-14T15:42:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1732 2704 2006-10-14T15:42:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1733 2705 2006-10-14T15:42:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1734 2706 2006-10-14T15:42:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1735 2707 2006-10-14T15:43:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1736 2708 2006-10-14T15:43:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1737 2709 2006-10-14T15:43:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1738 2710 2006-10-14T15:43:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1739 2711 2006-10-14T15:43:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1740 2712 2006-10-14T15:44:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1741 2713 2006-10-14T15:44:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1742 2714 2006-10-14T15:44:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1743 2715 2006-10-14T15:44:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1744 2716 2006-10-14T15:44:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1745 2717 2006-10-14T15:45:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1746 2718 2006-10-14T15:45:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1747 2719 2006-10-14T15:45:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1748 2720 2006-10-14T15:45:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1749 2721 2006-10-14T15:45:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1750 3525 2006-10-15T20:13:09Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1751 3526 2006-10-15T20:13:35Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1752 3521 2006-10-15T20:09:52Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=tomato><big>चीनिया भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> १० लख: <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[चीनी-तिब्बती]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[चीनी]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''चीनिया भाय ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=tomato>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1753 3529 2006-10-15T20:14:38Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1754 2727 2006-10-14T15:46:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1755 3528 2006-10-15T20:14:31Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1756 3530 2006-10-15T20:15:12Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1757 3531 2006-10-15T20:15:23Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1758 3532 2006-10-15T20:15:39Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1759 3533 2006-10-15T20:16:15Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1760 3534 2006-10-15T20:16:20Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1761 3535 2006-10-15T20:16:26Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1762 3524 2006-10-15T20:12:01Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=tomato><big>जापानी भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=tomato>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1763 3536 2006-10-15T20:17:04Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1764 3537 2006-10-15T20:17:22Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1765 3538 2006-10-15T20:17:27Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1766 3540 2006-10-15T20:18:13Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1767 3539 2006-10-15T20:17:34Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1768 3542 2006-10-15T20:18:33Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1769 3541 2006-10-15T20:18:18Z Eukesh 11 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>भाय</big></th></tr> <tr><td>छ्येलिगु थाय्<td> <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td> <tr><td>भाय् छ्येलिपिनिगु ल्याखं<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाय् परिवार]]<br>[[ भाय् वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td> </table> [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1770 2743 2006-10-14T15:49:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1771 2744 2006-10-14T15:49:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1772 2746 2006-10-14T15:50:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1773 2747 2006-10-14T15:50:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1774 2748 2006-10-14T15:50:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1775 2749 2006-10-14T15:50:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1776 2750 2006-10-14T15:51:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1777 2751 2006-10-14T15:51:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1778 2752 2006-10-14T15:51:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1779 2753 2006-10-14T15:51:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1780 2754 2006-10-14T15:51:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1781 2755 2006-10-14T15:51:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1782 2756 2006-10-14T15:51:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1783 2757 2006-10-14T15:52:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1784 2758 2006-10-14T15:52:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1785 2759 2006-10-14T15:52:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1786 2760 2006-10-14T15:52:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1787 2761 2006-10-14T15:53:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1788 2762 2006-10-14T15:53:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1789 2763 2006-10-14T15:53:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1790 2764 2006-10-14T15:53:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1791 2765 2006-10-14T15:53:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1792 2766 2006-10-14T15:53:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1793 2767 2006-10-14T15:54:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1794 2770 2006-10-14T19:01:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1795 2771 2006-10-14T19:01:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1796 2772 2006-10-14T19:01:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1797 2773 2006-10-14T19:02:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1798 2778 2006-10-14T19:06:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1799 2779 2006-10-14T19:07:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1800 2780 2006-10-14T19:07:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1801 2781 2006-10-14T19:07:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1802 2782 2006-10-14T19:08:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1803 2783 2006-10-14T19:08:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1804 2784 2006-10-14T19:08:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1805 2785 2006-10-14T19:08:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1806 2786 2006-10-14T19:08:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1807 2787 2006-10-14T19:09:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1808 2788 2006-10-14T19:09:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1809 2789 2006-10-14T19:09:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1810 2790 2006-10-14T19:09:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1811 2791 2006-10-14T19:09:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1812 2792 2006-10-14T19:10:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1813 2793 2006-10-14T19:10:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1814 2794 2006-10-14T19:10:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1815 2795 2006-10-14T19:10:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1816 2796 2006-10-14T19:11:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1817 2797 2006-10-14T19:11:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1818 2798 2006-10-14T19:11:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1819 2799 2006-10-14T19:12:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1820 2801 2006-10-14T19:12:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1821 2802 2006-10-14T19:13:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1822 2803 2006-10-14T19:13:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1823 2804 2006-10-14T19:13:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1824 2805 2006-10-14T19:14:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1825 2806 2006-10-14T19:14:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1826 2807 2006-10-14T19:14:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1827 2808 2006-10-14T19:14:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1828 2809 2006-10-14T19:14:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1829 2810 2006-10-14T19:14:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1830 2811 2006-10-14T19:15:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1831 2812 2006-10-14T19:15:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1832 2813 2006-10-14T19:16:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1833 2814 2006-10-14T19:16:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1834 2815 2006-10-14T19:16:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1835 2816 2006-10-14T19:16:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1836 2817 2006-10-14T19:16:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1837 2818 2006-10-14T19:17:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1838 2819 2006-10-14T19:17:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1839 2820 2006-10-14T19:17:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1840 2821 2006-10-14T19:17:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1841 2822 2006-10-14T19:17:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1842 2823 2006-10-14T19:18:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1843 2824 2006-10-14T19:18:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1844 2825 2006-10-14T19:18:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1845 2826 2006-10-14T19:19:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1846 2827 2006-10-14T19:20:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1847 2828 2006-10-14T19:20:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1848 2829 2006-10-14T19:20:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1849 2830 2006-10-14T19:20:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1850 2831 2006-10-14T19:21:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1851 2832 2006-10-14T19:21:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1852 2833 2006-10-14T19:21:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1853 2834 2006-10-14T19:21:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1854 2836 2006-10-14T19:23:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1855 2837 2006-10-14T19:23:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1856 2838 2006-10-14T19:23:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1857 2839 2006-10-14T19:23:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1858 2840 2006-10-14T19:24:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1859 2841 2006-10-14T19:24:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1860 2842 2006-10-14T19:24:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1861 2843 2006-10-14T19:25:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1862 2844 2006-10-14T19:25:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1863 2845 2006-10-14T19:25:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1864 2846 2006-10-14T19:25:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1865 2847 2006-10-14T19:25:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1866 2848 2006-10-14T19:25:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1867 2849 2006-10-14T19:25:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1868 2852 2006-10-14T19:28:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1869 2853 2006-10-14T19:28:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1870 2854 2006-10-14T19:28:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1871 2855 2006-10-14T19:29:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1872 2856 2006-10-14T19:29:39Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1873 2857 2006-10-14T19:29:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1874 2858 2006-10-14T19:29:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1875 2859 2006-10-14T19:29:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1876 2860 2006-10-14T19:30:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1877 2861 2006-10-14T19:31:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1878 2862 2006-10-14T19:31:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1879 2863 2006-10-14T19:32:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1880 2864 2006-10-14T19:32:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1881 2865 2006-10-14T19:32:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1882 2867 2006-10-14T19:33:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1883 2870 2006-10-14T19:34:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1884 2871 2006-10-14T19:34:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1885 2872 2006-10-14T19:34:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1886 2873 2006-10-14T19:35:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1887 2874 2006-10-14T19:35:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1888 2875 2006-10-14T19:35:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1889 2876 2006-10-14T19:35:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1890 2877 2006-10-14T19:35:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1891 2878 2006-10-14T19:35:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1892 2879 2006-10-14T19:35:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1893 2880 2006-10-14T19:36:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1894 2881 2006-10-14T19:36:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1895 2882 2006-10-14T19:37:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1896 2883 2006-10-14T19:37:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1897 2884 2006-10-14T19:37:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1898 2885 2006-10-14T19:37:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1899 2886 2006-10-14T19:37:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1900 2887 2006-10-14T19:37:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1901 2888 2006-10-14T19:38:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1902 2889 2006-10-14T19:38:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1903 2890 2006-10-14T19:38:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1904 2891 2006-10-14T19:39:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1905 2892 2006-10-14T19:39:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1906 2893 2006-10-14T19:39:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1907 2894 2006-10-14T19:39:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1908 2895 2006-10-14T19:39:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1909 2896 2006-10-14T19:39:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:संस्कृति]] 1910 2899 2006-10-14T19:42:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1911 2900 2006-10-14T19:42:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1912 2901 2006-10-14T19:42:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1913 2902 2006-10-14T19:42:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1914 2903 2006-10-14T19:43:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1915 2904 2006-10-14T19:43:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1916 2905 2006-10-14T19:44:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1917 2906 2006-10-14T19:44:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1918 2907 2006-10-14T19:44:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1919 2908 2006-10-14T19:44:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1920 2909 2006-10-14T19:45:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1921 2910 2006-10-14T19:45:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1922 2911 2006-10-14T19:45:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1923 2912 2006-10-14T19:45:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1924 2913 2006-10-14T19:46:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1925 2914 2006-10-14T19:46:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1926 2915 2006-10-14T19:46:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1927 2916 2006-10-14T19:46:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1928 2918 2006-10-14T19:47:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1929 2919 2006-10-14T19:48:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1930 2920 2006-10-14T19:48:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1931 2921 2006-10-14T19:48:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1932 2922 2006-10-14T19:48:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1933 2923 2006-10-14T19:48:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1934 2924 2006-10-14T19:48:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1935 2926 2006-10-14T19:49:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1936 2927 2006-10-14T19:49:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1937 2928 2006-10-14T19:50:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1938 2929 2006-10-14T19:50:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1939 2930 2006-10-14T19:50:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1940 2931 2006-10-14T19:51:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1941 2932 2006-10-14T19:51:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1942 2933 2006-10-14T19:51:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1943 2934 2006-10-14T19:51:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1944 2935 2006-10-14T19:51:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1945 2936 2006-10-14T19:52:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1946 2937 2006-10-14T19:53:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1947 2938 2006-10-14T19:53:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1948 2939 2006-10-14T19:53:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1949 2940 2006-10-14T19:53:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1950 2941 2006-10-14T19:54:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1951 2943 2006-10-14T19:56:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1952 2944 2006-10-14T19:56:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1953 2945 2006-10-14T19:57:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1954 2946 2006-10-14T20:00:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1955 2947 2006-10-14T20:00:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1956 2948 2006-10-14T20:00:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1957 2949 2006-10-14T20:00:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1958 2950 2006-10-14T20:01:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1959 2951 2006-10-14T20:01:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1960 2954 2006-10-14T20:03:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1961 2956 2006-10-14T20:05:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1962 2957 2006-10-14T20:05:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1963 2958 2006-10-14T20:05:26Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1964 2959 2006-10-14T20:05:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1965 2960 2006-10-14T20:06:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1966 2961 2006-10-14T20:06:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1967 2962 2006-10-14T20:06:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1968 2963 2006-10-14T20:07:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1969 2964 2006-10-14T20:07:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1970 2965 2006-10-14T20:07:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1971 2966 2006-10-14T20:07:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1972 2967 2006-10-14T20:08:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1973 2968 2006-10-14T20:08:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1974 2969 2006-10-14T20:08:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1975 2970 2006-10-14T20:09:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1976 2971 2006-10-14T20:09:10Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1977 2972 2006-10-14T20:09:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1978 2973 2006-10-14T20:09:43Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1979 2974 2006-10-14T20:09:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1980 2975 2006-10-14T20:09:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1981 2976 2006-10-14T20:10:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1982 2977 2006-10-14T20:10:32Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1983 2978 2006-10-14T20:10:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1984 2979 2006-10-14T20:11:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1985 2980 2006-10-14T20:11:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1986 2981 2006-10-14T20:11:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1987 2982 2006-10-14T20:11:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1988 2983 2006-10-14T20:11:59Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1989 2984 2006-10-14T20:12:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1990 2985 2006-10-14T20:13:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1991 2986 2006-10-14T20:13:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1992 2987 2006-10-14T20:14:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1993 2988 2006-10-14T20:14:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1994 3686 2006-10-16T01:26:56Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1995 2992 2006-10-14T20:15:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1996 2993 2006-10-14T20:15:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1997 2994 2006-10-14T20:16:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1998 2995 2006-10-14T20:16:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 1999 2996 2006-10-14T20:16:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2000 2997 2006-10-14T20:16:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2001 2998 2006-10-14T20:16:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2002 2999 2006-10-14T20:17:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2003 3001 2006-10-14T20:17:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2004 3002 2006-10-14T20:18:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2005 3003 2006-10-14T20:18:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2006 3004 2006-10-14T20:18:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2007 3005 2006-10-14T20:19:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2008 3006 2006-10-14T20:19:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2009 3007 2006-10-14T20:19:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2010 3008 2006-10-14T20:20:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2011 3009 2006-10-14T20:20:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2012 3010 2006-10-14T20:20:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2013 3011 2006-10-14T20:20:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2014 3012 2006-10-14T20:20:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2015 3014 2006-10-14T20:21:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2016 3015 2006-10-14T20:21:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2017 3016 2006-10-14T20:22:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2018 3017 2006-10-14T20:22:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2019 3384 2006-10-15T14:58:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Tuberculosis-x-ray-1.jpg|right|thumb]] '''क्षयरोग''' (ट्युबरकुलोसिस) छगु ल्वे ख:| थ्व ल्वे ''माइकोब्याक्टेरियम ट्युबरकुलोसिस'' नांयागु अ म्ल फास्ट ब्याक्टेरिया नं याई| ''माइकोब्याक्टेरिया''यागु मेमेगु प्रजाति नं न थ्व ल्वे याके फु| अन्यागु मेमेगु प्रजातितेत अटिपिकल ''माइकोब्याक्टेरिया'' धाई| ==हलिमे प्रकोप== थ्व ल्वे हलिमे येक्व हे थासे खने दु| न्हापा छक मनुयागु बसे वे धुंकु थ्व ल्वे [[एच आई भी]]यागु प्रकोप व रेजिस्ट्यान्ट उपप्रजातियागु विकासंयाना हानं [[महामारी]] जुइत्येंगु दु|थ्व ल्वे नं येक्व मनु तेत स्याई व व स्वया येक्वमनुतेत प्रभावित याई| ==पुनिगु तव== थ्व ल्वे फे नं पुनि| ल्वे दुम्ह मनु नं [[मुसु]]ल्हाई बिले किटाणुत थगु वातावरणले छ्वैइ| थन्यागु किटाणु मेम्ह मनुयागु [[सास प्रणाली]]ले वना अन म्वाये फसा व मनुयात नं ल्वे पुनि| [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2020 3020 2006-10-14T20:23:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2021 3021 2006-10-14T20:23:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2022 3022 2006-10-14T20:23:47Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2023 3023 2006-10-14T20:23:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2024 3024 2006-10-14T20:24:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2025 3026 2006-10-14T20:25:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2026 3027 2006-10-14T20:25:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2027 3028 2006-10-14T20:26:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2028 3029 2006-10-14T20:26:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2029 3030 2006-10-14T20:26:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2030 3031 2006-10-14T20:26:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2031 3033 2006-10-14T20:28:02Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2032 3034 2006-10-14T20:28:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2033 3035 2006-10-14T20:28:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2034 3036 2006-10-14T20:28:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2035 3037 2006-10-14T20:28:36Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2036 3038 2006-10-14T20:28:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2037 3039 2006-10-14T20:28:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2038 3040 2006-10-14T20:30:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2039 3041 2006-10-14T20:30:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2040 3042 2006-10-14T20:30:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2041 3043 2006-10-14T20:30:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2042 3045 2006-10-14T20:31:14Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2043 3046 2006-10-14T20:31:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2044 3047 2006-10-14T20:31:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2045 3048 2006-10-14T20:31:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2046 3049 2006-10-14T20:31:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2047 3050 2006-10-14T20:32:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2048 3051 2006-10-14T20:32:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2049 3052 2006-10-14T20:32:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2050 3053 2006-10-14T20:32:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2051 3054 2006-10-14T20:33:00Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2052 3055 2006-10-14T20:33:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2053 3056 2006-10-14T20:33:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2054 3057 2006-10-14T20:34:01Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2055 3058 2006-10-14T20:34:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2056 3059 2006-10-14T20:34:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2057 3060 2006-10-14T20:34:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2058 3061 2006-10-14T20:34:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2059 3062 2006-10-14T20:35:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2060 3063 2006-10-14T20:35:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2061 3064 2006-10-14T20:35:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2062 3065 2006-10-14T20:36:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2063 3066 2006-10-14T20:36:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2064 3067 2006-10-14T20:36:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2065 3068 2006-10-14T20:36:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2066 3070 2006-10-14T20:38:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2067 3071 2006-10-14T20:38:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2068 3072 2006-10-14T20:38:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2069 3073 2006-10-14T20:39:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2070 3075 2006-10-14T20:40:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2071 3076 2006-10-14T20:40:27Z Eukesh 11 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2006-10-14T21:21:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2216 3229 2006-10-14T21:21:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2217 3230 2006-10-14T21:21:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2218 4027 2006-10-17T23:05:27Z Eukesh 11 /* Further reading */ [[Image:Payphone loading Microsoft Windows XP.jpg|thumb|An Internet payphone loading [[Windows XP]]]] In [[computing]], '''booting''' is a [[Bootstrapping (computing)|bootstrapping]] process that starts [[operating system]]s when the user turns on a [[computer system]]. A '''boot sequence''' is the set of operations the computer performs when it is switched on that load an operating system. == '''Boot loader''' == Most [[computer]] systems can only execute code found in the memory ([[Read-only memory|ROM]] or [[Random Access Memory|RAM]]). Modern operating systems are stored on [[hard disk]]s, or occasionally on [[LiveCD]]s, [[USB flash drive]]s, or other non-volatile storage devices. When a computer is first powered on, it doesn't have an operating system in memory. The computer's [[computer hardware|hardware]] alone cannot perform complex actions such as loading a program from disk, so a [[paradox]] exists: to load the operating system into memory, one appears to need to have an operating system already loaded. The solution to the paradox is to use a special small [[computer program|program]], called a ''bootstrap loader'' or ''boot loader''. This program's only job is to load other software for the operating system to start. Often, multiple-stage boot loaders are used, in which several small programs summon each other, until the last of them loads the operating system. The name ''bootstrap loader'' comes from the image of one pulling oneself up by one's bootstraps (see [[Bootstrapping (computing)|bootstrapping]]). Early programmable computers had a row of [[toggle switch]]es on the front panel to allow the operator to manually enter the [[Binary numeral system|binary]] boot instructions into memory before transferring control to the [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. The boot loader would then read the operating system in from an outside storage medium such as [[paper tape]], [[punched card]], or an old fixed head [[disk drive]]. [[Pseudo]]-[[assembly language|assembly code]] for the bootloader might be as simple as the following eight instructions: 0: set the P register to 8 1: check paper tape reader ready 2: if not ready, jump to 1 3: read a byte from paper tape reader to accumulator 4: if end of tape, jump to 8 5: store accumulator to address in P register 6: increment the P register 7: jump to 1 A related example is based on a loader for a 1970's Nicolet Instrument Corporation [[minicomputer]]. Note that the bytes of the second-stage loader are read from paper tape in reverse order. 0: set the P register to 106 1: check paper tape reader ready 2: if not ready, jump to 1 3: read a byte from paper tape reader to accumulator 4: store accumulator to address in P register 5: decrement the P register 6: jump to 1 The length of the second stage loader is such that the final byte overwrites location 6. After the instruction in location 5 executes, location 6 starts the second stage loader executing. The second stage loader then waits for the much longer tape containing the operating system to be placed in the tape reader. The difference between the boot loader and second stage loader is the addition of checking code to trap paper tape read errors, a frequent occurrence with the hardware of the time, which in this case was an [[ASR-33]] [[teletype]]. In modern computers the bootstrapping process begins with the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] executing software contained in ROM (for example, the [[BIOS]] of an [[IBM PC]]) at a predefined address (the CPU is designed to execute this software after reset without outside help). This software contains rudimentary functionality to search for devices eligible to participate in booting, and load a small program from a special section (most commonly the [[boot sector]]) of the most promising device. Boot loaders may face peculiar constraints, especially in size; for instance, on the IBM PC and compatibles, the first stage of boot loaders must fit into the first 446 [[bytes]] of the [[Master Boot Record#Layout_of_Master_Boot_Record|Master Boot Record]], in order to leave room for the 64-byte [[partition table]] and the 2-byte AA55h 'signature', which the BIOS requires for a proper boot loader. Some operating systems, most notably pre-1995 [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] systems from [[Apple Computer]], are so closely interwoven with their hardware that it is impossible to natively boot an operating system other than the standard one. A common solution in such situations is to design a bootloader that works as a program belonging to the standard OS that hijacks the system and loads the alternative OS. This technique was used by Apple for its [[A/UX]] [[Unix]] implementation and copied by various freeware operating systems and [[BeOS|BeOS Personal Edition 5]]. === Second-stage boot loader === The small program is most often not itself an operating system, but only a second-stage boot loader, such as [[NTLDR]], [[Linux Loader|LILO]] or [[GNU GRUB|GRUB]]. It will then be able to load the operating system proper, and finally transfer execution to it. The system will initialize itself, and may load [[device driver]]s and other programs that are needed for the normal operation of the OS. The boot process is considered complete when the computer is ready to interact with the user or the [[operating system]] is capable of running ordinary applications. Typical modern [[personal computer|PCs]] boot in about a minute (of which about 15 seconds are taken by a [[Power-on self test]] (POST) and the preliminary boot loaders, and the rest by loading the operating system), while large servers may take several minutes to boot and to start all services. To ensure high availability, they bring up some services before others. Most [[embedded system]]s must boot immediately. For example, waiting a minute for a digital television to come up is not acceptable. Therefore they have their complete operating system in ROM or [[flash memory]], so it can be executed directly. == BIOS boot devices == A [[boot device]] is any device that must be initialized prior to loading the operating system. This includes the primary [[input device]] ([[computer keyboard|keyboard]]), the primary output device ([[display]]), and the [[initial program load]] device ([[floppy drive]], [[hard drive]], [[CD-ROM]], [[USB flash drive]], etc.). In a modern [[BIOS]], the user can select one of several interfaces from which to boot. These include: [[hard disk]], [[floppy]], [[SCSI]], [[CDROM]], [[Zip drive|Zip]], [[LS-120]], a network interface card using [[Preboot Execution Environment|PXE]], or [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] (USB-FDD, USB-ZIP, USB-CDROM, USB-HDD). For example, one can install [[Microsoft Windows]] on the first hard disk and [[Linux]] on the second. By changing the BIOS boot device, the user can select the [[operating system]] to load. == Boot sequence on standard PC (IBM-PC compatible) == [[image:Pc_boot.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A PC going through its boot sequence]] Upon starting, a [[personal computer]]'s x86 [[Central processing unit|CPU]] runs the instruction located at the memory location F000:FF00 (on 286s and 386SXs, the base of the code segment is actually 0xFF0000 and on 386s it is 0xFFFF0000) of the [[BIOS]]. This memory location is close to the end of system memory. It contains a jump instruction that transfers execution to the location of the BIOS start-up program. This program runs a [[Power-on self test]] (POST) to check that devices the computer will rely on are functioning; it also initializes these devices. Then, the BIOS goes through a preconfigured list of devices until it finds one that is bootable. On the original IBM PC, if it finds no such device, control is transferred to [[IBM Cassette BASIC]]. On more modern machines with no built-in operating system, an error message is generated and the boot process stops. If the BIOS finds a bootable device, it loads and executes its [[boot sector]]. In the case of a hard drive, this is referred to as the [[master boot record]] (''MBR'') and is often not [[operating system]] specific. Usually, the MBR code checks the [[partition (IBM PC)|partition]] table for an active partition. If one is found, the MBR code loads that partition's [[boot sector]] and executes it. The boot sector is often [[operating system]] specific, however in most operating systems its main function is to load and execute a [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]], which continues startup. If there is no active partition or the active partition's boot sector is invalid, the MBR may load a secondary boot loader and pass control to it and this secondary boot loader will select a partition (often via user input) and load its boot sector, which usually loads the corresponding [[operating system]] Kernel. == Other kinds of boot sequence == Some other processors have other kinds of boot modes; most [[digital signal processor]]s have the following boot modes: *Serial mode boot *Parallel mode boot *HPI boot *Warm boot or [[soft reboot]] (as opposed to [[hard reboot]]) refers to an abridged start up which does not require that power be removed and reapplied. == Random reboot == ''Random reboot'' is a non-technical term referring to an unintended (and often undesired) [[soft reboot|reboot]] for which the cause is not immediately evident to the user. Such reboots may occur due to a multitude of software and/or hardware problems. ==See also== *[[Windows NT Startup Process]] *[[Microreboot]] *[[Initial Program Load]] (mainly used in connection with [[IBM]], [[mainframe]] and [[AS/400]]) *[[Boot disk]], [[LiveCD]], [[U3]] and [[Flash drive]]s. *[[Crash-only software]] *[[bootp]] (network boot protocol) *Second-stage boot loaders **[[bootman]] **[[GNU GRUB|GRUB]] **[[LILO (boot loader)|LILO]] **[[NTLDR]] **[[XOSL]] [http://www2.arnes.si/~fkomar/xosl.org/] **[[BootX]] **[[loadlin]] **[[Gujin]] [http://gujin.sourceforge.net/] **[[Boot Camp]] **[[Syslinux]] **[[Graphical Boot Manager|GAG]] == Further reading == *{{cite web|url=http://am.xs4all.nl/phpwiki/index.php/jumping%20bootfloppy|title=Jumping bootfloppy|author=}} <!-- Bad link on 2005-11-08 --> *[http://www.osdcom.info/content/view/33/39/ Booting with Grub] at OSDEV Community * [http://www.vsubhash.com/writeups/multiboot_os.asp A tutorial on dualbooting/multibooting with Windows NTLDR and Linux LILO/GRUB] *FreeBSD **[http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en/books/handbook/boot.html The FreeBSD Booting Process] **{{cite web|url=http://www.khmere.com/freebsd_book/html/ch02.html|title=Bootstrapping FreeBSD|author=Nathan Boeger and Mana Tominaga }} *Linux **{{cite web|url=http://www.pycs.net/lateral/stories/23.html|title=The Linux boot process unveiled|author=Roberto Alsina}} **{{cite web|url=http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/From-PowerUp-To-Bash-Prompt-HOWTO.html|title=From power up to Linux bash prompt HOWTO|author=Greg O'Keefe}} **[http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-linuxboot/?ca=dgr-lnxw06LinuxBoot Inside the Linux boot process] **[http://www.dirac.org/linux/boot/ Booting linux operating system] *Mac OS X **{{cite web|url=http://www.kernelthread.com/mac/osx/arch_boot.html|title=Mac OS X Boot Process|author=Amit Singh}} *Windows **[http://www.indiahowto.com/speeding-your-pc-startup-speed.html Speeding up the Windows XP booting process using msconfig.exe] **{{cite web|url=http://homepages.tesco.net./~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/dos-windows-boot-process.html|title=The DOS and DOS/Windows boot processes|author=Jonathan de Boyne Pollard}} **{{cite web|url=http://www.pcnineoneone.com/howto/multiboot1.html|title=Multi-booting, running different versions of Windows on your PC|author=}} [[ca:Carregador de l'arrencada]] [[da:Boot]] [[de:Booten]] [[es:Arranque]] [[fr:Boot]] [[id:Booting]] [[it:Boot]] [[he:אתחול]] [[nl:Boot (computer)]] [[ja:ブート]] [[pl:Program rozruchowy]] [[pt:Boot]] [[ru:Загрузчик ОС]] [[simple:Booting]] [[sl:Zagonski nalagalnik]] [[sv:Bootning]] [[uk:Завантажник ОС]] [[zh-yue:起動程式]] [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2219 3233 2006-10-14T21:23:17Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2220 3234 2006-10-14T21:23:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2221 3235 2006-10-14T21:23:28Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2222 3236 2006-10-14T21:23:45Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2223 3237 2006-10-14T21:24:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:प्रविधि]] 2224 3238 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Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2289 3307 2006-10-14T21:48:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2290 3308 2006-10-14T21:48:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2291 3309 2006-10-14T21:48:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2292 3310 2006-10-14T21:49:06Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2293 3311 2006-10-14T21:49:07Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2294 3312 2006-10-14T21:49:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2295 3313 2006-10-14T21:50:05Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2296 3380 2006-10-15T14:53:54Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:GrapeField.jpg|thumb|250px|अंगुरमा]] '''अंगुर''' छगु कथंयागु [[सी]] ख:| थ्व सीयागु झोल देका उकिली मर्चा तया [[अयला]] नं देकिगु चलन दु| अंगुर मा छगु कृपर ख:| थ्व मा मेमेगु बल्लागु वस्तुयागु भर कया च्वे च्वे तक्क गयावने फु| [[Category:नसला]] 2297 3315 2006-10-14T21:50:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2298 3316 2006-10-14T21:50:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2299 3317 2006-10-14T21:51:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2300 3318 2006-10-14T21:51:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2301 3319 2006-10-14T21:51:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2302 3320 2006-10-14T21:51:41Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2303 3321 2006-10-14T21:51:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2304 3322 2006-10-14T21:52:35Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2305 3323 2006-10-14T21:52:50Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2306 3324 2006-10-14T21:52:51Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2307 3326 2006-10-14T21:54:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2308 3327 2006-10-14T21:54:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2309 3328 2006-10-14T21:54:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2310 3329 2006-10-14T21:54:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2311 3330 2006-10-14T21:55:16Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2312 3331 2006-10-14T21:55:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2313 3332 2006-10-14T21:55:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2314 3333 2006-10-14T21:55:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:नसला]] 2315 3335 2006-10-14T21:58:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2316 3379 2006-10-15T14:51:39Z Eukesh 11 '''अंक गणित''' [[गणित]]यागु छगु महत्त्वपूर्ण ख्य: ख:| थ्व ख्य: गणितयागु दक्ले पुलांगु व दक्ले प्रायोगिक ख्य: ख| थ्व ख्यले अंक, अंकयागु प्रकृति, जोड, घटाउ, गुणन, विभाजन थें न्यागु प्रायोगिक पक्षयागु ब्वनेज्या व छ्येलेज्या जुई| [[Category:गणित]] 2317 3337 2006-10-14T21:58:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2318 3338 2006-10-14T21:58:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2319 3339 2006-10-14T21:59:21Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2320 3340 2006-10-14T21:59:30Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2321 3341 2006-10-14T21:59:34Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2322 3342 2006-10-14T21:59:40Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2323 3343 2006-10-14T22:00:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2324 3344 2006-10-14T22:00:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2325 3345 2006-10-14T22:00:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2326 3346 2006-10-14T22:01:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2327 3347 2006-10-14T22:01:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2328 3348 2006-10-14T22:01:27Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2329 3349 2006-10-14T22:01:55Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2330 3350 2006-10-14T22:02:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2331 3378 2006-10-15T14:50:53Z Eukesh 11 '''अंक''' [[गणित]]ये छ्येलिगु दक्ले प्राथमिक विचाले छगु ख:| आयागु हलिमे छ्येलिगु देसिमल अंकमालायागु सिद्धान्त [[भारत]]ये विकास जुल| भारतीय अंक सिद्धान्तं देकुगु शुन्य (०)यागु छ्येलेज्या नं मानवसभ्यताये विशेष कथंलं गणित व संगणनशास्त्रले क्रान्तिकारी परिवर्तन हगु दु| ई यागु घचा नापं अंकयागु सिद्धान्तयागु विकास नं जुया वयाच्वंगु दु| प्राकृतिक अंक जक्क मखुसें फुतिदुगु अंक, [[र्यासनल अंक]], इर्यासनल अंक, [[इन्टिजर]] थेंन्यागु अंकयागु विकास नं मनुयात थ्व हलिम थुइत ग्वाहालि याना च्वंगु दु| [[Category:गणित]] 2332 3352 2006-10-14T22:02:19Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2333 3353 2006-10-14T22:02:56Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2334 3354 2006-10-14T22:02:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2335 3355 2006-10-14T22:03:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2336 3356 2006-10-14T22:03:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2337 3357 2006-10-14T22:03:22Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2338 3358 2006-10-14T22:04:08Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2339 3359 2006-10-14T22:04:15Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:गणित]] 2340 3360 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धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2364 3399 2006-10-15T18:19:36Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2365 3400 2006-10-15T18:19:41Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2366 3401 2006-10-15T18:19:55Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2367 3402 2006-10-15T18:20:01Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2368 3403 2006-10-15T18:20:19Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2369 3404 2006-10-15T18:20:20Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2370 3405 2006-10-15T18:20:37Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2371 3406 2006-10-15T18:20:42Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2372 3407 2006-10-15T18:20:56Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2373 3408 2006-10-15T18:21:04Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2374 3409 2006-10-15T18:21:23Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2375 3410 2006-10-15T18:21:24Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2376 3411 2006-10-15T18:21:42Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2377 3412 2006-10-15T18:21:55Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2378 3413 2006-10-15T18:22:01Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2379 3414 2006-10-15T18:22:10Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2380 3415 2006-10-15T18:22:26Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2381 3416 2006-10-15T18:22:32Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2382 3417 2006-10-15T18:22:47Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2383 3418 2006-10-15T18:22:52Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2384 3419 2006-10-15T18:23:06Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2385 3420 2006-10-15T18:23:14Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2386 3421 2006-10-15T18:23:27Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2387 3422 2006-10-15T18:23:34Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2388 3423 2006-10-15T18:23:47Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2389 3424 2006-10-15T18:23:56Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2390 3425 2006-10-15T18:24:05Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2391 3426 2006-10-15T18:24:21Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2392 3427 2006-10-15T18:24:22Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2393 3428 2006-10-15T18:24:41Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2394 3429 2006-10-15T18:24:42Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2395 3430 2006-10-15T18:24:58Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2396 3431 2006-10-15T18:25:02Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2397 3432 2006-10-15T18:25:15Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2398 3433 2006-10-15T18:25:22Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2399 3434 2006-10-15T18:25:36Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2400 3435 2006-10-15T18:25:40Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2401 3436 2006-10-15T18:25:53Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2402 3437 2006-10-15T18:26:05Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2403 3438 2006-10-15T18:26:13Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2404 3439 2006-10-15T18:26:26Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2405 3440 2006-10-15T18:26:42Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2406 3441 2006-10-15T18:26:49Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2407 3442 2006-10-15T18:26:58Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2408 3443 2006-10-15T18:27:08Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2409 3444 2006-10-15T18:27:22Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2410 3445 2006-10-15T18:27:27Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2411 3446 2006-10-15T18:27:40Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2412 3447 2006-10-15T18:27:44Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2413 3448 2006-10-15T18:27:57Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2414 3449 2006-10-15T18:28:00Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2415 3450 2006-10-15T18:28:15Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2416 3451 2006-10-15T18:28:19Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2417 3452 2006-10-15T18:28:37Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2418 3453 2006-10-15T18:28:48Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2419 3454 2006-10-15T18:29:02Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2420 3455 2006-10-15T18:29:09Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2421 3456 2006-10-15T18:29:17Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2422 3457 2006-10-15T18:29:34Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2423 3458 2006-10-15T18:29:38Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2424 3459 2006-10-15T18:29:51Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2425 3460 2006-10-15T18:29:56Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2426 3461 2006-10-15T18:30:09Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2427 3462 2006-10-15T18:30:13Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2428 3463 2006-10-15T18:30:26Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2429 3464 2006-10-15T18:30:30Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2430 3465 2006-10-15T18:30:43Z Eukesh 11 {{हिन्दू धर्म}} [[Category:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2431 3466 2006-10-15T18:30:52Z Eukesh 11 हिन्दू धर्म 2432 3468 2006-10-15T18:32:53Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2433 3469 2006-10-15T18:32:59Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2434 3470 2006-10-15T18:33:13Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2435 3471 2006-10-15T18:33:17Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2436 3472 2006-10-15T18:33:33Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2437 3473 2006-10-15T18:33:38Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2438 3474 2006-10-15T18:33:51Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2439 3475 2006-10-15T18:33:57Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2440 3476 2006-10-15T18:34:20Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2441 3477 2006-10-15T18:34:33Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2442 3478 2006-10-15T18:34:38Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2443 3479 2006-10-15T18:34:51Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2444 3480 2006-10-15T18:35:55Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2445 3481 2006-10-15T18:36:10Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2446 3482 2006-10-15T18:36:26Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2447 3483 2006-10-15T18:36:27Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2448 3484 2006-10-15T18:36:43Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2449 3485 2006-10-15T18:36:47Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2450 3486 2006-10-15T18:37:03Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2451 3487 2006-10-15T18:37:18Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2452 3488 2006-10-15T18:37:22Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2453 3489 2006-10-15T18:37:36Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2454 3490 2006-10-15T18:37:40Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2455 3491 2006-10-15T18:37:53Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2456 3492 2006-10-15T18:37:57Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2457 3493 2006-10-15T18:38:12Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2458 3494 2006-10-15T18:38:16Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2459 3495 2006-10-15T18:38:34Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2460 3496 2006-10-15T18:38:38Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2461 3497 2006-10-15T18:38:54Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2462 3498 2006-10-15T18:38:58Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2463 3499 2006-10-15T18:39:13Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2464 3500 2006-10-15T18:39:19Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2465 3501 2006-10-15T18:40:06Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2466 3502 2006-10-15T18:40:10Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2467 3503 2006-10-15T18:40:26Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2468 3505 2006-10-15T18:44:10Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2469 3506 2006-10-15T18:44:16Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2470 3507 2006-10-15T18:44:31Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2471 3508 2006-10-15T18:44:37Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2472 3509 2006-10-15T18:44:53Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2473 3510 2006-10-15T18:44:59Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2474 3511 2006-10-15T18:45:21Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2475 3512 2006-10-15T18:45:25Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2476 3513 2006-10-15T18:45:43Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2477 3514 2006-10-15T18:45:48Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2478 3515 2006-10-15T18:46:06Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2479 3516 2006-10-15T18:46:08Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2480 3517 2006-10-15T18:46:31Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2481 3518 2006-10-15T18:46:33Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2482 3519 2006-10-15T18:47:02Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2483 3520 2006-10-15T18:47:21Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2484 3555 2006-10-15T21:28:03Z Eukesh 11 <!-- --> 2485 3556 2006-10-15T21:28:59Z Eukesh 11 <!-- --> <noinclude>[[fr:Modèle:/box-footer]]</noinclude> 2486 3548 2006-10-15T20:53:53Z Eukesh 11 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छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:जीवनी/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> 2490 3558 2006-10-15T21:43:19Z Eukesh 11 <span class="noprint" style="float:right;">''[{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAME}}|action=purge}} सर्भर क्यासे हुयादिसं]''</span> 2491 3559 2006-10-15T21:49:27Z Eukesh 11 <noinclude> <center> {| style="background:#e4e4ff; text-align:center; " width=550 cellpadding=8 |- |'''Please do not edit this page to suit your portal; it is used for all portals and should be left generic. If you wish, you may copy the contents to your own template.''' |} </center> </noinclude> {| class="noprint" align="center" style="clear:both; background: transparent; text-align:center; font-size:91%" cellspacing="3" cellpadding="3" rules="none" border="0" |- |'''[[Wikinews:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}} विकिबुखंले]]''' &nbsp; &nbsp; |'''[[Wikiquote:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}} विकिधापुले]]''' &nbsp; &nbsp; |'''[[Wikibooks:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}} विकिधापुले]]''' &nbsp; &nbsp; |'''[[Wikisource:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}} विकिस्रोते]]''' &nbsp; &nbsp; |'''[[Commons:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}} विकिमंकाले]]''' |- |<font color=black>[[Wikinews:{{PAGENAME}}|बुखं]]</font> |<font color=black>[[Wikiquote:{{PAGENAME}}|धापु]]</font> |<font color=black>[[Wikibooks:{{PAGENAME}}|सफु व स्तोत्र]]</font> |<font color=black>[[Wikisource:{{PAGENAME}}|स्तोत्र]]</font> |<font color=black>[[Commons:{{PAGENAME}}|किपा]]</font> |- |<center>{{Click|image=Wikinews-logo.png|link=Wikinews:{{PAGENAME}}|width=45px|height=25px}}</center> |<center>{{Click|image=Wikiquote-logo.svg|link=Wikiquote:{{PAGENAME}}|width=25px|height=30px}}</center> |<center>{{Click|image=Wikibooks-logo.png|link=Wikibooks:{{PAGENAME}}|width=25px|height=35px}}</center> |<center>{{Click|image=Wikisource-logo.png|link=Wikisource:{{PAGENAME}}|width=25px|height=30px}}</center> |<center>{{Click|image=Commons-logo.svg|link=Commons:{{PAGENAME}}|width=20px|height=30px}}</center> |} 2492 3577 2006-10-15T22:51:15Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ <includeonly> [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> [[Category:Portals under construction|{{PAGENAME}}]] </includeonly> <noinclude> [[eo:Ŝablono:Portala skeleto]] [[es:Plantilla:Estructura Wikiportal]] [[fr:Modèle:Squelette de portail]] [[he:פורטל:בסיס]] [[ru:Шаблон:Скелет Портала]] </noinclude> 2493 4031 2006-10-17T23:09:59Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> 2494 3562 2006-10-15T21:54:21Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#aaaaaa <!-- This is the color of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar text --> |titlebackground=#aaccff <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=#f9f9ff <!-- This is the color of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- This is the color of the Box Section text --> 2495 3563 2006-10-15T21:56:15Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div><noinclude> [[sr:Портал:Заглавље2]] </noinclude> 2496 3572 2006-10-15T22:36:58Z Eukesh 11 [[दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं]] moved to [[Template:दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं]] {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#aaaaaa <!-- This is the color of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar text --> |titlebackground=#aaccff <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=#f9f9ff <!-- This is the color of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- This is the color of the Box Section text --> 2497 3574 2006-10-15T22:37:29Z Eukesh 11 [[दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति]] moved to [[Template:दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति]] {{Wikipedia:Wikiportal/box-footer}} 2498 3573 2006-10-15T22:36:58Z Eukesh 11 [[दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं]] moved to [[Template:दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं]] #REDIRECT [[Template:दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु छ्यं]] 2499 3575 2006-10-15T22:37:29Z Eukesh 11 [[दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति]] moved to [[Template:दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति]] #REDIRECT [[Template:दबु:ईतिहास/सन्दु तुति]] 2500 3581 2006-10-15T23:03:02Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#9999BF <!-- This is the colour of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=black <!-- This is the colour of the Box Section Title Bar text--> |titlebackground=#CCCCFF <!-- This is the colour of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=white <!-- This is the colour of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- This is the colour of the Box Section text --> 2501 3582 2006-10-15T23:05:36Z Eukesh 11 {{Wikipedia:Wikiportal/box-footer}} 2502 3585 2006-10-16T00:07:05Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:भूगोल/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> [[Category:Portals under construction|{{PAGENAME}}]] 2503 3586 2006-10-16T00:08:10Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#FABD23 <!-- This is the color of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=green <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar text--> |titlebackground=#FFE996 <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- This is the color of the Box Section text --> 2504 3587 2006-10-16T00:09:38Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div><noinclude> [[sr:Портал:Заглавље2]] </noinclude> 2505 3588 2006-10-16T00:14:34Z Eukesh 11 <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div style="position: relative;<!-- -->border: 1px solid {{{titleborder|{{{border|#ababab}}}}}};<!-- -->background: {{{titlebackground|#bcbcbc}}};<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};<!-- -->padding: .1em;<!-- -->text-align: center;<!-- -->font-weight: bold;<!-- -->font-size: 100%;<!-- -->margin-bottom: 0px;<!-- -->border-bottom: none;"><!-- --><span class="plainlinks" <!-- -->style="position: absolute;<!-- -->top: 1px;<!-- -->right: 1px;<!-- -->background: transparent;<!-- -->border: 0px;<!-- -->margin-bottom:.1em;<!-- -->font-size:80%;<!-- -->font-weight: normal;<!-- -->color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}};"><!-- -->[{{fullurl:{{{editpage|/}}}|action=edit{{#if:{{{section|}}}|&section={{{section|}}}}}}} <span style="color: {{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">edit</span>]{{{top| }}}&nbsp;<!-- --></span ><!-- --><h2 style="font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;border: none; margin: 0; padding:0; padding-bottom:.1em; color:{{{titleforeground|#000000}}}">{{{title}}}</h2><!-- --></div> <div style="display: block;<!-- -->border: {{{border-width|1}}}px solid {{{border|#ababab}}};<!-- -->vertical-align: top;<!-- -->background: {{{background|#fefeef}}};<!-- -->color: {{{foreground|#000000}}};<!-- -->margin-bottom: 10px;<!-- -->padding: 1em;<!-- -->margin-top: 0em;<!-- -->padding-top: .3em;"> 2506 4032 2006-10-17T23:12:18Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:गणित/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> 2507 3591 2006-10-16T00:19:34Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div><noinclude> [[sr:Портал:Заглавље2]] </noinclude> 2508 3592 2006-10-16T00:19:55Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=tan |titleforeground=#503b1e |titlebackground=antiquewhite |background=white |foreground=black}} 2509 3594 2006-10-16T00:22:59Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:प्रविधि/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> [[Category:Portals under construction|{{PAGENAME}}]] 2510 3595 2006-10-16T00:23:31Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div><noinclude> [[sr:Портал:Заглавље2]] </noinclude> 2511 3596 2006-10-16T00:23:51Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:Box-header| title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#0088F9 <!-- color of borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=#F7FAFF <!-- color of the Box Section Title Bar text--> |titlebackground=#79AAF7 <!-- color of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=#F7FAFF <!-- color of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- color of the Box Section text --> 2512 3598 2006-10-16T00:26:29Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:विज्ञान/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> [[Category:Portals under construction|{{PAGENAME}}]] 2513 3599 2006-10-16T00:26:57Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div><noinclude> [[sr:Портал:Заглавље2]] </noinclude> 2514 3600 2006-10-16T00:27:17Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#069 |titleforeground=#069 |titlebackground=#f2f7ff |background=white |foreground=black}} 2515 3602 2006-10-16T00:30:19Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:समाज/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> [[Category:Portals under construction|{{PAGENAME}}]] 2516 3603 2006-10-16T00:30:47Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#aaaaaa <!-- This is the color of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar text--> |titlebackground=#FFCC10 <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} 2517 3604 2006-10-16T00:30:59Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div><noinclude> [[sr:Портал:Заглавље2]] </noinclude> 2518 3606 2006-10-16T00:33:42Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:संस्कृति/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> [[Category:Portals under construction|{{PAGENAME}}]] 2519 3607 2006-10-16T00:34:10Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div><noinclude> [[sr:Портал:Заглавље2]] </noinclude> 2520 3608 2006-10-16T00:34:23Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#993366 <!-- This is the colour of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=#f9f9ff <!-- This is the colour of the Box Section Title Bar text--> |titlebackground=#dd88aa <!-- This is the colour of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=white <!-- This is the colour of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- This is the colour of the Box Section text --> 2521 3610 2006-10-16T00:37:02Z Eukesh 11 <!-- This portal was created using subst:box portal skeleton --> {{browsebar}} <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|<big> {{PAGENAME}} दबु</big>|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/म्हसीका}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट लेख''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट लेख}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''स्वापूदुगु दबु''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/स्वापूदुगु दबु}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट किपा''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट किपा}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} बुखं:}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''विशिष्ट जीवनी''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विशिष्ट जीवनी}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''पूच:त''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/पूच:त}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं स्यु ला...''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं स्यु ला}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''धापू''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/धापू}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}} विषयत:}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> <!-- This width added to the the margin below to equal 99%--> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''छिं यानादि फै''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/छिं यानादि फै}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:39%"> <!-- This margin should be right of the above --> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''विकिपरियोजना''|{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना|}} {{{{FULLPAGENAME}}/विकिपरियोजना}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} </div> <div style="float:right; width:100%"> {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु छ्यं|''सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया''|Template:सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया|}} {{दबु सम्बन्धित विकिमिडिया}} {{दबु:नसला/सन्दु तुति|}} {{portals}} </div> {{Purgepage}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}|*{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] <!-- Recategorize Category:Portals under construction to an appropriate subcategory of Category:Portals once the portal is ready for viewing by non-editors. --> [[Category:Portals under construction|{{PAGENAME}}]] 2522 3611 2006-10-16T00:37:38Z Eukesh 11 <div class="noprint" style="text-align:right; margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;"><b>{{{1|}}}</b></div><div style="clear:both;"></div></div><noinclude> [[sr:Портал:Заглавље2]] </noinclude> 2523 3612 2006-10-16T00:37:56Z Eukesh 11 {{Portal:Box-header | title={{{1}}} |editpage={{{2}}} |border=#aaaaaa <!-- This is the color of the borders around Box Sections --> |titleforeground=white <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar text --> |titlebackground=#177245 <!-- This is the color of the Box Section Title Bar --> |background=#f9f9ff <!-- This is the color of the Box Section background --> |foreground=black}} <!-- This is the color of the Box Section text --> 2524 3614 2006-10-16T00:57:49Z Eukesh 11 *जुया च्वंगु ज्याखं त- #दक्ले प्रारम्भिक दबु(पोर्टल)तेगु स्वरूप निर्माण जुल| #लेखतेत पुचले तेगु ज्या जुया च्वंगु दु| #परिवहन (न्याभिगेसन)यागु अपुगु तव त मालिगु झ्वले छगु इन्डेक्स न्याभिगेटर लुत| --[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 00:57, 16 October 2006 (UTC) 2525 3618 2006-10-16T01:02:35Z Eukesh 11 {| align="right" style="background:transparent; border-bottom:1px 1px 0px 0px #a3b1bf solid;" | {{shortcut|[[WP:HELP]]}} |} {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center" style="width:100%; border:2px #a3b1bf solid;" |- | colspan="2" align="center" style="background:#cee0f2; text-align:center; border-bottom:1px #a3b1bf solid;" | <h2 style="margin:.5em; margin-top:.1em; border-bottom:0; font-weight:bold;">ग्वाहालि:धलपौ </h2> <h4>'''[[विकिपिडिया:न्ह्यसत|न्ह्यसत]]''' </h4> |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Getting started|Getting started]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Introduction|Introduction]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Glossary|Glossary of Wikipedia terms]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Policies and guidelines|Policies and guidelines]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Five pillars|The Five Pillars]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Browsing Wikipedia|Browsing Wikipedia]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Searching|Search for an article]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Basic navigation|Find articles and site functions]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Communication|Communication methods]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Village pump|Village pump]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Talk_page_guidelines|Talk pages]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Editing Wikipedia|Editing Wikipedia]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia|Contributing to Wikipedia]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:tutorial|Tutorial]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Cheatsheet|Cheatsheet]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/The Wikipedia community|The Wikipedia community]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Resolving disputes|Resolving disputes]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Community Portal|Community Portal]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Links|Links]]'''</big><br /> [[Help:Link|How to make links]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:External links|External links]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|Citing sources]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Resources and lists|Resources and lists]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting/Stub types|List of stub types]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Pages needing attention|Pages needing attention]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Images and media|Images and media]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Uploading images|Uploading images]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags|Image copyright tags]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Media|Other media]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Account settings and maintenance|Account settings and maintenance]]'''</big><br /> [[Help:Preferences|Change your preferences]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Customisation#User name and signatures|Change your signature]] |- | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top"| <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Tracking changes|Keeping track of changes]]'''</big><br /> [[Help:Page history|Page history]] <tt>|</tt> [[Help:User contributions|User contributions]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|Vandalism]] | align="center" style="width:50%; background:#f5faff; border-left:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> <big>'''[[Help:Contents/Technical information|Technical information]]'''</big><br /> [[Wikipedia:Tools|Tools]] <tt>|</tt> [[Wikipedia:MediaWiki|The MediaWiki software]] |- | colspan="2" align="center" style="width:100%; background:#f5faff; border-top:1px solid #cee0f2; padding:0.5em; text-align:center;" valign="top" | <!-- BOTTOM ROW 1 --> <big>'''[[Wikipedia:Questions|Where to ask questions]]'''</big><br /> '''[[Wikipedia:Help desk|Help Desk]]''' - for questions on how to use Wikipedia<br /> '''[[Wikipedia:Reference desk|Reference Desk]]''' - for general knowledge questions <!-- BOTTOM ROW 2 --> |- style="background:#f5faff;" | align="center" style="border-top:2px solid #cedff2; padding:0.5em;" | ''To view all of the menus on one page, see the'' [[Help:Contents/Site map|Site Map]]. | align="center" style="border-top:2px solid #cedff2; padding:0.5em;" | ''See also:'' [[Wikipedia:Directory]] ''and'' [[Wikipedia:Department directory|Wikipedia department directory]]. |} {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center" style="width:100%; border:2px #a3b1bf solid; margin-top: 1em" <!--TOTD--> |- | id="totdhelp" colspan="2" style="width:100%; margin-top:0em; padding-top:1em; padding-left:1em; padding-right:1em; background:#f5faff;"| <span style="font-size:95%">''Tip of the day...''</span> {{Wikipedia:Tip of the day/{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}, {{CURRENTYEAR}}}} |} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[Category:Wikipedia help| ]] [[af:Wikipedia:Help]] [[als:Wikipedia:Hilfe]] [[am:Help:Contents]] [[an:Wikipedia:Aduya]] [[ang:Help:Innung]] [[ar:ويكيبيديا:مساعدة]] [[ast:Ayuda:Conteníu]] [[ay:Help:Contents]] [[az:Kömək:Mündəricət]] [[be:Дапамога:Зьмест]] [[bg:Помощ:Съдържание]] [[br:Wikipedia:Skoazell]] [[bs:Pomoć:Sadržaj]] [[ca:Viquipèdia:Ajuda]] [[cs:Nápověda:Obsah]] [[cy:Wicipedia:Cymorth]] [[da:Wikipedia:Hjælp]] [[de:Wikipedia:Hilfe]] [[el:Βικιπαίδεια:Βοήθεια]] [[eo:Helpo:Enhavo]] [[es:Wikipedia:Ayuda]] [[et:Juhend:Sisukord]] [[eu:Wikipedia:Laguntza]] [[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:راهنما]] [[fi:Wikipedia:Ohje]] [[fo:Hjálp:Innihald]] [[fr:Aide:Sommaire]] [[fy:Wikipedy:Help]] [[gl:Wikipedia:Axuda]] [[gn:Help:Contents]] [[he:עזרה:תפריט ראשי]] [[hi:विकिपीडिया:सहायता]] [[hr:Wikipedija:Pomoć]] [[hu:Segítség:Tartalom]] [[ia:Wikipedia:Adjuta]] [[id:Wikipedia:Bantuan]] [[ilo:Help:Contents]] [[io:Help:Helpo]] [[is:Wikipedia:Handbók]] [[it:Aiuto:Manuale]] [[ja:Wikipedia:ヘルプ]] [[ka:ვიკიპედია:დახმარება]] [[kn:ಸಹಾಯ:ಪರಿವಿಡಿ]] [[ko:도움말:목차]] [[ksh:Wikipedia:Hilfe]] [[ku:Wîkîpediya:Alîkarî]] [[kw:Wikipedia:Gweres]] [[lb:Hëllef:Hëllef]] [[li:Wikipedia:Help]] [[lt:Pagalba:Turinys]] [[lv:Palīdzība:Contents]] [[map-bms:Wikipedia:Bantuan]] [[mi:Help:Contents]] [[mk:Помош:Помош]] [[mr:Help:Contents]] [[ms:Wikipedia:Bantuan]] [[mt:Għajnuna:Kontenut]] [[nds:Wikipedia:Hülp]] [[nds-nl:Help:Wikipedie]] [[nl:Help:Wikipedia]] [[nn:Hjelp:Innhald]] [[no:Hjelp:Portal]] [[oc:Oiquipedià:Ajuda]] [[pl:Wikipedia:Pomoc]] [[pms:Wikipedia:Agiut]] [[pt:Wikipedia:Ajuda]] [[qu:Wikipedia:Yanapana]] [[ro:Wikipedia:Ajutor]] [[ru:Википедия:Справка]] [[scn:Help:Aiutu]] [[se:Help:Contents]] [[simple:Help:Contents]] [[sk:Pomoc:Obsah]] [[sl:Pomoč:Vsebina]] [[sq:Wikipedia:Ndihmë]] [[sr:Помоћ:Садржај]] [[su:Wikipedia:Pitulung]] [[sv:Wikipedia:Hjälp]] [[sw:Help:Contents]] [[ta:Wikipedia:உதவி]] [[te:Help:Contents]] [[th:วิกิพีเดีย:ความช่วยเหลือ]] [[tr:Yardım:İçindekiler]] [[uk:Вікіпедія:Довідка]] [[ur:معاونت:فہرست]] [[uz:Help:Contents]] [[vi:Trợ giúp:Mục lục]] [[wa:Wikipedia:Aidance]] [[yi:הילף:אינהאַלט]] [[zh:Help:目录]] [[zh-min-nan:Help:Bo̍k-lio̍k]] 2526 3617 2006-10-16T01:00:44Z Eukesh 11 [[Help:Contents]] moved to [[ग्वाहालि:धलपौ]] #REDIRECT [[ग्वाहालि:धलपौ]] 2527 3620 2006-10-16T01:06:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Wikipedia:Site support]] moved to [[विकिपिडिया:दान पौ]] विकिपिडियागु ज्याखंयात संचालन याना तेत दान बिया दिसं| 2528 3621 2006-10-16T01:06:57Z Eukesh 11 [[Wikipedia:Site support]] moved to [[विकिपिडिया:दान पौ]] #REDIRECT [[विकिपिडिया:दान पौ]] 2529 3623 2006-10-16T01:14:46Z Eukesh 11 {{चिकित्सा}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2530 3624 2006-10-16T01:14:51Z Eukesh 11 {{चिकित्सा}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2531 3625 2006-10-16T01:14:57Z Eukesh 11 {{चिकित्सा}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2532 3626 2006-10-16T01:15:24Z Eukesh 11 {{चिकित्सा}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2533 3627 2006-10-16T01:15:29Z Eukesh 11 {{चिकित्सा}} [[Category:विज्ञान]] 2534 3628 2006-10-16T01:15:41Z Eukesh 11 {{चिकित्सा}} 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3710 2006-10-16T01:30:23Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2616 3711 2006-10-16T01:30:36Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2617 3712 2006-10-16T01:30:40Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2618 3713 2006-10-16T01:30:53Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2619 3714 2006-10-16T01:30:57Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2620 3715 2006-10-16T01:31:10Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2621 3716 2006-10-16T01:31:15Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2622 3717 2006-10-16T01:31:30Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2623 3718 2006-10-16T01:31:35Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2624 3719 2006-10-16T01:31:48Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2625 3720 2006-10-16T01:31:52Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2626 3721 2006-10-16T01:32:05Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2627 3722 2006-10-16T01:32:09Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2628 3723 2006-10-16T01:32:20Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2629 3724 2006-10-16T01:32:25Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2630 3725 2006-10-16T01:32:34Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2631 3726 2006-10-16T01:32:43Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2632 3727 2006-10-16T01:32:56Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2633 3728 2006-10-16T01:33:00Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2634 3729 2006-10-16T01:33:13Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2635 3730 2006-10-16T01:33:16Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2636 3731 2006-10-16T01:33:29Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2637 3732 2006-10-16T01:33:34Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2638 3733 2006-10-16T01:33:46Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2639 3734 2006-10-16T01:33:51Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2640 3735 2006-10-16T01:34:02Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2641 3736 2006-10-16T01:34:06Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2642 3737 2006-10-16T01:34:18Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2643 3738 2006-10-16T01:34:22Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2644 3739 2006-10-16T01:34:34Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2645 3740 2006-10-16T01:34:38Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2646 3741 2006-10-16T01:34:51Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2647 3742 2006-10-16T01:34:54Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2648 3743 2006-10-16T01:35:06Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2649 3744 2006-10-16T01:35:10Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2650 3745 2006-10-16T01:35:46Z Eukesh 11 चिकित्सा लेख पुच| 2651 3746 2006-10-16T01:36:41Z Eukesh 11 {{ट्युमर}} [[Category:चिकित्सा]] 2652 3747 2006-10-16T01:38:52Z Eukesh 11 {{होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2653 3749 2006-10-16T01:40:04Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2654 3750 2006-10-16T01:40:31Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2655 3751 2006-10-16T01:40:35Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2656 3752 2006-10-16T01:40:51Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2657 3753 2006-10-16T01:40:54Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2658 3754 2006-10-16T01:41:13Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2659 3755 2006-10-16T01:41:18Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2660 3756 2006-10-16T01:41:33Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2661 3757 2006-10-16T01:41:37Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2662 3758 2006-10-16T01:41:53Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2663 3759 2006-10-16T01:41:58Z Eukesh 11 {{Template:wp/new/होलोकस्ट}} [[Category:ईतिहास]] 2664 3760 2006-10-16T01:43:29Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2665 3761 2006-10-16T01:43:35Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2666 3762 2006-10-16T01:43:42Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2667 3763 2006-10-16T01:43:56Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2668 3764 2006-10-16T01:44:11Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2669 3765 2006-10-16T01:44:15Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2670 3766 2006-10-16T01:44:38Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2671 3767 2006-10-16T01:45:01Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2672 3768 2006-10-16T01:47:15Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2673 3769 2006-10-16T01:47:24Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2674 3770 2006-10-16T01:47:34Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2675 3771 2006-10-16T01:47:48Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2676 3772 2006-10-16T01:47:53Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2677 3773 2006-10-16T01:48:05Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2678 3774 2006-10-16T01:48:08Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2679 3775 2006-10-16T01:48:21Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2680 3776 2006-10-16T01:48:25Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2681 3777 2006-10-16T01:48:37Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2682 3778 2006-10-16T01:48:40Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2683 3779 2006-10-16T01:48:52Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2684 3780 2006-10-16T01:48:56Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2685 3781 2006-10-16T01:49:08Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2686 3782 2006-10-16T01:49:12Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2687 3783 2006-10-16T01:49:25Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2688 3784 2006-10-16T01:49:30Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2689 3785 2006-10-16T01:49:42Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2690 3786 2006-10-16T01:49:46Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2691 3787 2006-10-16T01:50:01Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2692 3788 2006-10-16T01:50:18Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2693 3789 2006-10-16T01:50:31Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2694 3790 2006-10-16T01:50:37Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2695 3791 2006-10-16T01:50:47Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2696 3792 2006-10-16T01:51:00Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2697 3793 2006-10-16T01:51:04Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2698 3794 2006-10-16T01:51:19Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2699 3795 2006-10-16T01:51:23Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2700 3796 2006-10-16T01:51:36Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2701 3797 2006-10-16T01:51:44Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2702 3798 2006-10-16T01:51:56Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2703 3799 2006-10-16T01:52:00Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2704 3800 2006-10-16T01:52:12Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2705 3801 2006-10-16T01:52:16Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2706 3802 2006-10-16T01:52:28Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2707 3803 2006-10-16T01:52:32Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2708 3804 2006-10-16T01:52:45Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2709 3805 2006-10-16T01:52:48Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2710 3806 2006-10-16T01:53:01Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2711 3807 2006-10-16T01:53:05Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2712 3808 2006-10-16T01:53:17Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2713 3809 2006-10-16T01:53:21Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2714 3810 2006-10-16T01:53:33Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2715 3811 2006-10-16T01:53:37Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2716 3812 2006-10-16T01:53:50Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2717 3813 2006-10-16T01:53:54Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2718 3814 2006-10-16T01:54:07Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2719 3815 2006-10-16T01:54:10Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2720 3816 2006-10-16T01:54:23Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2721 3817 2006-10-16T01:54:27Z Eukesh 11 {{द सिम्प्सनस्}} [[Category:द सिम्प्सनस्]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2722 3818 2006-10-16T01:55:06Z Eukesh 11 द सिम्प्सनस् यागु लेख पुच:| 2723 3819 2006-10-16T15:28:57Z Eukesh 11 चित्रकार व वास्तुशास्त्री 2724 3824 2006-10-16T15:32:50Z Eukesh 11 <br clear=all /> {| style="margin:0 auto;" align=center width="80%" class="toccolours" !style="background:#ccccff"|<big>[[:Category:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार|वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]]</big> |- |align=center|[[पल सेजान्]] - [[ले कोर्बुसिएर्]] - [[साल्भाडोर् डाली]] - [[अल्ब्रेच्त् डेरर]] - '''[[विन्सेन्ट भ्यान ग:]]''' - [[फ्रान्सिस्को गोया]] - [[विलियम होगर्थ्]] - [[होकुसाइ]] - [[फ्रीदा काह्लो]] - [[एडुआर्ड म्यानेट]] - [[हेन्री मतिसे]] - '''[[माइकेलएन्जेलो]]''' - [[क्लाउड मोनेट]] - [[ज्योर्जिया ओ'कीफ]] - '''[[पाब्लो पिकासो]]''' - [[ज्याक्सन पोलक]] - [[निकोलस पुस्सिन]] - [[राफेल]] - '''[[रेम्ब्रान्ड्ट]]''' - [[अगस्त् रोडिन]] - [[लुद्विग् माइस् भ्यान डर रोहे]] - [[डिएगो भेलाज्कुएज्]] - [[जोहानेस भर्मीर]] - [[भर्चुभियस]] - [[एन्डी वार्होल]] - [[क्रीस्टोफर व्रेन]] - [[फ्र्यान्क लोईड राइट]] |- |} 2725 3823 2006-10-16T15:32:13Z Eukesh 11 [[Template:चित्रकार व वास्तुशास्त्री]] moved to [[Template:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] #REDIRECT [[Template:वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार]] 2726 3852 2006-10-16T15:42:42Z Eukesh 11 वास्तुशास्त्री, शील्पकार व चित्रकार 2727 3954 2006-10-16T16:13:05Z Eukesh 11 <br clear=all /> {| style="margin:0 auto;" align=center width="80%" class="toccolours" !style="background:#ccccff"|<big>[[:Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी|मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]]</big> |- |align=center|[[एक्युट कोरोनरी सिन्ड्रम]] - [[एक्युट पन्क्रीयाटाईटिस]] - [[एक्युट रेनल फेल्युअर]] - [[स्याक्क सासं ल्हाईगु]] - [[फे एम्बोलिस्म]] - [[एनाफाईल्याक्सिस]] - [[एन्जियोईडिमा]] - [[एओर्टिक डिसेक्सन्स्]] - [[एपिन्डिसाईटिस]] - [[एस्फिक्सिया]] - [[असिस्टोले]] - [[ब्याक्टेरियल मेनिन्जाईटिस]] - [[हि बाहा वैगु]] - [[कब्जियत]] - [[आन्द्राले हो गन्यु]] - [[पुनांजुगु घा]] - [[रसायनं पुइगु]] - [[नुगया अरेस्ट]] - [[नुगया अरिथेमिया]] - [[नुगया टेम्पोनाड]] - [[नुगलंसुरु जुइगु शक]] - [[नुग वो फोक्सोया अरेस्ट]] - [[न्हेपुलि रक्तश्राव]] - [[भ्वपुइगु]] - [[क्रोनिक प्यान्क्रीयाटाईटिस]] - [[क्लिनिकल डिप्रेसन]] - [[ख्वांउया पुइगु]] - [[कर्ड प्रोल्याप्स]] - [[वायागु आकस्मिक उपचार]] - [[मधुमेह कोमा]] - [[मधुमेही केटोएसिडोसिस्]] - [[डिस्टृब्युटिभ शक]] - [[कोबाइगु]] - [[वासया अपोमात्रा]] - [[ईक्लेम्प्सिया]] - [[ईक्टोपिक प्रेग्नेन्सी]] - [[विध्युतिय शक]] - [[ईपिग्लटिस]] - [[एपिलेप्सिया पार्सियालिस कन्टिनुआ]] - [[च्वापुंगायु]] - [[गाईनेकोलोजिकल हिबाहा]] - [[हेल्प सिन्ड्रोम]] - [[क्वाया बेहोस जुइगु]] - [[हाईड्रोसेफालस]] - [[हाईपरेमेसिस् ग्राभिडेरम]] - [[हाईपरकेलेमिया]] - [[हाईपरटेन्सिभ आकस्मिक]] - [[म्ह: पुइगु]] - [[हाईपरग्लाईसेमिया]] - [[म्ह: ख्वाउसे चोनिगु]] - [[हाईपोभोलेमिया]] - [[दुने हि बाहा वैगु]] - [[किटोएसिडोसिस]] - [[ल्याक्टिक किटोएसिडोसिस्]] - [[सिईगु वासमात्रा]] - [[मेलिग्नेन्ट अप्प्व हिचाप]] - [[मेनिन्जाईटिस]] - [[नुगसेंया इन्फार्क्सन]] - [[न्युरोग्लाईकोपेनिया]] - [[न्युरोलेप्टिक मेलिग्नेन्ट सिन्ड्रोम]] - [[ननकिटोटिक हाईपरओस्मोलर कोमा]] - [[अब्स्टेट्रीकल हिबाहा]] - [[स्प्लेनेक्टोमी धुन्का यागु ल्वे]] - [[प्याराफिमोसिस]] - [[लिङ्गया फ्र्याक्चर]] - [[पेरिटोनाईटिस]] - [[भौतिकघापा]] - [[प्लासेन्टा एक्रेटा]] - [[न्युमोथोर्याक्स]] - [[पोजिसनल एस्फेक्सिया]] - [[बुईधुन्कायागु टोक्सेमिया]] - [[प्रीइक्लेम्प्सिया]] - [[प्रायापिसम]] - [[साईकोटिक डिप्रेसन]] - [[फोक्सो अरेस्ट]] - [[फोक्सो ज्या मयाईगु]] - [[सेप्सिस]] - [[सेप्टिक आर्थ्राइटिस]] - [[सेप्टिक शक]] - [[सेक्स्युअल एसल्ट]] - [[शक]] - [[सामान्य त्रायज व र्यापिड उपचार]] - [[सोय एलर्जी]] - [[जं सें कम्प्रेसन]] - [[स्टेटस ईपिलेप्टिकस]] - [[स्ट्रोक]] - [[टेम्पोरल धमनीत]] - [[टेस्टिकुलर टोर्सन]] - [[टक्सिक ईपिडर्मल नेक्रोलाईटिस]] - [[टक्सिड्रम]] - [[ट्र्याम्पल]] - [[ट्रायज]] - [[ट्रायज ट्याग]] - [[युटेराईन रप्चर]] - [[भेन्ट्रीकुलर फिब्रीलेसन]] - [[वाटरशेड स्ट्रोक]] - [[घा]] |- |} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2728 3854 2006-10-16T15:55:14Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2729 3855 2006-10-16T15:55:44Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2730 3856 2006-10-16T15:55:51Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2731 3857 2006-10-16T15:56:05Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2732 3858 2006-10-16T15:56:09Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2733 3859 2006-10-16T15:56:13Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2734 3860 2006-10-16T15:56:27Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2735 3861 2006-10-16T15:56:43Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2736 3862 2006-10-16T15:56:47Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2737 3863 2006-10-16T15:57:01Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2738 3864 2006-10-16T15:57:07Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2739 3865 2006-10-16T15:57:19Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2740 3866 2006-10-16T15:57:24Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2741 3867 2006-10-16T15:57:36Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2742 3868 2006-10-16T15:57:40Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2743 3869 2006-10-16T15:57:53Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2744 3870 2006-10-16T15:57:57Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2745 3871 2006-10-16T15:58:11Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2746 3872 2006-10-16T15:58:14Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2747 3873 2006-10-16T15:58:28Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2748 3874 2006-10-16T15:58:33Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2749 3875 2006-10-16T15:58:47Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2750 3876 2006-10-16T15:58:50Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2751 3877 2006-10-16T15:59:05Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2752 3878 2006-10-16T15:59:09Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2753 3879 2006-10-16T15:59:23Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2754 3880 2006-10-16T15:59:29Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2755 3881 2006-10-16T15:59:44Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2756 3882 2006-10-16T15:59:48Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2757 3883 2006-10-16T16:00:03Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2758 3884 2006-10-16T16:00:07Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2759 3885 2006-10-16T16:00:21Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2760 3886 2006-10-16T16:00:24Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2761 3887 2006-10-16T16:00:39Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2762 3888 2006-10-16T16:00:44Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2763 3889 2006-10-16T16:00:58Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2764 3890 2006-10-16T16:01:02Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2765 3891 2006-10-16T16:01:19Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2766 3892 2006-10-16T16:01:22Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2767 3893 2006-10-16T16:01:35Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2768 3894 2006-10-16T16:01:39Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2769 3895 2006-10-16T16:01:54Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2770 3896 2006-10-16T16:01:58Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2771 3897 2006-10-16T16:02:12Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2772 3898 2006-10-16T16:02:16Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2773 3899 2006-10-16T16:02:29Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2774 3900 2006-10-16T16:02:32Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2775 3901 2006-10-16T16:02:47Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2776 3902 2006-10-16T16:02:50Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2777 3903 2006-10-16T16:03:07Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2778 3904 2006-10-16T16:03:28Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2779 3905 2006-10-16T16:03:41Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2780 3906 2006-10-16T16:03:46Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2781 3907 2006-10-16T16:04:01Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2782 3908 2006-10-16T16:04:06Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2783 3909 2006-10-16T16:04:19Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2784 3910 2006-10-16T16:04:22Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2785 3911 2006-10-16T16:04:37Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2786 3912 2006-10-16T16:04:40Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2787 3913 2006-10-16T16:04:55Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2788 3952 2006-10-16T16:11:45Z Eukesh 11 [[ननकिटोटिक हाईपरओस्मोलर]] moved to [[ननकिटोटिक हाईपरओस्मोलर कोमा]] {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2789 3915 2006-10-16T16:05:14Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2790 3916 2006-10-16T16:05:23Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2791 3917 2006-10-16T16:05:32Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2792 3918 2006-10-16T16:05:47Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2793 3919 2006-10-16T16:05:50Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2794 3920 2006-10-16T16:06:05Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2795 3921 2006-10-16T16:06:09Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2796 3922 2006-10-16T16:06:26Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2797 3923 2006-10-16T16:06:31Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2798 3924 2006-10-16T16:06:45Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2799 3925 2006-10-16T16:06:49Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2800 3926 2006-10-16T16:07:03Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2801 3927 2006-10-16T16:07:07Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2802 3928 2006-10-16T16:07:21Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2803 3929 2006-10-16T16:07:25Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2804 3930 2006-10-16T16:07:38Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2805 3931 2006-10-16T16:07:42Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2806 3932 2006-10-16T16:07:56Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2807 3933 2006-10-16T16:08:00Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2808 3934 2006-10-16T16:08:14Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2809 3935 2006-10-16T16:08:18Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2810 3936 2006-10-16T16:08:35Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2811 3937 2006-10-16T16:08:37Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2812 3938 2006-10-16T16:08:51Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2813 3939 2006-10-16T16:08:54Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2814 3940 2006-10-16T16:09:08Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2815 3941 2006-10-16T16:09:12Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2816 3942 2006-10-16T16:09:16Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2817 3943 2006-10-16T16:09:30Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2818 3944 2006-10-16T16:09:47Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2819 3945 2006-10-16T16:09:51Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2820 3946 2006-10-16T16:10:06Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2821 3947 2006-10-16T16:10:09Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2822 3948 2006-10-16T16:10:26Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2823 3949 2006-10-16T16:10:29Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2824 3950 2006-10-16T16:11:02Z Eukesh 11 मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी 2825 3951 2006-10-16T16:11:07Z Eukesh 11 {{मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी}} [[Category:मेडिकल ईमर्जेन्सी]] 2826 3953 2006-10-16T16:11:45Z Eukesh 11 [[ननकिटोटिक हाईपरओस्मोलर]] moved to [[ननकिटोटिक हाईपरओस्मोलर कोमा]] #REDIRECT [[ननकिटोटिक हाईपरओस्मोलर कोमा]] 2827 3955 2006-10-16T16:42:01Z Eukesh 11 {| style="background:#ccccff; border: 0px; padding: 0px; spacing:0px;width:100%;" |- | width="60%"; style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;" | '''[[:Category:दे|दे]]''' |} <div class="NavContent" align=left> {| |align="right" style="font-size: 120%;" |'''[[अफ्रीका]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[अल्जेरिया]] - [[एंगोला]] - [[बेनिन]] - [[बोत्स्वाना]] - [[बुर्किना फासो]] - [[बुरुन्डी]] - [[क्यामेरून]] - [[केप भर्डे]] - [[मध्य अफ्रीकी गणतन्त्र]] - [[चाड]] - [[कोमोरोस]] - [[प्रजातान्तृक गणतन्त्र कंगो]] - [[गणतन्त्र कंगो]] - [[कोटे डिवोरे]] - [[जिबुटी]] - [[मिश्र]] - [[इक्वेटोरियल गिनिया]] - [[एरितृया]] - [[इथीयोपीया]] - [[गाबोन]] - [[गाम्बिया]] - [[घाना]] - [[गिनिया]] - [[गिनिया बिसाउ]] - [[केन्या]] - [[लेसोथो]] - [[लाईबेरिया]] - [[लिब्या]] - [[माडागास्कर]] - [[मलावी]] - [[माली]] - [[ईस्लामी गणतन्त्र माउरीतानीया]] - [[मरिसस्]] - [[मोरक्को]] - [[मोजाम्बिक]] - [[नामिबिया]] - [[नाईजर]] - [[नाईजेरिया]] - [[रुवान्डा]] - [[साओ तोमे व प्रीन्सिप्]] - [[सेनेगल]] - [[सीशील्स]] - [[सीयेरा लीओन]] - [[सोमालिया]] - [[दक्षिण अफ्रीका]] - [[सुडान]]- [[स्वाजिल्याण्ड]] - [[तान्जानिया]] - [[टोगो]] - [[ट्युनिसिया]] - [[युगान्डा]] - [[जाम्बिया]] - [[जिम्बाब्वे]] |- |- |align="right" style="font-size: 120%;" |'''[[एसिया]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"| [[अफगानिस्तान]]- [[आर्मेनिया]]- [[अजरबैजान]]- [[बहरिन]]- [[बंगलादेश]] - [[भूटान]]- [[ब्रुनाई]]- [[क्याम्बोडिया]]- [[चीन]]- [[साईप्रस्]]- [[पूर्व टिमोर]]- [[ज्योर्जिया]]- [[भारत]]- [[गणतन्त्र ईन्डोनेसिया]]- [[ईरान]]- [[ईराक]]- [[ईजराईल]]- [[जापान]]- [[जोर्डन]]- [[कजाख्स्तान]]- [[उत्तर कोरिया]]- [[दक्षिण कोरिया]]- [[कुवेत]]- [[कीर्गीस्तान]]- [[लाओस]]- [[लेबानन्]]- [[मलेसिया]]- [[मालद्विप]]- [[मंगोलिया]]- [[बर्मा]]- [[नेपाल]]- [[ओमान]]- [[पाकिस्तान]]- [[फिलिपिन्स]]- [[कतार]]- [[रुस]]- [[साउदी अरबिया]]- [[सिंगापुर]]- [[श्रीलंका]]- [[सीरिया]]- [[ताजिकिस्तान]]- [[थाईल्याण्ड]]- [[टर्की]]- [[तुर्केमिनिस्तान]]- [[संयुक्त अरब ईमिरेट्स्]]- [[उज्बेकिस्तान]]- [[भियेत्नाम]]- [[गणतन्त्र यमन]] |- |- |valign="top" align=right style="font-size: 120%;" |'''[[युरोप]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"| [[अल्बानिया]]- [[एण्डोरा]]- [[अष्ट्रीया]]- [[बेलारुस]]- [[बेल्जियम]]- [[बोस्निया व हर्जगोविना]]- [[बुल्गेरिया]]- [[क्रोएसिया]]- [[चेक रिपब्लिक]]- [[डेनमार्क]]- [[ईस्टोनिया]]- [[फिनल्याण्ड]]- [[फ्रान्स]]- [[जर्मनी]]- [[ग्रीस]]- [[हंगेरी]]- [[आईसल्याण्ड]]- [[आयरल्याण्ड]]- [[ईटाली]]- [[लात्भिया]]- [[लीश्टेनस्टाईन]]- [[लिथुआनिया]]- [[लक्जेम्बर्ग]]- [[म्यासेडोनिया]]- [[माल्टा]]- [[मोल्दोवा]]- [[मोनाको]]- [[नेडरल्याण्ड]]- [[नर्वे]]-[[पोल्याण्ड]]- [[पोर्चुगल]]-[[रोमानिया]]- [[रुस]]- [[सान मरिनो]]- [[सर्बिया]]- [[स्लोभाकिया]]- [[स्लोभेनिया]]- [[स्पेन]]- [[स्वीडेन]]- [[स्वीट्जरल्याण्ड]]- [[टर्की]]- [[युक्रेन]]- [[बेलायत]]- [[भेटिकन सिटी]]- [[संघीय गणतन्त्र युगोस्लाभिया]] |- |- |align="right" style="font-size: 120%;" |'''[[उत्तर अमेरिका]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[क्यानाडा]]- [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]- [[मेक्सिको]]- [[ग्वाटेमाला]]- [[बेलिज]]- [[होन्डुरस]]- [[एल साल्भाडोर]]- [[निकारागुवा]]- [[कोस्टा रिका]]- [[पनामा]]- [[क्युबा]]- [[जमैका]]- [[डोमिनिकन गणतन्त्र]]- [[बहामास]] - [[हेइटी]]- [[बार्बाडोस]]- [[टृनिड्याड व टोबागो]]- [[डोमिनिका]]- [[ग्रेनेडा]]- [[सन्त कित्त्स् व नेभिस् गणराज्य]]- [[सन्त लुसिया]]- [[सन्त भिन्सेन्ट व ग्रेनाडिन्स्]]- [[एन्टिगुवा व बार्बुडा]] |- |- |align="right" style="font-size: 120%;" |'''[[दक्षिण अमेरिका]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[अर्जेन्टिना]]- [[बोलिभिया]]- [[ब्राजिल]]- [[चिली]]- [[कोलम्बिया]]- [[ईक्वेडोर]]- [[पाराग्वे]]- [[पेरु]]- [[उरुग्वे]]-[[भेनेजुएला]]- [[गायना]]- [[सुरिनाम]]- [[फ्रेन्च गायना]] |- |- |align="right" style="font-size: 120%;" | '''[[ओसेनिया]]:''' |style="font-size: 110%;"|[[अस्ट्रेलिया]]- [[न्हु जील्याण्ड]]- [[संघीय गनतन्त्र माईक्रोनेसिया]]- [[मार्शल टापू]]-[[पलाउ]]- [[नाउरु]]- [[सोलोमन टापू]]- [[भानुआटु]]- [[फिजी]]- [[तुभालु]]- [[किरिबाती]]-[[सामोआ]]- [[टोङ्गा]]- [[नायु]]- [[कूक टापू]]- [[पपुवा न्हु गिनिया]] |- | |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" | |<div style="float:right">{{Tnavbar|दे|mini=1}}</div> |} </div> </div> 2828 3958 2006-10-16T16:44:09Z Eukesh 11 {{दे}} 2829 3960 2006-10-16T16:44:51Z Eukesh 11 {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 2830 3961 2006-10-16T16:45:19Z Eukesh 11 {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 2831 3962 2006-10-16T16:45:24Z Eukesh 11 {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 2832 3963 2006-10-16T16:45:40Z Eukesh 11 {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 2833 3964 2006-10-16T16:45:44Z Eukesh 11 {{दे}} [[Category:दे]] 2834 3966 2006-10-16T16:54:37Z Eukesh 11 == भाय परिवारत == *[[भारोपेली भाय परिवार]] *[[चिनी संदे भाय परिवार]] *[[द्रविडिय भाय परिवार]] *[[अष्ट्रो-एसियाली भाय परिवार]] *[[अफृकाली भाय परिवार]] *[[अमेरिकी भाय परिवार]] [[Category:भाय]] 2835 3967 2006-10-16T16:56:07Z Eukesh 11 '''भारोपेली भाय जहान''' छगु [[भाय परिवार]] ख:| हलिमे दक्ले अप्व मनु तेसं छ्येलिगु [[भाय]] थ्व हे भाय परिवारये ला वैइ| ==बायेज्या== थ्व भाय जहानयात भारो-फारसी व युरोपेली भाय जहानले बाये छिं| ==भाय== थ्व: भाय जहानले लाईगु भायत: थ्व कथं दु: *[[संस्कृत]] *[[अंग्रेजी भाय]] *[[खें भाय]] *[[फ्रांसे भाय]] *[[ईस्पान्योल]] *[[हिन्दी भाय]] *[[बाङ्ला भाय]] *[[मराठी भाय]] *[[भोजपुरी भाय]] *[[फारसी भाय]] [[Category:भाय]] 2836 3969 2006-10-16T16:59:32Z Eukesh 11 '''चिनि-संदे भाय परिवार''' छगु [[भाय परिवार]] ख:| भारोपेली परिवार धुंका दक्ले अप्व मनु तेसं छ्येलिगु [[भाय]]परिवार थ्व हे ख:| ==बायेज्या== थ्व भाय परिवारयात [[चिनिया भाय परिवार]] व [[संदे-बर्मेली भाय परिवार]]ले बाये छिं| चिनिया धागु छगु टोनल भाय ख:| ==भाय== थ्व: भाय जहानले लाईगु भायत: थ्व कथं दु: *[[मन्दारिन]] *[[क्यान्टोनिज]] *[[सें भाय]] *[[बर्मेली भाय]] *[[नेपाल भाषा]] *[[मंगोल भाय]] *[[गुरुङ भाय]] *[[तामाङ भाय]] *[[मगर भाय]] *[[किरांत भायत]] [[Category:भाय]] 2837 3970 2006-10-16T17:01:07Z Eukesh 11 '''द्रविडिय भाय परिवार''' छगु [[भाय परिवार]] ख:| हलिमे येक्व मनु तेसं छ्येलिगु [[भाय]] थ्व भाय परिवारये दु| ==भाय== थ्व: भाय परिवारले लाईगु भायत: थ्व कथं दु: #[[मलयालम]] #[[तमिल भाय]] #[[तेलेगु भाय]] #[[कन्नड भाय]] [[Category:भाय]] 2838 3971 2006-10-16T17:02:39Z Eukesh 11 '''अष्ट्रो-एसियाली भाय परिवार''' छगु [[भाय परिवार]] ख:| हलिमे येक्व मनु तेसं छ्येलिगु [[भाय]] थ्व भाय परिवारये दु| ==बायेज्या== थ्व भाय परिवारयात [[मोन-खमेरी भाय परिवार]] व [[मुन्डा भाय परिवार]]ले बाये छिं| ==भाय== थ्व: भाय परिवारले लाईगु भायत: थ्व कथं दु: #[[खमेर भाय]] #[[मोन भाय]] #[[सन्तली भाय]] #[[भियतनामी भाय]] [[Category:भाय]] 2839 3972 2006-10-16T17:03:48Z Eukesh 11 '''अफृकाली भाय परिवार''' छगु [[भाय परिवार]] ख:| हलिमे येक्व मनु तेसं छ्येलिगु [[भाय]] थ्व भाय परिवारये दु| थ्व भाय अफृकाले अप्व छ्येलि| ==बायेज्या== थ्व भाय परिवारयात नाइजर-कंगो, अफ्रो-एसियाली, नीलो-सहारा व खोइसान भाय परिवारले बाये छिं| ==भाय== थ्व: भाय परिवारले लाईगु भायत: थ्व कथं दु: #[[हिब्र्यु]] #[[अरबी भाय]] #[[स्वाहिली भाय]] #[[बान्टु भाय]] [[Category:भाय]] 2840 3973 2006-10-16T17:05:19Z Eukesh 11 '''अमेरिकी भाय परिवार''' छगु [[भाय परिवार]] ख:| हलिमे येक्व मनु तेसं छ्येलिगु [[भाय]] थ्व भाय परिवारये दु| ==बायेज्या== थ्व भाय परिवारयत बायेगुलि विशेषज्ञतेगु दथुइ मतभेद दु| ==भाय== थ्व: भाय परिवारले लाईगु भायत: थ्व कथं दु: #[[माया भायत]] #[[इन्का भायत]] #[[एज्टेक भायत]] #[[ईन्युइट भायत]] [[Category:भाय]] 2841 3974 2006-10-16T17:05:49Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2842 3975 2006-10-16T17:06:20Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2843 3976 2006-10-16T17:06:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2844 3977 2006-10-16T17:06:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2845 3978 2006-10-16T17:07:04Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2846 3979 2006-10-16T17:07:09Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2847 3980 2006-10-16T17:07:12Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2848 3981 2006-10-16T17:07:25Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2849 3982 2006-10-16T17:07:29Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2850 3983 2006-10-16T17:07:48Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2851 3984 2006-10-16T17:07:52Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2852 3985 2006-10-16T17:08:03Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2853 3986 2006-10-16T17:08:37Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2854 3987 2006-10-16T17:08:42Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2855 3988 2006-10-16T17:08:46Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2856 3989 2006-10-16T17:09:18Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2857 3990 2006-10-16T17:09:23Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2858 3991 2006-10-16T17:09:31Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2859 3992 2006-10-16T17:09:33Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2860 3993 2006-10-16T17:09:38Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2861 3994 2006-10-16T17:10:11Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2862 3995 2006-10-16T17:10:53Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2863 3996 2006-10-16T17:10:58Z Eukesh 11 [[Category:भाय]] 2864 3999 2006-10-16T17:21:27Z Eukesh 11 {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} थ्व [[बौद्ध]] ग्रन्थ [[तिपितक]]यागु छगु भाग ख:| *[[दीघनिकाय]] *[[मज्झिमनिकाय]] *[[संयुक्तनिकाय]] *[[अंगुत्तरनिकाय]] *[[खुद्दकनिकाय]] [[Category:बौद्ध]] 2865 4002 2006-10-16T17:25:31Z Eukesh 11 {{Wp/new/बौद्ध}} #[[सुत्त पिटक]] ##दीघनिकाय ##मज्झिमनिकाय ##संयुक्तनिकाय ##अंगुत्तरनिकाय ##खुद्दकनिकाय #[[बिनय पिटक]] ##पाराजिका पालि ##पाचित्तिय पालि ##महावग्ग ##चूलवग्ग ##परिवार पालि ##यमक ##पट्ठान #[[अभिधम्म पिटक]] ##धम्मसङ्गणी ##विभङ्ग ##कथावत्थु ##पुग्गलपञ्ञति ##धातुकथा [[Category:बौद्ध]] 2866 4016 2006-10-17T20:42:24Z Eukesh 11 [[Image:Begin, Carter and Sadat at Camp David 1978.jpg|thumb|250px|सदात (दक्ले जबे), बेजिन व कार्टर नाप क्याम्प डेविडे]] फिल्ड मार्शल '''मुहम्मद अन्वर अल-सदात''' ([[अरबी भाय]]: محمد أنورالسادات) (डिसेम्बर २५, १९१८ – अक्टोबर ६, १९८१) छम्ह मिश्री सिपाही व राजनीतिज्ञ ख:| वेकलं [[मिश्र]]यागु ३म्ह म राष्ट्रपतिया रुपे सेप्टेम्बर २८, १९७० निसें अक्टोबर ६, १९८१यागु वेकयागु हत्या तक्क ज्यायाना दिल| वेकयात इजिप्टे व पश्चीमी जगते आधुनिक मध्य पूर्वयागु दक्ले प्रभावशाली नेतामध्य छम्ह धका माने याई| ==जीवनयागु न्हापायागु कालखण्ड== सदातयागु जन्म मित अबु अल-कुम, अल-मिनुफियाह्, मिश्रले १३म्ह मचाखाचा दुगु गरिब मिश्री-सुडानी परिवारले जुल। वेकयागु अबु मिश्री व मा सुडानी ख:| वेकलं रोयल मिलिटरी एकेडमीले १९३८ले स्नातक यानादिल व वेकयात सिग्नल कोर्प्सले मनोनयन जुया दिल| वेकलं मिश्रयात बेलायती साशननं मुक्तयायेत फ्री अफिसर्स् मोभमेन्टले ब्वति कया दिल| [[द्वितीय हलिम युद्ध]]यागु ईले वेकयात बेलायतीतेसं वेकलं एक्सिस देत नाप ग्वाहालिकागु झ्वले झ्यालखानाले कुनाबिल| वेकलं १९५२यागु जुजु फारुक १ यागु गद्धीहननयागु कूले ब्वति कयादिल| आन्दोलन चर्केजुइ धुंका वेकयात रेडियो संजालयात थगु ल्हाते कया आन्दोलन न्ह्येथागु बारे जनतातेत कनिगु जिम्मा बिल| यक्व पदले ज्यायाये धुंका १९६४ले वेकयात मिश्री राष्ट्रपति गमाल अब्डल नासिरं मिश्रयागु उपराष्ट्रपति यागु पदले मनोनयन यानादिल| वेकल व पदले १९६६ तक्क व लिपा हानं १९६९ निसें १९७० तक्क ज्या याना दिल| ==नासिर काल== गमाल अब्देल नासिरयागु ईले सदत १९५४ले मिनिस्टर अफ स्टेट जुया दिल| १९५९ले वेकलं सेक्रेटरी टु द न्यासनल युनियन जुया दिल| १९६०-१९६८ले वेक संसदयागु अध्यक्ष जुया दिल|१९६४ले वेक उपरास्ट्रपति व प्रेसिडेन्सियल काउन्सिलयागु सदस्य जुया दिल| डिसेम्बर १९६९ये वेक हानं उपराष्ट्रपति जुयादिल| दछि धुंका नासेर हृदयघात जुया मदुबिले व बुखं जनतातेत कनिगु ज्या नं वेकलं याना दिल| व धुंका वेकलं थगु प्रतिद्वन्दि तेत चिका मिश्री रास्ट्रीय मिडियायागु संज्ञाये "द करेक्टिभ रिभोलुसन" याना राष्ट्रपति जुया दिल| ==राष्ट्रपतिकाल== १९७१ये सदातं [[संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ]]यागु मध्यस्तकर्ता गनर जारिंगयागु शान्ति प्रस्तावयागु पौयात मानेयाना दिल| व पौयागु कथलं ईजरायलं वारपूर्वयागु सीमाले लिहां वं सा [[ईजराईल]] नाप मिश्र पूर्ण शान्ति यायेगु जुल| व शान्ति प्रयास अमेरिका व ईजरायलयागु असहमतिंयाना बिफल जुल| सदातयात ईजरायलयागु वार्तायायेगु चाहना मिश्रयागु सैन्यशक्तिनाप स्वापूदुगु थें च्वन| १९६७ यागु ल्वापु धुंका ईजरायलं मिश्रयात सैन्यकथलं बमलागु देयागु रुपे काल| ईजरायलनं मिश्रले दुगु सोभियत सेना व सोभियत ल्वायेगु ज्याब्व हे मिश्रयागु दक्ले तधंगु बलयागु कथल काल| थ्व विचायात मखुगु धका क्येनेत सदातं सोभियततेत पिंथना छ्वल व मिश्री सेनायात बल्लाकेगु ज्या यानादिल| १९७३ले सदातं, [[सीरिया]]नापं, [[यम किप्पुर युद्ध]]ले मिश्रयागु नेतृत्व यानादिल| थ्व ल्वापुयागु न्हापायागु खण्डले मिश्रनं सिनाई पेनिन्सुला लितकाये सफल जुयादिल| तर, ईजरायली सेनायागु जेनेरल एरियल स्यारोनं नेतृत्वयाना दिगु स्वंगु डिभिजनं मिश्रीतेत लित घ्वानाछ्वल व मिश्री ३गुगु सेनायात ट्र्याप यात| थ्व ईले मिश्रयागु गठबन्धी दे सोभियत युनियनं युद्धबिराम यायेत आग्रह यात| थ्व युद्ध नं मिश्रयात अप्व बूं लित मवसां थ्व युद्धले न्हापायागु खण्डयागु सदातयागु विजय नं मिश्रयागु मोराल थाहांवल व लिपा थुकियागु हे लिच्वयागु कथलं ईजरायलं मिश्रनाप शान्ति सम्झौता यात व मिश्र नं लिपा सुयज नहर लित काये व पूर्नसंचालन याये फत:| ईजरायलीतेसं आ मिश्रयात छगु सक्षम शत्रुयागु कथलं काल| अत:, सदातं ईजरायलयागु मिखाले मिश्रयागु राजनैतिक महत्व उजागर याना दिल| थ्व युद्धयागु लिपा-लिपातक्क नं सदात "हिरो अफ द क्रसिंग"यागु नामं प्रसिद्ध जुया च्वन| नोभेम्बर १९, १९७७ले सदात औपचारिक कथलं ईजरायल झाया अन वनिम्ह दक्ले न्हापास्म्ह अरब नेता जुया दिल| वेकलं ईजरायली संसद [[नेस्सेट]], जेरुसालेमे अरब-ईजरायल ल्वापूयागु संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघछ्येला शान्ति हेगु खें नवाना दिल| [[Category:जीवनी]] [[ar:محمد أنور السادات]] [[bg:Ануар Садат]] [[ca:Anwar el-Sadat]] [[da:Anwar Sadat]] [[de:Anwar as-Sadat]] [[et:Anwār as-Sadāt]] [[es:Anwar el-Sadat]] [[fr:Anouar el-Sadate]] [[ko:안와르 사다트]] [[hr:Anwar el-Sadat]] [[id:Anwar Sadat]] [[is:Anwar Sadat]] [[it:Anwar al-Sadat]] [[he:אנואר סאדאת]] [[hu:Anvar Szadat]] [[ms:Anwar Sadat]] [[nl:Anwar Sadat]] [[ja:アンワル・アッ＝サーダート]] [[no:Anwar Sadat]] [[pl:Anwar Sadat]] [[pt:Anwar Sadat]] [[ro:Anwar Sadat]] [[ru:Садат, Анвар]] [[sl:Anvar Sadat]] [[sr:Анвар Садат]] [[fi:Anwar Sadat]] [[sv:Anwar Sadat]] [[th:อันวาร์ ซาดัต]] [[tr:Enver Sedat]] [[zh:萨达特]] 2867 4017 2006-10-17T20:59:15Z Eukesh 11 <div style="float:right;margin-left:1em"> [[Image:P_vip.png|70px|Icon]] </div>'''जीवनी''' मनुयागु बारेले च्वयातगु खंयागु आधारे देकिगु लेख, संकिपा व मेमेगु कथंयागु मिडियायागु छगु विधा ख:| जीवनी धातेंयापिं मनुतेगु व काल्पनिकमनुतेगु जुइ फु तर अप्वकथलं थुकित धाथेंयापिं मनुतेगु जीवयागु लेखयागु रुपे काइ| 2868 4018 2006-10-17T21:00:26Z Eukesh 11 <div style="float:right;margin-left:1em"> [[Image:P_vip.png|70px|Icon]] </div>'''जीवनी''' मनुयागु बारेले च्वयातगु खंयागु आधारे देकिगु लेख, संकिपा व मेमेगु कथंयागु मिडियायागु छगु विधा ख:| जीवनी धातेंयापिं मनुतेगु व काल्पनिकमनुतेगु जुइ फु तर अप्वकथलं थुकित धाथेंयापिं मनुतेगु जीवयागु लेखयागु रुपे काइ| 2869 4019 2006-10-17T22:29:56Z Eukesh 11 <inputbox> type=create width=40 preload=Template:Standard content for new page editintro=Template:Instructions default= </inputbox> 2870 4020 2006-10-17T22:41:26Z 87.74.27.198 www.ppguk.org 2871 4024 2006-10-17T22:56:25Z Eukesh 11 {| align="center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' [[देवनागरी]]([[युनिकोड]])ले च्वेत मागु ज्याब्व '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ रोमननं देवनागरी युनिकोड] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवरयागु नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |}