Wikipedia http://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4 MediaWiki 1.9alpha first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk Image Image talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk 1 edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed 3464 2006-12-14T17:28:29Z Eukesh 59 Redirecting to [[पमुख पत्त]] #REDIRECT[[पमुख पत्त]] 2 950 2004-11-30T11:45:48Z Davidcannon 2 {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} 3 sysop 2564 2005-11-09T22:59:36Z MediaWiki default [[$1]] moved to [[$2]] 4 sysop 2565 2005-11-09T22:59:36Z MediaWiki default [[$1]] moved to [[$2]] over redirect 5 sysop 3388 2006-12-14T00:30:59Z Eukesh 59 /* ==CSS for Monobook skin only== '''Notice to Administrators!''' Any changes to [[Mediawiki:Monobook.css|Monobook.css]] or [[MediaWiki:Common.css|Common.css]] should be first proposed to [[Wikipedia:Village Pump]]. Furthermore, changes should probably be made in [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] rather than this page, unless there is no effect in [[MediaWiki:Common.css]]. Testing can be done on your own user Monobook.css. (In [[Mozilla]] and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], you can also test style changes dynamically with the [http://www.squarefree.com/bookmarklets/webdevel.html test styles] bookmarklet from squarefree.com. It pops up a window for adding style rules, and updates the page as you type.) Always check with the [http://jigsaw.w3.org/css-validator/validator?uri=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DMediaWiki%3AMonobook.css%26action%3Draw%26ctype%3Dtext%2Fcss&usermedium=all W3C CSS Validation Service] after any changes. Thank you. {{interwiki-all}} */ /* Donations link to be uncommented during fundraising drives */ #siteNotice { margin-top:5px; padding-left: 4px; font-style: italic; text-align: center; } /* #fundraising { text-align: center; border: 1px solid gray; padding: 5px; } */ /****************************/ /* BEGIN LIGHT BLUE SECTION */ /****************************/ /* Make all non-namespace pages have a light blue content area. This is done by setting the background color for all #content areas to light blue and then overriding it for any #content enclosed in a .ns-0 (main namespace). I then do the same for the "tab" background colors. --Lupo */ #content { background: #F8FCFF; /* a light blue */ } #content div.thumb { border-color: #F8FCFF; } .ns-0 * #content { background: white; } #mytabs li { background: #F8FCFF; } .ns-0 * #mytabs li { background: white; } #mytabs li a { background-color: #F8FCFF; } .ns-0 * #mytabs li a { background-color: white; } #p-cactions li a, #p-cactions li a:hover, #p-cactions li.selected a { background-color: #F8FCFF; } .ns-0 * #p-cactions li a { background-color: #fbfbfb; } .ns-0 * #p-cactions li.selected a, .ns-0 * #p-cactions li a:hover { background-color: white; } .ns-0 * #content div.thumb { border-color: white; } /**************************/ /* END LIGHT BLUE SECTION */ /**************************/ /* block quotations */ #content blockquote { font-size: 93.75%; /* equivalent of 15px in 16px default */ margin: 1em 1.6em; /* same indent as an unordered list */ } #content blockquote p { line-height:inherit; } /* Display "From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia" */ #siteSub { display: inline; font-size: 92%; font-weight: normal; } #bodyContent #siteSub a { color: #000; text-decoration: none; background-color: transparent; background-image: none; padding-right: 0; } /* Bold 'edit this page' link to encourage newcomers */ #ca-edit a { font-weight: bold !important; } /* Display "User $1, you are already logged in!" ([[MediaWiki:Alreadyloggedin]]) in red and bold */ div.alreadyloggedin { color: red; font-weight: bold; } @media print { /* Do not print edit link in templates using Template:Ed Do not print certain classes that shouldn't appear on paper */ .editlink, .noprint, .metadata, .dablink { display: none } #content { background: #FFFFFF; } /* white background on print */ } /* Accessibility experiment: make diff changes not just colour-based */ .diffchange { font-weight: bold; background-color: inherit; } td.diff-addedline, td.diff-deletedline, td.diff-context { font-size: 85%; color: inherit; } #pt-login { font-weight: bold; font-size: 110%; } form#userlogin { float: left; padding: 1em 1em .7em 1em; background-color: #ffffe6; border: 2px solid #fc6; color: #000; margin-right: 2em; } form#userlogin table { float: left; background-color: #ffffe6; color: #000; } p.error { font-weight: bold; } /* Class styles */ /* .toccolours added here because version in monobook/main.css wasn't being used by the print style */ .toccolours { border:1px solid #aaaaaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; font-size: 95%; } /* Remove padding from external links displayed without icon */ #bodyContent .plainlinks a {padding: 0 !important} #p-nav h5 { display: none; } .portlet a { text-decoration: none; } .portlet a:hover { text-decoration: underline; } #p-nav .pBody { padding-right: 0; } #p-nav a { display: block; width: 100%; } /* Special characters list below edit window works better without underlining */ #editpage-specialchars a { text-decoration: none; } #editpage-specialchars a:hover { text-decoration: underline; } /* If you don't want to see special characters list at all, put the following line in your User:You/monobook.css file (and remove the slash-asterisk comments) */ /* #editpage-specialchars { display: none; } */ /* Makes the background of a framed image white instead of gray. */ /* Only visible with transparent images. */ /* See #Framed_image_background_color */ div.thumb div a img { background-color:#ffffff; } /* For positioning icons at top-right, used in Templates "Spoken Article" and "Featured Article" */ div.topicon { position:absolute; z-index:100; top:10px; display: block !important; } /* try adding here, this had no effect in [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] */ .plainlinksneverexpand a.external.text:after { display: none !important } /* Standard Navigationsleisten, aka box hiding thingy from .de. Documentation at [[Wikipedia:NavFrame]]. */ div.Boxmerge, div.NavFrame { margin: 0px; padding: 2px; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; } div.Boxmerge div.NavFrame { border-style: none; border-style: hidden; } div.NavFrame + div.NavFrame { border-top-style: none; border-top-style: hidden; } div.NavPic { background-color: #ffffff; margin: 0px; padding: 2px; float: left; } div.NavFrame div.NavHead { height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%; background-color: #efefef; position:relative; } div.NavFrame p { font-size: 100%; } div.NavFrame div.NavContent { font-size: 100%; } div.NavFrame div.NavContent p { font-size: 100%; } div.NavEnd { margin: 0px; padding: 0px; line-height: 1px; clear: both; } a.NavToggle { position:absolute; top:0px; right:3px; font-weight:normal; font-size:smaller; } #coordinates { position:absolute; z-index:1; border:none; background:none; right:30px; top:3.7em; float:right; margin:0.0em; padding:0.0em; line-height:1.5em; text-align:right; text-indent:0; font-size:85%; text-transform:none; white-space:nowrap; } .portlet li { list-style-image: url("http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/18/Monobook-bullet.png"); } li.FA { list-style-image: url("http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d4/Monobook-bullet-star.png"); } #globalWrapper { font-size:14px; } h3 { font-weight: normal; font-size: 125%; } a { text-decoration:underline; } h1 { padding-bottom: 0.35em; } 6 sysop 3394 2006-12-14T16:22:56Z Eukesh 59 /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-project'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="' + 'http://new.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:translit.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript&dontcountme=s"' + '&action="raw"></script>'); function addLoadEvent(func) { if (window.addEventListener) window.addEventListener("load", func, false); else if (window.attachEvent) window.attachEvent("onload", func); } function addTranslit(editForm,textBox){ checkrt(editForm); if (textBox.addEventListener) textBox .addEventListener("keypress", processKeys, false); else if (textBox .attachEvent) textBox.attachEvent("onkeypress", processKeys); } function addTextEvent() { var editForm =document.editform; if(document.editform){ var textBox=document.editform.wpTextbox1; addTranslit(editForm,textBox); addCheckbox(editForm,textBox ); } var searchform=document.getElementById('searchform'); var searchInput=document.getElementById('searchInput'); if(searchInput) addTranslit(searchform,searchInput); } function addCheckbox(editform,textBox ){ var element = document.createElement("input"); element.setAttribute("type","checkbox"); element.setAttribute("id","realtime"); if (element.addEventListener) element.addEventListener("click", rtClick, false); else if (element.attachEvent) element.attachEvent("onclick", rtClick); var labelcheckBox = document.createTextNode('Click on the check box (Tick present) to write in Devnagari; use Esc to switch'); editform.insertBefore(element,textBox); document.getElementById("realtime").checked = realTime; editform.insertBefore(labelcheckBox,textBox); } function processKeys(event) { if (rtsupported) { if (event.keyCode == 27 && !isExplorer()) { //escape to toggle realTime = !realTime; document.getElementById("realtime").checked = realTime; } else if (realTime) translitonkey(event); } } var realTime = true; function rtClick(event) { realTime = !realTime; } var rtsupported = false; var error; function checkrt(editform){ try { /* var nav = navigator.userAgent.toUpperCase(); rtsupported = (nav.indexOf("GECKO") >= 0 || nav.indexOf("OPERA") >= 0 || nav.indexOf("SAFARI") >= 0); */ rtsupported = (document.selection != undefined) if (!rtsupported) { var element = document.createElement("TEXTAREA"); editform.appendChild(element); if (element.selectionStart != undefined) rtsupported = true; editform.removeChild(element); } } catch (error) { } } addLoadEvent(addTextEvent) 7 sysop 955 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default About 8 sysop 956 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Project:About 9 sysop 957 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default About {{SITENAME}} 10 sysop 958 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default v 11 sysop 959 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default i 12 sysop 960 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default p 13 sysop 961 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default s 14 sysop 962 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default f 15 sysop 2740 2005-12-22T07:33:35Z MediaWiki default The password for "$1" has been sent to $2. 16 sysop 964 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Password sent. 17 sysop 965 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Sorry, you have already created $1 accounts. You can't make any more. 18 sysop 966 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Action complete 19 sysop 967 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Added to watchlist 20 sysop 2918 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default The page "[[:$1]]" has been added to your [[Special:Watchlist|watchlist]]. Future changes to this page and its associated Talk page will be listed there, and the page will appear '''bolded''' in the [[Special:Recentchanges|list of recent changes]] to make it easier to pick out. If you want to remove the page from your watchlist later, click "Unwatch" in the sidebar. 21 sysop 969 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Add Group 22 sysop 970 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default + 23 sysop 2919 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default {{ns:project}}:Administrators 24 sysop 972 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default I affirm that the copyright holder of this file agrees to license it under the terms of the $1. 25 sysop 973 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default all 26 sysop 974 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default All articles 27 sysop 975 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Combined display of upload, deletion, protection, blocking, and sysop logs. You can narrow down the view by selecting a log type, the user name, or the affected page. 28 sysop 2395 2005-07-29T11:02:40Z MediaWiki default System messages 29 sysop 2920 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default '''Special:Allmessages''' cannot be used because '''$wgUseDatabaseMessages''' is switched off. 30 sysop 2921 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Your current interface language <b>$1</b> is not supported by Special:Allmessages at this site. 31 sysop 2922 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default This is a list of system messages available in the MediaWiki namespace. 32 sysop 980 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default All pages 33 sysop 981 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Display pages starting at: $1 34 sysop 982 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Choose namespace: $1 $2 35 sysop 983 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default All pages ($1 namespace) 36 sysop 984 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Next 37 sysop 985 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Previous 38 sysop 986 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Go 39 sysop 987 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default $1 to $2 40 sysop 2722 2005-12-02T04:11:58Z MediaWiki default <strong>User $1, you are already logged in!</strong><br /> 41 sysop 2786 2006-02-26T02:01:30Z MediaWiki default Cannot rollback last edit of [[$1]] by [[User:$2|$2]] ([[User talk:$2|Talk]]); someone else has edited or rolled back the page already. Last edit was by [[User:$3|$3]] ([[User talk:$3|Talk]]). 42 sysop 990 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Oldest pages 43 sysop 991 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default and 44 sysop 992 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Talk for this IP 45 sysop 2924 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default ----''This is the discussion page for an anonymous user who has not created an account yet or who does not use it. We therefore have to use the numerical IP address to identify him/her. Such an IP address can be shared by several users. If you are an anonymous user and feel that irrelevant comments have been directed at you, please [[Special:Userlogin|create an account or log in]] to avoid future confusion with other anonymous users.'' 46 sysop 2397 2005-07-29T11:02:40Z MediaWiki default Anonymous user(s) of {{SITENAME}} 47 sysop 995 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Apr 48 sysop 996 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default April 49 sysop 3466 2006-12-14T17:48:30Z Eukesh 59 लेख पत्त 50 sysop 998 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default A page of that name already exists, or the name you have chosen is not valid. Please choose another name. 51 sysop 999 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default (articles) 52 sysop 1000 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default View content page 53 sysop 1001 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default SQL query 54 sysop 1002 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default asksql level 55 sysop 1003 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Use the form below to make a direct query of the database. Use single quotes ('like this') to delimit string literals. This can often add considerable load to the server, so please use this function sparingly. 56 sysop 1004 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Aug 57 sysop 1005 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default August 58 sysop 2398 2005-07-29T11:02:40Z MediaWiki default Autoblocked because your IP address has been recently used by "[[User:$1|$1]]". The reason given for $1's block is: "'''$2'''" 59 sysop 1007 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default This action cannot be performed on this page. 60 sysop 2399 2005-07-29T11:02:40Z MediaWiki default File name has been changed to "$1". 61 sysop 1009 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default ".$1" is not a recommended image file format. 62 sysop 1010 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Invalid IP address 63 sysop 1011 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Badly formed search query 64 sysop 1012 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default We could not process your query. This is probably because you have attempted to search for a word fewer than three letters long, which is not yet supported. It could also be that you have mistyped the expression, for example "fish and and scales". Please try another query. 65 sysop 1013 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default The passwords you entered do not match. 66 sysop 1014 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Bad title 67 sysop 2790 2006-02-26T02:01:30Z MediaWiki default The requested page title was invalid, empty, or an incorrectly linked inter-language or inter-wiki title. It may contain one more characters which cannot be used in titles. 68 sysop 1016 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default (Main) 69 sysop 1017 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Can't delete this article because it contains block-compressed revisions. This is a temporary situation which the developers are well aware of, and should be fixed within a month or two. Please mark the article for deletion and wait for a developer to fix our buggy software. 70 sysop 3137 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default <big>'''Your user name or IP address has been blocked.'''</big> The block was made by $1. The reason given is ''$2''. You can contact $1 or another [[{{ns:project}}:Administrators|administrator]] to discuss the block. You cannot use the 'email this user' feature unless a valid email address is specified in your [[Special:Preferences|account preferences]]. Your current IP address is $3. Please include this in any queries. 71 sysop 1019 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default User is blocked 72 sysop 1020 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Block user 73 sysop 1021 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Block succeeded 74 sysop 2791 2006-02-26T02:01:30Z MediaWiki default [[{{ns:Special}}:Contributions/$1|$1]] has been blocked. <br />See [[{{ns:Special}}:Ipblocklist|IP block list]] to review blocks. 75 sysop 2929 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Use the form below to block write access from a specific IP address or username. This should be done only only to prevent vandalism, and in accordance with [[{{ns:project}}:Policy|policy]]. Fill in a specific reason below (for example, citing particular pages that were vandalized). 76 sysop 1024 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default block 77 sysop 2475 2005-08-19T23:32:11Z MediaWiki default $1, $2 blocked $3 ($4) 78 sysop 1907 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default blocked "[[$1]]" with an expiry time of $2 79 sysop 2930 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Block log 80 sysop 1028 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default This is a log of user blocking and unblocking actions. Automatically blocked IP addresses are not listed. See the [[Special:Ipblocklist|IP block list]] for the list of currently operational bans and blocks. 81 sysop 1029 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default block level 82 sysop 1030 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Bold text 83 sysop 1031 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Bold text 84 sysop 1032 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Book sources 85 sysop 2401 2005-07-29T11:02:40Z MediaWiki default Below is a list of links to other sites that sell new and used books, and may also have further information about books you are looking for. 86 sysop 2792 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default Broken redirects 87 sysop 2793 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default The following redirects link to non-existent pages: 88 sysop 1036 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Bug reports 89 sysop 1037 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Project:Bug_reports 90 sysop 1038 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Bureaucrat_log 91 sysop 1908 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default Changed group membership for $1 from $2 to $3 92 sysop 1040 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default The action you have requested can only be performed by sysops with "bureaucrat" status. 93 sysop 1041 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Bureaucrat access required 94 sysop 1042 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default by date 95 sysop 1043 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default by name 96 sysop 1044 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default by size 97 sysop 1045 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default The following is a cached copy of the requested page, and may not be up to date. 98 sysop 1046 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Cancel 99 sysop 1909 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Could not delete the page or file specified. (It may have already been deleted by someone else.) 100 sysop 1048 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Cannot revert edit; last contributor is only author of this page. 101 sysop 3245 2006-10-25T19:40:37Z MediaWiki default 72 Categories 102 sysop 1050 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default The following categories exist in the wiki. 103 sysop 1051 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default category 104 sysop 1052 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Articles in category "$1" 105 sysop 2934 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default There {{PLURAL:$1|is one article|are $1 articles}} in this category. 106 sysop 1054 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default There is $1 article in this category. 107 sysop 1055 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Change password 108 sysop 1056 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default changes 109 sysop 2937 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default '''Note:''' After saving, you may have to bypass your browser's cache to see the changes. '''Mozilla / Firefox / Safari:''' hold down ''Shift'' while clicking ''Reload'', or press ''Ctrl-Shift-R'' (''Cmd-Shift-R'' on Apple Mac); '''IE:''' hold ''Ctrl'' while clicking ''Refresh'', or press ''Ctrl-F5''; '''Konqueror:''': simply click the ''Reload'' button, or press ''F5''; '''Opera''' users may need to completely clear their cache in ''Tools→Preferences''. 110 sysop 2571 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default Columns: 111 sysop 1059 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Compare selected versions 112 sysop 1060 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Confirm 113 sysop 1061 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Yes, I really want to delete this. 114 sysop 1062 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Confirm delete 115 sysop 2938 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default You are about to permanently delete a page or image along with all of its history from the database. Please confirm that you intend to do this, that you understand the consequences, and that you are doing this in accordance with [[{{ns:project}}:Policy]]. 116 sysop 1064 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Confirm protection 117 sysop 1065 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Do you really want to protect this page? 118 sysop 1066 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Confirm unprotection 119 sysop 1067 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Do you really want to unprotect this page? 120 sysop 2575 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default Context per line: 121 sysop 2576 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default Lines per hit: 122 sysop 1070 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default contribs 123 sysop 1071 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default For $1 124 sysop 1072 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default User contributions 125 sysop 1073 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Content is available under $1. 126 sysop 1074 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Project:Copyrights 127 sysop 1075 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} copyright 128 sysop 2741 2005-12-22T07:33:35Z MediaWiki default Please note that all contributions to {{SITENAME}} are considered to be released under the $2 (see $1 for details). If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't submit it here.<br /> You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource. <strong>DO NOT SUBMIT COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!</strong> 129 sysop 2742 2005-12-22T07:33:35Z MediaWiki default Please note that all contributions to {{SITENAME}} may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then don't submit it here.<br /> You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see $1 for details). <strong>DO NOT SUBMIT COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!</strong> 130 sysop 1078 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Couldn't remove item '$1'... 131 sysop 2677 2005-12-02T02:38:21Z MediaWiki default Create account 132 sysop 2678 2005-12-02T02:38:21Z MediaWiki default by e-mail 133 sysop 1081 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default createaccount level 134 sysop 1082 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Page credits 135 sysop 1083 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default cur 136 sysop 1084 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Current events 137 sysop 1085 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Current events 138 sysop 1086 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Current revision 139 sysop 2941 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Current revision 140 sysop 1088 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Data 141 sysop 1089 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Database error 142 sysop 1090 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Date format 143 sysop 1091 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default A database query syntax error has occurred. This may indicate a bug in the software. The last attempted database query was: <blockquote><tt>$1</tt></blockquote> from within function "<tt>$2</tt>". MySQL returned error "<tt>$3: $4</tt>". 144 sysop 2725 2005-12-02T04:11:59Z MediaWiki default A database query syntax error has occurred. The last attempted database query was: "$1" from within function "$2". MySQL returned error "$3: $4" 145 sysop 1093 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Dead-end pages 146 sysop 1094 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Debug 147 sysop 1095 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Dec 148 sysop 1096 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default December 149 sysop 1097 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default default 150 sysop 1098 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Search in these namespaces by default: 151 sysop 1099 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} e-mail 152 sysop 1100 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Delete 153 sysop 1101 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Reason for deletion 154 sysop 1932 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default deleted "[[$1]]" 155 sysop 1103 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Deleted old revision $1. 156 sysop 1104 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default "$1" has been deleted. See $2 for a record of recent deletions. 157 sysop 1105 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default del 158 sysop 2403 2005-07-29T11:02:40Z MediaWiki default Delete all revisions of this file 159 sysop 1107 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Delete page 160 sysop 1108 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default delete level 161 sysop 1109 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default (Deleting "$1") 162 sysop 1110 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Delete this page 163 sysop 1111 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default deletion log 164 sysop 2942 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Deletion log 165 sysop 1113 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Below is a list of the most recent deletions. 166 sysop 2404 2005-07-29T11:02:41Z MediaWiki default The action you have requested can only be performed by users with "developer" capability. See $1. 167 sysop 1115 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Developer access required 168 sysop 1116 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default diff 169 sysop 1117 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default (Difference between revisions) 170 sysop 1118 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Disambiguation pages 171 sysop 2405 2005-07-29T11:02:41Z MediaWiki default Template:disambig 172 sysop 1120 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default The following pages link to a <i>disambiguation page</i>. They should link to the appropriate topic instead.<br />A page is treated as disambiguation if it is linked from $1.<br />Links from other namespaces are <i>not</i> listed here. 173 sysop 1121 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Project:General_disclaimer 174 sysop 1122 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Disclaimers 175 sysop 2406 2005-07-29T11:02:41Z MediaWiki default Double redirects 176 sysop 1124 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Each row contains links to the first and second redirect, as well as the first line of the second redirect text, usually giving the "real" target page, which the first redirect should point to. 177 sysop 2478 2005-08-19T23:32:11Z MediaWiki default Edit 178 sysop 1126 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default The edit comment was: "<i>$1</i>". 179 sysop 1127 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Edit conflict: $1 180 sysop 1128 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Edit the current version of this page 181 sysop 1129 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Edit Group 182 sysop 1130 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Editing help 183 sysop 1131 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Help:Editing 184 sysop 1132 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Editing $1 185 sysop 1133 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Editing $1 (comment) 186 sysop 1938 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default <strong>WARNING: You are editing an out-of-date revision of this page. If you save it, any changes made since this revision will be lost.</strong> 187 sysop 1135 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Editing $1 (section) 188 sysop 1136 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default edit 189 sysop 1137 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Edit this page 190 sysop 1138 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Edit User Groups 191 sysop 1139 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Disable e-mail from other users 192 sysop 2743 2005-12-22T07:33:36Z MediaWiki default <div style="width:30em">* Optional. An e-mail lets others contact you on this site without revealing your address, and lets us send you a new password if you forget it.<br /><br />Your real name will be used to give you attribution for your work.</div> 193 sysop 1141 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default From 194 sysop 1142 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Message 195 sysop 1143 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default E-mail user 196 sysop 1144 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default If this user has entered a valid e-mail address in his or her user preferences, the form below will send a single message. The e-mail address you entered in your user preferences will appear as the "From" address of the mail, so the recipient will be able to reply. 197 sysop 1145 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Send 198 sysop 1146 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default E-mail sent 199 sysop 1147 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Your e-mail message has been sent. 200 sysop 1148 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Subject 201 sysop 1149 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default To 202 sysop 1150 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default E-mail this user 203 sysop 1151 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default The file you uploaded seems to be empty. This might be due to a typo in the file name. Please check whether you really want to upload this file. 204 sysop 1152 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Enter a reason for the lock, including an estimate of when the lock will be released 205 sysop 1153 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Error 206 sysop 1154 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Error 207 sysop 1950 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default content before blanking was: '$1' 208 sysop 1156 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default page was empty 209 sysop 1951 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default content was: '$1' 210 sysop 2744 2005-12-22T07:33:36Z MediaWiki default Someone else has changed this page since you started editing it. The upper text area contains the page text as it currently exists. Your changes are shown in the lower text area. You will have to merge your changes into the existing text. <b>Only</b> the text in the upper text area will be saved when you press "Save page".<br /> 211 sysop 1159 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Export pages 212 sysop 1160 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Include only the current revision, not the full history 213 sysop 2950 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default You can export the text and editing history of a particular page or set of pages wrapped in some XML. This can be imported into another wiki using MediaWiki via the Special:Import page. To export pages, enter the titles in the text box below, one title per line, and select whether you want the current version as well as all old versions, with the page history lines, or just the current version with the info about the last edit. In the latter case you can also use a link, e.g. [[{{ns:Special}}:Export/{{int:mainpage}}]] for the page {{int:mainpage}}. 214 sysop 1162 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default http://www.example.com link title 215 sysop 1163 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default External link (remember http:// prefix) 216 sysop 1164 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default FAQ 217 sysop 1165 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Project:FAQ 218 sysop 1166 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Feb 219 sysop 1167 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default February 220 sysop 1168 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Feed: 221 sysop 1169 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Could not copy file "$1" to "$2". 222 sysop 1170 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Could not delete file "$1". 223 sysop 1171 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Summary 224 sysop 1172 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default A file with this name exists already, please check $1 if you are not sure if you want to change it. 225 sysop 1173 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default File missing 226 sysop 1174 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Filename 227 sysop 1175 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Could not find file "$1". 228 sysop 1176 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Could not rename file "$1" to "$2". 229 sysop 1177 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Source 230 sysop 1178 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Copyright status 231 sysop 1179 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default File $1 uploaded successfully. Please follow this link: $2 to the description page and fill in information about the file, such as where it came from, when it was created and by whom, and anything else you may know about it. If this is an image, you can insert it like this: <tt><nowiki>[[Image:$1|thumb|Description]]</nowiki></tt> 232 sysop 1180 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Error: could not submit form 233 sysop 1181 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Friday 234 sysop 1182 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default GEO coordinates 235 sysop 2191 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default fetching file list 236 sysop 1184 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Go 237 sysop 2192 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default <form method="get" action="http://www.google.com/search" id="googlesearch"> <input type="hidden" name="domains" value="{{SERVER}}" /> <input type="hidden" name="num" value="50" /> <input type="hidden" name="ie" value="$2" /> <input type="hidden" name="oe" value="$2" /> <input type="text" name="q" size="31" maxlength="255" value="$1" /> <input type="submit" name="btnG" value="$3" /> <div> <input type="radio" name="sitesearch" id="gwiki" value="{{SERVER}}" checked="checked" /><label for="gwiki">{{SITENAME}}</label> <input type="radio" name="sitesearch" id="gWWW" value="" /><label for="gWWW">WWW</label> </div> </form> 238 sysop 1186 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Fill in from browser 239 sysop 1187 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Headline text 240 sysop 1188 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Level 2 headline 241 sysop 1189 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Help 242 sysop 1190 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Help:Contents 243 sysop 2418 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default Hide 244 sysop 1192 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default hide 245 sysop 1193 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default hist 246 sysop 1194 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Diff selection: mark the radio boxes of the versions to compare and hit enter or the button at the bottom.<br /> Legend: (cur) = difference with current version, (last) = difference with preceding version, M = minor edit. 247 sysop 1195 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Page history 248 sysop 1196 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default - 249 sysop 1197 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default History 250 sysop 2798 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default Warning: The page you are about to delete has a history: 251 sysop 1199 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Horizontal line (use sparingly) 252 sysop 1200 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Ignore warning and save file anyway. 253 sysop 1201 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default The filename "$1" contains characters that are not allowed in page titles. Please rename the file and try uploading it again. 254 sysop 1202 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Show all images with names matching 255 sysop 1203 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Search 256 sysop 1204 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Example.jpg 257 sysop 1205 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Embedded image 258 sysop 2218 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Links 259 sysop 2219 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default File list 260 sysop 2971 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Below is a list of '''$1''' {{plural:$1|file|files}} sorted $2. 261 sysop 2799 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default Limit images on image description pages to: 262 sysop 1210 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default View image page 263 sysop 1211 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Revert to earlier version was successful. 264 sysop 1212 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default del 265 sysop 1213 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default desc 266 sysop 2222 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. <br /><i>Click on date to see the file uploaded on that date</i>. 267 sysop 2419 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default File history 268 sysop 2420 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default Legend: (desc) = show/edit file description. 269 sysop 1217 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Import pages 270 sysop 1218 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Import failed: $1 271 sysop 1219 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Conflicting history revision exists (may have imported this page before) 272 sysop 1220 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Empty or no text 273 sysop 1221 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Import succeeded! 274 sysop 1222 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Please export the file from the source wiki using the Special:Export utility, save it to your disk and upload it here. 275 sysop 1223 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Information 276 sysop 1224 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Click a button to get an example text 277 sysop 1225 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Please enter the text you want to be formatted.\n It will be shown in the infobox for copy and pasting.\nExample:\n$1\nwill become:\n$2 278 sysop 1226 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Information for page 279 sysop 1227 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Internal error 280 sysop 1228 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Interlanguage links 281 sysop 2745 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default Invalid IP range. 282 sysop 2229 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default IP Address 283 sysop 1231 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Expiry time invalid. 284 sysop 1232 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Expiry 285 sysop 1233 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default List of blocked IP addresses and usernames 286 sysop 1234 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Reason 287 sysop 1235 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Block this user 288 sysop 1236 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Unblock this address 289 sysop 2234 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default "[[$1]]" unblocked 290 sysop 1238 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default ISBN 291 sysop 1239 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default redirect page 292 sysop 1240 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Italic text 293 sysop 1241 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Italic text 294 sysop 1242 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Problem with item '$1', invalid name... 295 sysop 1243 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Jan 296 sysop 1244 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default January 297 sysop 1245 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Jul 298 sysop 1246 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default July 299 sysop 1247 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Jun 300 sysop 1248 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default June 301 sysop 2987 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default It is recommended that files do not exceed $1 bytes in size; this file is $2 bytes 302 sysop 1250 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default last 303 sysop 1251 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default This page was last modified $1. 304 sysop 1252 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default This page was last modified $1 by $2. 305 sysop 1253 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Line $1: 306 sysop 1254 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Link title 307 sysop 1255 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Internal link 308 sysop 1256 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default (List of links) 309 sysop 3169 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default The following pages link to '''[[:$1]]''': 310 sysop 2236 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default The following pages link to this file: 311 sysop 1259 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default /^([a-z]+)(.*)$/sD 312 sysop 1260 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Admins list 313 sysop 1261 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default list 314 sysop 1262 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default cont. 315 sysop 1263 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default User list 316 sysop 1264 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Loading page history 317 sysop 1265 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default loading revision for diff 318 sysop 2237 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Local time 319 sysop 1267 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Lock database 320 sysop 1268 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Yes, I really want to lock the database. 321 sysop 1269 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Lock database 322 sysop 1270 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Database lock succeeded 323 sysop 3171 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default The database has been locked. <br />Remember to [[Special:Unlockdb|remove the lock]] after your maintenance is complete. 324 sysop 1272 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Locking the database will suspend the ability of all users to edit pages, change their preferences, edit their watchlists, and other things requiring changes in the database. Please confirm that this is what you intend to do, and that you will unlock the database when your maintenance is done. 325 sysop 1273 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default You did not check the confirmation box. 326 sysop 1274 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Logs 327 sysop 1275 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Log in 328 sysop 2689 2005-12-02T02:38:22Z MediaWiki default 329 sysop 1277 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Login error 330 sysop 1278 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default User login 331 sysop 1279 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default <b>There has been a problem with your login.</b><br />Try again! 332 sysop 1280 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default You must have cookies enabled to log in to {{SITENAME}}. 333 sysop 1281 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default You must [[special:Userlogin|login]] to view other pages. 334 sysop 1282 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Login Required 335 sysop 2690 2005-12-02T02:38:22Z MediaWiki default '''You are now logged in to {{SITENAME}} as "$1".''' 336 sysop 1284 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Login successful 337 sysop 1285 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Log out 338 sysop 2728 2005-12-02T04:12:00Z MediaWiki default <strong>You are now logged out.</strong><br /> You can continue to use {{SITENAME}} anonymously, or you can log in again as the same or as a different user. Note that some pages may continue to be displayed as if you were still logged in, until you clear your browser cache. 339 sysop 1287 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default User logout 340 sysop 1288 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Orphaned pages 341 sysop 1289 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Long pages 342 sysop 2239 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default <strong>WARNING: This page is $1 kilobytes long; some browsers may have problems editing pages approaching or longer than 32kb. Please consider breaking the page into smaller sections.</strong> 343 sysop 1291 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Error sending mail: $1 344 sysop 2692 2005-12-02T02:38:22Z MediaWiki default E-mail password 345 sysop 1293 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default No send address 346 sysop 2240 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default You must be [[Special:Userlogin|logged in]] and have a valid e-mail address in your [[Special:Preferences|preferences]] to send e-mail to other users. 347 sysop 3463 2006-12-14T17:27:34Z Eukesh 59 पमुख पत्त 348 sysop 2992 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Consult the [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents User's Guide] for information on using the wiki software. == Getting started == * [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list] * [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ] * [http://mail.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list] 349 sysop 2847 2006-03-28T06:24:30Z MediaWiki default <big>'''MediaWiki has been successfully installed.'''</big> 350 sysop 1298 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Maintenance page 351 sysop 1299 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Back to Maintenance Page 352 sysop 1300 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default This page includes several handy tools for everyday maintenance. Some of these functions tend to stress the database, so please do not hit reload after every item you fixed ;-) 353 sysop 1301 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Make a user into a sysop 354 sysop 1302 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default <b>User "$1" could not be made into a sysop. (Did you enter the name correctly?)</b> 355 sysop 1303 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Name of the user: 356 sysop 1304 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default <b>User "$1" is now a sysop</b> 357 sysop 1305 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Make this user into a sysop 358 sysop 1306 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default This form is used by bureaucrats to turn ordinary users into administrators. Type the name of the user in the box and press the button to make the user an administrator 359 sysop 1307 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Make a user into a sysop 360 sysop 1308 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Mar 361 sysop 1309 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default March 362 sysop 1310 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Mark as patrolled 363 sysop 2241 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default [$1] 364 sysop 1312 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Mark this article as patrolled 365 sysop 1313 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Marked as patrolled 366 sysop 1314 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default The selected revision has been marked as patrolled. 367 sysop 1315 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default The query "$1" matched $2 page titles and the text of $3 pages. 368 sysop 2242 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Math 369 sysop 1317 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Can't write to or create math output directory 370 sysop 1318 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Can't write to or create math temp directory 371 sysop 1319 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Failed to parse 372 sysop 1320 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default PNG conversion failed; check for correct installation of latex, dvips, gs, and convert 373 sysop 1321 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default lexing error 374 sysop 1322 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure. 375 sysop 1323 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Insert formula here 376 sysop 1324 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default syntax error 377 sysop 1325 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Mathematical formula (LaTeX) 378 sysop 1326 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default unknown error 379 sysop 2806 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default unknown function 380 sysop 1328 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default May 381 sysop 1329 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default May 382 sysop 2243 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Example.ogg 383 sysop 1331 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Media file link 384 sysop 2423 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default File names must be at least three letters. 385 sysop 2424 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default This is a minor edit 386 sysop 1334 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default m 387 sysop 1335 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Pages with misspellings 388 sysop 1336 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default List of common misspellings 389 sysop 1337 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default The following pages contain a common misspelling, which are listed on $1. The correct spelling might be given (like this). 390 sysop 2517 2005-09-05T09:47:18Z MediaWiki default The database did not find the text of a page that it should have found, named "$1". This is usually caused by following an outdated diff or history link to a page that has been deleted. If this is not the case, you may have found a bug in the software. Please report this to an administrator, making note of the URL. 391 sysop 2748 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default <b>Missing image</b><br /><i>$1</i> 392 sysop 1340 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Missing Language Links 393 sysop 1341 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Find missing language links for 394 sysop 1342 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default These pages do <i>not</i> link to their counterpart in $1. Redirects and subpages are <i>not</i> shown. 395 sysop 1343 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Monday 396 sysop 1344 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default More... 397 sysop 1345 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Move 398 sysop 1346 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Move page 399 sysop 1347 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default moved to 400 sysop 1348 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Not logged in 401 sysop 2251 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default You must be a registered user and [[Special:Userlogin|logged in]] to move a page. 402 sysop 1350 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Move page 403 sysop 1351 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Move page 404 sysop 2995 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default The associated talk page will be automatically moved along with it '''unless:''' *A non-empty talk page already exists under the new name, or *You uncheck the box below. In those cases, you will have to move or merge the page manually if desired. 405 sysop 2252 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Using the form below will rename a page, moving all of its history to the new name. The old title will become a redirect page to the new title. Links to the old page title will not be changed; be sure to check for double or broken redirects. You are responsible for making sure that links continue to point where they are supposed to go. Note that the page will '''not''' be moved if there is already a page at the new title, unless it is empty or a redirect and has no past edit history. This means that you can rename a page back to where it was just renamed from if you make a mistake, and you cannot overwrite an existing page. <b>WARNING!</b> This can be a drastic and unexpected change for a popular page; please be sure you understand the consequences of this before proceeding. 406 sysop 2850 2006-03-28T06:24:30Z MediaWiki default Move associated talk page 407 sysop 1355 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Move this page 408 sysop 1356 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default HTML if possible or else PNG 409 sysop 1357 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default MathML if possible (experimental) 410 sysop 1358 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Recommended for modern browsers 411 sysop 1359 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Always render PNG 412 sysop 1360 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default HTML if very simple or else PNG 413 sysop 1361 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Leave it as TeX (for text browsers) 414 sysop 1362 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default My contributions 415 sysop 1363 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default My page 416 sysop 1364 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default My talk 417 sysop 1365 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Navigation 418 sysop 2996 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 {{PLURAL:$1|byte|bytes}} 419 sysop 1367 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default $1 changes 420 sysop 1368 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default (New) 421 sysop 2998 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default You've followed a link to a page that doesn't exist yet. To create the page, start typing in the box below (see the [[{{ns:help}}:Contents|help page]] for more info). If you are here by mistake, just click your browser's '''back''' button. 422 sysop 1370 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default newbies 423 sysop 2425 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default Gallery of new files 424 sysop 1372 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default You have $1. 425 sysop 1373 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default new messages 426 sysop 1374 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default New page 427 sysop 1375 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default N 428 sysop 1376 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default New pages 429 sysop 2601 2005-11-09T22:59:48Z MediaWiki default New password: 430 sysop 1378 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default To new title 431 sysop 1379 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (new users only) 432 sysop 1380 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (opens in new window) 433 sysop 1381 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default next 434 sysop 2486 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default Next diff → 435 sysop 1383 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default next $1 436 sysop 1384 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Next page ($1) 437 sysop 2487 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default Newer revision→ 438 sysop 2999 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 {{PLURAL:$1|link|links}} 439 sysop 1387 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You must affirm that your upload does not violate any copyrights. 440 sysop 3001 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default There is currently no text in this page, you can [[{{ns:special}}:Search/{{PAGENAME}}|search for this page title]] in other pages or [{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAME}}|action=edit}} edit this page]. 441 sysop 1389 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You must supply a reason for the block. 442 sysop 1390 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Sorry! The wiki is experiencing some technical difficulties, and cannot contact the database server. <br /> $1 443 sysop 1391 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default No changes were found matching these criteria. 444 sysop 1392 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} uses cookies to log in users. You have cookies disabled. Please enable them and try again. 445 sysop 1393 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The user account was created, but you are not logged in. {{SITENAME}} uses cookies to log in users. You have cookies disabled. Please enable them, then log in with your new username and password. 446 sysop 1394 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Creative Commons RDF metadata disabled for this server. 447 sysop 1395 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default There is no credits info available for this page. 448 sysop 1396 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Could not select database $1 449 sysop 1397 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Dublin Core RDF metadata disabled for this server. 450 sysop 1398 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default There is no e-mail address recorded for user "$1". 451 sysop 1399 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default This user has not specified a valid e-mail address, or has chosen not to receive e-mail from other users. 452 sysop 1400 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default No e-mail address 453 sysop 2808 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default '''There is no page titled "$1".''' You can [[$1|create this page]]. 454 sysop 1402 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default There is no edit history for this page. 455 sysop 1403 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Nothing to see. 456 sysop 3178 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default No pages link to '''[[:$1]]'''. 457 sysop 2259 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default There are no pages that link to this file. 458 sysop 1406 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You have not specified a valid user name. 459 sysop 3179 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default '''Note''': Unsuccessful searches are often caused by searching for common words like "have" and "from", which are not indexed, or by specifying more than one search term (only pages containing all of the search terms will appear in the result). 460 sysop 2427 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default <strong>WARNING: Your browser is not unicode compliant. A workaround is in place to allow you to safely edit articles: non-ASCII characters will appear in the edit box as hexadecimal codes.</strong> 461 sysop 2260 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default You have requested an invalid special page, a list of valid special pages may be found at [[{{ns:special}}:Specialpages]]. 462 sysop 1410 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default No such action 463 sysop 1411 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The action specified by the URL is not recognized by the wiki 464 sysop 1412 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default No such special page 465 sysop 2697 2005-12-02T02:38:23Z MediaWiki default There is no user by the name "$1". Check your spelling, or create a new account. 466 sysop 1414 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default There is no user by the name "$1". Check your spelling. 467 sysop 1415 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The wiki server can't provide data in a format your client can read. 468 sysop 1416 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Not a content page 469 sysop 1417 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You have not specified a target page or user to perform this function on. 470 sysop 1418 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default No target 471 sysop 2809 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default <strong>Note:</strong> 472 sysop 1420 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default No page text matches 473 sysop 1421 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default No page title matches 474 sysop 1422 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Not logged in 475 sysop 1423 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Nov 476 sysop 1424 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default November 477 sysop 1425 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You have no items on your watchlist. 478 sysop 1426 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Insert non-formatted text here 479 sysop 1427 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Ignore wiki formatting 480 sysop 1428 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Category 481 sysop 3277 2006-10-25T19:40:49Z MediaWiki default 72 Help page 482 sysop 2261 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default File 483 sysop 1431 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Article 484 sysop 2428 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default Media page 485 sysop 1433 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Message 486 sysop 1434 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Special 487 sysop 1435 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Template 488 sysop 1436 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default User page 489 sysop 2429 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default Project page 490 sysop 1438 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Number of distinct authors (article): $1 491 sysop 1439 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Number of edits (article): $1 492 sysop 1440 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Number of distinct authors (discussion page): $1 493 sysop 1441 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Number of edits (discussion page): $1 494 sysop 1442 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Number of watchers: $1 495 sysop 3007 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 {{PLURAL:$1|view|views}} 496 sysop 1444 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Oct 497 sysop 1445 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default October 498 sysop 1446 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default OK 499 sysop 2606 2005-11-09T22:59:49Z MediaWiki default Old password: 500 sysop 1448 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default orig 501 sysop 1449 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Orphaned pages 502 sysop 1450 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Based on work by $1. 503 sysop 2430 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default In other languages 504 sysop 1452 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default others 505 sysop 1453 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Move succeeded 506 sysop 1454 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Page "[[$1]]" moved to "[[$2]]". 507 sysop 1455 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default $1 - {{SITENAME}} 508 sysop 3009 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Someone (probably you, from IP address $1) requested that we send you a new password for {{SITENAME}} ($4). The password for user "$2" is now "$3". You should log in and change your password now. If someone else made this request or if you have remembered your password and you no longer wish to change it, you may ignore this message and continue using your old password. 509 sysop 1457 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Password reminder from {{SITENAME}} 510 sysop 1458 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default A new password has been sent to the e-mail address registered for "$1". Please log in again after you receive it. 511 sysop 3010 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default The following data is cached and may not be up to date. 512 sysop 2522 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default Sorry! This feature has been temporarily disabled because it slows the database down to the point that no one can use the wiki. 513 sysop 2523 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default Here is a saved copy from $1: 514 sysop 1462 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Personal tools 515 sysop 1463 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Popular pages 516 sysop 1464 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Community portal 517 sysop 1465 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Project:Community Portal 518 sysop 1466 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Post a comment 519 sysop 1467 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} is powered by [http://www.mediawiki.org/ MediaWiki], an open source wiki engine. 520 sysop 1468 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Search 521 sysop 3012 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Search in namespaces:<br />$1<br />$2 List redirects<br />Search for $3 $9 522 sysop 1470 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Preferences 523 sysop 1471 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default * <strong>Real name</strong> (optional): if you choose to provide it this will be used for giving you attribution for your work.<br /> * <strong>Email</strong> (optional): Enables people to contact you through the website without you having to reveal your email address to them, and it can be used to send you a new password if you forget it. 524 sysop 2268 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Misc 525 sysop 2607 2005-11-09T22:59:49Z MediaWiki default User profile 526 sysop 2608 2005-11-09T22:59:49Z MediaWiki default Recent changes 527 sysop 1475 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You are logged in as "$1". Your internal ID number is $2. See [[Project:User preferences help]] for help deciphering the options. 528 sysop 1476 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Not logged in 529 sysop 2433 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default You must be [[Special:Userlogin|logged in]] to set user preferences. 530 sysop 1478 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Preferences have been reset from storage. 531 sysop 1479 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Preview 532 sysop 3017 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default This preview reflects the text in the upper text editing area as it will appear if you choose to save. 533 sysop 2609 2005-11-09T22:59:49Z MediaWiki default <strong>This is only a preview; changes have not yet been saved!</strong> 534 sysop 2488 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default ← Previous diff 535 sysop 2489 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default ←Older revision 536 sysop 1484 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default previous $1 537 sysop 1485 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Printable version 538 sysop 1486 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (From {{SERVER}}) 539 sysop 1487 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Protect 540 sysop 1488 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Reason for protecting 541 sysop 2273 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default protected "[[$1]]" 542 sysop 1490 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Protected page 543 sysop 3021 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default <strong>WARNING: This page has been locked so that only users with sysop privileges can edit it.</strong> 544 sysop 3022 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default This page has been locked to prevent editing. You can view and copy the source of this page: 545 sysop 3023 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Protection log 546 sysop 3024 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Below is a list of page locks and unlocks. 547 sysop 1495 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Protect from moves only 548 sysop 1496 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Protect page 549 sysop 1497 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (give a reason) 550 sysop 1498 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (Protecting "$1") 551 sysop 1499 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Protect this page 552 sysop 1500 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Proxy blocker 553 sysop 1501 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Your IP address has been blocked because it is an open proxy. Please contact your Internet service provider or tech support and inform them of this serious security problem. 554 sysop 2758 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default Done. 555 sysop 1503 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=$1 556 sysop 1504 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Browse 557 sysop 1505 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Edit 558 sysop 1506 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Find 559 sysop 1507 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default My pages 560 sysop 1508 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Context 561 sysop 1509 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default This page 562 sysop 1510 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Quickbar 563 sysop 1511 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default This preference only works in the 'Standard' and the 'CologneBlue' skin. 564 sysop 1512 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Special pages 565 sysop 1513 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Submit query 566 sysop 1514 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Query successful 567 sysop 1515 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Random page 568 sysop 2275 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Special:Random 569 sysop 1517 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The sysop ability to create range blocks is disabled. 570 sysop 1518 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default in $4 form; $1 minor edits; $2 secondary namespaces; $3 multiple edits. 571 sysop 1519 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Show last $1 changes in last $2 days<br />$3 572 sysop 1520 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Show new changes starting from $1 573 sysop 1521 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default ; $1 edits from logged in users 574 sysop 1522 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Loading recent changes 575 sysop 1523 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (to pages linked from "$1") 576 sysop 3026 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Below are the last <strong>$1</strong> changes in the last <strong>$2</strong> days, as of $3. 577 sysop 1525 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Below are the changes since <b>$2</b> (up to <b>$1</b> shown). 578 sysop 1526 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Recent Changes Patrol disabled 579 sysop 1527 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The Recent Changes Patrol feature is currently disabled. 580 sysop 1528 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Database locked 581 sysop 2526 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default The database is currently locked to new entries and other modifications, probably for routine database maintenance, after which it will be back to normal. The administrator who locked it offered this explanation: $1 582 sysop 2277 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default <strong>WARNING: The database has been locked for maintenance, so you will not be able to save your edits right now. You may wish to cut-n-paste the text into a text file and save it for later.</strong> 583 sysop 1531 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Recent changes 584 sysop 1532 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Special:Recentchanges 585 sysop 2610 2005-11-09T22:59:51Z MediaWiki default Titles in recent changes: 586 sysop 1534 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Related changes 587 sysop 1535 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Track the most recent changes to the wiki on this page. 588 sysop 1536 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (Redirected from $1) 589 sysop 3282 2006-10-25T19:40:52Z MediaWiki default 72 Remember my login on this computer 590 sysop 1538 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Remove checked items from watchlist 591 sysop 1539 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Removed from watchlist 592 sysop 3033 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default The page "[[:$1]]" has been removed from your watchlist. 593 sysop 1541 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Removing requested items from watchlist... 594 sysop 2281 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Reset 595 sysop 3034 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default {{PLURAL:$1|one deleted edit|$1 deleted edits}} 596 sysop 2613 2005-11-09T22:59:52Z MediaWiki default Hits per page: 597 sysop 1545 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Retrieved from "$1" 598 sysop 1546 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Return to $1. 599 sysop 2614 2005-11-09T22:59:52Z MediaWiki default Retype new password: 600 sysop 1548 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Re-upload 601 sysop 1549 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Return to the upload form. 602 sysop 1550 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Reverted to earlier revision 603 sysop 1551 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default rev 604 sysop 3035 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/$2|$2]] ([[User_talk:$2|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:$1|$1]] 605 sysop 1553 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Revision history 606 sysop 1554 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Revision as of $1 607 sysop 1555 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Revision as of $1; $2<br />$3 | $4 608 sysop 1556 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Revision not found 609 sysop 2759 2005-12-22T07:33:38Z MediaWiki default The old revision of the page you asked for could not be found. Please check the URL you used to access this page. 610 sysop 2437 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc$1.txt 611 sysop 1559 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Rights: 612 sysop 1560 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Roll back edits 613 sysop 1561 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Rollback 614 sysop 1562 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Rollback failed 615 sysop 1563 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default rollback 616 sysop 2615 2005-11-09T22:59:52Z MediaWiki default Rows: 617 sysop 1565 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Saturday 618 sysop 1566 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Save page 619 sysop 1567 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Your preferences have been saved. 620 sysop 1568 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Save file 621 sysop 1569 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Save Group 622 sysop 2286 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Save 623 sysop 1571 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Save User Groups 624 sysop 1572 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Search 625 sysop 2290 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} search is disabled. You can search via Google in the meantime. Note that their indexes of {{SITENAME}} content may be out of date. 626 sysop 1574 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default For query "$1" 627 sysop 1575 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Search results 628 sysop 2292 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Search 629 sysop 3039 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default For more information about searching {{SITENAME}}, see [[{{ns:project}}:Searching|Searching {{SITENAME}}]]. 630 sysop 2491 2005-08-19T23:32:13Z MediaWiki default → 631 sysop 1579 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Select a newer version for comparison 632 sysop 1580 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Select an older version for comparison 633 sysop 1581 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Only read-only queries are allowed. 634 sysop 2816 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Self-linking pages 635 sysop 2817 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default The following pages link to themselves: 636 sysop 1584 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Sep 637 sysop 1585 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default September 638 sysop 1586 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default There were serious xhtml markup errors detected by tidy. 639 sysop 2294 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Server time 640 sysop 1588 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default <b>User rights for "$1" could not be set. (Did you enter the name correctly?)</b> 641 sysop 1589 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Set user rights 642 sysop 1590 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Set bureaucrat flag 643 sysop 2296 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default This file is a shared upload and may be used by other projects. 644 sysop 1592 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Short pages 645 sysop 2530 2005-09-05T09:47:20Z MediaWiki default Show 646 sysop 1594 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Download high resolution version ($1x$2, $3 KB) 647 sysop 2820 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default $1 minor edits | $2 bots | $3 logged in users | $4 patrolled edits 648 sysop 1596 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Showing below up to <b>$1</b> results starting with #<b>$2</b>. 649 sysop 1597 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Showing below <b>$3</b> results starting with #<b>$2</b>. 650 sysop 2299 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Show last $1 files sorted $2. 651 sysop 1599 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Show preview 652 sysop 1600 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default show 653 sysop 1601 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Your signature with timestamp 654 sysop 1602 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default siteadmin level 655 sysop 1603 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default - 656 sysop 1604 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Site Settings 657 sysop 1605 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Page caching 658 sysop 1606 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Cookies 659 sysop 1607 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Debugging 660 sysop 1608 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Features 661 sysop 1609 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Images 662 sysop 1610 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Memcache Daemon 663 sysop 1611 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Performance 664 sysop 1612 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Permissions 665 sysop 1613 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default User banning 666 sysop 1614 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Performance settings 667 sysop 1615 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Maintenance mode: Disable write access 668 sysop 1616 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Whitelist mode 669 sysop 1617 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Allow to include external images into articles 670 sysop 1618 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default By default, blocks expire after: 671 sysop 1619 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default When in miser mode, disable all query pages, not only "expensive" ones 672 sysop 1620 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Hit counter update frequency 673 sysop 1621 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Enable miser mode, which disables most "expensive" features 674 sysop 1622 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Readonly mode 675 sysop 1623 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Readonly message file 676 sysop 1624 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Show IP in header (for non-logged in users) 677 sysop 1625 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Sysops may block IP-ranges 678 sysop 1626 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Sysops may block logged-in users 679 sysop 1627 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Enable experimental dmoz-like category browsing. Outputs things like: Encyclopedia > Music > Style of Music > Jazz 680 sysop 1628 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Enable categories 681 sysop 1629 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Use database messages for user interface labels 682 sysop 1630 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Generate a watchlist once every hour or so 683 sysop 1631 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The hour or so mentioned above (in seconds): 684 sysop 1632 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Developers may create accounts for users 685 sysop 1633 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Sysops may create accounts for users 686 sysop 1634 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Users may create accounts themself 687 sysop 1635 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Users must be logged in to edit 688 sysop 1636 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Anonymous users may only read these pages: 689 sysop 2441 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} statistics 690 sysop 2869 2006-03-28T06:24:36Z MediaWiki default There are '''$1''' total pages in the database. This includes "talk" pages, pages about {{SITENAME}}, minimal "stub" pages, redirects, and others that probably don't qualify as content pages. Excluding those, there are '''$2''' pages that are probably legitimate content pages. '''$8''' files have been uploaded. There have been a total of '''$3''' page views, and '''$4''' page edits since the wiki was setup. That comes to '''$5''' average edits per page, and '''$6''' views per edit. The [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Help:Job_queue job queue] length is '''$7'''. 691 sysop 2760 2005-12-22T07:33:38Z MediaWiki default 692 sysop 2301 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Donations 693 sysop 1641 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Project:Site support 694 sysop 1642 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} 695 sysop 2442 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} user $1 696 sysop 2443 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} user(s) $1 697 sysop 1645 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Skin 698 sysop 1646 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The following text is what triggered our spam filter: $1 699 sysop 1647 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The page you wanted to save was blocked by the spam filter. This is probably caused by a link to an external site. 700 sysop 1648 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Spam protection filter 701 sysop 1649 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default &nbsp; 702 sysop 1650 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default &nbsp; 703 sysop 1651 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Special Page 704 sysop 1652 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Special pages 705 sysop 1653 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Special pages for all users 706 sysop 1654 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Please note that all queries are logged. 707 sysop 1655 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Enter query 708 sysop 1656 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Statistics 709 sysop 1657 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Stored version 710 sysop 2618 2005-11-09T22:59:54Z MediaWiki default Threshold for stub display: 711 sysop 1659 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Subcategories 712 sysop 3047 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default There {{PLURAL:$1|is one subcategory|are $1 subcategories}} to this category. 713 sysop 1661 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default There is $1 subcategory to this category. 714 sysop 1662 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Subject/headline 715 sysop 1663 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View subject 716 sysop 1664 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Successful upload 717 sysop 1665 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Summary 718 sysop 1666 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Sunday 719 sysop 2445 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default The action you have requested can only be performed by users with "sysop" capability. See $1. 720 sysop 1668 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Sysop access required 721 sysop 1669 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default table 722 sysop 1670 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default From {{SITENAME}} 723 sysop 1671 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Discussion 724 sysop 2870 2006-03-28T06:24:36Z MediaWiki default '''The page itself was moved successfully, but the talk page could not be moved because one already exists at the new title. Please merge them manually.''' 725 sysop 1673 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Discuss this page 726 sysop 1674 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The corresponding talk page was also moved. 727 sysop 1675 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The corresponding talk page was <strong>not</strong> moved. 728 sysop 1676 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default <!-- MediaWiki:talkpagetext --> 729 sysop 1677 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Templates used on this page: 730 sysop 1678 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Editing 731 sysop 1679 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Page text matches 732 sysop 1680 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View or restore $1? 733 sysop 1681 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Enlarge 734 sysop 1682 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Thursday 735 sysop 1683 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Time zone 736 sysop 2305 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Offset¹ 737 sysop 2306 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default The number of hours your local time differs from server time (UTC). 738 sysop 1686 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Article title matches 739 sysop 2446 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Contents 740 sysop 1688 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Edit pages on double click (JavaScript) 741 sysop 1689 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Enable section editing via [edit] links 742 sysop 1690 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Enable section editing by right clicking<br /> on section titles (JavaScript) 743 sysop 1691 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Edit box has full width 744 sysop 1692 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Hide minor edits in recent changes 745 sysop 1693 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Format broken links <a href="" class="new">like this</a> (alternative: like this<a href="" class="internal">?</a>). 746 sysop 1694 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Show hoverbox over wiki links 747 sysop 1695 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Justify paragraphs 748 sysop 1696 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Mark all edits minor by default 749 sysop 1697 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Disable page caching 750 sysop 1698 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Auto-number headings 751 sysop 1699 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Show preview on first edit 752 sysop 2313 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Show preview before edit box 753 sysop 3290 2006-10-25T19:40:55Z MediaWiki default 72 Remember my login on this computer 754 sysop 2447 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Show table of contents (for pages with more than 3 headings) 755 sysop 2316 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Show edit toolbar (JavaScript) 756 sysop 2624 2005-11-09T22:59:54Z MediaWiki default Underline links: 757 sysop 2317 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Enhanced recent changes (JavaScript) 758 sysop 2874 2006-03-28T06:24:37Z MediaWiki default Add pages I edit to my watchlist 759 sysop 1707 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Toolbox 760 sysop 1708 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default See the differences between the two selected versions of this page. [alt-v] 761 sysop 1709 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Mark this as a minor edit [alt-i] 762 sysop 1710 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Preview your changes, please use this before saving! [alt-p] 763 sysop 1711 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Save your changes [alt-s] 764 sysop 2448 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Search {{SITENAME}} [alt-f] 765 sysop 1713 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Tuesday 766 sysop 1714 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View the last $1 changes; view the last $2 days. 767 sysop 1715 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Below are this user's last <b>$1</b> changes in the last <b>$2</b> days. 768 sysop 1716 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (top) 769 sysop 1717 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Unblock user 770 sysop 1718 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Use the form below to restore write access to a previously blocked IP address or username. 771 sysop 1719 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default unblock 772 sysop 2455 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default unblocked $1 773 sysop 1721 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Uncategorized categories 774 sysop 1722 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Uncategorized pages 775 sysop 2538 2005-09-05T09:47:20Z MediaWiki default View deleted pages 776 sysop 3056 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Undelete {{PLURAL:$1|one edit|$1 edits}} 777 sysop 1725 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Restore deleted page 778 sysop 3057 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Restore 779 sysop 2321 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default restored "[[$1]]" 780 sysop 1728 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default $1 revisions restored 781 sysop 2629 2005-11-09T22:59:55Z MediaWiki default [[:$1|$1]] has been successfully restored. See [[Special:Log/delete]] for a record of recent deletions and restorations. 782 sysop 1730 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default If you restore the page, all revisions will be restored to the history. If a new page with the same name has been created since the deletion, the restored revisions will appear in the prior history, and the current revision of the live page will not be automatically replaced. 783 sysop 1731 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View and restore deleted pages 784 sysop 1732 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The following pages have been deleted but are still in the archive and can be restored. The archive may be periodically cleaned out. 785 sysop 1733 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Deleted revision as of $1 786 sysop 1734 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default $1 revisions archived 787 sysop 1735 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Unexpected value: "$1"="$2". 788 sysop 1736 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Unlock database 789 sysop 1737 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Yes, I really want to unlock the database. 790 sysop 1738 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Unlock database 791 sysop 1739 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Database lock removed 792 sysop 1740 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The database has been unlocked. 793 sysop 1741 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Unlocking the database will restore the ability of all users to edit pages, change their preferences, edit their watchlists, and other things requiring changes in the database. Please confirm that this is what you intend to do. 794 sysop 2459 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default unprotect 795 sysop 1743 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Reason for unprotecting 796 sysop 2322 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default unprotected "[[$1]]" 797 sysop 1745 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (Unprotecting "$1") 798 sysop 1746 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Unprotect this page 799 sysop 2323 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Unused files 800 sysop 1748 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default <p>Please note that other web sites may link to an image with a direct URL, and so may still be listed here despite being in active use.</p> 801 sysop 1749 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Unwatch 802 sysop 1750 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Stop watching 803 sysop 1751 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (Updated) 804 sysop 1752 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Upload file 805 sysop 1753 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Upload file 806 sysop 1754 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default The file is corrupt or has an incorrect extension. Please check the file and upload again. 807 sysop 2831 2006-02-26T02:01:33Z MediaWiki default Uploads disabled 808 sysop 1756 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Uploaded files 809 sysop 2325 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default uploaded "[[$1]]" 810 sysop 1758 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Upload error 811 sysop 1759 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Upload images, sounds, documents etc. 812 sysop 1760 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Upload images 813 sysop 1761 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default upload log 814 sysop 3067 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Upload log 815 sysop 1763 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Below is a list of the most recent file uploads. 816 sysop 1764 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Not logged in 817 sysop 2327 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default You must be [[Special:Userlogin|logged in]] to upload files. 818 sysop 3069 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Use the form below to upload files, to view or search previously uploaded images go to the [[Special:Imagelist|list of uploaded files]], uploads and deletions are also logged in the [[Special:Log/upload|upload log]]. To include the image in a page, use a link in the form '''<nowiki>[[{{ns:image}}:File.jpg]]</nowiki>''', '''<nowiki>[[{{ns:image}}:File.png|alt text]]</nowiki>''' or '''<nowiki>[[{{ns:media}}:File.ogg]]</nowiki>''' for directly linking to the file. 819 sysop 1767 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Upload warning 820 sysop 1768 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default 1 Set first character to "0" to disable the new category page layout. 821 sysop 1769 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default <b>User rights for "$1" updated</b> 822 sysop 1770 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default <strong>Tip:</strong> Use the 'Show preview' button to test your new CSS/JS before saving. 823 sysop 1771 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default '''Remember that you are only previewing your user CSS, it has not yet been saved!''' 824 sysop 2712 2005-12-02T02:38:24Z MediaWiki default Username entered already in use. Please choose a different name. 825 sysop 1773 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default '''Remember that you are only testing/previewing your user JavaScript, it has not yet been saved!''' 826 sysop 1774 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default User levels management 827 sysop 1775 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Add group 828 sysop 1776 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Edit group 829 sysop 1777 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Group description (max 255 characters):<br /> 830 sysop 1778 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Group name: 831 sysop 1779 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Edit user groups 832 sysop 1780 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Existent groups: 833 sysop 1781 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Available groups: 834 sysop 1782 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Select groups you want the user to be removed from or added to. Unselected groups will not be changed. You can unselect a group by using CTRL + Left Click 835 sysop 1783 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Member of: 836 sysop 1784 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Manage group rights 837 sysop 1785 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Manage user groups 838 sysop 1786 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Enter a username: 839 sysop 2713 2005-12-02T02:38:24Z MediaWiki default Log in / create account 840 sysop 1788 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Log out 841 sysop 2834 2006-02-26T02:01:33Z MediaWiki default Mail object returned error: 842 sysop 1790 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View user page 843 sysop 1791 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default userrights level 844 sysop 1792 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default User statistics 845 sysop 3202 2006-08-31T19:06:59Z MediaWiki default There are '''$1''' registered users, of which '''$2''' (or '''$4%''') are $5. 846 sysop 1794 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default List of validated articles 847 sysop 2341 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Clear my older validation data 848 sysop 2345 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default '''Hint:''' Merging your data means that for the article revision you select, all options where you have specified ''no opinion'' will be set to the value and comment of the most recent revision for which you have expressed an opinion. For example, if you want to change a single option for a newer revision, but also keep your other settings for this article in this revision, just select which option you intend to ''change'', and merging will fill in the other options with your previous settings. 849 sysop 1797 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Use my previous assessment where selected 'No opinion' 850 sysop 1798 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You have to be logged in to validate an article. 851 sysop 1799 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default No opinion 852 sysop 1800 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Page validation statistics for $1 853 sysop 1801 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default <b>$1%</b><br />($2 of $3 points<br />by $4 users) 854 sysop 1802 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default <b>$1%</b><br />($2 of $3 points<br />by one user) 855 sysop 1803 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Validation statistics for this article 856 sysop 1804 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Validate 857 sysop 2767 2005-12-22T07:33:38Z MediaWiki default <tr><th>Class</th>$1<th colspan="4">Opinion</th>$1<th>Comment</th></tr> 858 sysop 1806 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default this is the latest version 859 sysop 1807 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Total 860 sysop 1808 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default This user has validated $1 pages. 861 sysop 1809 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Only articles can be validated. This page is <i>not</i> in the article namespace. 862 sysop 1810 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Validate this version 863 sysop 1811 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Validation done. 864 sysop 1812 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Version 865 sysop 1813 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Version of $1 866 sysop 2363 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default View this revision 867 sysop 1815 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Validate page 868 sysop 1816 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default zh 869 sysop 1817 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default cn 870 sysop 1818 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default hk 871 sysop 1819 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default sg 872 sysop 1820 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default tw 873 sysop 1821 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Version 874 sysop 3070 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default This page has been accessed {{plural:$1|one time|$1 times}}. 875 sysop 1823 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View ($1) ($2) ($3). 876 sysop 1824 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View source 877 sysop 1825 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View discussion 878 sysop 1826 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Wanted pages 879 sysop 1827 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Watch 880 sysop 3304 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default 72 * {{PLURAL:$1|$1 page|$1 pages}} watched not counting talk pages * [[Special:Watchlist/edit|Show and edit complete watchlist]] * [[Special:Watchlist/clear|Remove all pages]] 881 sysop 2373 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Here's an alphabetical list of your watched content pages. Check the boxes of pages you want to remove from your watchlist and click the 'remove checked' button at the bottom of the screen (deleting a content page also deletes the accompanying talk page and vice versa). 882 sysop 1830 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default My watchlist 883 sysop 1831 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Your watchlist contains $1 pages. 884 sysop 1832 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default (for user "$1") 885 sysop 1833 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default checking watched pages for recent edits 886 sysop 1834 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default checking recent edits for watched pages 887 sysop 2466 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default None of your watched items was edited in the time period displayed. 888 sysop 1836 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Not logged in 889 sysop 2467 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default You must be [[Special:Userlogin|logged in]] to modify your watchlist. 890 sysop 1838 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Watch this page 891 sysop 1839 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Watch this page 892 sysop 1840 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Wednesday 893 sysop 1841 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default == Welcome, $1! == Your account has been created. Don't forget to change your {{SITENAME}} preferences. 894 sysop 1842 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default What links here 895 sysop 1843 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default To be allowed to create accounts in this Wiki you have to [[Special:Userlogin|log]] in and have the appropriate permissions. 896 sysop 1844 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You are not allowed to create an account 897 sysop 3079 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default You have to $1 to edit pages. 898 sysop 1846 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Login required to edit 899 sysop 1847 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default You have to [[Special:Userlogin|login]] to read pages. 900 sysop 1848 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Login required to read 901 sysop 1849 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default View project page 902 sysop 1850 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} 903 sysop 1851 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Below are the last $1 changes in the last <b>$2</b> hours. 904 sysop 1852 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default This is a saved version of your watchlist. 905 sysop 1853 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Show last $1 hours $2 days $3 906 sysop 2548 2005-09-05T09:47:21Z MediaWiki default Incorrect parameters to wfQuery()<br /> Function: $1<br /> Query: $2 907 sysop 2718 2005-12-02T02:38:24Z MediaWiki default Incorrect password entered. Please try again. 908 sysop 1856 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Differences 909 sysop 3310 2006-10-25T19:40:59Z MediaWiki default 72 E-mail *: 910 sysop 2640 2005-11-09T23:00:00Z MediaWiki default Language: 911 sysop 2469 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Username 912 sysop 2641 2005-11-09T23:00:00Z MediaWiki default Nickname: 913 sysop 2388 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Password 914 sysop 1862 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Retype password 915 sysop 3311 2006-10-25T19:40:59Z MediaWiki default 72 Real name *: 916 sysop 1864 2005-06-25T11:19:12Z MediaWiki default Your text 917 sysop 2390 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Variant 918 1866 2005-01-16T11:24:39Z Sihasabho 6 === visesakkhar&#257;ni: === # &#256; : & + #256; # &#257; : & + #257; # &#298; : & + #298; # &#299; : & + #299; # &#362; : & + #362; # &#363; : & + #363; # &#7693; : & + #7693; # &#7789; : & + #7789; # &#7751; : & + #7751; # &#7749; : & + #7749; # &#7747; : & + #7747; # &#7735; : & + #7735; 919 3351 2006-12-10T08:23:22Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 920 3359 2006-12-10T08:25:33Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 921 3390 2006-12-14T00:38:21Z Eukesh 59 [[Āngalabhāsā]] moved to [[आंगलभाषा]] {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 922 3353 2006-12-10T08:23:54Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 923 3393 2006-12-14T00:39:40Z Eukesh 59 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.173.138.159|203.173.138.159]] ([[User_talk:203.173.138.159|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Chamdarae|Chamdarae]] Pālisangho Yong Peng namena upāsakena upatthāpito. Tam sangham [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ idha] vijjati. Garuke sākacchā-kāraṇe honti: # Tipitakam saha suttanta-pariyatti # Palibhāsā saha sāhicco (ganthasamūha) # Theravādo # Samathā (ekaggatā-bhāvanā) saha vipassanā (pannā) bhāvanā # Suttanta pariyatti upakāro saha ākāro # Tipitakam parivattanam matam saha karanam 924 1872 2005-04-04T14:58:55Z Richie 7 Since March 2005 I'm an administrator on the Commons. If you want to contact me, feel free to leave a message on my [[:commons:User talk:Richie|Commons]], [[:en:User talk:Richie|English]] or [[:de:Benutzer Diskussion:Richie|German]] talk page. I'm studying [[:en:Computer science|Computer Science]] and [[:en:Geology|Geology]] at [[:en:Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Gonville and Caius College]], [[:en:University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]]. My personal website is http://www.whizer.net/. [[User:Richie|Richie]] 14:58, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC) <div style="background-color:#eee; border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; padding:3px; margin:15px 0;"> '''My user pages:''' [[:commons:User:Richie|(c)]] | [[:ast:User:Richie|ast]] | [[:ca:Usuari:Richie|ca]] | [[:de:Benutzer:Richie|DE]] | [[:en:User:Richie|EN]] | [[:eo:Vikipediisto:Richie|eo]] | [[:es:Usuario:Richie|es]] | [[:et:Kasutaja:Richie|et]] | [[:fi:Käyttäjä:Richie|fi]] | [[:fr:Utilisateur:RichieFR|fr]] | [[:gl:User:Richie|gl]] | [[:hu:User:RichieHU|hu]] | [[:ia:Usator:Richie|ia]] | [[:it:Utente:Richie|it]] | [[:ja:利用者:Richie|ja]] | [[:nl:Gebruiker:Richie|nl]] | [[:no:Bruker:Richie|no]] | [[:pl:Wikipedysta:Richie|pl]] | [[:pt:Usuário:Richie|pt]] | [[:ro:Utilizator:Richie|ro]] | [[:ru:Участник:Richie|ru]] | [[:sv:Användare:Richie|sv]] | [[:zh-min-nan:User:Richie|zh]] </div> 925 1873 2005-04-16T19:48:23Z RCBot 8 RCBot: Update user page '''[[:commons:User:RCBot|RCBot]]''' is an interlingually operating bot operated by [[:commons:User:Richie|Richie]] to help with issues related to the [[:commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. As of now, the bot is still in development and testing, so please report all encountered issues and other feedback to its [[:commons:User talk:RCBot|talk page]] on the Commons. Please note that the talk page of this account is '''not read''', use the one on the Commons). -- [[User:RCBot|RCBot]] 19:48, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC) <div style="background-color:#eee; border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; padding:3px; margin:15px 0;"> '''[[:commons:User:RCBot|RCBot]]'s user accounts at Wikipedia''' <div style="font-size:80%;"> [[:aa:User:RCBot|aa]] | [[:ab:User:RCBot|ab]] | [[:af:Gebruiker:RCBot|af]] | [[:ak:User:RCBot|ak]] | [[:als:Benutzer:RCBot|als]] | [[:am:User:RCBot|am]] | [[:an:User:RCBot|an]] | [[:ang:User:RCBot|ang]] | [[:ar:مستخدم:RCBot|ar]] | [[:arc:User:RCBot|arc]] | [[:as:User:RCBot|as]] | [[:ast:User:RCBot|ast]] | [[:av:User:RCBot|av]] | [[:ay:User:RCBot|ay]] | [[:az:User:RCBot|az]] | [[:ba:User:RCBot|ba]] | [[:be:Удзельнік:RCBot|be]] | [[:bg:Потребител:RCBot|bg]] | [[:bh:User:RCBot|bh]] | [[:bi:User:RCBot|bi]] | [[:bm:Utilisateur:RCBot|bm]] | [[:bn:ব্যবহারকারী:RCBot|bn]] | [[:bo:User:RCBot|bo]] | [[:br:User:RCBot|br]] | [[:bs:User:RCBot|bs]] | [[:ca:Usuari:RCBot|ca]] | [[:ce:User:RCBot|ce]] | [[:ch:User:RCBot|ch]] | [[:cho:User:RCBot|cho]] | [[:chr:User:RCBot|chr]] | [[:chy:User:RCBot|chy]] | [[:co:User:RCBot|co]] | [[:commons:User:RCBot|commons]] | [[:cr:User:RCBot|cr]] | [[:cs:Wikipedista:RCBot|cs]] | [[:csb:User:RCBot|csb]] | [[:cv:User:RCBot|cv]] | [[:cy:Defnyddiwr:RCBot|cy]] | [[:da:Bruger:RCBot|da]] | [[:de:Benutzer:RCBot|de]] | [[:dv:User:RCBot|dv]] | [[:dz:User:RCBot|dz]] | [[:ee:User:RCBot|ee]] | [[:el:User:RCBot|el]] | [[:en:User:RCBot|en]] | [[:eo:Vikipediisto:RCBot|eo]] | [[:es:Usuario:RCBot|es]] | [[:et:Kasutaja:RCBot|et]] | [[:eu:User:RCBot|eu]] | [[:fa:کاربر:RCBot|fa]] | [[:ff:User:RCBot|ff]] | [[:fi:Käyttäjä:RCBot|fi]] | [[:fj:User:RCBot|fj]] | [[:fo:Brúkari:RCBot|fo]] | [[:fr:Utilisateur:RCBot|fr]] | [[:fur:User:RCBot|fur]] | [[:fy:Meidogger:RCBot|fy]] | [[:ga:Úsáideoir:RCBot|ga]] | [[:gd:User:RCBot|gd]] | [[:gl:User:RCBot|gl]] | [[:gn:User:RCBot|gn]] | [[:got:User:RCBot|got]] | [[:gu:User:RCBot|gu]] | [[:gv:User:RCBot|gv]] | [[:ha:User:RCBot|ha]] | [[:haw:User:RCBot|haw]] | [[:he:משתמש:RCBot|he]] | [[:hi:सदस्य:RCBot|hi]] | [[:ho:User:RCBot|ho]] | [[:hr:User:RCBot|hr]] | [[:ht:User:RCBot|ht]] | [[:hu:User:RCBot|hu]] | [[:hy:User:RCBot|hy]] | [[:hz:User:RCBot|hz]] | [[:ia:Usator:RCBot|ia]] | [[:id:Pengguna:RCBot|id]] | [[:ie:User:RCBot|ie]] | [[:ig:User:RCBot|ig]] | [[:ii:User:RCBot|ii]] | [[:ik:User:RCBot|ik]] | [[:io:User:RCBot|io]] | [[:is:Notandi:RCBot|is]] | [[:it:Utente:RCBot|it]] | [[:iu:User:RCBot|iu]] | [[:ja:利用者:RCBot|ja]] | [[:jbo:User:RCBot|jbo]] | [[:jv:User:RCBot|jv]] | [[:ka:User:RCBot|ka]] | [[:kg:User:RCBot|kg]] | [[:ki:User:RCBot|ki]] | [[:kj:User:RCBot|kj]] | [[:kk:User:RCBot|kk]] | [[:kl:User:RCBot|kl]] | [[:km:User:RCBot|km]] | [[:kn:User:RCBot|kn]] | [[:ko:사용자:RCBot|ko]] | [[:kr:User:RCBot|kr]] | [[:ks:User:RCBot|ks]] | [[:ku:Bikarhêner:RCBot|ku]] | [[:kv:User:RCBot|kv]] | [[:kw:User:RCBot|kw]] | [[:ky:User:RCBot|ky]] | [[:la:Usor:RCBot|la]] | [[:lb:User:RCBot|lb]] | [[:lg:User:RCBot|lg]] | [[:li:Gebroeker:RCBot|li]] | [[:ln:User:RCBot|ln]] | [[:lo:User:RCBot|lo]] | [[:lt:User:RCBot|lt]] | [[:lv:User:RCBot|lv]] | [[:mg:User:RCBot|mg]] | [[:mh:User:RCBot|mh]] | [[:mi:User:RCBot|mi]] | [[:mk:User:RCBot|mk]] | [[:ml:User:RCBot|ml]] | [[:mn:User:RCBot|mn]] | [[:mo:User:RCBot|mo]] | [[:mr:User:RCBot|mr]] | [[:ms:Pengguna:RCBot|ms]] | [[:mt:User:RCBot|mt]] | [[:mus:User:RCBot|mus]] | [[:my:User:RCBot|my]] | [[:na:User:RCBot|na]] | [[:nah:User:RCBot|nah]] | [[:nds:Bruker:RCBot|nds]] | [[:ne:User:RCBot|ne]] | [[:ng:User:RCBot|ng]] | [[:nl:Gebruiker:RCBot|nl]] | [[:nn:Brukar:RCBot|nn]] | [[:no:Bruker:RCBot|no]] | [[:nv:Choinish'įįhí:RCBot|nv]] | [[:ny:User:RCBot|ny]] | [[:oc:Utilisator:RCBot|oc]] | [[:om:User:RCBot|om]] | [[:or:User:RCBot|or]] | [[:pa:ਮੈਂਬਰ:RCBot|pa]] | [[:User:RCBot|pi]] | [[:pl:Wikipedysta:RCBot|pl]] | [[:ps:User:RCBot|ps]] | [[:pt:Usuário:RCBot|pt]] | [[:qu:User:RCBot|qu]] | [[:rm:User:RCBot|rm]] | [[:rn:User:RCBot|rn]] | [[:ro:Utilizator:RCBot|ro]] | [[:roa-rup:User:RCBot|roa-rup]] | [[:ru:Участник:RCBot|ru]] | [[:rw:User:RCBot|rw]] | [[:sa:User:RCBot|sa]] | [[:sc:Utente:RCBot|sc]] | [[:scn:User:RCBot|scn]] | [[:sd:User:RCBot|sd]] | [[:se:User:RCBot|se]] | [[:sg:User:RCBot|sg]] | [[:si:User:RCBot|si]] | [[:simple:User:RCBot|simple]] | [[:sk:Redaktor:RCBot|sk]] | [[:sl:Uporabnik:RCBot|sl]] | [[:sm:User:RCBot|sm]] | [[:sn:User:RCBot|sn]] | [[:so:User:RCBot|so]] | [[:sq:Përdoruesi:RCBot|sq]] | [[:sr:Корисник:RCBot|sr]] | [[:ss:User:RCBot|ss]] | [[:st:User:RCBot|st]] | [[:su:User:RCBot|su]] | [[:sv:Användare:RCBot|sv]] | [[:sw:User:RCBot|sw]] | [[:ta:பயனர்:RCBot|ta]] | [[:te:User:RCBot|te]] | [[:tg:User:RCBot|tg]] | [[:th:ผู้ใช้:RCBot|th]] | [[:ti:User:RCBot|ti]] | [[:tk:User:RCBot|tk]] | [[:tl:User:RCBot|tl]] | [[:tlh:lo'wI:RCBot|tlh]] | [[:tn:User:RCBot|tn]] | [[:to:User:RCBot|to]] | [[:tpi:User:RCBot|tpi]] | [[:tr:User:RCBot|tr]] | [[:ts:User:RCBot|ts]] | [[:tt:Äğzä:RCBot|tt]] | [[:tum:User:RCBot|tum]] | [[:tw:User:RCBot|tw]] | [[:ty:User:RCBot|ty]] | [[:ug:User:RCBot|ug]] | [[:uk:Користувач:RCBot|uk]] | [[:ur:User:RCBot|ur]] | [[:uz:User:RCBot|uz]] | [[:ve:User:RCBot|ve]] | [[:vi:User:RCBot|vi]] | [[:vo:User:RCBot|vo]] | [[:wa:Uzeu:RCBot|wa]] | [[:wo:User:RCBot|wo]] | [[:xh:User:RCBot|xh]] | [[:yi:User:RCBot|yi]] | [[:yo:User:RCBot|yo]] | [[:za:User:RCBot|za]] | [[:zh:User:RCBot|zh]] | [[:zh-min-nan:User:RCBot|zh-min-nan]] | [[:zu:User:RCBot|zu]] </div> </div> 926 1874 2005-06-08T07:02:27Z Btw 10 -> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Btw http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Btw] 927 3349 2006-12-10T08:22:44Z 203.173.138.159 Replacing page with '{{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}}' {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 928 sysop 1876 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default Current text 929 sysop 1877 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default Default text 930 sysop 1878 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default Name 931 sysop 1879 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default 932 sysop 1880 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default Warning: Page may not contain recent updates. 933 sysop 1881 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default The database has been automatically locked while the slave database servers catch up to the master 934 sysop 1882 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default This is a log of changes to user rights. 935 sysop 1883 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default There seems to be a problem with your login session; this action has been canceled as a precaution against session hijacking. Please hit "back" and reload the page you came from, then try again. 936 sysop 1884 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default SORBS DNSBL 937 sysop 1885 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default Your IP address is listed as an open proxy in the [http://www.sorbs.net SORBS] DNSBL. You cannot create an account 938 sysop 1886 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default Your IP address is listed as an open proxy in the [http://www.sorbs.net SORBS] DNSBL. 939 sysop 2826 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Title: 940 sysop 2827 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default User: 941 sysop 1889 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default (SQL query hidden) 942 sysop 1890 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default Raw signatures (without automatic link) 943 sysop 1891 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default Add this page to your watchlist [alt-w] 944 sysop 1892 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default undo 945 sysop 1893 2005-06-25T11:19:09Z MediaWiki default -{}- 946 sysop 2472 2005-08-19T23:32:10Z MediaWiki default v 947 sysop 1897 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default Added group $2 948 sysop 1898 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default All pages ($1 namespace) 949 sysop 1899 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default All non-articles 950 sysop 1900 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default All pages (not in $1 namespace) 951 sysop 1901 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default Display pages starting at: 952 sysop 1902 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default This user is already a bureaucrat 953 sysop 1903 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default This user is already a steward 954 sysop 1904 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default This user is already an administrator 955 sysop 1905 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default Permission error 956 sysop 1906 2005-07-03T13:23:24Z MediaWiki default The action you have requested is limited to users with the "$2" permission assigned. See $1. 957 sysop 1910 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default changed 958 sysop 1911 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Changed group $2 959 sysop 1912 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Confirm E-mail address 960 sysop 2724 2005-12-02T04:11:59Z MediaWiki default Someone, probably you from IP address $1, has registered an account "$2" with this e-mail address on {{SITENAME}}. To confirm that this account really does belong to you and activate e-mail features on {{SITENAME}}, open this link in your browser: $3 If this is *not* you, don't follow the link. This confirmation code will expire at $4. 961 sysop 1914 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Something went wrong saving your confirmation. 962 sysop 1915 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Invalid confirmation code. The code may have expired. 963 sysop 1916 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Your e-mail address has now been confirmed. 964 sysop 1917 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Mail a confirmation code 965 sysop 3246 2006-10-25T19:40:37Z MediaWiki default 72 Could not send confirmation mail. Check address for invalid characters. Mailer returned: $1 966 sysop 1919 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Confirmation e-mail sent. 967 sysop 1920 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} e-mail address confirmation 968 sysop 1921 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Your e-mail address has been confirmed. You may now log in and enjoy the wiki. 969 sysop 1922 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default This wiki requires that you validate your e-mail address before using e-mail features. Activate the button below to send a confirmation mail to your address. The mail will include a link containing a code; load the link in your browser to confirm that your e-mail address is valid. 970 sysop 1925 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default $1 minor edits 971 sysop 1926 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default all 972 sysop 1927 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Create article 973 sysop 1928 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default created 974 sysop 1929 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Delete and move 975 sysop 1930 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Deleted to make way for move 976 sysop 1931 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default ==Deletion required== The destination article "[[$1]]" already exists. Do you want to delete it to make way for the move? 977 sysop 1933 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default [deleted] 978 sysop 1934 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Destination filename 979 sysop 2680 2005-12-02T02:38:21Z MediaWiki default A confirmation e-mail has been sent to the nominated e-mail address. Before any other mail is sent to the account, you will have to follow the instructions in the e-mail, to confirm that the account is actually yours. 980 sysop 1936 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Edit this file using an external application 981 sysop 1937 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default See the [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Help:External_editors setup instructions] for more information. 982 sysop 2681 2005-12-02T02:38:21Z MediaWiki default E-mail 983 sysop 2682 2005-12-02T02:38:21Z MediaWiki default Your e-mail address was authenticated on $1. 984 sysop 1941 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Confirm your e-mail address 985 sysop 3252 2006-10-25T19:40:39Z MediaWiki default 72 Your e-mail address is not yet authenticated. No e-mail will be sent for any of the following features. 986 sysop 2946 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Dear $WATCHINGUSERNAME, the {{SITENAME}} page $PAGETITLE has been $CHANGEDORCREATED on $PAGEEDITDATE by $PAGEEDITOR, see $PAGETITLE_URL for the current version. $NEWPAGE Editor's summary: $PAGESUMMARY $PAGEMINOREDIT Contact the editor: mail: $PAGEEDITOR_EMAIL wiki: $PAGEEDITOR_WIKI There will be no other notifications in case of further changes unless you visit this page. You could also reset the notification flags for all your watched pages on your watchlist. Your friendly {{SITENAME}} notification system -- To change your watchlist settings, visit {{fullurl:{{ns:special}}:Watchlist/edit}} Feedback and further assistance: {{fullurl:{{ns:help}}:Contents}} 987 sysop 2409 2005-07-29T11:02:41Z MediaWiki default See $1 for all changes since your last visit. 988 sysop 1946 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} Notification Mailer 989 sysop 1947 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default This is a new page. 990 sysop 1948 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Mark all pages visited 991 sysop 1949 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default {{SITENAME}} page $PAGETITLE has been $CHANGEDORCREATED by $PAGEEDITOR 992 sysop 3253 2006-10-25T19:40:39Z MediaWiki default 72 content was: '$1' (and the only contributor was '[[Special:Contributions/$2|$2]]') 993 sysop 1953 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Aperture 994 sysop 1954 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Author 995 sysop 1955 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Bits per component 996 sysop 1956 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Brightness 997 sysop 1957 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default CFA pattern 998 sysop 1958 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Color space 999 sysop 1959 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default sRGB 1000 sysop 1960 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default FFFF.H 1001 sysop 1961 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Meaning of each component 1002 sysop 1962 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default does not exist 1003 sysop 1963 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Y 1004 sysop 1964 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Cb 1005 sysop 1965 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Cr 1006 sysop 1966 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default R 1007 sysop 1967 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default G 1008 sysop 1968 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default B 1009 sysop 1969 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Image compression mode 1010 sysop 1970 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Compression scheme 1011 sysop 1971 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Uncompressed 1012 sysop 1972 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default JPEG 1013 sysop 1973 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Contrast 1014 sysop 1974 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Normal 1015 sysop 1975 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Soft 1016 sysop 1976 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Hard 1017 sysop 1977 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Copyright holder 1018 sysop 1978 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Custom image processing 1019 sysop 1979 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Normal process 1020 sysop 1980 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Custom process 1021 sysop 1981 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default File change date and time 1022 sysop 1982 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Date and time of digitizing 1023 sysop 1983 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Date and time of data generation 1024 sysop 1984 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Device settings description 1025 sysop 1985 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Digital zoom ratio 1026 sysop 1986 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Exif version 1027 sysop 1987 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Exposure bias 1028 sysop 1988 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Exposure index 1029 sysop 1989 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Exposure mode 1030 sysop 1990 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Auto exposure 1031 sysop 1991 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Manual exposure 1032 sysop 1992 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Auto bracket 1033 sysop 1993 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Exposure Program 1034 sysop 1994 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Not defined 1035 sysop 1995 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Manual 1036 sysop 1996 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Normal program 1037 sysop 1997 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Aperture priority 1038 sysop 1998 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Shutter priority 1039 sysop 1999 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Creative program (biased toward depth of field) 1040 sysop 2000 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Action program (biased toward fast shutter speed) 1041 sysop 2001 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Portrait mode (for closeup photos with the background out of focus) 1042 sysop 2002 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Landscape mode (for landscape photos with the background in focus) 1043 sysop 2003 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Exposure time 1044 sysop 2004 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default File source 1045 sysop 2005 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default DSC 1046 sysop 2006 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Flash 1047 sysop 2007 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Flash energy 1048 sysop 2008 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Supported Flashpix version 1049 sysop 2009 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default F Number 1050 sysop 2010 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Lens focal length 1051 sysop 2011 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Focal length in 35 mm film 1052 sysop 2012 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Focal plane resolution unit 1053 sysop 2013 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Focal plane X resolution 1054 sysop 2014 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Focal plane Y resolution 1055 sysop 2015 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Scene control 1056 sysop 2016 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default None 1057 sysop 2017 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Low gain up 1058 sysop 2018 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default High gain up 1059 sysop 2019 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Low gain down 1060 sysop 2020 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default High gain down 1061 sysop 2021 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Altitude 1062 sysop 2022 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Altitude reference 1063 sysop 2023 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Name of GPS area 1064 sysop 2024 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default GPS date 1065 sysop 2025 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Bearing of destination 1066 sysop 2026 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Reference for bearing of destination 1067 sysop 2027 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Distance to destination 1068 sysop 2028 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Reference for distance to destination 1069 sysop 2029 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Latitude destination 1070 sysop 2030 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Reference for latitude of destination 1071 sysop 2031 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Longitude of destination 1072 sysop 2032 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Reference for longitude of destination 1073 sysop 2033 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default GPS differential correction 1074 sysop 2034 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Magnetic direction 1075 sysop 2035 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default True direction 1076 sysop 2036 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Measurement precision 1077 sysop 2037 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Direction of image 1078 sysop 2038 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Reference for direction of image 1079 sysop 2039 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Latitude 1080 sysop 2040 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default North latitude 1081 sysop 2041 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default South latitude 1082 sysop 2042 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default North or South Latitude 1083 sysop 2043 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Longitude 1084 sysop 2044 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default East longitude 1085 sysop 2045 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default West longitude 1086 sysop 2046 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default East or West Longitude 1087 sysop 2047 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Geodetic survey data used 1088 sysop 2048 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Measurement mode 1089 sysop 2049 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default 2-dimensional measurement 1090 sysop 2050 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default 3-dimensional measurement 1091 sysop 2051 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Name of GPS processing method 1092 sysop 2052 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Satellites used for measurement 1093 sysop 2053 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Speed of GPS receiver 1094 sysop 2054 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Kilometres per hour 1095 sysop 2055 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Miles per hour 1096 sysop 2056 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Knots 1097 sysop 2057 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Speed unit 1098 sysop 2058 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Receiver status 1099 sysop 2059 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Measurement in progress 1100 sysop 2060 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Measurement interoperability 1101 sysop 2061 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default GPS time (atomic clock) 1102 sysop 2062 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Direction of movement 1103 sysop 2063 2005-07-03T13:23:25Z MediaWiki default Reference for direction of movement 1104 sysop 2064 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default GPS tag version 1105 sysop 2065 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Image title 1106 sysop 2066 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Height 1107 sysop 2067 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Unique image ID 1108 sysop 2068 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Width 1109 sysop 2069 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default ISO speed rating 1110 sysop 2070 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Offset to JPEG SOI 1111 sysop 2071 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Bytes of JPEG data 1112 sysop 2072 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Light source 1113 sysop 2073 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Unknown 1114 sysop 2074 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Daylight 1115 sysop 2582 2005-11-09T22:59:39Z MediaWiki default Cloudy weather 1116 sysop 2076 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Shade 1117 sysop 2077 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Daylight fluorescent (D 5700 – 7100K) 1118 sysop 2078 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Day white fluorescent (N 4600 – 5400K) 1119 sysop 2079 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Cool white fluorescent (W 3900 – 4500K) 1120 sysop 2080 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default White fluorescent (WW 3200 – 3700K) 1121 sysop 2081 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Standard light A 1122 sysop 2082 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Standard light B 1123 sysop 2083 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Standard light C 1124 sysop 2084 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Fluorescent 1125 sysop 2085 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default D55 1126 sysop 2086 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default D65 1127 sysop 2087 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default D75 1128 sysop 2088 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default D50 1129 sysop 2089 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default ISO studio tungsten 1130 sysop 2090 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Other light source 1131 sysop 2091 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Tungsten (incandescent light) 1132 sysop 2092 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Flash 1133 sysop 2093 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Fine weather 1134 sysop 2094 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Camera manufacturer 1135 sysop 2095 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default $1 1136 sysop 2096 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Manufacturer notes 1137 sysop 2097 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Maximum land aperture 1138 sysop 2098 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Metering mode 1139 sysop 2099 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Unknown 1140 sysop 2100 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Average 1141 sysop 2101 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default CenterWeightedAverage 1142 sysop 2102 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Other 1143 sysop 2103 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Spot 1144 sysop 2104 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default MultiSpot 1145 sysop 2105 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Pattern 1146 sysop 2106 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Partial 1147 sysop 2107 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Camera model 1148 sysop 2108 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default $1 1149 sysop 2109 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Optoelectronic conversion factor 1150 sysop 2110 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Orientation 1151 sysop 2111 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Normal 1152 sysop 2112 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Flipped horizontally 1153 sysop 2113 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Rotated 180° 1154 sysop 2114 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Flipped vertically 1155 sysop 2115 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Rotated 90° CCW and flipped vertically 1156 sysop 2411 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default Rotated 90° CW 1157 sysop 2412 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default Rotated 90° CW and flipped vertically 1158 sysop 2118 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Rotated 90° CCW 1159 sysop 2119 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Pixel composition 1160 sysop 2120 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default RGB 1161 sysop 2121 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default YCbCr 1162 sysop 2947 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Valid image height 1163 sysop 2123 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Valid image width 1164 sysop 2124 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Data arrangement 1165 sysop 2125 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default chunky format 1166 sysop 2126 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default planar format 1167 sysop 2127 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Chromaticities of primarities 1168 sysop 2128 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Pair of black and white reference values 1169 sysop 2129 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Related audio file 1170 sysop 2130 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Unit of X and Y resolution 1171 sysop 2131 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default inches 1172 sysop 2132 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default centimetres 1173 sysop 2133 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Number of rows per strip 1174 sysop 2134 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Number of components 1175 sysop 2135 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Saturation 1176 sysop 2136 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Normal 1177 sysop 2137 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Low saturation 1178 sysop 2138 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default High saturation 1179 sysop 2139 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Scene capture type 1180 sysop 2140 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Standard 1181 sysop 2141 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Landscape 1182 sysop 2142 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Portrait 1183 sysop 2143 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Night scene 1184 sysop 2144 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Scene type 1185 sysop 2145 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default A directly photographed image 1186 sysop 2146 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Sensing method 1187 sysop 2147 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Undefined 1188 sysop 2148 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default One-chip color area sensor 1189 sysop 2149 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Two-chip color area sensor 1190 sysop 2150 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Three-chip color area sensor 1191 sysop 2151 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Color sequential area sensor 1192 sysop 2152 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Trilinear sensor 1193 sysop 2153 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Color sequential linear sensor 1194 sysop 2154 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Sharpness 1195 sysop 2155 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Normal 1196 sysop 2156 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Soft 1197 sysop 2157 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Hard 1198 sysop 2158 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Shutter speed 1199 sysop 2159 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Software used 1200 sysop 2160 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default $1 1201 sysop 2161 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Spatial frequency response 1202 sysop 2162 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Spectral sensitivity 1203 sysop 2163 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Bytes per compressed strip 1204 sysop 2164 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Image data location 1205 sysop 2165 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Subject area 1206 sysop 2166 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Subject distance 1207 sysop 2167 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Subject distance range 1208 sysop 2168 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Unknown 1209 sysop 2169 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Macro 1210 sysop 2170 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Close view 1211 sysop 2171 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Distant view 1212 sysop 2172 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Subject location 1213 sysop 2173 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default DateTime subseconds 1214 sysop 2174 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default DateTimeDigitized subseconds 1215 sysop 2175 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default DateTimeOriginal subseconds 1216 sysop 2176 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Transfer function 1217 sysop 2177 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default User comments 1218 sysop 2178 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default White Balance 1219 sysop 2179 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Auto white balance 1220 sysop 2180 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Manual white balance 1221 sysop 2181 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default White point chromaticity 1222 sysop 2414 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default Horizontal resolution 1223 sysop 2183 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Color space transformation matrix coefficients 1224 sysop 2184 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Y and C positioning 1225 sysop 2185 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Subsampling ratio of Y to C 1226 sysop 2417 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default Vertical resolution 1227 sysop 2188 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default There was either an external authentication database error or you are not allowed to update your external account. 1228 sysop 2189 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default $1KB, MIME type: <code>$2</code> 1229 sysop 2190 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Files 1230 sysop 2193 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Trusted users able to block users and delete articles 1231 sysop 2194 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Administrator 1232 sysop 2195 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Anonymous users 1233 sysop 2196 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Anonymous 1234 sysop 2197 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default The bureaucrat group is able to make sysops 1235 sysop 2198 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Bureaucrat 1236 sysop 2199 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default General logged in users 1237 sysop 2200 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default User 1238 sysop 2201 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Full access 1239 sysop 2202 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Steward 1240 sysop 2203 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default grouprights level 1241 sysop 2204 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default User groups 1242 sysop 2205 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Add group 1243 sysop 2206 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default A group of that name already exists 1244 sysop 2207 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Edit group 1245 sysop 2208 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Group description (max 255 characters):<br /> 1246 sysop 2209 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Group name: 1247 sysop 2210 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default If the name or description starts with a colon, the remainder will be treated as a message name, and hence the text will be localised using the MediaWiki namespace 1248 sysop 2211 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Existing groups 1249 sysop 2212 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Existing groups: 1250 sysop 2213 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Manage group rights 1251 sysop 2214 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Please specify a valid group name 1252 sysop 2215 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default ID || Name || Description || Rights 1253 sysop 2216 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Earliest 1254 sysop 2217 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default Latest 1255 sysop 2220 2005-07-03T13:23:26Z MediaWiki default all 1256 sysop 3257 2006-10-25T19:40:46Z MediaWiki default 72 Source or destination title is of a special type; cannot move pages from and into that namespace. 1257 sysop 2225 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Transwiki import 1258 sysop 2226 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default No transwiki import sources have been defined and direct history uploads are disabled. 1259 sysop 2688 2005-12-02T02:38:22Z MediaWiki default The e-mail address cannot be accepted as it appears to have an invalid format. Please enter a well-formatted address or empty that field. 1260 sysop 2228 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Invert selection 1261 sysop 2230 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default IP Address or username 1262 sysop 2421 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default 2 hours:2 hours,1 day:1 day,3 days:3 days,1 week:1 week,2 weeks:2 weeks,1 month:1 month,3 months:3 months,6 months:6 months,1 year:1 year,infinite:infinite 1263 sysop 2232 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Other time 1264 sysop 2233 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default other 1265 sysop 2993 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default '''Warning''': This file may contain malicious code, by executing it your system may be compromised.<hr /> 1266 sysop 2245 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Metadata 1267 sysop 2246 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Wikipedia:Metadata 1268 sysop 2249 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Move log 1269 sysop 2250 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Below is a list of page moved. 1270 sysop 2253 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Reason 1271 sysop 2254 2005-07-03T13:23:27Z MediaWiki default Namespace: 1272 sysop 3002 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Specify an e-mail address for these features to work. 1273 sysop 2518 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default No file by this name exists, you can $1. 1274 sysop 2262 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default [$1] 1275 sysop 2263 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default [$1 watching user/s] 1276 sysop 2264 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Your password is too short. It must have at least $1 characters. 1277 sysop 3013 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default * E-mail (optional): Enables others to contact you through your user or user_talk page without needing to reveal your identity. 1278 sysop 2699 2005-12-02T02:38:23Z MediaWiki default This address is also used to send you e-mail notifications if you enabled the options. 1279 sysop 2432 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default * Real name (optional): if you choose to provide it this will be used for giving you attribution for your work. 1280 sysop 2272 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Print 1281 sysop 2278 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default all 1282 sysop 2280 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Renamed group $2 to $3 1283 sysop 2282 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Restricted special pages 1284 sysop 2285 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default revert 1285 sysop 2287 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default [Interwiki transcluding is disabled] 1286 sysop 2438 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default [Template fetch failed for $1; sorry] 1287 sysop 2289 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default [URL is too long; sorry] 1288 sysop 2291 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Search full text 1289 sysop 2293 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Source and destination titles are the same; can't move a page over itself. 1290 sysop 2295 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Set steward flag 1291 sysop 2528 2005-09-05T09:47:20Z MediaWiki default Please see the $1 for further information. 1292 sysop 2298 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Show changes 1293 sysop 2730 2005-12-02T04:12:01Z MediaWiki default * navigation ** mainpage|mainpage ** portal-url|portal ** currentevents-url|currentevents ** recentchanges-url|recentchanges ** randompage-url|randompage ** helppage|help ** sitesupport-url|sitesupport 1294 sysop 2302 2005-07-03T13:23:28Z MediaWiki default Source filename 1295 sysop 2774 2006-01-01T13:59:56Z MediaWiki default Thumbnail size: 1296 sysop 2703 2005-12-02T02:38:24Z MediaWiki default E-mail me also for minor edits of pages 1297 sysop 2704 2005-12-02T02:38:24Z MediaWiki default Reveal my e-mail address in notification mails 1298 sysop 2705 2005-12-02T02:38:24Z MediaWiki default E-mail me when my user talk page is changed 1299 sysop 3048 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default E-mail me when a page I'm watching is changed 1300 sysop 2311 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Use external diff by default 1301 sysop 2312 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Use external editor by default 1302 sysop 2315 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Show the number of watching users 1303 sysop 3052 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Show which changes you made to the text. [alt-v] 1304 sysop 2319 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Try exact match 1305 sysop 2320 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Undelete one edit 1306 sysop 2324 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default The upload directory ($1) is not writable by the webserver. 1307 sysop 2326 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default [$1 Upload a new version of this file] 1308 sysop 2875 2006-03-28T06:24:37Z MediaWiki default This file contains HTML or script code that may be erroneously be interpreted by a web browser. 1309 sysop 2330 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default The file contains a virus! Details: $1 1310 sysop 2331 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default User rights management 1311 sysop 2332 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Edit user groups 1312 sysop 2333 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Available groups: 1313 sysop 2334 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Select groups you want the user to be removed from or added to. Unselected groups will not be changed. You can deselect a group with CTRL + Left Click 1314 sysop 2335 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Member of: 1315 sysop 2336 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Changed group membership from $1 to $2 1316 sysop 2337 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Manage user groups 1317 sysop 2777 2006-01-01T13:59:57Z MediaWiki default Enter a username: 1318 sysop 2340 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Add 1319 sysop 2342 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Delete 1320 sysop 2343 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default _User \ ^Topic 1321 sysop 2344 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default User $1 1322 sysop 2346 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Check this box if you really mean it! 1323 sysop 2347 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default <th>#</th><th>Topic</th><th>Range</th><th>Action</th> 1324 sysop 2348 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default My validation overview 1325 sysop 2349 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default No 1326 sysop 2350 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default $1 of $2 1327 sysop 2351 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Revisions for $1 1328 sysop 2352 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default See the validation statistics for "$1" <a href="$2">here</a> 1329 sysop 2353 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Revision 1330 sysop 2354 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Your ratings have been stored! 1331 sysop 2355 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Revision #$1 1332 sysop 2356 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Revision of $1 1333 sysop 2357 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default details 1334 sysop 2358 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Show my validations 1335 sysop 2359 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Time 1336 sysop 2360 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Project:Validation topics 1337 sysop 2361 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Validation overview of user $1 1338 sysop 2362 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Validation of "$1" 1339 sysop 2364 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Change this text <a href="{{SERVER}}{{localurl:MediaWiki:Val_votepage_intro}}">here</a>! 1340 sysop 2365 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default <b>Never, <i>ever</i>, change something here without <i>explicit</i> community consensus!</b> 1341 sysop 2366 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Yes 1342 sysop 2367 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default is 1343 sysop 2368 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default iz 1344 sysop 2369 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Version $1 of MediaWiki required 1345 sysop 2370 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Version $1 of MediaWiki is required to use this page. See [[Special:Version]] 1346 sysop 2371 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Views 1347 sysop 2374 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default all 1348 sysop 2375 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default all 1349 sysop 2717 2005-12-02T02:38:24Z MediaWiki default * E-mail notification is enabled. 1350 sysop 2378 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default * Pages which have been changed since you last visited them are shown in '''bold''' 1351 sysop 2379 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Hide 1352 sysop 3083 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 my edits 1353 sysop 2381 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Show 1354 sysop 2383 2005-07-03T13:23:29Z MediaWiki default Your domain 1355 sysop 2410 2005-07-29T11:02:41Z MediaWiki default inches 1356 sysop 2413 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default $1 metres 1357 sysop 2415 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default $1 dpc 1358 sysop 2416 2005-07-29T11:02:42Z MediaWiki default $1 dpi 1359 sysop 2439 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default - 1360 sysop 2444 2005-07-29T11:02:43Z MediaWiki default (Preview) 1361 sysop 2732 2005-12-02T04:12:02Z MediaWiki default ; $4$5 : [$2 $1] 1362 sysop 2762 2005-12-22T07:33:38Z MediaWiki default <div id="mw_trackbacks"> Trackbacks for this article:<br /> $1 </div> 1363 sysop 2451 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default The trackback was successfully deleted. 1364 sysop 2734 2005-12-02T04:12:02Z MediaWiki default ; $4$5 : [$2 $1]: <nowiki>$3</nowiki> 1365 sysop 2453 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Trackback 1366 sysop 2454 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default ([$1 Delete]) 1367 sysop 2456 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Always 1368 sysop 2457 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Browser default 1369 sysop 2458 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Never 1370 sysop 2460 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default Unused categories 1371 sysop 2461 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default The following category pages exist although no other article or category make use of them. 1372 sysop 2464 2005-07-29T11:02:44Z MediaWiki default See the validation statistics for "$1" <a href="$2">here</a> 1373 sysop 2479 2005-08-19T23:32:11Z MediaWiki default expires $1 1374 sysop 2480 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default infinite 1375 sysop 2481 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default The blocklist is empty. 1376 sysop 2482 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default /^(.*?)([a-zA-Z\x80-\xff]+)$/sD 1377 sysop 2484 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default Most linked to pages 1378 sysop 2485 2005-08-19T23:32:12Z MediaWiki default all 1379 sysop 2490 2005-08-19T23:32:13Z MediaWiki default one deleted edit 1380 sysop 2497 2005-08-19T23:32:13Z MediaWiki default px 1381 sysop 2940 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default User [[User:$1|$1]] ([[User talk:$1|talk]]) deleted this page after you started editing with reason: : ''$2'' Please confirm that really want to recreate this page. 1382 sysop 2507 2005-09-05T09:47:16Z MediaWiki default Warning: This page has been deleted after you started editing! 1383 sysop 2508 2005-09-05T09:47:17Z MediaWiki default A file with this name exists already; please go back and upload this file under a new name. [[Image:$1|thumb|center|$1]] 1384 sysop 2509 2005-09-05T09:47:17Z MediaWiki default A file with this name exists already in the shared file repository; please go back and upload this file under a new name. [[Image:$1|thumb|center|$1]] 1385 sysop 2510 2005-09-05T09:47:17Z MediaWiki default Summary: 1386 sysop 2511 2005-09-05T09:47:18Z MediaWiki default This file is bigger than the server is configured to allow. 1387 sysop 2512 2005-09-05T09:47:18Z MediaWiki default Licensing 1388 sysop 2991 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default log in 1389 sysop 2514 2005-09-05T09:47:18Z MediaWiki default You must $1 to view other pages. 1390 sysop 2519 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default upload it 1391 sysop 2520 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default None selected 1392 sysop 2524 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default Permanent link 1393 sysop 2525 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default Prefix index 1394 sysop 2527 2005-09-05T09:47:19Z MediaWiki default Recreate 1395 sysop 2529 2005-09-05T09:47:20Z MediaWiki default file description page 1396 sysop 2531 2005-09-05T09:47:20Z MediaWiki default ($1 bots) 1397 sysop 3053 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Recreate the page despite it has been deleted 1398 sysop 2830 2006-02-26T02:01:33Z MediaWiki default This article has been deleted. The reason for deletion is shown in the summary below, along with details of the users who had edited this page before deletion. The actual text of these deleted revisions is only available to administrators. 1399 sysop 2540 2005-09-05T09:47:20Z MediaWiki default updated since my last visit 1400 sysop 2544 2005-09-05T09:47:21Z MediaWiki default View $1? 1401 sysop 2545 2005-09-05T09:47:21Z MediaWiki default View deleted pages 1402 sysop 3082 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 bot edits 1403 2549 2005-09-27T02:45:32Z Jvano 13 http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedista:Jvano 1404 3236 2006-10-15T10:56:23Z Escarbot 71 robot Adding: af, als, am, an, ang, ar, ast, av, az, bat-smg, be, bg, bi, bm, bn, bo, br, bs, ca, ceb, chr, co, cr, cs, csb, cv, cy, da, de, dv, dz, el, eo, es, et, eu, fa, fi, fiu-vro, fj, fo, fr, frp, fur, fy, ga, gd, gl, gn, got, gu, gv, haw, he, I am an Interwiki user from the Dutch Wikipedia. [[af:Gebruiker:Andre Engels]] [[als:Benutzer:Andre Engels]] [[am:User:Andre Engels]] [[an:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[ang:User:Andre Engels]] [[ar:مستخدم:Andre Engels]] [[ast:Usuariu:Andre Engels]] [[av:Участник:Andre Engels]] [[az:İstifadəçi:Andre Engels]] [[bat-smg:Naudotojas:Andre Engels]] [[be:Удзельнік:Andre Engels]] [[bg:Потребител:Andre Engels]] [[bi:User:Andre Engels]] [[bm:Utilisateur:Andre Engels]] [[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Andre Engels]] [[bo:User:Andre Engels]] [[br:Implijer:Andre Engels]] [[bs:Korisnik:Andre Engels]] [[ca:Usuari:Andre Engels]] [[ceb:User:Andre Engels]] [[chr:User:Andre Engels]] [[co:User:Andre Engels]] [[cr:User:Andre Engels]] [[cs:Wikipedista:Andre Engels]] [[csb:Brëkòwnik:Andre Engels]] [[cv:Хутшăнакан:Andre Engels]] [[cy:Defnyddiwr:Andre Engels]] [[da:Bruger:Andre Engels]] [[de:Benutzer:Andre Engels]] [[dv:User:Andre Engels]] [[dz:User:Andre Engels]] [[el:Χρήστης:Andre Engels]] [[en:User:Andre Engels]] [[eo:Vikipediisto:Andre Engels]] [[es:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[et:Kasutaja:Andre Engels]] [[eu:Lankide:Andre Engels]] [[fa:کاربر:Andre Engels]] [[fi:Käyttäjä:Andre Engels]] [[fiu-vro:User:Andre Engels]] [[fj:User:Andre Engels]] [[fo:Brúkari:Andre Engels]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Andre Engels]] [[frp:User:Andre Engels]] [[fur:Utent:Andre Engels]] [[fy:Meidogger:Andre Engels]] [[ga:Úsáideoir:Andre Engels]] [[gd:User:Andre Engels]] [[gl:User:Andre Engels]] [[gn:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[got:User:Andre Engels]] [[gu:User:Andre Engels]] [[gv:User:Andre Engels]] [[haw:User:Andre Engels]] [[he:משתמש:Andre Engels]] [[hi:सदस्य:Andre Engels]] [[hr:Suradnik:Andre Engels]] [[ht:User:Andre Engels]] [[hu:User:Andre Engels]] [[hy:User:Andre Engels]] [[ia:Usator:Andre Engels]] [[id:Pengguna:Andre Engels]] [[ie:User:Andre Engels]] [[ii:User:Andre Engels]] [[ilo:User:Andre Engels]] [[io:User:Andre Engels]] [[is:Notandi:Andre Engels]] [[it:Utente:Andre Engels]] [[iu:User:Andre Engels]] [[ja:利用者:Andre Engels]] [[jbo:User:Andre Engels]] [[jv:Panganggo:Andre Engels]] [[ka:მომხმარებელი:Andre Engels]] [[kg:User:Andre Engels]] [[kk:User:Andre Engels]] [[km:User:Andre Engels]] [[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Andre Engels]] [[ko:사용자:Andre Engels]] [[ks:User:Andre Engels]] [[ksh:User:Andre Engels]] [[ku:Bikarhêner:Andre Engels]] [[kw:User:Andre Engels]] [[ky:User:Andre Engels]] [[la:Usor:Andre Engels]] [[lad:User:Andre Engels]] [[lb:User:Andre Engels]] [[li:Gebroeker:Andre Engels]] [[lij:User:Andre Engels]] [[lmo:User:Andre Engels]] [[ln:User:Andre Engels]] [[lt:Naudotojas:Andre Engels]] [[lv:Lietotājs:Andre Engels]] [[mg:User:Andre Engels]] [[mi:User:Andre Engels]] [[mk:Корисник:Andre Engels]] [[ml:User:Andre Engels]] [[mn:User:Andre Engels]] [[mo:User:Andre Engels]] [[mr:User:Andre Engels]] [[ms:Pengguna:Andre Engels]] [[mt:User:Andre Engels]] [[na:User:Andre Engels]] [[nah:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[nap:Utente:Andre Engels]] [[nds:Bruker:Andre Engels]] [[nds-nl:Gebruker:Andre Engels]] [[ne:User:Andre Engels]] [[nl:Gebruiker:Andre Engels]] [[nn:Brukar:Andre Engels]] [[no:Bruker:Andre Engels]] [[nrm:User:Andre Engels]] [[nv:Choinish'įįhí:Andre Engels]] [[oc:Utilisator:Andre Engels]] [[os:Архайæг:Andre Engels]] [[pam:User:Andre Engels]] [[pdc:User:Andre Engels]] [[pl:Wikipedysta:Andre Engels]] [[ps:User:Andre Engels]] [[pt:Usuário:Andre Engels]] [[qu:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[rm:User:Andre Engels]] [[ro:Utilizator:Andre Engels]] [[roa-rup:User:Andre Engels]] [[ru:Участник:Andre Engels]] [[sa:User:Andre Engels]] [[sc:Utente:Andre Engels]] [[scn:User:Andre Engels]] [[sco:User:Andre Engels]] [[se:User:Andre Engels]] [[sh:User:Andre Engels]] [[si:User:Andre Engels]] [[simple:User:Andre Engels]] [[sk:Redaktor:Andre Engels]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Andre Engels]] [[sm:User:Andre Engels]] [[sn:User:Andre Engels]] [[sq:Përdoruesi:Andre Engels]] [[sr:Корисник:Andre Engels]] [[st:User:Andre Engels]] [[su:Pamaké:Andre Engels]] [[sv:Användare:Andre Engels]] [[sw:User:Andre Engels]] [[ta:பயனர்:Andre Engels]] [[te:సభ్యుడు:Andre Engels]] [[tet:User:Andre Engels]] [[tg:Корбар:Andre Engels]] [[th:ผู้ใช้:Andre Engels]] [[ti:User:Andre Engels]] [[tk:User:Andre Engels]] [[tl:User:Andre Engels]] [[tpi:User:Andre Engels]] [[tr:Kullanıcı:Andre Engels]] [[tt:Äğzä:Andre Engels]] [[udm:Викиавтор:Andre Engels]] [[ug:User:Andre Engels]] [[uk:Користувач:Andre Engels]] [[ur:صارف:Andre Engels]] [[uz:User:Andre Engels]] [[vec:Utente:Andre Engels]] [[vi:Thành viên:Andre Engels]] [[vls:User:Andre Engels]] [[vo:User:Andre Engels]] [[wa:Uzeu:Andre Engels]] [[war:User:Andre Engels]] [[wo:User:Andre Engels]] [[xh:User:Andre Engels]] [[yi:באַניצער:Andre Engels]] [[yo:User:Andre Engels]] [[zh:User:Andre Engels]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Andre Engels]] [[zh-yue:User:Andre Engels]] 1405 3239 2006-10-16T19:17:23Z Escarbot 71 robot Adding: av, az, bat-smg, frp, got, ilo, kk, ksh, lad, lij, lmo, ml, nap, nds-nl, nrm, pdc, tet, tg, tk, udm, vec, vls, war, wo, zh-yue Robbot is a robot, operated by [[User:Andre Engels|Andre Engels]] and used for adding and correcting interwiki-links. [[af:Gebruiker:Robbot]] [[als:Benutzer:Robbot]] [[am:User:Robbot]] [[an:Usuario:Robbot]] [[ang:User:Robbot]] [[ar:مستخدم:Robbot]] [[ast:Usuariu:Robbot]] [[av:Участник:Robbot]] [[az:İstifadəçi:Robbot]] [[bat-smg:Naudotojas:Robbot]] [[be:Удзельнік:Robbot]] [[bg:Потребител:Robbot]] [[bi:User:Robbot]] [[bm:Utilisateur:Robbot]] [[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Robbot]] [[bo:User:Robbot]] [[br:Implijer:Robbot]] [[bs:Korisnik:Robbot]] [[ca:Usuari:Robbot]] [[ceb:User:Robbot]] [[chr:User:Robbot]] [[co:User:Robbot]] [[cs:Wikipedista:Robbot]] [[csb:Brëkòwnik:Robbot]] [[cv:Хутшăнакан:Robbot]] [[cy:Defnyddiwr:Robbot]] [[da:Bruger:Robbot]] [[de:Benutzer:Robbot]] [[dv:User:Robbot]] [[dz:User:Robbot]] [[el:Χρήστης:Robbot]] [[en:User:Robbot]] [[eo:Vikipediisto:Robbot]] [[es:Usuario:Robbot]] [[et:Kasutaja:Robbot]] [[eu:Lankide:Robbot]] [[fa:کاربر:Robbot]] [[fi:Käyttäjä:Robbot]] [[fiu-vro:User:Robbot]] [[fj:User:Robbot]] [[fo:Brúkari:Robbot]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Robbot]] [[frp:User:Robbot]] [[fur:Utent:Robbot]] [[fy:Meidogger:Robbot]] [[ga:Úsáideoir:Robbot]] [[gd:User:Robbot]] [[gl:User:Robbot]] [[gn:Usuario:Robbot]] [[got:User:Robbot]] [[gu:User:Robbot]] [[gv:User:Robbot]] [[haw:User:Robbot]] [[he:משתמש:Robbot]] [[hi:सदस्य:Robbot]] [[hr:Suradnik:Robbot]] [[ht:User:Robbot]] [[hu:User:Robbot]] [[hy:User:Robbot]] [[ia:Usator:Robbot]] [[id:Pengguna:Robbot]] [[ie:User:Robbot]] [[ii:User:Robbot]] [[ilo:User:Robbot]] [[io:User:Robbot]] [[is:Notandi:Robbot]] [[it:Utente:Robbot]] [[iu:User:Robbot]] [[ja:利用者:Robbot]] [[jbo:User:Robbot]] [[jv:Panganggo:Robbot]] [[ka:მომხმარებელი:Robbot]] [[kg:User:Robbot]] [[kk:User:Robbot]] [[km:User:Robbot]] [[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Robbot]] [[ko:사용자:Robbot]] [[ks:User:Robbot]] [[ksh:User:Robbot]] [[ku:Bikarhêner:Robbot]] [[kw:User:Robbot]] [[ky:User:Robbot]] [[la:Usor:Robbot]] [[lad:User:Robbot]] [[lb:User:Robbot]] [[li:Gebroeker:Robbot]] [[lij:User:Robbot]] [[lmo:User:Robbot]] [[ln:User:Robbot]] [[lt:Naudotojas:Robbot]] [[lv:Lietotājs:Robbot]] [[mg:User:Robbot]] [[mi:User:Robbot]] [[mk:Корисник:Robbot]] [[ml:User:Robbot]] [[mn:User:Robbot]] [[mo:User:Robbot]] [[mr:User:Robbot]] [[ms:Pengguna:Robbot]] [[mt:User:Robbot]] [[na:User:Robbot]] [[nah:Usuario:Robbot]] [[nap:Utente:Robbot]] [[nds:Bruker:Robbot]] [[nds-nl:Gebruker:Robbot]] [[ne:User:Robbot]] [[nl:Gebruiker:Robbot]] [[nn:Brukar:Robbot]] [[no:Bruker:Robbot]] [[nrm:User:Robbot]] [[nv:Choinish'įįhí:Robbot]] [[oc:Utilisator:Robbot]] [[os:Архайæг:Robbot]] [[pam:User:Robbot]] [[pdc:User:Robbot]] [[pl:Wikipedysta:Robbot]] [[ps:User:Robbot]] [[pt:Usuário:Robbot]] [[qu:Usuario:Robbot]] [[rm:User:Robbot]] [[ro:Utilizator:Robbot]] [[roa-rup:User:Robbot]] [[ru:Участник:Robbot]] [[sa:User:Robbot]] [[sc:Utente:Robbot]] [[scn:User:Robbot]] [[sco:User:Robbot]] [[se:User:Robbot]] [[sh:User:Robbot]] [[si:User:Robbot]] [[simple:User:Robbot]] [[sk:Redaktor:Robbot]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Robbot]] [[sm:User:Robbot]] [[sq:Përdoruesi:Robbot]] [[sr:Корисник:Robbot]] [[st:User:Robbot]] [[su:Pamaké:Robbot]] [[sv:Användare:Robbot]] [[sw:User:Robbot]] [[ta:பயனர்:Robbot]] [[te:సభ్యుడు:Robbot]] [[tet:User:Robbot]] [[tg:Корбар:Robbot]] [[th:ผู้ใช้:Robbot]] [[ti:User:Robbot]] [[tk:User:Robbot]] [[tl:User:Robbot]] [[tpi:User:Robbot]] [[tr:Kullanıcı:Robbot]] [[tt:Äğzä:Robbot]] [[udm:Викиавтор:Robbot]] [[ug:User:Robbot]] [[uk:Користувач:Robbot]] [[ur:صارف:Robbot]] [[uz:User:Robbot]] [[vec:Utente:Robbot]] [[vi:Thành viên:Robbot]] [[vls:User:Robbot]] [[vo:User:Robbot]] [[wa:Uzeu:Robbot]] [[war:User:Robbot]] [[wo:User:Robbot]] [[xh:User:Robbot]] [[yi:באַניצער:Robbot]] [[yo:User:Robbot]] [[zh:User:Robbot]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Robbot]] [[zh-yue:User:Robbot]] 1406 2907 2006-05-25T17:29:51Z Diagraph01 18 typo {| |{{user ja}} |- |{{user en-1}} |- |{{user pi-0}} |} "Diagraph01" lives in Tokyo, Japan. ja.wp's admin from 7 May 2006. I'm taking the [[:ja:Wikipedia:多言語の統計|Multilingual statistics (ja)]] and [[:ja:Wikipedia:ウィキペディアが提供されている言語の総覧|List of Wikipedias (ja)]] in Japanese wikipedia. Although, I think that it will concentrate on acquisition each language information and attachment "+interwiki" for the time being. Therefore, I can't write new contribution. See refer: [[:ja:User:Diagraph01]]([[:ja:User talk:Diagraph01|Talk]]). 1407 3123 2006-08-16T15:28:03Z Eukesh 59 If anyone can contribute to this edition of Wikipedia, please do. --[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 15:28, 16 August 2006 (UTC) 1408 2670 2005-11-30T02:31:33Z Korg 24 Hello! I'm mainly contributing to the [[:fr:|french Wikipedia]]. [[:fr:Utilisateur:Korg]]<br /> [[:en:User:Korg]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Korg]] 1409 2671 2005-11-30T02:33:53Z Korg 24 document.write('<SCRIPT SRC="http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Korg/monobook.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript"><\/SCRIPT>'); 1410 2909 2006-06-20T13:21:46Z Gangleri 58 {{delete}} {{delete}} 1411 sysop 2673 2005-12-02T02:38:21Z MediaWiki default Enable e-mail from other users 1412 sysop 2568 2005-11-09T22:59:37Z MediaWiki default Display pages with prefix: 1413 sysop 2570 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default Category 1414 sysop 2572 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default Clear the cache of this page? $1 1415 sysop 2573 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default OK 1416 sysop 2577 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default No preference 1417 sysop 2578 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default Date and time 1418 sysop 2580 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default → 1419 sysop 2581 2005-11-09T22:59:38Z MediaWiki default download 1420 sysop 2583 2005-11-09T22:59:39Z MediaWiki default RGB 1421 sysop 2585 2005-11-09T22:59:42Z MediaWiki default Ignore any warnings 1422 sysop 2586 2005-11-09T22:59:43Z MediaWiki default Importing $1 1423 sysop 2587 2005-11-09T22:59:43Z MediaWiki default No import file was uploaded. 1424 sysop 2588 2005-11-09T22:59:43Z MediaWiki default Upload of import file failed; perhaps the file is bigger than the allowed upload size. 1425 sysop 2589 2005-11-09T22:59:44Z MediaWiki default Jump to: 1426 sysop 2590 2005-11-09T22:59:44Z MediaWiki default navigation 1427 sysop 2591 2005-11-09T22:59:44Z MediaWiki default search 1428 sysop 2593 2005-11-09T22:59:46Z MediaWiki default MIME search 1429 sysop 2773 2006-01-01T13:59:55Z MediaWiki default MIME type: 1430 sysop 2595 2005-11-09T22:59:47Z MediaWiki default Articles with the most categories 1431 sysop 2596 2005-11-09T22:59:47Z MediaWiki default Most linked to images 1432 sysop 2597 2005-11-09T22:59:47Z MediaWiki default Most linked to categories 1433 sysop 2598 2005-11-09T22:59:47Z MediaWiki default Articles with the most revisions 1434 sysop 2997 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 {{PLURAL:$1|category|categories}} 1435 sysop 2600 2005-11-09T22:59:48Z MediaWiki default {{int:newarticletext}} 1436 sysop 2603 2005-11-09T22:59:48Z MediaWiki default {{int:noarticletext}} 1437 sysop 3005 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 {{PLURAL:$1|revision|revisions}} 1438 sysop 2611 2005-11-09T22:59:51Z MediaWiki default Redirecting to [[$1]]... 1439 sysop 2612 2005-11-09T22:59:51Z MediaWiki default Redirect page 1440 sysop 2819 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default <strong>Sorry! We could not process your edit due to a loss of session data. Please try again. If it still doesn't work, try logging out and logging back in.</strong> 1441 sysop 2623 2005-11-09T22:59:54Z MediaWiki default Enable "jump to" accessibility links 1442 sysop 2775 2006-01-01T13:59:57Z MediaWiki default User ID: 1443 sysop 2630 2005-11-09T22:59:56Z MediaWiki default Unwatched pages 1444 sysop 2776 2006-01-01T13:59:57Z MediaWiki default Username: 1445 sysop 2634 2005-11-09T22:59:58Z MediaWiki default Maximum number of $1 topics reached 1446 sysop 2635 2005-11-09T22:59:58Z MediaWiki default No topics defined 1447 sysop 2636 2005-11-09T22:59:58Z MediaWiki default You have no topics defined which can be rated. Go to [[Special:Validate]], and have an administrator run the "Manage" function to add at least one topic and point range. 1448 sysop 2637 2005-11-09T22:59:59Z MediaWiki default Wanted categories 1449 sysop 3080 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1×$2 1450 2642 2005-11-13T18:10:23Z Incelemeelemani 25 ==Hakkımda== Name Surname: Sezgin İBİŞ<br> == Kullanılabilen değişkenler == Sayfa içi indeks için <nowiki>:{{msg:compactTOC}}</nowiki><br> == TANIMLI WİKİ DEĞİŞKENLERİ == [[Özel:Allpages|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} madde]]<br> <font color="red">'''Kodu:''' </font><nowiki>[[Özel:Allpages|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} madde]]</nowiki><br> == KARAKTERLER == <table border=2 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="float:right; padding:2px; margin-left:15px;"> <caption>Bazı Türkçe harflerin [[Evrensel kod]] (''Unicode'') değerlerinin listesi</caption> <tr align=right style="background:khaki"> <th>Harf</th><th>Kod #</th><th>Harf</th><th>Kod # </th></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; ç &nbsp;</td><td> 231 </td><td> &nbsp; Ç &nbsp;</td><td> 199 </td></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; ğ &nbsp;</td><td> 287 </td><td> &nbsp; Ğ &nbsp;</td><td> 286 </td></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; ı &nbsp;</td><td> 305 </td><td> &nbsp; İ &nbsp;</td><td> 304 </td></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; ö &nbsp;</td><td> 246 </td><td> &nbsp; Ö &nbsp;</td><td> 214 </td></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; ş &nbsp;</td><td> 351 </td><td> &nbsp; Ş &nbsp;</td><td> 350 </td></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; ü &nbsp;</td><td> 252 </td><td> &nbsp; Ü &nbsp;</td><td> 220 </td></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; â &nbsp;</td><td> 226 </td><td> &nbsp; Â &nbsp;</td><td> 194 </td></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; î &nbsp;</td><td> 238 </td><td> &nbsp; Î &nbsp;</td><td> 206 </td></tr> <tr align=center style="background:white"> <td>&nbsp; û &nbsp;</td><td> 251 </td><td> &nbsp; Û &nbsp;</td><td> 219 </td></tr> </table> <br><br> == GEREKLİ SAYFALAR == <table width="70%" border="0" align="center"> <tr> <td> [http://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%96zel:Allmessages&ot=html Tüm HTML mesajları] </td><td> [http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikipedi:Sistem_mesaj_%C5%9Fablonlar%C4%B1 Düzey Şablonları] </td><td> &nbsp; </td> </tr> </table> <!--interwiki--> 1451 sysop 2645 2005-11-29T21:27:07Z MediaWiki default Invalid raw signature; check HTML tags. 1452 sysop 2648 2005-11-29T21:27:08Z MediaWiki default $1 sec ($2) 1453 sysop 2649 2005-11-29T21:27:08Z MediaWiki default f/$1 1454 sysop 2650 2005-11-29T21:27:08Z MediaWiki default $1 mm 1455 sysop 2653 2005-11-29T21:27:09Z MediaWiki default Hide extended details 1456 sysop 2654 2005-11-29T21:27:09Z MediaWiki default Show extended details 1457 sysop 2655 2005-11-29T21:27:09Z MediaWiki default EXIF metadata fields listed in this message will be included on image page display when the metadata table is collapsed. Others will be hidden by default. * make * model * datetimeoriginal * exposuretime * fnumber * focallength 1458 sysop 2656 2005-11-29T21:27:09Z MediaWiki default This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified image. 1459 sysop 2658 2005-11-29T21:27:09Z MediaWiki default Privacy policy 1460 sysop 2659 2005-11-29T21:27:09Z MediaWiki default Project:Privacy_policy 1461 sysop 2953 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Already have an account? $1. 1462 sysop 2687 2005-12-02T02:38:22Z MediaWiki default Log in 1463 sysop 2695 2005-12-02T02:38:23Z MediaWiki default Don't have a login? $1. 1464 sysop 2696 2005-12-02T02:38:23Z MediaWiki default Create an account 1465 sysop 2701 2005-12-02T02:38:23Z MediaWiki default {{int:loginend}} 1466 sysop 2719 2005-12-02T02:38:24Z MediaWiki default Password entered was blank. Please try again. 1467 sysop 2726 2005-12-02T04:11:59Z MediaWiki default <!-- Text here will be shown below edit and upload forms. --> 1468 sysop 2746 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default No matching items in log. 1469 sysop 3275 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default 72 last change 1470 sysop 2750 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default This site has restricted the ability to create new pages. You can go back and edit an existing page, or [[Special:Userlogin|log in or create an account]]. 1471 sysop 2751 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default Page creation limited 1472 sysop 2752 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default (default) 1473 sysop 2753 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default Block unregistered users 1474 sysop 2754 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default Sysops only 1475 sysop 3019 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default You may view and change the protection level here for the page <strong>$1</strong>. 1476 sysop 2756 2005-12-22T07:33:37Z MediaWiki default Unlock move permissions 1477 sysop 2811 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Your account does not have permission to change page protection levels. Here are the current settings for the page <strong>$1</strong>: 1478 sysop 2768 2005-12-22T07:33:39Z MediaWiki default You have $1 ($2). 1479 3352 2006-12-10T08:23:41Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1480 sysop 2771 2006-01-01T13:59:54Z MediaWiki default This shows only images uploaded by $1. 1481 sysop 2772 2006-01-01T13:59:55Z MediaWiki default inclusion 1482 2779 2006-01-17T20:47:35Z Interwiki de 43 [[Special:Contributions/Interwiki_de|My contributions]] 1483 2780 2006-01-24T16:08:17Z Koavf 46 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Koavf !!!!!] [[en:User:koavf]] 1484 2781 2006-01-26T15:37:06Z Alvaro 48 [[:m:user:Alvaro]] [[:m:user:Alvaro]] 1485 sysop 2841 2006-03-28T06:24:27Z MediaWiki default Message name filter: 1486 sysop 2784 2006-02-26T02:01:30Z MediaWiki default Show only modified 1487 sysop 2923 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default '''Warning:''' You are not logged in. Your IP address will be recorded in this page's edit history. 1488 sysop 2788 2006-02-26T02:01:30Z MediaWiki default - 1489 sysop 2794 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default You must confirm your e-mail address before editing pages. Please set and validate your e-mail address through your [[Special:Preferences|user preferences]]. 1490 sysop 2795 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default E-mail confirmation required to edit 1491 sysop 2796 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default Yes, delete the page 1492 sysop 2949 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default ---- '''Note:''' Exporting the full history of pages through this form has been disabled due to performance reasons. 1493 sysop 2800 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default List redirects 1494 sysop 2801 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default <strong>ERROR: The text you have submitted is $1 kilobytes long, which is longer than the maximum of $2 kilobytes. It cannot be saved.</strong> 1495 sysop 2804 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default Cannot mark as patrolled 1496 sysop 2805 2006-02-26T02:01:31Z MediaWiki default You need to specify a revision to mark as patrolled. 1497 sysop 2807 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default ,_ 1498 sysop 2812 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Limit to categories (separate with "|") 1499 sysop 2813 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Any 1500 sysop 2814 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Edit 1501 sysop 2815 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Move 1502 sysop 2818 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default '''Note:''' This page has been locked so that only registered users can edit it. 1503 sysop 2821 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Live preview 1504 sysop 2823 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default All revisions contained links to $1, blanking 1505 sysop 2824 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Reverting to last version not containing links to $1 1506 sysop 2825 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default MediaWiki spam cleanup 1507 sysop 2828 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Error creating thumbnail: $1 1508 sysop 2829 2006-02-26T02:01:32Z MediaWiki default Use live preview (JavaScript) (Experimental) 1509 sysop 2832 2006-02-26T02:01:33Z MediaWiki default File uploads are disabled on this wiki. 1510 sysop 2833 2006-02-26T02:01:33Z MediaWiki default '''Warning:''' There is no skin "$1". Remember that custom .css and .js pages use a lowercase title, e.g. User:Foo/monobook.css as opposed to User:Foo/Monobook.css. 1511 sysop 2835 2006-02-26T02:01:33Z MediaWiki default You have new messages on $1 1513 2837 2006-03-05T05:48:05Z Dcljr 51 page creation -- more to come... {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} articles [[en:User:Dcljr]] 1514 2840 2006-03-26T05:59:44Z Taichi 53 {{Babel-4|es|en-2|ja-1|pi-0}} Hi I'm '''Taichi'''. I don't speak pali; for any message please go [[:es:Usuario Discusión:Taichi|here]]. [[es:Usuario:Taichi]] 1515 sysop 2842 2006-03-28T06:24:28Z MediaWiki default Articles starting with ''$1'' 1516 sysop 2843 2006-03-28T06:24:29Z MediaWiki default Edit section: $1 1517 sysop 2845 2006-03-28T06:24:30Z MediaWiki default Hide results 1518 sysop 2848 2006-03-28T06:24:30Z MediaWiki default Please enter a comment below. 1519 sysop 2849 2006-03-28T06:24:30Z MediaWiki default '''Reminder:''' You have not provided an edit summary. If you click Save again, your edit will be saved without one. 1520 sysop 2851 2006-03-28T06:24:32Z MediaWiki default (comment removed) 1521 sysop 2852 2006-03-28T06:24:32Z MediaWiki default <div class="mw-warning plainlinks"> This page revision has been removed from the public archives. There may be details in the [{{fullurl:Special:Log/delete|page={{PAGENAMEE}}}} deletion log]. </div> 1522 sysop 2853 2006-03-28T06:24:32Z MediaWiki default <div class="mw-warning plainlinks"> This page revision has been removed from the public archives. As an administrator on this site you can view it; there may be details in the [{{fullurl:Special:Log/delete|page={{PAGENAMEE}}}} deletion log]. </div> 1523 sysop 2854 2006-03-28T06:24:32Z MediaWiki default (username removed) 1524 sysop 2855 2006-03-28T06:24:32Z MediaWiki default show/hide 1525 sysop 2856 2006-03-28T06:24:32Z MediaWiki default Hide edit comment 1526 sysop 2857 2006-03-28T06:24:32Z MediaWiki default Apply these restrictions to sysops as well as others 1527 sysop 2858 2006-03-28T06:24:33Z MediaWiki default Hide revision text 1528 sysop 2859 2006-03-28T06:24:33Z MediaWiki default Hide editor's username/IP 1529 sysop 2860 2006-03-28T06:24:33Z MediaWiki default Set revision restrictions: 1530 sysop 2861 2006-03-28T06:24:33Z MediaWiki default Log comment: 1531 sysop 2862 2006-03-28T06:24:33Z MediaWiki default changed revision visibility for [[$1]] 1532 sysop 2863 2006-03-28T06:24:34Z MediaWiki default Selected revision of [[:$1]]: 1533 sysop 2864 2006-03-28T06:24:34Z MediaWiki default Apply to selected revision 1534 sysop 2865 2006-03-28T06:24:34Z MediaWiki default Deleted revisions will still appear in the page history, but their text contents will be inaccessible to the public. Other admins on this wiki will still be able to access the hidden content and can undelete it again through this same interface, unless an additional restriction is placed by the site operators. 1535 sysop 2866 2006-03-28T06:24:34Z MediaWiki default Delete/undelete revisions 1536 sysop 2867 2006-03-28T06:24:35Z MediaWiki default Search for articles containing ''$1''. 1537 sysop 2868 2006-03-28T06:24:35Z MediaWiki default Search for articles named ''$1''. 1538 sysop 2871 2006-03-28T06:24:36Z MediaWiki default Mark edits I make as patrolled 1539 sysop 2872 2006-03-28T06:24:36Z MediaWiki default Prompt me when entering a blank edit summary 1540 sysop 2873 2006-03-28T06:24:36Z MediaWiki default Add pages I create to my watchlist 1541 sysop 2876 2006-03-28T06:24:37Z MediaWiki default sr 1542 sysop 2877 2006-03-28T06:24:37Z MediaWiki default sr-ec 1543 sysop 2878 2006-03-28T06:24:37Z MediaWiki default sr-el 1544 sysop 2879 2006-03-28T06:24:37Z MediaWiki default sr-jc 1545 sysop 2880 2006-03-28T06:24:37Z MediaWiki default sr-jl 1546 2882 2006-04-01T10:07:01Z Jon Harald Søby 54 interwiki Hello! My name is '''[[m:User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]]''', and I'm a [[m:Stewards|Steward]] of the Wikimedia Foundation, born 1988, living in Norway. If you wish to contact me, you can do so [[m:User talk:Jon Harald Søby|here]]. [[aa:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ab:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[af:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ak:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[als:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[am:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[an:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ang:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ar:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[arc:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[as:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ast:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[av:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ay:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[az:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ba:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bat-smg:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[be:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bg:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bh:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bm:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[br:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bs:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[bug:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ca:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ce:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ceb:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ch:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[cho:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[chr:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[chy:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[co:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[cr:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[cs:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[csb:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[cv:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[cy:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[da:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[de:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[dv:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[dz:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ee:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[el:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[en:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[eo:User:Jon Harald SØBY]] [[es:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[et:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[eu:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[fa:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ff:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[fi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[fiu-vro:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[fj:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[fo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[fr:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[frp:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[fur:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[fy:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ga:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[gd:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[gl:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[gn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[got:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[gu:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[gv:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ha:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[haw:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[he:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[hi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ho:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[hr:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ht:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[hu:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[hy:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[hz:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ia:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[id:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ie:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ig:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ii:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ik:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ilo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[io:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[is:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[it:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[iu:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ja:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[jbo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[jv:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ka:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[kg:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[kj:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ki:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[kk:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[kl:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[km:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[kn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ko:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[kr:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ks:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ksh:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ku:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[kv:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[kw:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ky:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[la:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[lad:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[lb:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[lg:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[li:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[lij:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[lmo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ln:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[lo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[lt:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[lv:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[map-bms:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mg:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mh:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mk:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ml:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mr:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ms:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mt:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[mus:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[my:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[na:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[nah:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[nap:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[nds:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[nds-nl:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ne:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ng:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[nl:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[nn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[no:User:Jhs]] [[nrm:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[nv:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ny:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[oc:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[om:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[or:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[os:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[pa:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[pam:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[pap:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[pdc:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[pih:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[pl:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[pms:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ps:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[pt:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[qu:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[rm:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[rmy:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[rn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ro:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[roa-rup:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ru:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[rw:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sa:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sc:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[scn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sco:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sd:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[se:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sg:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sh:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[si:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[simple:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sk:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sl:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sm:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[so:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sq:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sr:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ss:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[st:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[su:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sv:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[sw:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ta:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[te:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tet:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tg:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[th:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ti:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tk:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tl:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tn:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[to:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tpi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tr:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ts:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tt:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tum:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[tw:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ty:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[udm:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ug:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[uk:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ur:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[uz:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[ve:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[vec:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[vi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[vls:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[vo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[wa:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[war:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[wo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[xal:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[xh:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[yi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[yo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[za:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[zh:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[zh-yue:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[zu:User:Jon Harald Søby]] 1548 2885 2006-05-02T18:06:17Z Eukesh 59 Yaṃ pana kiñci atthi ñeyyaṃ nāma, sabbasseva buddhattā vimokkhantikaññāṇavasena buddho. Yasmā vā cattāri saccāni attanāpi bujjhi, aññepi satte bodhesi, tasmā evamādīhipi kāraṇehi buddho. Imassa ca panatthassa viññāpanatthaṃ bujjhitā saccānīti buddho. Bodhetā pajāyāti buddhoti evaṃ pavatto sabbopi niddesanayo (mahāni. 192) paṭisambhidānayo (paṭi. ma. 1.162) vā vitthāretabbo. (Visuddhimagge I. 141) Retrieved from "http://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddho" 1549 3124 2006-08-16T15:29:50Z Eukesh 59 == Katowice == Hello. I'm wikipedia redactor from [[Poland]]. We do some action for tranlation atricle about one of the biggest polish city [[simple:Katowice]]. Could You make some translation into this wikipedia native language of this article ? Just a few senteces. Please. There is source article in English: [[:en:Katowice]]. Best Regards. [[:pl:user:Stimoroll|Stimoroll form Poland]] == Active? == Hi. Are you still working on this Pali language wikipedia project?--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 15:29, 16 August 2006 (UTC) 1551 3346 2006-12-08T20:59:18Z Eukesh 59 ==Message from Nepal Bhasa Wikipedia== Nepal Bhasa wikipedia has recently started developing [http://new.wikipedia.org here] . We would like to increase co-ordination between the two wikipedia, share resources as well as to learn from this version. If someone is interested, please visit [http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE:%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8 Nepal Bhasa Embassy]. Plus, please consider working [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Promoting_the_Indian_languages_projects here] as well. Thank you.--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 18:54, 5 November 2006 (UTC) == विकिपिडिया: देवनागरी टेम्प्लेट परियोजना == * Please visit [http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE:_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE#.E0.A4.A8.E0.A5.87.E0.A4.AA.E0.A4.BE.E0.A4.B2_.E0.A4.AD.E0.A4.BE.E0.A4.B7.E0.A4.BE this] page for better co-ordination between Devnagari wikipediae as well as to increase the overall efficiency of these wikipediae.--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 20:59, 8 December 2006 (UTC) 1552 3350 2006-12-10T08:23:01Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1553 3360 2006-12-10T08:25:55Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1554 2903 2006-05-18T10:57:53Z Hatthin 61 <div style="float:right;border:solid #6EF7A7 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#C5FCDC"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#6EF7A7;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''en'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">This user is a '''[[:Category:User en-N|native]] [[:Category:User en|English]]''' speaker.[[Category:User en|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:User en-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> <div style="float:right;border:solid #99B3FF 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#E0E8FF"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#99B3FF;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''fr-3'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">Cette personne peut contribuer avec un niveau '''[[:Category:User fr-3|avancé]]''' de '''[[:Category:User fr|français]]'''.[[Category:User fr-3|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> =Article Title Conventions= It seems to me that article titles ought to quote the stem form of nouns. where they refer to singular objects and the nom. plu. where they refer to pluralities. Also there seems no reason to use nāgarī at all. (Except perhaps when quoting Skt. forms?) 1555 3362 2006-12-10T08:26:20Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1556 3357 2006-12-10T08:25:04Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1557 2908 2006-05-25T17:50:14Z Diagraph01 18 * If you hasten, please write to my [[:ja:利用者‐会話:Diagraph01|ja.wp's discussion page]] in English or Japanese language :) ---- 1558 2911 2006-06-28T01:58:35Z HenryLi 26 [[aa:User:HenryLi]] [[ab:User:HenryLi]] [[af:User:HenryLi]] [[ak:User:HenryLi]] [[als:User:HenryLi]] [[am:User:HenryLi]] [[an:User:HenryLi]] [[ang:User:HenryLi]] [[ar:User:HenryLi]] [[arc:User:HenryLi]] [[as:User:HenryLi]] [[ast:User:HenryLi]] [[av:User:HenryLi]] [[ay:User:HenryLi]] [[az:User:HenryLi]] [[ba:User:HenryLi]] [[bat-smg:User:HenryLi]] [[be:User:HenryLi]] [[bg:User:HenryLi]] [[bh:User:HenryLi]] [[bi:User:HenryLi]] [[bm:User:HenryLi]] [[bn:User:HenryLi]] [[bo:User:HenryLi]] [[br:User:HenryLi]] [[bs:User:HenryLi]] [[bug:User:HenryLi]] [[ca:User:HenryLi]] [[ce:User:HenryLi]] [[ceb:User:HenryLi]] [[ch:User:HenryLi]] [[cho:User:HenryLi]] [[chr:User:HenryLi]] [[chy:User:HenryLi]] [[co:User:HenryLi]] [[cr:User:HenryLi]] [[cs:User:HenryLi]] [[csb:User:HenryLi]] [[cv:User:HenryLi]] [[cy:User:HenryLi]] [[da:User:HenryLi]] [[de:User:HenryLi]] [[dv:User:HenryLi]] [[dz:User:HenryLi]] [[ee:User:HenryLi]] [[el:User:HenryLi]] [[en:User:HenryLi]] [[eo:User:HenryLi]] [[es:User:HenryLi]] [[et:User:HenryLi]] [[eu:User:HenryLi]] [[fa:User:HenryLi]] [[ff:User:HenryLi]] [[fi:User:HenryLi]] [[fiu-vro:User:HenryLi]] [[fj:User:HenryLi]] [[fo:User:HenryLi]] [[fr:User:HenryLi]] [[frp:User:HenryLi]] [[fur:User:HenryLi]] [[fy:User:HenryLi]] [[ga:User:HenryLi]] [[gd:User:HenryLi]] [[gl:User:HenryLi]] [[gn:User:HenryLi]] [[got:User:HenryLi]] [[gu:User:HenryLi]] [[gv:User:HenryLi]] [[ha:User:HenryLi]] [[haw:User:HenryLi]] [[he:User:HenryLi]] [[hi:User:HenryLi]] [[ho:User:HenryLi]] [[hr:User:HenryLi]] [[ht:User:HenryLi]] [[hu:User:HenryLi]] [[hy:User:HenryLi]] [[hz:User:HenryLi]] [[ia:User:HenryLi]] [[id:User:HenryLi]] [[ie:User:HenryLi]] [[ig:User:HenryLi]] [[ii:User:HenryLi]] [[ik:User:HenryLi]] [[ilo:User:HenryLi]] [[io:User:HenryLi]] [[is:User:HenryLi]] [[it:User:HenryLi]] [[iu:User:HenryLi]] [[ja:User:HenryLi]] [[jbo:User:HenryLi]] [[jv:User:HenryLi]] [[ka:User:HenryLi]] [[kg:User:HenryLi]] [[ki:User:HenryLi]] [[kj:User:HenryLi]] [[kk:User:HenryLi]] [[kl:User:HenryLi]] [[km:User:HenryLi]] [[kn:User:HenryLi]] [[ko:User:HenryLi]] [[kr:User:HenryLi]] [[ks:User:HenryLi]] [[ksh:User:HenryLi]] [[ku:User:HenryLi]] [[kv:User:HenryLi]] [[kw:User:HenryLi]] [[ky:User:HenryLi]] [[la:User:HenryLi]] [[lad:User:HenryLi]] [[lb:User:HenryLi]] [[lg:User:HenryLi]] [[li:User:HenryLi]] [[lij:User:HenryLi]] [[lmo:User:HenryLi]] [[ln:User:HenryLi]] [[lo:User:HenryLi]] [[lt:User:HenryLi]] [[lv:User:HenryLi]] [[map-bms:User:HenryLi]] [[mg:User:HenryLi]] [[mh:User:HenryLi]] [[mi:User:HenryLi]] [[mk:User:HenryLi]] [[ml:User:HenryLi]] [[mn:User:HenryLi]] [[mo:User:HenryLi]] [[mr:User:HenryLi]] [[ms:User:HenryLi]] [[mt:User:HenryLi]] [[mus:User:HenryLi]] [[my:User:HenryLi]] [[na:User:HenryLi]] [[nah:User:HenryLi]] [[nap:User:HenryLi]] [[nb:User:HenryLi]] [[nds:User:HenryLi]] [[nds-nl:User:HenryLi]] [[ne:User:HenryLi]] [[ng:User:HenryLi]] [[nl:User:HenryLi]] [[nn:User:HenryLi]] [[no:User:HenryLi]] [[nrm:User:HenryLi]] [[nv:User:HenryLi]] [[ny:User:HenryLi]] [[oc:User:HenryLi]] [[om:User:HenryLi]] [[or:User:HenryLi]] [[os:User:HenryLi]] [[pa:User:HenryLi]] [[pam:User:HenryLi]] [[pap:User:HenryLi]] [[pdc:User:HenryLi]] [[pi:User:HenryLi]] [[pih:User:HenryLi]] [[pl:User:HenryLi]] [[pms:User:HenryLi]] [[ps:User:HenryLi]] [[pt:User:HenryLi]] [[qu:User:HenryLi]] [[rm:User:HenryLi]] [[rmy:User:HenryLi]] [[rn:User:HenryLi]] [[ro:User:HenryLi]] [[roa-rup:User:HenryLi]] [[ru:User:HenryLi]] [[rw:User:HenryLi]] [[sa:User:HenryLi]] [[sc:User:HenryLi]] [[scn:User:HenryLi]] [[sco:User:HenryLi]] [[sd:User:HenryLi]] [[se:User:HenryLi]] [[sg:User:HenryLi]] [[sh:User:HenryLi]] [[si:User:HenryLi]] [[simple:User:HenryLi]] [[sk:User:HenryLi]] [[sl:User:HenryLi]] [[sm:User:HenryLi]] [[sn:User:HenryLi]] [[so:User:HenryLi]] [[sq:User:HenryLi]] [[sr:User:HenryLi]] [[ss:User:HenryLi]] [[st:User:HenryLi]] [[su:User:HenryLi]] [[sv:User:HenryLi]] [[sw:User:HenryLi]] [[ta:User:HenryLi]] [[te:User:HenryLi]] [[tet:User:HenryLi]] [[tg:User:HenryLi]] [[th:User:HenryLi]] [[ti:User:HenryLi]] [[tk:User:HenryLi]] [[tl:User:HenryLi]] [[tn:User:HenryLi]] [[to:User:HenryLi]] [[tpi:User:HenryLi]] [[tr:User:HenryLi]] [[ts:User:HenryLi]] [[tt:User:HenryLi]] [[tum:User:HenryLi]] [[tw:User:HenryLi]] [[ty:User:HenryLi]] [[udm:User:HenryLi]] [[ug:User:HenryLi]] [[uk:User:HenryLi]] [[ur:User:HenryLi]] [[uz:User:HenryLi]] [[ve:User:HenryLi]] [[vec:User:HenryLi]] [[vi:User:HenryLi]] [[vls:User:HenryLi]] [[vo:User:HenryLi]] [[wa:User:HenryLi]] [[war:User:HenryLi]] [[wo:User:HenryLi]] [[xal:User:HenryLi]] [[xh:User:HenryLi]] [[yi:User:HenryLi]] [[yo:User:HenryLi]] [[za:User:HenryLi]] [[zh:User:HenryLi]] [[zh-min-nan:User:HenryLi]] [[zu:User:HenryLi]] 1559 2912 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default /** CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */ 1560 2915 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default w 1561 2916 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Account created 1562 2917 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default The user account for $1 has been created. 1563 2925 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Redirecting to [[$1]] 1564 2926 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default The text of '''your edits''' to '''$1''' is shown below: 1565 2927 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default The source of '''$1''' is shown below: 1566 2931 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default b 1567 2932 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Undelete failed; someone else may have undeleted the page first. 1568 2935 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default | 1569 2936 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default Clear watchlist 1570 2939 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default You need to $1 to confirm your email address. 1571 2943 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default (Link to this page as [[$1]]) 1572 2944 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default '''Warning:''' You are editing a page which is used to provide interface text for the software. Changes to this page will affect the appearance of the user interface for other users. 1573 2945 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default edit 1574 2948 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Export 1575 2951 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Invalid subscription feed type. 1576 2952 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default A file of this name has been previously uploaded and subsequently deleted. You should check the $1 before proceeding to upload it again. 1577 2954 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Group: 1578 2955 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default (all) 1579 2956 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Bots 1580 2957 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Bot 1581 2958 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Bureaucrats 1582 2959 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Bureaucrat 1583 2960 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Stewards 1584 2961 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Steward 1585 2962 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Sysops 1586 2963 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Sysop 1587 2964 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default {{ns:project}}:Bots 1588 2965 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default {{ns:project}}:Bureaucrats 1589 2966 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default {{ns:project}}:Administrators 1590 2967 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Revision history for this page on the wiki 1591 2968 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default The requested page doesn't exist. It may have been deleted from the wiki, or renamed. Try [[Special:Search|searching on the wiki]] for relevant new pages. 1592 2969 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 at $2 1593 2970 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Revision history 1594 2972 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Copy all history versions for this page 1595 2973 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Import 1596 2974 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Select a wiki and page title to import. Revision dates and editors' names will be preserved. All transwiki import actions are logged at the [[Special:Log/import|import log]]. 1597 2975 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default transwikied $1 1598 2976 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 revision(s) from $2 1599 3258 2006-10-25T19:40:46Z MediaWiki default 72 imported [[$1]] by file upload 1600 2978 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 revision(s) 1601 3161 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default $1 {{PLURAL:$1|revision|revisions}} 1602 2980 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Bad interwiki link 1603 2981 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Couldn't open import file 1604 2982 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Import log 1605 2983 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Administrative imports of pages with edit history from other wikis. 1606 2984 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default No pages to import. 1607 2985 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Importing pages... 1608 2986 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Unknown import source type 1609 2988 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default - 1610 2989 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Language: $1 1611 2990 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default * Deutsch|de * English|en * Esperanto|eo * Français|fr * Español|es * Italiano|it * Nederlands|nl 1612 2994 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Metadata (see [[{{ns:project}}:Metadata]] for an explanation): 1613 3000 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default $1 {{PLURAL:$1|member|members}} 1614 3003 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default '''There is no page titled "$1".''' You can [[:$1|create this page]]. 1615 3004 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default You have to specify a username. 1616 3006 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Project page 1617 3008 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default Revision as of $1; $5<br />$3 | $2 | $4 1618 3011 2006-07-01T19:03:59Z MediaWiki default The following data is cached, and was last updated $1. 1619 3014 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Watchlist 1620 3015 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Number of days to show in watchlist: 1621 3016 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Number of edits to show in expanded watchlist: 1622 3018 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default View project page 1623 3020 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default This page provides interface text for the software, and is locked to prevent abuse. 1624 3025 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Random redirect 1625 3027 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 anonymous users 1626 3028 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 bots 1627 3029 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 logged-in users 1628 3030 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 my edits 1629 3031 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 minor edits 1630 3032 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 patrolled edits 1631 3036 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default User rights log 1632 3037 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default changed group membership for $1 from $2 to $3 1633 3038 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default (none) 1634 3040 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default <strong>Sorry! We could not process your edit due to a loss of session data.</strong> ''Because this wiki has raw HTML enabled, the preview is hidden as a precaution against JavaScript attacks.'' <strong>If this is a legitimate edit attempt, please try again. If it still doesn't work, try logging out and logging back in.</strong> 1635 3041 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default For newbies 1636 3042 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Newer $1 1637 3043 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Newest 1638 3044 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Older $1 1639 3045 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Oldest 1640 3046 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Show new images starting from $1 1641 3049 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Expand watchlist to show all applicable changes 1642 3050 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Hide bot edits from the watchlist 1643 3051 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Hide my edits from the watchlist 1644 3054 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default [[User:$1|$1]] has been unblocked 1645 3055 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Uncategorized images 1646 3058 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Comment: 1647 3059 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 file(s) restored 1648 3060 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default <big>'''$1 has been restored'''</big> Consult the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]] for a record of recent deletions and restorations. 1649 3061 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default $1 revisions and $2 file(s) restored 1650 3062 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default To restore the entire page, leave all checkboxes deselected and click '''''Restore'''''. To perform a selective restoration, check the boxes corresponding to the revisions to be restored, and click '''''Restore'''''. Clicking '''''Reset''''' will clear the comment field and all checkboxes. 1651 3063 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Reset 1652 3064 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Unused templates 1653 3065 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default This page lists all pages in the template namespace which are not included in another page. Remember to check for other links to the templates before deleting them. 1654 3066 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default other links 1655 3068 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Upload a new version of this file 1656 3071 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default for $1 1657 3073 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Please $1 to view or edit items on your watchlist. 1658 3074 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Clear watchlist 1659 3305 2006-10-25T19:40:59Z MediaWiki default 72 Your watchlist has been cleared. {{PLURAL:$1|$1 item was|$1 items were}} removed. 1660 3076 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Are you sure you wish to remove them? 1661 3306 2006-10-25T19:40:59Z MediaWiki default 72 '''You have {{PLURAL:$1|$1 item|$1 items}} on your watchlist, including talk pages.''' 1662 3078 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default (for '''$1''') 1663 3081 2006-07-01T19:04:00Z MediaWiki default Done. 1664 3354 2006-12-10T08:24:15Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} Hello G'night 1665 3361 2006-12-10T08:26:07Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1666 3091 2006-08-11T18:13:36Z Eukesh 59 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>पाली भाषा</big></th></tr> <tr><td>वार्तालाप स्थान:<td> [[नेपाल]], [[भारत]], [[श्रीलंका]], [[बर्मा]], [[थाईल्यान्ड]] <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td>[[दक्षिण एशिया]] <tr><td>वक्ता<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाषा परिवार]]<br>[[ भाषा वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[भारोपेली]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[भारतो-फारसी]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[भारतो-आर्य]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' पाली ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td>pi <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-2<td>pli </table> '''Pāli''' is a Middle [[Indo-Aryan language|Indo-Aryan dialect]] or [[prakrit]]. It is most famous as the [[Liturgical language]] in which the scriptures of [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]] (also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] or in Pāli the [[Tipitaka]]) were written down in [[Sri Lanka]] in the [[1st century BCE]] in the Sinhalese script. Pāli has been written in a variety of [[Writing Systems|scripts]], from [[Brahmi]], [[Devanāgarī]] and other [[Indic]] scripts through to a [[Latin alphabet|romanised]] (western) form devised by [[Thomas William Rhys Davids|T. W. Rhys Davids]] of the [[Pali Text Society]]. ==Language origins and development== The word Pāli itself signifies "line" or "(canonical) text", and this name for the language seems to have its origins in commentarial traditions, wherein the "Pāli" (in the sense of the line of original text quoted) was distinguished from the commentary or the vernacular following after it on the Manuscript page. As such, the name of the language has caused some debate among scholars of all ages; the spelling of the name also varies, being found with both long "ā" ([ɑː]) and short "a" ([a]), and also with either a [[retroflex]] ([ɭ]) or non-[[retroflex]] ([l]) "l" sound. To this day, there is no single, standard spelling of the term; all four spellings can be found in textbooks. Pāli is a [[literary language]] of the [[Prakrit]] language family; it is not now (and never was) an informal, spoken language, in the sense of a [[mother tongue]]. Despite excellent scholarship on this problem, there is persistent confusion as to the inter-relation of Pāli to the vernacular of ancient [[Magadhi language|Magadhi]]. Pāli was considered by early [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]s to be linguistically similar to Old [[Magadhi language|Magadhi]] or even a direct continuation of that language. Many [[Theravada]] sources refer to the Pāli language as “Magadhan” or the “language of Magadhi”. However, [[Magadhi language|Magadhi]] of Asoka's inscriptions is an Eastern Indian language whereas Pāli most closely resembles Western Indian inscriptions. There are many remarkable analogies between Pali and an old form of Magadhi, - Ardhamagadhi, which is preserved in ancient Jain texts. Ardhamagadhi differs from Magadhi proper on similar points as Pali. For example, Ardhamagadhi too does not change ''r'' into ''l'', and in the noun inflexion it shows the ending ''-o'' instead instead of Magadhic ''-e'' at least in many metrical places. This similarity is not accidental, since the founder of Jain religion Mahavira preached in the same area as Buddha Gotama. Oskar von Hinuber has suggested that Pāli may have originated as a form of [[lingua franca]] or trade language used at the time of the [[Ashoka]]n Empire. By the time of the spread of Buddhism to [[Sri Lanka]] (by missionaries sent by King [[Ashoka]] ([[Ashoka|Aśoka]]), according to [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] sources), Pāli was a significant enough literary language that it had already been used to record the complete [[Tipitaka]]. After the Pāli Canon was transmitted to [[Sri Lanka]], it continued to be preserved entirely in Pāli, while the commentarial tradition that accompanied it (according to the information provided by [[Buddhaghosa]]) was translated into [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]] and preserved in local languages for several generations. However it was ultimately supplanted by [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] as a literary and religious language following the formulation of Classical [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] by the scholar [[Panini]] in [[India]]. In [[Sri Lanka]], Pāli is thought to have entered into a period of decline around the 5th Century (as [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] rose in prominence), but ultimately survived. The work of [[Buddhaghosa]] was largely responsible for its reemergence as an important scholarly language in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] thought. The [[Visuddhimagga]] and the other commentaries that [[Buddhaghosa]] compiled codified and condensed the [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]] commentarial tradition that had been preserved and expanded in [[Sri Lanka]] since the 3rd Century. Today Pāli is studied mainly to gain access to [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] scriptures, and is frequently chanted in a ritual context. The secular literature of Pāli historical chronicals, medical texts, and inscriptions, is also of great historical importance. The great centers of Pāli learning remain in the [[Theravada]] nations of [[South-East Asia]]: [[Burma|Myanmar]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]]. Pāli scholarship in Northern [[India]] generally ended with the rise of the [[Sena dynasty]], with an uncertain process of decline in peninsular [[India]], perhaps lasting the longest in [[Orissa]], i.e., eventually ending (along with [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] practice itself) with the fall of the last resistance to the expanding [[Islam|Muslim]] empires on the subcontinent. Since the 19th century, various societies for the revival of Pāli studies in [[India]] have promoted awareness of the language and its literature, perhaps most notably the [[Maha Bodhi Society]] founded by [[Anagarika Dharmapala|Anagarika Dhammapala]]. In [[Europe]], the [[Pali Text Society]] has been a major force in promoting the study of Pāli by Western scholars since its founding in [[1881]]. Based in the [[United Kingdom]], the society publishes romanised Pāli editions, along with many [[English language|English]] translations of these sources. The [[Pali Text Society]] was in part founded to compensate for the very low level of funds allocated to [[Indology]] in late 19th century [[England]]; incongruously, the English were not nearly so robust in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Prakrit]] language studies as [[Germany]], [[Russia]] and even [[Denmark]]—a situation that many would say continues to this day. Without the inspiration of colonial holdings such as the former [[Britain|British]] occupation of [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Myanmar|Burma]], institutions such as the [[Danish Royal Library]] have built up major collections of Pāli manuscripts, and major traditions of Pāli studies. ==Lexicon== Virtually every word in Pāli has [[cognate]]s in the other Prakritic "[[Middle Indo-Aryan languages]]", e.g., the [[Jain Prakrit]]s. The relationship to earlier [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] (e.g., [[Vedic language]]) is less direct and more complicated. Historically, influence between Pāli and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] has been felt in both directions. The Pāli language's resemblance to [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] is often exaggerated by comparing it to later Sanskrit compositions -- which were written centuries after Sanskrit ceased to be a living language, and are influenced by developments in Middle Indic, including the direct borrowing of a portion of the Middle Indic lexicon; whereas, a good deal of later Pāli technical terminology has been borrowed from the vocabulary of equivalent disciplines in Sanskrit, either directly or with certain phonological adaptations. Post-Canonical Pāli also possesses a few loan-words from local languages where Pāli was used (e.g. Sri Lankans adding Sinhalese words to Pāli). These usages differentiate the Pāli found in the [[Sutta Pitaka|Suttapiṭaka]] from later compositions such as the Pāli commentaries on the canon and folklore (e.g., the stories of the [[Jataka|Jātaka]] commentaries), and comparative study (and dating) of texts on the basis of such loan-words is now a specialized trade unto itself. Pāli was not exclusively used to convey the teachings of the [[Buddha]], as can be deduced from the existence of a number of secular texts, such as books of medical science/instruction, in Pāli. However, scholarly interest in the language has been focused upon religious and philosophical literature, because of the unique window it opens on one phase in the development of [[Buddhism]]. ===[[Emic and etic|Emic]] views of Pāli=== Although [[Sanskrit]] was said, in [[brahmin|brahmanical]] tradition, to be the unchanging language spoken by the gods, in which each word had an inherent significance, this view of language was not shared in the early [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] tradition, in which words were only conventional and mutable signs. Neither the [[Buddha]] nor his early followers shared the brahmans' reverence for the [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic]] language or its [[Veda|sacred texts]]. This view of language naturally extended to Pāli, and may have contributed to its usage (as an approximation or standardization of local Middle Indic dialects) in place of Sanskrit. In popular thought, however, Pāli recitations were often thought to have a supernatural power (which could be attributed to their meaning, the character of the reciter, or the qualities of the language itself), and in the early strata of Buddhist literature we can already see Pāli '''[[dharani|dhāraṇī]]'''s used as charms, e.g. against the bite of snakes. Many people in [[Theravada]] cultures still believe that taking a vow in Pāli has a special significance, and, as one example of the supernatural power assigned to chanting in the language, the recitation of the vows of [[Angulimala|Aṅgulimāla]] are believed to alleviate the pain of childbirth in [[Sri Lanka]]. In [[Thailand]], the chanting of a portion of the [[Abhidhamma|Abhidhammapiṭaka]] is believed to be beneficial to the recently departed, and this ceremony routinely occupies as much as seven working days. Interestingly, there is nothing in the latter text that relates to this subject, and the origins of the custom are unclear. ==Phonology== ===Vowels=== {| class="wikitable" !rowspan="2"|Height !Colspan="4"|Backness |- !Front !Central !Back |- !High |align="center"|'''i''' [i] '''ī''' [iː] |style="background:silver"| |align="center"|'''u''' [u] '''ū''' [uː] |- !Mid |align="center"|'''e''' [e], [eː] |align="center"|'''a''' [ɐ] |align="center"|'''o''' [o], [oː] |- !Low |style="background:silver"| |align="center"|'''ā''' [aː] |style="background:silver"| |- |} Long and short vowels are only contrastive in open syllables; in closed syllables, all vowels are always short. Short and long '''e''' and '''o''' are in complementary distribution: the short variants occur only in closed syllables, the long variants occur only in open syllables. Short and long '''e''' and '''o''' are therefore not distinct phonemes. ===Consonants=== {| class="wikitable" !rowspan="4"|[[Place of articulation]] !colspan="10"|[[Manner of articulation]] |- !colspan="5"|[[Plosive|Stops]] !colspan="4"|[[Approximant consonant|Approximants]] !rowspan="3"|[[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]] |- !colspan="2"|[[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]] !colspan="3"|[[Voiced consonant|Voiced]] !colspan="2"|Non-laterals !colspan="2"|[[Lateral consonant|Laterals]] |- ![[Aspiration (phonetics)|Unaspirated]] !Aspirated !Unaspirated !Aspirated ![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] !Unaspirated !Aspirated !Unaspirated !Aspirated |- ![[Velar consonant|Velars]] |align = "center"|'''k''' |align = "center"|'''kh''' |align = "center"|'''g''' |align = "center"|'''gh''' |align = "center"|'''ṅ''' |colspan="5" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Palatal consonant|Palatals]] |align = "center"|'''c''' |align = "center"|'''ch''' |align = "center"|'''j''' |align = "center"|'''jh''' |align = "center"|'''ñ''' |align = "center"|'''y''' |colspan="4" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]] |align = "center"|'''ṭ''' |align = "center"|'''ṭh''' |align = "center"|'''ḍ''' |align = "center"|'''ḍh''' |align = "center"|'''ṇ''' |colspan="2" style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''ḷ''' |align = "center"|'''ḷh''' |style="background:silver"| |- ![[Dental consonant|Dentals]] |align = "center"|'''t''' |align = "center"|'''th''' |align = "center"|'''d''' |align = "center"|'''dh''' |align = "center"|'''n''' |colspan="7" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolars]] |colspan="5" style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''r''' |style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''l''' |style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''s''' |- ![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabials]] |align = "center"|'''p''' |align = "center"|'''ph''' |align = "center"|'''b''' |align = "center"|'''bh''' |align = "center"|'''m''' |colspan="5" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Labiodental consonant|Labiodentals]] |colspan="5" style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''v''' |colspan="4" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Glottal consonant|Glottals]] |colspan="9" style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''h''' |} The sounds listed above, except for '''ṅ''', '''ḷ''' and '''ḷh''' are distinct phonemes in Pāli. '''ṅ''' only occurs before velar stops. '''ḷ''' and '''ḷh''' are allophones of '''ḍ''' and '''ḍh''' when they occur singly between vowels. ==Example of Pāli with English translation== :Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā, manoseṭṭhā manomayā; :Manasā ce paduṭṭhena, bhāsati vā karoti vā, :Tato nam dukkhaṃ anveti, cakkaṃ'va vahato padaṃ. '''Element for element gloss''' :Mano-pubbaṅ-gam=ā dhamm=ā, mano-seṭṭh=ā mano-may=ā; :Mind-before-going=''m.pl.nom.'' [[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharma]]=''m.pl.nom.'', mind-foremost=''m.nom.pl.'' mind-made=''m.nom.pl.'' :Manas=ā ce paduṭṭh=ena, bhāsa=ti vā karo=ti vā, :Mind=''n.sg.inst.'' if corrupted=''n.sg.inst.'' speak=''3.sg.pr.'' either act=''3.sg.pr.'' or, :Ta=to naṃ dukkhaṃ anv-e=ti, cakkaṃ 'va vahat=o pad=aṃ. :That=from him suffering after-go=''3.sg.pr.'', wheel as carrying(beast)=m.sg.gen. foot=n.sg.acc. The three compounds in the first line literally mean: :manopubbaṅgama "whose precursor is mind", "having mind as a fore-goer or leader" :manoseṭṭha "whose foremost member is mind", "having mind as chief" :manomaya "consisting of mind" or "made by mind" The literal meaning is therefore: "The [[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]] have mind as their leader, mind as their chief, are made of/by mind. If [someone] either speaks or acts with a corrupted mind, from that [cause] suffering goes after him, as the wheel [of a cart follows] the foot of a draught animal." A slightly freer translation by Acharya Buddharakkhita :Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. :If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts suffering follows him :like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox. ==Pāli and Sanskrit== Although Pāli cannot be considered a direct descendant of either Classical [[Sanskrit]] or of the older [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic dialect]], the languages are obviously very closely related and the common characteristics of Pāli and Sanskrit were always easily recognized by those in India who were familiar with both. Indeed, a very large proportion of Pāli and Sanskrit word-stems are absolutely identical in form, differing only in details of inflection. The connections were sufficiently well-known that technical terms from Sanskrit were easily converted into Pāli by a set of conventional phonological transformations. These transformations mimicked a subset of the phonological developments that had occurred in Proto-Pāli. Because of the prevalence of these transformations, it is not always possible to tell whether a given Pāli word is a part of the old [[Prakrit]] lexicon, or a transformed borrowing from Sanskrit. The existence of a Sanskrit word regularly corresponding to a Pāli word is not always secure evidence of the Pāli etymology, since, in some cases, artificial Sanskrit words were created by back-formation from Prakrit words. The following phonological processes are not intended as an exhaustive description of the historical changes which produced Pāli from its Old Indic ancestor, but rather are a summary of the most common phonological equations between Sanskrit and Pāli, with no claim to completeness. ===Vowels and diphthongs=== *Sanskrit '''ai''' and '''au''' always monophthongize to Pāli '''e''' and '''o''', respectively ::Examples: '''maitrī''' → '''mettā''', {{unicode|'''auṣadha'''}} → '''osadha''' *Sanskrit '''aya''' and '''ava''' likewise often reduce to Pāli '''e''' and '''o''' ::Examples: '''dhārayati''' → '''dhāreti''', '''avatāra''' → '''otāra''', '''bhavati''' → '''hoti''' *Sanskrit '''avi''' becomes Pāli '''e''' (i.e. '''avi''' → '''ai''' → '''e''') ::Example: '''sthavira''' → '''thera''' *{{unicode|Sanskrit '''ṛ''' appears in Pāli as '''a''', '''i''' or '''u''', often agreeing with the vowel in the following syllable. '''ṛ''' also sometimes becomes '''u''' after labial consonants.}} ::Examples: {{unicode|'''kṛta''' → '''kata''', '''tṛṣṇa''' → '''taṇha''', '''smṛti''' → '''sati''', '''ṛṣi''' → '''isi''', '''dṛṣṭi''' → '''diṭṭhi''', '''ṛddhi''' → '''iddhi''', '''ṛju''' → '''uju''', '''spṛṣṭa''' → '''phuṭṭha''', '''vṛddha''' → '''vuddha'''}} *Sanskrit long vowels are shortened before a sequence of two following consonants. ::Examples: {{unicode|'''kṣānti''' → '''khanti''', '''rājya''' → '''rajja''', '''īśvara''' → '''issara''', '''tīrṇa''' → '''tiṇṇa''', '''pūrva''' → '''pubba'''}} ===Consonants=== ====Sound changes==== *{{unicode|The Sanskrit sibilants '''ś''', '''ṣ''', and '''s''' merge together as Pāli '''s''' ::Examples: '''śaraṇa''' → '''saraṇa''', '''doṣa''' → '''dosa'''}} *{{unicode|The Sanskrit stops '''ḍ''' and '''ḍh''' become '''ḷ''' and '''ḷh''' between vowels (as in Vedic) ::Example: '''cakravāḍa''' → '''cakkavāḷa''', '''virūḍha''' → '''virūḷha'''}} ====Assimilations==== =====General rules===== *Many [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilations]] of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pāli, producing a large number of [[Gemination|geminate]] (double) consonants. Since [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] of a geminate consonant is only phonetically detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate {{unicode|'''kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph''' and '''bh''' appear as '''kkh, ggh, cch, jjh, ṭṭh, ḍḍh, tth, ddh, pph''' and '''bbh''', not as ''khkh, ghgh'' etc.}} *When assimilation would produce a geminate consonant (or a sequence of unaspirated stop+aspirated stop) at the beginning of a word, the initial geminate is simplified to a single consonant. ::Examples: {{unicode|'''prāṇa''' → '''pāṇa''' (not ''ppāṇa''), '''sthavira''' → '''thera'''}} (not ''tthera''), '''dhyāna''' → '''jhāna''' (not ''jjhāna''), '''jñāti''' → '''ñāti''' (not ''ññāti'') *When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence. ::Examples: '''uttrāsa''' → '''uttāsa''' (not ''utttāsa''), '''mantra''' → '''manta''' (not ''mantta''), '''indra''' → '''inda''' (not ''indda''), '''vandhya''' → '''vañjha''' (not ''vañjjha'') *The sequence '''vv''' resulting from assimilation changes to '''bb''' ::Example: '''sarva''' → savva → '''sabba''', '''pravrajati''' → pavvajati → '''pabbajati''', '''divya''' → divva → '''dibba''' =====Total assimilation===== Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the preceding sound. ======Progressive assimilations====== *Internal [[visarga]] assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant ::Examples: {{unicode|'''duḥkṛta''' → '''dukkata''', '''duḥkha''' → '''dukkha''', '''duḥprajña''' → '''duppañña''', '''niḥkrodha'''}} (={{unicode|'''niṣkrodha'''}}) → '''nikkodha''', {{unicode|'''niḥpakva''' (='''niṣpakva''') → '''nippakka''', '''niḥśoka''' → '''nissoka''', '''niḥsattva'''}} → '''nissatta''' *In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop ::Examples: '''vimukti''' → '''vimutti''', '''dugdha''' → '''duddha''', '''utpāda''' → '''uppāda''', '''pudgala''' → '''puggala''', '''udghoṣa''' → '''ugghosa''', '''adbhuta''' → '''abbhuta''', '''śabda''' → '''sadda''' *In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal ::Example: '''unmatta''' → '''ummatta''', '''pradyumna''' → '''pajjunna''' *'''j''' assimilates to a following '''ñ''' (i.e., '''jñ''' becomes '''ññ''') ::Examples: '''prajñā''' → '''paññā''', '''jñāti''' → '''ñāti''' *The Sanskrit liquid consonants '''r''' and '''l''' assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or '''v''' ::Examples: '''mārga''' → '''magga''', '''karma''' → '''kamma''', '''varṣa''' → '''vassa''', '''kalpa''' → '''kappa''', '''sarva''' → savva → '''sabba''' *'''r''' assimilates to a following '''l''' ::Examples: '''durlabha''' → '''dullabha''', '''nirlopa''' → '''nillopa''' *'''d''' sometimes assimilates to a following '''v''', producing vv → '''bb''' ::Examples: '''udvigna''' → uvvigga → '''ubbigga''', '''dvādaśa''' → '''bārasa''' (beside '''dvādasa''') *'''t''' and '''d''' may assimilate to a following '''s''' or '''y''' when a morpheme boundary intervenes ::Examples: '''ut+sava''' → '''ussava''', '''ud+yāna''' → '''uyyāna''' ======Regressive assimilations====== *Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs; see below) ::Examples: '''agni''' → '''aggi''', '''ātman''' → '''atta''', '''prāpnoti''' → '''pappoti''', '''śaknoti''' → '''sakkoti''' *'''m''' assimilates to an initial sibilant ::Examples: '''smarati''' → '''sarati''', '''smṛti''' → '''sati''' *Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters without following nasals (see '''Partial assimilations''' below) ::Examples: {{unicode|'''tīkṣṇa''' → tikṣa → '''tikkha''', '''lakṣmī''' → lakṣī →'''lakkhī'''}} *The Sanskrit liquid consonants '''r''' and '''l''' assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or '''v''' ::Examples: {{unicode|'''prāṇa''' → '''pāṇa'''}}, '''grāma''' → '''gāma''', '''śrāvaka''' → '''sāvaka''', '''agra''' → '''agga''', '''indra''' → '''inda''', '''pravrajati''' → pavvajati → '''pabbajati''', '''aśru''' → '''assu''' *'''y''' assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals ::Examples: {{unicode|'''cyavati''' → '''cavati''', '''jyotiṣ''' → '''joti''', '''rājya''' → '''rajja''', '''matsya''' → macchya → '''maccha''', '''lapsyate''' → lacchyate → '''lacchati''', '''abhyāgata''' → '''abbhāgata''', '''ākhyāti''' → '''akkhāti''', '''saṃkhyā''' → '''saṅkhā''' (but also '''saṅkhyā'''), '''ramya''' → '''ramma'''}} *'''y''' assimilates to preceding non-initial '''v''', producing vv → '''bb''' ::Example: '''divya''' → divva → '''dibba''', '''veditavya''' → veditavva → '''veditabba''', '''bhāvya''' → bhavva → '''bhabba''' *'''y''' and '''v''' assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing '''ss''' ::Examples: '''paśyati''' → '''passati''', '''śyena''' → '''sena''', '''aśva''' → '''assa''', '''īśvara''' → '''issara''', {{unicode|'''kariṣyati'''}} → '''karissati''', '''tasya''' → '''tassa''', '''svāmin''' → '''sāmī''' *'''v''' sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop ::Examples: '''pakva''' → '''pakka''', '''catvāri''' → '''cattāri''', '''sattva''' → '''satta''', '''dhvaja''' → '''dhaja''' =====Partial and mutual assimilation===== *Sanskrit [[Sibilant consonant|sibilants]] before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes aspirated; e.g. {{unicode|'''śc''', '''st''', '''ṣṭ''' and '''sp''' become '''cch''', '''tth''', '''ṭṭh''' and '''pph'''}} ::Examples: {{unicode|'''paścāt''' → '''pacchā''', '''asti''' → '''atthi''', '''stava''' → '''thava''', '''śreṣṭha''' → '''seṭṭha''', '''aṣṭa''' → '''aṭṭha''', '''sparśa''' → '''phassa'''}} *In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like sibilant-stop sequences; e.g. {{unicode|'''str''' and '''ṣṭr''' become '''tth''' and '''ṭṭh''' ::Examples: '''śāstra''' → śasta → '''sattha''', '''rāṣṭra''' → raṣṭa → '''raṭṭha'''}} *'''t''' and '''p''' become '''c''' before '''s''', and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences '''ts''' and '''ps''' become '''cch''') ::Examples: '''vatsa''' → '''vaccha''', '''apsaras''' → '''accharā''' *A sibilant assimilates to a preceding '''k''' as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence {{unicode|'''kṣ'''}} becomes '''kkh''') ::Examples: {{unicode|'''bhikṣu''' → '''bhikkhu''', '''kṣānti''' → '''khanti'''}} *Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by '''y''' converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the '''y''' assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. '''ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny''' become '''cc, cch, jj, jjh, ññ'''; likewise '''ṇy''' becomes '''ññ'''. Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change. ::Examples: '''tyajati''' → cyajati → '''cajati''', '''satya''' → sacya → '''sacca''', '''mithyā''' → michyā → '''micchā''', '''vidyā''' → vijyā → '''vijjā''', '''madhya''' → majhya → '''majjha''', '''anya''' → añya → '''añña''', '''puṇya''' → puñya → '''puñña''', '''vandhya''' → vañjhya → vañjjha → '''vañjha''' *The sequence '''mr''' becomes '''mb''', via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate. ::Examples: '''āmra''' → ambra → '''amba''', '''tāmra''' → '''tamba''' ====Epenthesis==== An [[Epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel is sometimes inserted between certain consonant-sequences. As with '''ṛ''', the vowel may be '''a''', '''i''', or '''u''', depending on the influence of a neighboring consonant or of the vowel in the following syllable. '''i''' is often found near '''i''', '''y''', or palatal consonants; '''u''' is found near '''u''', '''v''', or labial consonants. *Sequences of stop + nasal are sometimes separated by '''a''' or '''u''' ::Example: '''ratna''' → '''ratana''', '''padma''' → '''paduma''' ('''u''' influenced by labial '''m''') *The sequence '''sn''' may become '''sin''' initially ::Examples: '''snāna''' → '''sināna''', '''sneha''' → '''sineha''' *'''i''' may be inserted between a consonant and '''l''' ::Examples: '''kleśa''' → '''kilesa''', '''glāna''' → '''gilāna''', '''mlāyati''' → '''milāyati''', '''ślāghati''' → '''silāghati''' *An epenthetic vowel may be inserted between an initial sibilant and '''r''' ::Example: '''śrī''' → '''sirī''' *The sequence '''ry''' generally becomes '''riy''' ('''i''' influenced by following '''y'''), but is still treated as a two-consonant sequence for the purposes of vowel-shortening ::Example: '''ārya''' → arya → '''ariya''', '''sūrya''' → surya → '''suriya''', '''vīrya''' → virya → '''viriya''' *'''a''' or '''i''' is inserted between '''r''' and '''h''' ::Example: '''arhati''' → '''arahati''', '''garhā''' → '''garahā''', '''barhiṣ''' → '''barihisa''' *There is sporadic epenthesis between other consonant sequences ::Examples: '''caitya''' → '''cetiya''' (not ''cecca''), '''vajra''' → '''vajira''' (not ''vajja'') ====Other changes==== *Any Sanskrit sibilant before a nasal becomes a sequence of nasal followed by '''h''', i.e. {{unicode|'''ṣṇ''', '''sn''' and '''sm''' become '''ṇh''', '''nh''', and '''mh'''}} ::Examples: {{unicode|'''tṛṣṇa''' → '''taṇha''', '''uṣṇīṣa''' → '''uṇhīsa''', '''asmi''' → '''amhi'''}} *The sequence '''śn''' becomes '''ñh''', due to assimilation of the '''n''' to the preceding palatal sibilant ::Example: '''praśna''' → praśña → '''pañha''' *The sequences '''hy''' and '''hv''' undergo [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]] ::Examples: '''jihvā''' → '''jivhā''', {{unicode|'''gṛhya'''}} → '''gayha''', '''guhya''' → '''guyha''' *'''h''' undergoes metathesis with a following nasal ::Example: {{unicode|'''gṛhṇāti''' → '''gaṇhāti'''}} *'''y''' is geminated between '''e''' and a vowel ::Examples: '''śreyas''' → '''seyya''', '''Maitreya''' → '''Metteyya''' *Voiced aspirates such as '''bh''' and '''gh''' on rare occasions become '''h''' ::Examples: '''bhavati''' → '''hoti''', '''-ebhiṣ''' → '''-ehi''', '''laghu''' → '''lahu''' *Dental and retroflex sounds sporadically change into one another :: Examples: {{unicode|'''jñāna''' → '''ñāṇa''' (not ''ñāna''), '''dahati''' → '''ḍahati''' (beside Pāli '''dahati''') '''nīḍa''' → '''nīla''' (not ''nīḷa''), '''sthāna''' → '''ṭhāna''' (not ''thāna''), '''duḥkṛta''' → '''dukkaṭa''' (beside Pāli '''dukkata''')}} ===Exceptions=== There are several notable exceptions to the rules above; many of them are common Prakrit words rather than borrowings from Sanskrit. *'''ārya''' → '''ayya''' (beside '''ariya''') *'''guru''' → '''garu''' (adj.) (beside '''guru''' (n.)) *{{unicode|'''puruṣa''' → '''purisa''' (not ''purusa'')}} *{{unicode|'''vṛkṣa''' → rukṣa → '''rukkha''' (not ''vakkha'')}} ==Pāli writing== ===Pāli Alphabet with Diacritics=== Historically, the first written record of the Pāli canon is believed to have been composed in [[Sri Lanka]], based on a prior oral tradition. The transmission of written Pāli has retained a universal system of alphabetic values, but has expressed those values in a stunning variety of actual scripts. This is confusing to many westerners, who tend to assume that one script is ineluctably tied to one set of phonemes. Early Pāli inscriptions made during the reign of the [[Maurya]]n emperor [[Ashoka]] were composed in the Ashokan [[Brahmi]] script; in [[Sri Lanka]], Pāli texts were recorded in [[Sinhala]] script. Other local scripts (most prominently [[Burmese language|Burmese]] and [[Thai language|Thai]]) have been used to record Pāli. A standardized system of romanization was introduced in the 19th Century to permit Westerners to study Pāli with greater ease. In modern times, Pāli texts have also been reproduced in the [[Devanāgarī]] and [[Mongolian]] scripts to permit wider study. The Pāli alphabetical order is as follows: * {{unicode|'''a ā i ī u ū e o ṃ k kh g gh ṅ c ch j jh ñ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l ḷ (ḷh) v s h'''}} The linked pages will facilitate the comparison of the Romanized phonetic alphabet to the corresponding alphabets of the [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/burmese.htm Burmese], [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sinhala.htm Sinhalese], [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm Cambodian], [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/lao.htm Lao], [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/thai.htm Thai] and other writing systems used to express the Pāli language. === How to Set up fonts for Pāli transliteration === There are several fonts to use for Pāli transliteration. However, older ASCII fonts such as Leedsbit PaliTranslit, Times_Norman, Times_CSX+, Skt Times, Vri RomanPali CN/CB etc., are not recommendable since they are not compatible with one another and technically out of date. On the contrary, fonts based on the [[Unicode]] standard are recommended because Unicode seems to be the future for all fonts and also because they are easily portable to one another. However, not all Unicode fonts contain the necessary characters. To properly display all the diacritic marks used for romanized Pāli (or for that matter, Sanskrit), a Unicode font must contain the following character ranges: * Basic Latin: U+0000 – U+007F * Latin-1 Supplement: U+0080 – U+00FF * Latin Extended-A: U+0100 – U+017F * Latin Extended-B: U+0180 – U+024F * Latin Extended Additional: U+1E00 – U+1EFF [http://www.thdl.org/tools/diafonts.html The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library] provides links to several Unicode diacritic fonts usable for typing Pāli together with ratings and installation instructions. And an English Buddhist monk titled Bhikkhu Pesala provides some Pāli Unicode fonts he has designed himself [http://aimwell.org/Fonts/fonts.html here]. Further, [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/fonts.html the font section] of Alanwood's Unicode Resources have links to several general purpose fonts that can be used for Pāli typing if they cover the character ranges above. '''Note for Linux users''': Installation files (.exe files) cannot be used on Linux. However, one can copy the font files from the Fonts folder of a Windows system into the folder /usr/share/fonts on a Linux one. In addition, some new Linux distributions, such as Ubuntu and RedHat, have packages available for Devanāgarī fonts and extended Latin fonts both used for Pali. Recent versions of Mac OS X also include similar font characters sets. === How to Type Pāli with Diacritics=== After the fonts have been set up, there are two alternatives to prepare the available diacritics for typing 1. One should go to a wordprocessor such as Microsoft Word to set up the shortcut keys for diacritic characters. In the case of Microsoft Word, select either font in the font combo box, then go to menu item Insert→Symbol. The Symbol dialog box pops up. Under the Symbols tab, select one out of the three in the Font combo box: under it should be a grid of characters. For each desired character in the grid, select it by clicking on it, then click on the "Shortcut Key..." command button: the Customize Keyboard dialog box pops up. Pressing the desired shortcut key combination makes it show up in the "Press new shortcut key:" text box. Click the "Assign" command button, then click on "Close" and repeat this for each desired character. When done, close the Symbol dialog box. Shortcut keys need be assigned only for one Unicode font. If one needs to change the font, just select the required section, go to the font combo box, and make the change. This method will work as long as both original and target fonts are of Unicode encoding, and both provide necessary diacritics for Pāli. This is why Unicode fonts are recommended. 2. Or one should install an input method editor such as Keyman (which can be downloaded free from [http://www.tavultesoft.com/keyman/downloads/ here] after due registration). A good Keyman keyboard providing Pāli/Sanskrit diacritics and Devanagari can be obtained [http://www.daouyen.com/Download/HeidelbergIMEkmx.zip here] (documentation included) for US, US International, and German keyboards. Alternatively, if one has to use many Latin characters besides Pāli and Sanskrit, another good keyboard (documentation included) can be downloaded [http://scholarsfonts.net/kbdsonly.exe here]. Then follow the instructions in the respective documentations to type Pāli diacritics. Or There are also keyboard layouts that can be directly installed on Windows such as [http://www.thdl.org/cgi-tibet/register.pl?diadll the one] provided by [http://www.thdl.org/ The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library]. ===Pāli text in ASCII=== The Velthuis scheme was originally developed in 1991 by Frans Velthuis for use with his "devnag" Devanāgarī font, designed for the TEX typesetting system. This system of representing Pāli diacritical marks has been used in some websites and discussion lists. The following table compares various conventional renderings and shortcut key assignments: {| class="wikitable" ! character ! ASCII rendering ! character name ! Unicode number ! key combination ! HTML code |- | align="center"|ā || aa || a macron || 61580 || Alt+A || &amp;#257; |- | align="center"|ī || ii || i macron || 61620 || Alt+I || &amp;#299; |- | align="center"|ū || uu || u macron || 61672 || Alt+U || &amp;#363; |- | align="center"|ṃ || .m || m dot-under || <!--61655--> || <!--Alt+M--> || &amp;#7747; |- | align="center"|ṇ || .n || n dot-under || 61686 || Alt+N || &amp;#7751 |- | align="center"|ñ || ~n || n tilde || 61590 || Alt+Ctrl+N || &amp;ntilde; |- | align="center"|ṭ || .t || t dot-under || 61642 || Alt+T || &amp;#7789; |- | align="center"|ḍ || .d || d dot-under || 61622 || Alt+D || &amp;#7693; |- | align="center"|ṅ || "n || n dot-over || 61626 || Ctrl+N || &amp;#7751; |- | align="center"|ḷ || .l || l dot-under || 61634 || Alt+L || &amp;#7735; |} ==References== See entries for "Pali" (written by scholar K.R. Norman of the Pali Text Society) and "India--Buddhism" in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Language and Religion'', (Sawyer ed.) ISBN 0080431674 The standard text for studying Pāli in the English-speaking world remains A.K. Warder's ''Introduction to Pali'', published by the [[Pali Text Society]]. (3rd ed. published 1991, ISBN 0860131971). Some students find Warder to be too complex for individuals with limited linguistic background. Lily de Silva's ''Pali Primer'' is often recommended as a more gentle introduction to the language (1st ed. published by Vipassana Research Institute Publications, 1994, ISBN 817414014X) ==See also== *[[IAST|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]] ==External links== {{interwiki|code=pi}} * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pli Pāli at Ethnologue] * [http://www.pali.dk/ Pali.dk] - A newly started project aimed at creating free online Pāli dictionaries and educational resources. * [http://www.palitext.com/ Pali Text Society] * [http://www.pratyeka.org/narada/ A basic Pāli language textbook (free) in Unicode PDF format] * [http://www.pratyeka.org/pali/ Resources for reading & writing Pāli in indigenous scripts: Burmese, Sri Lankan, & Cambodian] * [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=50 Pāli Discussion Forum] * [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ Pāli-English dictionary] * [http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/ Complete Pāli Canon in romanized Pali and Sinhala, mostly also in English translation] * [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/index.html Pāli Canon selection] * [http://accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/learningpali.html A guide to learning the Pāli language] * [http://www.vri.dhamma.org/publications/pali/primer/ "Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (requires installation of special fonts)] * [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/uni/u-palicb/e00.htm "Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (UTF-8 encoded)] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/ele_pali.pdf Free/Public-Domain Elementary Pāli Course--PDF format] * [http://www.orunla.org/tm/pali/htpali/pcourse.html Free/Public-Domain Pāli Course--html format] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/paligram.pdf Free/Public-Domain Pāli Grammar (in PDF file)] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/palidict.pdf Free/Public-Domain Pāli Buddhist Dictionary (in PDF file)] * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Pali Yahoo discussion group on Pāli] * [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=50 E-Sangha Pāli Discussion Forum: for experts and students] * [http://ca.geocities.com/palistudy/ Geocities discussion group on Pāli (homepage)] * [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Pali Comprehensive list of Pāli texts on Wikisource] * [http://www.metta.lk/pali-utils/Pali-Proper-Names/index.html Buddhist Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names], HTML version of the book by G.P. Malalasekera, 1937-8 * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/palireader Pāli Text Reader (software)] *[http://www.jainworld.com/scriptures/ Jain Scriptures] {{Indo-Iranian languages}} [[Category:Buddhism]] [[Category:Theravada Buddhism]] [[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]] [[Category:Languages of India]] [[cs:Páli]] [[da:Pali]] [[de:Pali]] [[es:Pali]] [[eo:Palio]] [[fr:Pâli]] [[gl:Pali]] [[id:Bahasa Pali]] [[it:Lingua Pali]] [[jv:Basa Pali]] [[nl:Pali]] [[ja:パーリ語]] [[pl:Język pali]] [[pt:Pali]] [[ru:Пали]] [[fi:Paalin kieli]] [[sv:Pali]] [[ta:பாளி]] [[th:ภาษาบาลี]] [[zh:巴利语]] 1667 3092 2006-08-11T18:15:21Z Eukesh 59 * [[नेपाल भाषा]] 1668 3093 2006-08-11T18:16:14Z Eukesh 59 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=tomato><big>नेपाल भाषा</big></th></tr> <tr><td>वार्तालाप स्थान:<td> [[नेपाल]], [[भारत]] <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td>[[दक्षिण एशिया]] <tr><td>वक्ता<td> १० लाख <tr><td valign=top>[[भाषा परिवार]]<br>[[ भाषा वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[चीनी-तिब्बती]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[तिब्बती-बर्मेली]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[हिमाली]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''नेपाल भाय् ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=tomato>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td>new </table> '''नेपाल भाषा''' [[चीनी-तिब्बती परिवार]]स्‍य एका [[भाषा]] अस्‍ति| [[नेपाल]] भाषा [[देवनागरी]],[[रन्जना]], [[प्रचलित]], [[ब्राह्मि]], [[भूजिँगोल]] आदि लिप्या लिख्यते| ==[[नेपाल भाषा साहित्यं]]== === लेखका: === *[[जयन्त वर्मा]] *[[लुन्तभद्र बज्राचार्य]] *[[जय प्रकाश मल्ल]] *[[सिद्धिदास महाजु]] *[[सिद्धिचरण श्रेष्ठ]] *[[शुक्रराज जोशी शास्त्री]] *[[चित्तधर "हृदय"]] *[[धूस्वां सायमी]] *[[बासु पासा]] == बाह्य गवाक्षा: == *http://www.jwajalapa.com *http://www.layalama.com [[Category:भाषा]] [[bh:नेपाल भाषा]] [[br:Newareg]] [[de:Nepal Bhasa]] [[en:Nepal Bhasa]] [[eo:Nepal Bhasa]] [[fr:Néware]] [[hi:नेपाल भाषा]] [[id:Bahasa Nepal]] [[it:Lingua newari]] [[mr:नेपाल भाषा]] [[ms:Bahasa Nepal]] [[nl:Nepalbhasa]] [[ne:नेपाल भाषा]] [[pt:Língua bhasa de Nepal]] [[ru:Непали]] [[simple:Nepal Bhasa]] 1669 3226 2006-10-07T05:53:43Z 202.161.131.76 * [[बुद्धो धम्म]] * [[हिन्दू धम्म]] 1670 3095 2006-08-11T18:27:20Z Eukesh 59 '''Buddhism''' (also known as the '''Dharma''' or '''Buddha [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''', meaning approximately: The Law or Law of the Awakened One) is a [[religion]], a practical [[philosophy]], and arguably a [[psychology]], focusing on the teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha Śākyamuni]] (Siddhārtha Gautama), who lived in [[ancient India]] most likely from the mid-[[6th century BC|6th]] to the early [[5th century BC|5th century BCE]]. Buddhism spread throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the [[Timeline of Buddhism#Before Common Era|five centuries]] following the Buddha's passing, and propagated into [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], and [[East Asia]] over the next [[Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era|two millennia]]. Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] (Sanskrit: Sthaviravāda), [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and, with approximately [[Buddhism by country|379 million adherents]], it is considered a [[major world religions|major world religion]]. Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fifth-largest]] religion in the world behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and traditional Chinese religion, respectively. <ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref> When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddha]] is generally considered to be a [[person]] who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]] through years of spiritual cultivation, [[investigation]] of the various religious practices of his time, and [[meditation]]. This transformational discovery is called [[bodhi]] - literally, "Awakening" (more commonly called "Enlightenment"). Any person who has become [[awakened]] from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality is called a Buddha. Śākyamuni is said to have been only the latest of many of these; there were other Buddhas before him and there will be others in the future. According to the Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words "[[Dharma]]" and putting them into practice, by leading a [[virtuous]], [[moral]] life, and purifying his [[mind]]. Concisely put, the aim of Buddhist practice is to put an end to this mass of [[suffering]] we call existence. "I teach one thing and one thing only: suffering and the end of suffering" (The Buddha). To achieve this state ([[Nirvana]]), adherents train and purify the mind by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and the [[Middle Way]], eventually arriving at an understanding of the true nature of all things, thus ending ([[nirodha]]) all ignorance and unhappiness and attaining [[liberation]]: [[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]] (Pāli nibbāna). == Gautama the Buddha== [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|left|A stone image of the Buddha.]] {{main|Gautama Buddha}} According to all Buddhist traditions, the [[Buddha]] of the present age, called '''Siddhārtha''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''Siddhattha''' ([[Pāli]]) of the '''Gautama''' (Pāli: '''Gotama''') [[gotra]] or clan, was born in the grove of [[Lumbini|Lumbinī]] near the town of '''[[Kapilavastu]]''' (Pāli: '''Kapilavatthu'''), the capital of the kingdom ([[Mahajanapadas|mahājanapada]]) of the [[Shakya|Śākyas]] (Pāli: Sakyas). Lumbinī and the Śākya realm were known to have been in the north, adjacent to the kingdom of [[Kosala|Kośala]] and the republic of the [[Koliya]]s along the [[Ganges]], separated from Koliya by the river {{unicode|Rohiṇī}}. The exact location of Lumbinī is fixed in what is now south central [[Nepal]] by a [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillar]] inscription of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] from the 3rd century BCE commemorating the Buddha's birth. Siddhārtha's father was [[Suddhodana|Śuddhodana]] (Pāli: Suddhodana), then the chieftain (rājā) of the Śākyas. He was the ruler of the [[Kapilavastu]] in what is modern day [[Nepal]]. Traditions state that the Buddha's mother died at his birth or a few days later. The [[legend]] says that the seer Asita predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, his father tried to make sure that Siddhārtha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as such dissatisfaction might lead him to follow a spiritual path. As a result, under strict instruction of his father, Siddhārtha was never exposed to suffering or pain and was carefully kept away from sad, sick or dying people. He was raised in a very opulent environment. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These four sights led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privileges, rank, [[caste]], and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problems of birth, old age, pain, sickness, and death. Siddhārtha pursued the path of the [[shramana|{{unicode|śramaṇa}}]] and [[meditation]] with two hermits, and, although he quickly achieved high levels of meditative consciousness ([[dhyana|dhyāna]], Pāli jhāna), he was still not satisfied with the results. Siddhārtha then began his training in the [[ascetic]] life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Siddhārtha proved quite adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind established teachers, he and a small group of close companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death without any profit, Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. He then remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing; he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which he felt a blissful and refreshing feeling and time seemed to stand still. [[Image:TrilogyDetail.JPG|thumb|251px|The [[Buddha]] venerated by [[Indra]] and [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmā]], [[Kanishka casket|Kaniṣka casket]], dated to 127 CE, [[British Museum]].]] After discarding [[asceticism]] and concentrating on [[meditation]], Siddhārtha discovered what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]] – a path of moderation away from the extremes of [[hedonism|self-indulgence]] and [[asceticism|self-mortification]]. To strengthen his body, he accepted a little buttermilk from a passing village girl named [[Sujata]]. Then, sitting under a [[pipal]] tree, now known as the [[Bodhi tree]], he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] and became a [[Buddha]]. He preached his first sermon<ref name="FNTeng">{{ cite book |publisher=Wisdom Publications |pages=1843-1847 |author=Bhikkhu Bodhi |Title="The Collected Discourses of the Buddha: A new translation of the Samyutta Nikaya" |year=2000 |location=Somerville }}</ref> in [[Sarnath]] a place very near [[Varanasi|{{unicode|Vārāṇasī}}]] (Benares) in North India. For the remaining 45 years of his life, Buddha Gautama traveled in the [[Gangetic Plain]] of northeastern India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to all – from nobles and priests to commoners and outcaste street sweepers. He also taught the adherents of many different schools and teachers. The Buddha founded the two [[sangha|{{unicode|saṅghas}}]] (monastic communities) of monks and of nuns, which continued to expound his teaching after his death, traditionally set at age 80. Apparently he died in the town of Kushinagara from a meal of bad mushrooms or pork. His body was cremated and the ashes, and perhaps other sacred relics allegedly taken from it, were given to various temples or buried in [[stupa]]s. These have since become important pilgrimage sites. A tree said to be grown from a cutting of the tree where he received enlightenment is in [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]]. ==Doctrines== [[Image:A_Buddhist_Korean_Temple.png|thumb|right|A Buddhist temple in Korea.]] Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of Gautama Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism. === Dependent Origination === {{main|Pratitya-samutpada}} The enlightenment ([[Bodhi]]) of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] was his liberation from suffering and his insight into [[Reality in Buddhism|the nature of reality]]. The widely accepted doctrine of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] states that any phenomenon ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect. For sentient beings, this amounts to a never-ending cycle of [[Rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]] ('''[[Samsara (Buddhism)|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''') according to the law of '''[[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]''' (Pāli: '''kamma''') and '''[[vipaka|vipāka]]'''. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient ('''[[Impermanence|anitya]]''', Pāli '''anicca'''), they have no real, independent identity ('''[[Anatta|anātman]]''', Pāli '''anatta''') and so do not truly ‘exist’, although to untrained minds they do appear to exist. All phenomena are thus fundamentally insubstantial and empty ('''[[sunyata|śūnya]]''''). Wise human beings, who possess "insight into the knowledge of how things are" ('''{{unicode|yathā-bhūta-ñāṇa-dassana}}''', Sanskrit '''{{unicode|yathābhūtajñanadarśana}}'''), renounce [[upadana|attachment and clinging]] which cause suffering ('''[[dukkha|{{unicode|duḥkha}}]]''', Pāli '''dukkha'''), transform the energy of desire into awareness and understanding, and eventually attain '''[[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]'''. ===The Four Noble Truths=== {{main|The Four Noble Truths}} The Buddha taught that life was inherently suffering, that it is caused by [[tanha|craving]], but that this condition was curable by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Sanskrit: '''{{unicode|Āryo 'ṣṭāṅgo Mārgaḥ }}''', Pāli: '''{{unicode|Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo}}'''). This teaching is called the '''Catvāry Āryasatyāni''' (Pali: '''{{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}'''), the "[[Four Noble Truths]]". # '''[[Dukkha|Suffering]]:''' Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering. # '''The cause of suffering:''' The [[tanha|craving]] which leads to [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|renewed existence]] (rebirth). # '''The cessation of suffering:''' The cessation of [[tanha|craving]]. # '''The way leading to the cessation of suffering:''' The [[Noble Eightfold Path]]; The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment<ref name="FNTeng" />, which was given to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by Buddha, not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common medical prescription of the time. Buddha also said that followers should use his teachings only if they help. He compared worrying about things such as an afterlife while suffering with a person who has been shot with an arrow to worrying about who made the arrow, rather than removing it. As such, there is a strong case for the Buddha's teachings being intended as psychological tools, to ease mental distress, rather than as esoteric teachings for the strongly religious. To attest to this, Buddhist meditation, in particular, is now being scientifically studied in the West, both in laboratory tests, and in real-world, hands-on psychiatry. Many long-term practicing Buddhists, for instance, have been shown to have physically different brain structure, in areas associated with profound joy or spiritual happiness{{Citation needed}}. Likewise, the beginning fusion of Buddhism and psychology can be seen clearly, in publications by psychiatrists and psychotherapists, such as [[Mark Epstein]]'s book, [[Thoughts Without a Thinker]]. ===The Noble Eightfold Path=== {{main|Noble Eightfold Path}} {| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px style="float:right; background-color: transparent; border:1px dotted #000000; margin:2px" width="200" | |According to [[Buddha]] [[Shakyamuni]], if a person does not follow the goal of [[Total Realization]], one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.<ref>The Crystal and the Way of Light. Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu; compiled and ed. by John Shane, 2000, p. 164</ref> |- |} The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of: #Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}''' #Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation '''{{unicode|(samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)}}''' #Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}''' #Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would hurt others '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}''' #Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}}}''' #Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}''' #Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}''' #Right Concentration - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}''' The word '''samyak''' means "turned to one point or against each other, universus or adversus; whole, entire, all; correct, right, true." [http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/] There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorise the Eightfold Path into '''[[Prajna|prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''', wisdom), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli '''sīla''', virtuous behaviour) and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' (concentration). === Bodhi === {{main|Bodhi}} '''Bodhi''' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]]. Lit. ''awakening'') is a title given in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by [[Buddha]]. Bodhi is most commonly translated into English as ''enlightenment'', however, a more accurate translation is ''awakening'' or ''understanding''. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle of '''[[Samsara|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''': birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the [[Paramita|pāramitā]]s (perfections), when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and when all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed ('''lobha'''), hatred ('''{{unicode|doṣa}}''', Pāli '''dosa'''), delusion ('''moha'''), ignorance ('''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidyā]]''', Pāli '''avijjā''')), craving ('''[[Tanha|{{unicode|tṛṣṇā}}]]''', Pāli '''{{unicode|taṇhā}}''') and false belief in self ('''[[Atman (Buddhism)|ātman]]''', Pāli '''attā''') are extinguished. Bodhi thus includes '''[[anatta|anātman]]''' (Pāli '''anatta'''), the absence of ego-centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise [[Three types of Buddha|three types of Bodhi]]. They are [[Shravakabuddha|Śrāvakabodhi]] (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyekabodhi]] (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a [[Bodhisattva]] becomes a fully enlightened [[Buddha]]. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism. <!--the nature of different bodhis is disputed among different Buddhist schools so please be careful.--> === Karma === {{main|Karma in Buddhism}} In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said : :“Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind”. According to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and not on any divine being: :"Owners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring, having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being, making them become depraved and excellent." (kammassakaa maa.nava sattaa, kammadaayadaa, kammayoni, kammabandhu kammapa.tisara.naa kamma.m satte vibhajati yadida.m hinappa.nitataaya. ''Cuulakammavibhaagasutta''.) In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition and its result ( [[Vipaka]]) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional deed (be that deed one of thought, word or physical action). == Middle Way == The primarily guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment ('''[[bodhi]]'''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. It is also another name for the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], which is often divided into '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli: '''paññā''', "wisdom"), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli: '''sīla''', "morality") and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' ("meditative mind"). === Refuge in The Three Jewels === [[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Buddha]] with [[Dharmacakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]] {{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}} Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in The Noble Eightfold Path requires taking [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]], as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's [[Three Jewels]] (also called Three Treasures, Triple Gem, '''Triratna''' or '''Ratna-traya''' ([[Sanskrit]]), '''Tiratana''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]), 三宝, ''Sānbǎo'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]), ''Sanbō'' or ''Sanpō'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]), 삼보, ''Sambo'' ([[Korean language|Korean]]). The '''Three Jewels''' are: * The '''[[Buddha]]''': The ''Awakened One''. This is a title for those who attained enlightenment similar to Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]]. * The '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''': The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). * The '''[[Sangha|{{IAST|Sangha}}]]''': This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna ([[pali]]) - one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). [[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]] presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to have faith ('''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]''', Pāli '''saddhā''') in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], that is, the teaching of Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The [[Sangha|{{unicode|Saṅgha}}]], in this sense meaning the group of Buddhists possessing at least some degree of enlightenment, provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. As Buddhism migrated to the West, a new usage of the word has emerged: the usage of the word "sangha" to describe a meditation group or any sort of spiritual community.{{fact}} Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]], also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of negative karma. === Prajñā (Wisdom) === {{main|Prajñā|Paramita}} '''Prajñā''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''paññā''' ([[Pāli]]) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], [[The Four Noble Truths]] and [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about [[bodhi]]. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]], through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six [[Paramita|pāramitās]]. Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Gautama Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many attaining bodhi upon hearing Buddha's discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight ('''[[Vipassana|vipassanā]]''', [[Sanskrit]] '''vipaśyanā''') meditation to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation. === Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour)=== {{main|Sila|Karma in Buddhism|Paramita}} '''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''sīla''' ([[Pāli]]) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' and the second [[Paramita|pāramitā]]: moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of '''śīla''' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions. In Buddhism, the 'Law of [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]' is used as an ethical principle, rather than a cosmological explanation for the world. Buddhism distinguishes {{unicode|saṃsāric}} happiness (birth in the high realms), from the final state of enlightenment: [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]; so likewise there is saṃsāric good karma, which leads to the high realms (such as the human realm), and then there is liberating karma - which is supremely good. Therefore the major dichotomy is ''{{unicode|saṃsāric karma}}'' and ''liberating karma'', of which the former is typically divided into the three: good, neutral, and bad (in accordance with the degree of samsaric happiness or suffering that will mature as a consequence). Likewise, liberating karma is divided into three, as there are [[three types of Buddha]] into which it may mature. It is important to distinguish between śīla (moral) and [[Vinaya]] (monastic code). Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behaviour while vinaya is a collection of monastic code. For this reason, vinaya is applicable to monks and nuns while śīla is applicable to all Buddhists, both laypeople and [[Sangha|saṅgha]] members. Lay Buddhists generally undertake at least one of the five precepts ('''[[pancasila|pañcaśīla]]''') which are common to all Buddhist schools. The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one can meditate well. # To refrain from taking life. # To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing). # To refrain from sensual misconduct (improper sexual behavior, gluttony etc.) # To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat). # To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness. The content of vinaya differs slightly according to different scriptures. And different schools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya. Serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts. In Vinaya, some of the five precepts are strengthened for monks. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy. In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged ([[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]). === Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) === {{main|Samadhi|Vipassana|Buddhist meditation}} In the language of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], '''samyaksamādhi''' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating '''samādhi''' is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. [[Samatha meditation|'''samatha''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''śamatha''') and [[vipassana|'''vipassanā''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''vipaśyanā'''). Upon development of '''samādhi''', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration ('''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]''', Sanskrit '''dhyāna'''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight. [[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful to an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana. In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''' (Pāli '''ñāṇa''' knowledge) '''[[vijnana|vijñāna]]''' (Pāli '''viññāṇa''' awareness), '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''' pure understanding) and thus can lead to '''[[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]''' (Pāli '''nibbāna'''). == Buddhism after the Buddha == {{main|History of Buddhism|Buddhist councils}} During his lifetime, Buddha specifically refused to answer certain questions known as [[avyakata|avyākṛta]] (Pāli: avyākata, "unexplained"). These are (1) Whether the world is eternal or not; (2) Whether the world is infinite or not; (3) Whether the body and the self are one and the same or not; (4) Whether the [[Tathagata|tathāgata]] exists after death, or not, or both does and does not, or neither does nor does not. In the ''Culla-Māluṅkyovāda-sutta'', the Buddha, using an analogy of being shot by a poisoned arrow and asking about its origin and construction, indicated to Māluṅkyāputta that such speculative questions are ultimately unprofitable. [http://buddhism.about.com/od/keyconcepts/a/Noteach.htm] In another occasion, the Buddha, without giving specific elaboration, stated that minor [[Vinaya]] rules can be amended by the [[Sangha|Saṅgha]]. He further diverged from ancient Brahmin tradition by allowing monks and nuns not just to preach in the language of the area they happened to be in, but to recite the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] in the local language as well. Soon after the [[Parinirvana|parinirvāṇa]] (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses ([[Sutra|'''sūtra'''s]], Pāli '''sutta'''s) of the Buddha. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). === Early Buddhism === {{main|The Second Buddhist Council|Early Buddhist schools}} {{unicode|As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century disputes arose upon subtle points of discipline, e.g., the right to carry salt in a container. A second council (traditionally 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. The result was not a resolution but a schism ('''saṅghabheda'''): on the one side the '''[[Sthaviravada|Sthaviras]]''', or "Elders", whose name implies an elite group, and on the other side the '''[[Mahasanghika|Mahāsāṅghikas]]''', the party "of the Great Saṅgha", implying a majority position. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions; the Sthaviras claimed that the Mahāsāṅghikas were trying to dilute the Vinaya by ignoring certain rules; the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to ''expand'' the Vinaya by illegitimately introducing new rules not sanctioned by the Buddha; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[Arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237-272</ref> The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school.}} This split occurred wholly ''within'' the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school. It was also solely concerned with questions of discipline, and foreshadowed the later splintering of both the Sthavira and {{unicode|Mahāsāṅghika Saṅghas}} into as many as thirty different "schools". Each "school" was characterized by a slightly different Vinaya; doctrinal differences among these schools only developed subsequent to the arising of differences in discipline. {{unicode|The Sthavira-Mahāsāṅghika split has, therefore, nothing at all to do with the contrasts, posited by scholars, between "Northern and Southern Buddhism", or between "Mahāyāna and Theravāda", or even the traditional Mahāyāna contrast between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. Other than as an adumbration of schisms within the Saṅgha in general, it has no relevance for present-day Buddhism. Of the approximately thirty Vinayas that existed in the ancient and medieval Saṅgha, three have survived to the present day: the Vibhajyavāda Vinaya, used by the [[Theravada|Theravādins]]; the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna Buddhists in China, Vietnam, and Korea (Vinaya is not generally observed in Japan); and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists in Tibet. All three of these Vinayas descend directly from the Sthavira Vinaya, not from the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya, which although partially extant, is not actually followed by any living [[Bhikkhu|bhikṣus]].}} {{unicode|Following the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical commentaries on the discourse of the Buddha. It is not known whether such commentaries existed from the time of the Buddha. However, as Buddhism spread and came in contact with different religious orders, it became increasingly necessary to engage and debate the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] and formalize the teachings of the Buddha in a more systematic manner. As each sect developed different collections of Abhidharma, what began as disciplinary differences between the Saṅghas evolved into doctrinal differences as well. These sects of Buddhism are referred to as Nikāya (section) in the modern Theravāda tradition and Hīnayāna (lesser vehicle) sects in the Mahāyāna tradition. Some modern academics also refer it as Abhidhamma Buddhism.}} [[Image: AshokaMap2.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260&ndash;218 BCE).]] Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of Buddhist religious memorials ([[stupa|stūpas]]) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma". particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and possibly even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, centuries later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]s, and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. === Establishment of Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Tradition) === {{main|Theravada}} {{unicode|In addition to the [[Edicts of Asoka|Edicts of Aśoka]], Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan and post-Aśokan period. Among these annals are the [[Dipavamsa|Dīpavaṃsa]], the [[Mahavamsa|Mahāvaṃsa]], and the [[Samantapasadika|Samantapāsādika]] of the south Indian [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha, beside the [[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]] and the [[Avadanasataka|Avadānaśataka]] from the northern [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] ([[Pāli]]: Sabbatthivāda) saṅgha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, [[Ashoka|Aśoka]] convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words. The result, according to the Vibhajjavādins, was the compilation of the version of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] (Pāli: Tipiṭaka) found in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]].}} The council also saw the formation of the {{unicode|saṅgha}} of the Vibhajjavāda ("school of analytical discourse") out of various schools of the [[Sthaviravada|Sthaviravāda]] lineage. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the [[Pāli]] language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of [[Magadha]] spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Aśoka]] and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near [[Girnar]] in Gujarat. According to Theravāda accounts, the Vibhajjavāda version of [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] was introduced to [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Mahinda]] (Sanskrit: Mahendra), one of the sons of [[Ashoka|Aśoka]]. === Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism (Northern Tradition) === [[Image: MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Expansion of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]] {{main|Mahayana}} {{unicode|The precise geographical origins of [[Mahāyāna]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahāyāna developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇa Empire]] (within present-day [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravatī]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajantā]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). On one side, Mahāyāna was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa|stūpa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stūpa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses.<ref>This concept, promoted by Hirakawa Akira, has been disputed by other scholars such as Gregory Schopen.</ref> The Saṅgha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of [[Abhidharma]] and [[Vinaya]] practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Saṅgha. The Mahāyāna movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from [[Early Buddhist schools|various sects]]. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Saṅgha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school (which had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravāda tradition) and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kuṣāṇa Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahāyāna sūtras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sūtras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahāyāna sūtras possible.}} Around 100 CE, the {{unicode|Kuṣāṇa emperor [[Kanishka|Kaniṣka]]}} convened the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravāda line of Buddhism. This council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Sūtra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra|Heart Sūtra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra|Amitābha Sūtra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such goal. The new scriptures were written in [[Sanskrit]]. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahāyāna would flourish and spread in the East from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], and finally to [[Japan]] in 538 CE. === Emergence of the Vajrayāna === [[Image:Wheel life 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Wheel of Life, [[Bhutan]]. In the Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism scriptural language of [[Sanskrit]], the Wheel of Life is called [[Bhavacakra]].]] {{main|Vajrayana}} Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (c.150 - 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with both the [[Early Buddhist schools|Nikāya (Hīnayāna)]] philosophies and the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. He made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-dominant [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school, which argued for the existence of '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]''' (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇas]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|Asaṅga]] and were incorporated into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology. There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nālandā tradition. === Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia === {{see also|Decline of Buddhism in India}} Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and [[Central Asia]], and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as [[Menander I]] and [[Kanishka|Kaniska]]. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] and Iranian [[Achaemenid]] kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushāna Empire]] adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of the [[Shahi|Turk-Shāhīs]]. Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the [[Zoroastrian]] priest-king Kirder who saw the syncretism resulting from the Buddhist influence that led to the rise of a Buddha-Mazda divinity as a heresy.<ref> Alexander Berzin, ''Berzin Archives, Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan, November 2001.''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html] </ref> The [[Hinayana]] traditions first spread among the [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes before combining with the [[Mahayana]] forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. to cover modern-day [[Pakistan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern and coastal [[Iran]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. These were the ancient states of [[Gandhara]], [[Bactria]], [[Parthia]] and [[Sogdia]] from where it spread to [[China]]. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-[[Shahi]] who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BC. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also [[Zoroastrian]]s, [[Hindu]]s, [[Nestorian]] Christians, [[Jews]], [[Manichaeans]], and followers of [[shamanism]], [[Tengrism]], and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief. From the 4th Century CE on, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as the northwest ([[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]) and the lower Gangetic plain ([[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bengal]]), the Indian caste system and other characteristics of Hinduism were found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the [[White Hun]]s and Buddhism suffered as recorded by [[Xuanzang]]. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian [[Sassanid Empire|Sāsānids]] or [[Tibet]]. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of ''butparast'', literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in which [[cult image]]s play a role. Several high officials of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, notably the [[Barmakids]], were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists. When [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad ibn Qāsim]] led the invasion of [[Sindh]] at the mouth of the [[Indus]] river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord, [[Raja Dahir|Rājā Dahir]]. Relations with later Arab rulers such as the [[Saffarid]]s and [[Samanid]]s were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.<ref> Alexander Berzin, Berzin Archives </ref> Western Central Asia was under the control of first Arab and then Persian Muslims from the 8th century CE on. The Central Asian regions at this point became caught up in political squabbles as the [[Shahi]]s, [[Umayyad]]s, [[Tang dynasty]], [[Khitan]]s, [[Tibet]]ans, [[Qarakhanid]]s and other Turkic tribes vied over control of the area. After the disintegration of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central Asia and [[Afghanistan]]. In the 10th century CE, one of them, [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmūd of Ghaznī]], defeated the [[Shahi|Hindō-Shāhīs]] and finally brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the [[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]. He demolished monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western India but left those within his domains and [[Afghanistan]] alone and [[al-Biruni]] recorded Buddha as a prophet "burxan". The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as [[Sufi]]s, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to [[Transoxania]] and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with [[Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[shamanism]] in areas to the east (modern [[Xinjiang]]) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim. In 1215 [[Genghis Khan]] conquered [[Afghanistan]] and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and [[Chagatai]] established the [[Chagatai Khanate]] while [[Hulegu]] established the [[Il Khanate]] where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/chagatai.html]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the [[Il Khanate]], [[Hulegu]] and his successors [[Abaqa]] and [[Arghun]] also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when [[Ghazan]] came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion to [[Islam]] and the climate turned hostile to Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and after [[Ghazan]]'s reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html]. Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in [[Kashmir|Kaśmīr]] and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist [[Pala Empire|Pāla]] kings ruled from the 8th-12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] and the transmission of that form of Buddhism to [[Tibet]] before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu [[Sena dynasty]]. Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful [[Rajput]]s, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] philosophy and [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti devotionalism]]. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as an [[avatar|avatāra]] of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]] – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of [[nirvana|nirvāna]]. In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, [[Muhammad Khilji|Muhammad Khiljī]] destroyed [[Nalanda University|Nālandā]], the great Buddhist university. Khiljī was one of the generals of [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak|Qutbuddīn Aybak]], a subject of the Afghan [[Ghorids|Ghurids]] but soon to become the monarch of a [[Delhi Sultanate|Muslim sultanate at Delhi]]. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries. After the [[Mongol]] invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many [[Sufi]]s also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs of [[Bengal]]. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with [[Hinduism]]'s revival movements such as [[Advaita]] and the rise of the syncretic [[bhakti movement]], all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries. By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of [[Ladakh]]. Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population. The [[Newar]]s of [[Nepal]] also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. ==Main Traditions== [[Image:Dazu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stone [[Dazu Stone Carvings|carvings]] at Dazu near [[Chongqing]], [[China]].]] Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is sometimes named as a third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]] (also found in [[Mongolian (language)|Mongollian]] translation, and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] collections, along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]]. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions. Despite the differences, there are [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|common threads to almost all Buddhist branches]]: *All accept [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]] as their teacher. *All accept the [[Middle Way]], [[Dependent origination]], the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. *All accept that both the members of the laity and of the saṅgha can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]). *All accept [[three types of Buddha]] and consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest {This is disputed by a few scholars of the Theravādin tradition}. ===Theravāda=== {{main|Theravada}} '''[[Theravada|Theravāda]]''' is [[Pāli]] for "the Doctrine of the Elders" (from [[Sanskrit]] '''sthavira''', Pāli '''thera''', "old person"). The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli canon]]. The [[sutra|sutta]] (Sanskrit: sūtra) collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest written Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya branch]] of Buddhism. Nikāya Buddhism and consequently Theravāda are referred, especially in polemical contexts, by some Mahāyāna Buddhists as [[Hīnayāna]] or "inferior vehicle". This non-neutral usage is now considered unacceptable in scholarly writing. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore. The aim of Theravāda Buddhism is to achieve [[Nirvana|nibbāna]] (Sanskrit: nirvāṇa) or liberation from rebirth. ===Mahāyāna=== [[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Kuan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]].]] {{main|Mahayana}} The '''[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Vehicle") branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (''maha-karuna''), or [[bodhicitta]] - the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the [[Bodhisattva]] to attain the "Awakened Mind" ([[bodhicitta]]) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into [[Nirvana]]. Huge emphasis is also often placed on the notion of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]). This concept can be understood either as the lack of a conceptually apprehensible, fixed nature or substance to phenomena and Buddhic Truth, or as the inherent emptiness of all that is worldly, nescient, conditioned, impure and painful (the absence of which negativities characterises blissful Reality). The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and can indeed give expression to a form of mentalist pantheism or panentheism ([[God in Buddhism]]). In addition to the [[Nikaya|Nikāya]] scriptures, which are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures (some of which encourage the greatest possible veneration of those sutras as supreme spiritual treasures) that were first put into writing around 1 CE. These scriptures were written in some form of [[Sanskrit]], except for a few manuscripts in certain [[Prakrit]]s, and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, some Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], from where the attainment of Nirvana is much more swiftly within reach. Generally, the Pure Land is conceived of as a state which is not Awakening itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward Awakening. Some of the particularly venerated Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Prajna-paramita Sutras]], the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], speak of themselves as possessing enormous liberating spiritual power - they are seen as magical spells on a grand scale - and exhort their readers/listeners to pay the greatest obeisance and reverence to those same scriptures, and through such veneration automatically to draw closer to the Buddha and Nirvana/ Awakening. The sutras thus become for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself and resonate with his transformative might. One of the most significant concepts of Mahayana Buddhism, belief in which is strongly encouraged, is that of the [[prajna-paramita]] - the utterly perfected insight into the nature of all things: their essential equality, non-duality and tranquility, their ultimate lack (emptiness) of arising and perishing. This is not merely an intellectual recognition; rather, it is a direct perception. And that perception takes its rise from initial belief or faith in such doctrines. In the ''Prajna-Paramita of 18,000 Lines'', the Buddha confirms to his great student, Subhuti, how the Bodhisattva does not doubt or disbelieve such teachings when he hears them, but has faith in them (see [[Faith in Buddhism]]): "... the Bodhisattva, the great being who, when the deep perfection of wisdom [[= ''prajna-paramita'', perfected spiritual insight]] is being taught, on hearing it will not hesitate, or doubt, or be stupefied, [but will know], 'so it is as the Tathagata has taught', and will listen to it in greater detail ... this son of good family belonging to the Bodhisattva-vehicle will, as one who resolutely believes in this perfection of wisdom as taught by the Tathagata, stand in irreversibility [i.e. will never spiritually regress]. For even merely to hear of the perfection of wisdom achieves much for the Bodhisttvas, the great beings, how much more [will be achieved] by those who resolutely believe in it, who, having believed, will stand in Thusness [ = Reality], and progess to Thusness, and who thereafter will stand firmly in the knowledge of all modes [ i.e. will attain omniscience]." (''The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom'', tr. by Edward Conze, California, 1975, pp. 465-466). Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahāyāna in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Vajrayāna. Some of the sects of the Mahāyāna include the various schools and traditions within [[Zen|Chan/Zen]] and [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], two of the major forms of present-day Mahāyāna. Another way to look at the variation within the Mahāyāna is from the perspective of local cultural interpretations, viz. [[Buddhism in China|Chinese Buddhism]], [[Korean Buddhism]], [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]], and [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Vietnamese Buddhism]]. Mahāyāna Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative and which practices are best suited for the current times, although a number of major Mahayana sutras purporting to issue from the Buddha himself (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) are themselves in no doubt that they are to be regarded as of utmost importance and highest Buddhic authority. Mention has already been made of the "prajna-paramita" doctrine. Another highly important, and complementary, teaching within Mahāyāna Buddhism is the concept of [[Buddha-nature]] (Sanskrit:'''Buddhadhātu''', the essential Buddha Principle existing within and without all sentient beings). In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Buddha, transcending his mere physical form, is viewed as a boundless, beginningless and endless being, present in all times and all places, yet beyond the reach of logic or mundane conceptualisation. He is regarded as the very embodiment of ungraspable and eternal yet realisable Dharma - ultimate Truth or Awakened Mind ('''[[bodhi]]'''). In essence, all perfect Buddhas are seen by Mahāyāna Buddhism as one in nature - all are salvational channels or vessels of Dharma (cosmic Truth). They are the very [[Dharmakaya]] (body/mind of ultimate Reality). The doctrines of the Buddha in certain Mahāyāna sutras purport to provide a set of final, definitive and ultimate ('''nītārtha''') teachings – doctrines indicated by the Buddha not to be provisional in nature, but stated to be of the highest Truth ( a claim rejected, however, by the Theravādins) – on the immanence of a hidden, deep-seated reality within all sentient beings which is linked to the eternality of the Buddha and Nirvāna. This immanent yet transcendent essence is variously called, in the key sutras which expound it, the ''buddhadhātu'' or the '''[[Tathagatagarbha|Tathāgatagarbha]]''' (Sanskrit: "Tathagata Matrix"). This ''buddhadhātu'' is empty of all that is un-knowing, changeful, painful, impermanent and impure. In the [[Nirvana Sutra|Nirvāṇasūtra]], the Buddha calls the ''buddhadhātu'' the "True Self" to distinguish it from the "false" worldly self. It is no less than the uncreated, uncompounded, immaculate, immortal, all-knowing, radiantly shining Principle of blissful Buddhahood: the very [[Dharmakaya|Dharmakāya]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 法身). This ''buddhadhātu'', inherent in all beings, can never be destroyed or harmed, and yet is concealed from view by a mass of obscuring mental and moral taints within the mind-stream of the individual being. Once the ''buddhadhātu'' is finally seen and known by the faithful Buddhist practitioner, it has the power to transform that practitioner into a Buddha. The doctrine of the ''buddhadhātu'' or ''tathāgatagarbha'' is stated by the Buddha of the [[Nirvāna Sūtra]] to be the "absolutely final culmination" of his Mahāyāna Dharma, and scoffing denial of its reality is presented by this and other Tathagatagarbha sutras as potentially unleashing very negative karmic consequences upon those who deny it or disparage it. By contrast, faith in the Tathagatagarbha's reality and a vigorous striving to perceive its inner presence is hailed as of the highest spiritual and soteriological value. ===Vajrayāna=== [[Image:Young_monks_of_Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|274px|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]] {{main|Vajrayana}} The '''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]''' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayāna Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[Shingon Buddhism]]. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]]. Native Vajrayāna is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], [[Siberia]], areas of India, and – in the [[Shingon]] (''Zhènyān'', 真言) and [[Tendai]] schools – in China and Japan. ===Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview=== {{main|History of Buddhist schools}} In his lifetime, Gautama Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Commentators explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]]) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable." (''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111-112). Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]]. Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment to [[intellectualism]], Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. == Buddhist texts == [[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]] {{main|Buddhist texts}} Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the '''[[Tripitaka]]''' and in [[Pāli]] as the '''Tipitaka'''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are: *The '''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Piṭaka]]''', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Saṅghas]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. *The '''[[Sutta Pitaka|Sūtra Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: Sutta Piṭaka), contains the actual discourses of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. *The '''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: ''Abhidhamma Piṭaka'') contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings. Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – [[sutra|sūtras]] (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripiṭaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects. The [[Theravada|Theravāda]] and other [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya schools]] believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the [[naga (mythology)|nāgas]]), or came directly from other [[Buddha]]s or [[bodhisattva]]s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli suttas, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the [[agama (text)|āgamas]]. Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the āgamas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the agamas represent the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma - and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada. For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism - from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for '''all''' future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "'''Great''' Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "'''Great''' Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true". Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture. [[Dwight Goddard]] collected what he felt was a representative sample of Buddhist scriptures- along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the [[Tao Te Ching]]- into his [[Buddhist Bible]] in the 1920's. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ “The Buddha and His Dhamma”]. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions. == Present state of Buddhism == {{sectstub}} [[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]] Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 million and 500 million, with 350 million being the most commonly cited figure. [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] *[[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[India]]. *[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West. *[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding area of [[India]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], [[China]], and the Russian Federation. [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]] and the Russian Federation are the first European countries to recognize Buddhism as an official religion. *The [[Indian Buddhist Movement]] is a revival of Buddhism in India. This movement was initiated by [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in 1956 with a mass conversion ceremony of [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s. Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular Buddhist school of thought. At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see [[Buddhism in the West]]) See also [[Buddhism by country]] == Buddhist Culture and Art == {{main|Buddhist culture and art}} == Comparative Study == {{sectstub}} Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history. '''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies''' *[[Buddhadharma and other Indian Dharmas]] (Buddhism and other dharma-related brief) *[[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching) *[[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism and monotheism) *[[Buddhist-Christian Parallels]] *[[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy) *[[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics) *[[Buddhism and science]] (Buddhism and science) *[[Buddhism and Schism]] [http://nt.med.ncku.edu.tw/biochem/lsn/AccessToInsight/html/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/ch21.html] ==See also== {{portal}} *[[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]] *[[Buddhist terms and concepts]] *[[List of Buddhist topics]] *[[List of Buddhists]] ==References== *{{cite book | author=Gail Omvedt (ed.) | title=Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste | publisher=Sage Publications | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-7829-128-2}} *{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}} *[[Thom Brooks]], 'Better Luck Next Time: A comparative analysis of Socrates and Mahayana Buddhism on reincarnation', ''Journal of Indian Philosophy and Religion'' 10 (2005): 1-25. *{{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What Buddhists Believe|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 9834007127. *{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0192892231}} *{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0861713214}} Also available on-line: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php] *{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1903296919}} *{{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0767903692. *{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0271006013}} *{{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0802130313. *{{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0773459855. *{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}} *{{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0861711335. *{{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 8120821440}} ==Notes== <!--<nowiki> See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below </nowiki>--> {{FootnotesSmall|resize=100%}} # {{note|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}} Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy]: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings''. Published on the Web. # {{note|ChNN_Dream_Yoga_book}} Chögyal Namkhai Norbu ''Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light''. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42 # {{note|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}} Dr. A. Berzin. ''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/tantra/alaya_impure_02.html Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making]'' # {{note|Elas_Capriles_book1}} Elías Capriles. ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/buddhismanddzogchen1.zip Buddhism and Dzogchen]: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook''. Published on the Web. # {{note|Sangha_TripleJewel}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu. ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha]''. Third edition, revised, 2001 ==External links== {{cleanup-spam}} <!--buddhachat, not notable and is advertising; hongakujodo, advertising a single sect, advertising; meditate london, intro to buddhism not needed, they are practically the same; other two are not about buddhism but about sutras.--> *[http://www.ambedkar.org/buddhism/BAHD/45A.Buddha%20and%20His%20Dhamma%20PART%20I.htm '''The Buddha and His Dhamma''' A single, comprehensive document of Buddhist principles by Dr B R Ambedkar, 1956] *[http://www.deerparkgathering.org/introduction.html Introduction to Buddhism ] *[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal] *[http://www.dalailama.com/page.5.htm His Holiness The Dalai Lama teachings on Buddhism] *[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/index.html Access to Insight] Readings in Theravada Buddhism. *[http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet] *[http://buddhism.about.com/ Buddhism.about.com] *[http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk "Nirvana Sutra Buddhism": full text and discussion of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra] *[http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Buddhism: English translations of five major Tathagatagarbha sutras] *[http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide. *[http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet] *[http://www.world-religion.org/buddhism.php Encyclopedia of Religion Buddhism article] *[http://www.buddhaweb.org/ Essentials of Buddhism] *[http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles. [[Category:Buddhism|*]] [[Category:Eastern culture]] [[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]] [[Category:Buddhism in India]] [[Category:Religion in India]] {{Link FA|ar}} {{Link FA|vi}} {{Link FA|zh}} [[af:Boeddhisme]] [[als:Buddhismus]] [[ar:بوذية]] [[bn:বৌদ্ধধর্ম]] [[zh-min-nan:Hu̍t-kàu]] [[br:Boudaegezh]] [[bg:Будизъм]] [[ca:Budisme]] [[cs:Buddhismus]] [[da:Buddhisme]] [[de:Buddhismus]] [[et:Budism]] [[el:Βουδισμός]] [[es:Budismo]] [[eo:Budhismo]] [[eu:Budismo]] [[fa:بوداگرایی]] [[fr:Bouddhisme]] [[ko:불교]] [[hi:बौद्ध धर्म]] [[hr:Budizam]] [[io:Budismo]] [[ilo:Budhismo]] [[ia:Buddhismo]] [[is:Búddismi]] [[it:Buddhismo]] [[he:בודהיזם]] [[jv:Buddha]] [[kw:Bouddhisteth]] [[lo:ພຸດທະສາດສະໜາ]] [[la:Religio Buddhistica]] [[lv:Budisms]] [[lt:Budizmas]] [[li:Boeddhisme]] [[jbo:bu'ojda]] [[hu:Buddhizmus]] [[mt:Buddiżmu]] [[ms:Agama Buddha]] [[mn:Буддизм]] [[nl:Boeddhisme]] [[ja:仏教]] [[no:Buddhisme]] [[nn:Buddhismen]] [[ug:بذددا دعنع]] [[nds:Buddhismus]] [[pl:Buddyzm]] [[pt:Budismo]] [[ro:Budism]] [[ru:Буддизм]] [[sco:Buddhism]] [[simple:Buddhism]] [[sk:Budhizmus]] [[sl:Budizem]] [[sr:Будизам]] [[fi:Buddhalaisuus]] [[sv:Buddhism]] [[tl:Budismo]] [[ta:பௌத்தம்]] [[th:พระพุทธศาสนา]] [[vi:Phật giáo]] [[tpi:Budisim]] [[tr:Budizm]] [[uk:Буддизм]] [[yi:בודהיזם]] [[zh:佛教]] 1671 3098 2006-08-11T18:47:55Z Eukesh 59 *[[महादेशा]] *[[देशा]] 1672 3099 2006-08-11T18:49:57Z Eukesh 59 ==अ== [[अब्खाजिया]] - [[अफगानस्थान]] - [[अल्बानिया]] - [[अल्जीरिया]] - [[अंडोरा]] - [[अंगोला]] - [[अंटीग्वा]] - [[अर्जन्टीना]] - [[अजर्बैजान]] ==आ== [[आर्मीनिया]] - [[आस्ट्रिया]] - [[आस्ट्रेलिया]] - [[आयर्लैंड]] - [[आइसलैंड]] ==इ== [[इन्दोनेशिया]] - [[इस्रैल]] - [[इटली]] ==ई== [[ईराक]] - [[ईरान]] - [[ईजिप्ट]]- [[ईथ्योपिया]] ==उ== [[उरुग्वाय]] - [[उजबेकिस्थान]] ==ए== [[एक्वाडोर]] - [[एल-साल्वाडोर]] - [[एस्टोनिया]] - [[एरिट्रिया]] ==ऐ== [[कोट ऐवरी (ऐवरी कोस्ट)]] ==ओ== [[ओमान]] ==क== [[कम्बोदिया]] - [[केनडा]] - [[केमेरून]] - [[केप वर्डी]] - [[कोलोम्बिया]] - [[कोमोरोस]] - [[कौंगो]] - [[कोस्टा रीका]] - [[क्रोएशिया]] - [[क्यूबा]] - [[केन्द्रीय अफ्रीका गणराज्य]] - [[कजाकस्थान]] - [[किरिबाटी]] - [[किरगिस्थान]] - [[कतार]] - [[केन्या]] - [[कोरिया]] - [[कुवैत]] ख ==ग== [[ग्रीस (यूनान)]] - [[गाबोन]] - [[गाम्बिया]] - [[ग्रेनाडा]] - [[ग्वाटेमाला]] - [[गिनी]] - [[गिनी-बिसो]] - [[गयाना]] ==घ== [[घाना]] ==च== [[चाड]] - [[चिले]] - [[चीन]] - [[चेक रिपब्लिक]] ==छ == ==ज== [[जार्जिया-देश:|जार्जिया]] - [[जर्मनी]] - [[जिबूटी]] - [[जमैका]] - [[जापान]] - [[जार्डन]] - [[जाम्बिया]] - [[जिम्बाबवे]] ==ट== [[टोगो]] - [[टोंगा]] - [[ट्रिनिडाड]] - [[टंजानिया]]- [[टिमोर]] - [[टुनिशिया]] - [[टुवालु]] ==ड== [[डेनमार्क]] - [[डोमोनिका]] - [[डोमोनिकन रिपब्लिक]] ==त== [[तुर्किये]] - [[तैवान]] - [[ताजिकिस्थान]] - [[तुर्कमिनिस्थान]] ==थ== [[थाइलैंड]] ==द== [[दक्षिण कोरिया]] ==ध== ==न== [[नमीबिया]] - [[नौरु]] - [[नेपाल]] - [[नेदरलैंड्स]] - [[न्यू-जीलैंड]] - [[निकारगुवा]] - [[नीजे]] - [[नैजीरिया]] - [[नार्वे]] ==प== [[पाकिस्तान]] - [[पलाऊ]] - [[पानामा]] - [[पपुवा न्यू गिनी]] - [[पेरेग्वाय]] - [[पोलैंड]] - [[पेरु]] - [[पुर्तगाल]] ==फ== [[फिजी]] - [[फिन्लैंड]] - [[फ्रांस]] - [[फिलिपीन्स]] - [[फिलिस्तीन]] ==ब== [[बहामास]] - [[बहरैन]] - [[बंगलादेश]] - [[बार्बाडोस]] - [[बेलारूस]] - [[बेलीज]] - [[बेनिन]] - [[बेल्जियम]] - [[बोलिविया]] - [[बास्निया]] - [[बोत्सवाना]] - [[ब्रासील]] - [[ब्रूनै]] - [[बुल्गारिया]] - [[बुर्कीना-फासो]] - [[बुरुंडी]] - बर्मा अद्य [[म्‍यन्मार]] - [[ब्रिटेन]] ==भ== [[भारत]] - [[भूटान]] ==म== [[मडगास्कर]] - [[मलावी]] - [[मलयेशिया]] - [[मालदीव]] - [[माली]] - [[माल्टा]] - [[मारिटेनिया]] - [[मारिशस]] - - [[मेसेडोनिया]] - [[मार्शल द्वीप]] - [[मेक्सिको]] - [[मैक्रोनीशिया]] - [[मोल्दोवा]] - [[मोनाको]] - [[मंगोलिया]] - [[मोराको]] - [[मोजम्बीक]] - [[मयन्मार]] ==य== [[यमन]] ==र== [[रोमानिया]] - [[रूस]] - [[रवाण्डा]] ==ल== [[लाओस]] - [[लाट्विया]] - [[लेबनान]] - [[लेसोथो]] - [[लायबीरिया]] - [[लिबिया]] - [[लिक्टनस्टैन]] - [[लिथ्वानिया]] - [[लक्सम्बर्ग]] ==व== [[वनुवाटु]] - [[वेनेज्वेला]] - [[वैटिकन]] - [[वियेतनाम]] ==श== [[श्रीलङ्का]] ==स== [[सायप्रस]] - [[सेंट किट्]] - [[सेंट लूसिया]] - [[सेंट विन्सेंट]] - [[समोआ]] - [[सान मरीनो]] - [[सऊदी अरब]] - [[सर्बिया]] - [[सेनेगल]] - [[सेशेल]] - [[सियारा-लियोन]] - [[सिंगापोर]] - [[सोलोमन-द्वीप]] - [[स्लोवाकिया]] - [[स्लोवीनिया]] - [[सोमालिया]] - [[सोमालिलैंड]] - साउथ-अफ्रीका [[दक्षिण-अफ्रीका]] - [[स्पेन]] - [[सूडान]] - [[स्वाजीलैंड]] - [[स्विटजरलैंड]] - [[सिरिया]] - [[सुरिनाम]] - [[स्वीडन]] - [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]] ==ह== [[हेटी]] - [[हांडूरस]] - [[हंगरी]] ==सम्बद्घ: विषय:== *[[भूगोल]] *[[पृथिवी]] *[[महादेशा]] 1673 3103 2006-08-11T19:02:59Z Eukesh 59 /* Overview */ {{Infobox Country| native_name = नेपाल अधिराज्य <br />''Nēpāl Adhirājya'' | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Nepal | common_name = Nepal | image_flag = Flag of Nepal.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Nepal.png | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = जननी जन्मभूमिष्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी <br /> ([[Sanskrit]]: Motherland is even dearer than the heavens) | image_map = LocationNepal.png | national_anthem = [[Rastriya Gaan]] | official_languages = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] | capital = [[Kathmandu]] | latd = 27|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=85|longm=19|longEW=E | government_type = [[Transitional government]] | leader_title1 = [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]| leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]] | largest_city = [[Kathmandu]] | area = 147,181 sq.km | areami²=56,827 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->| area_rank = 94th | area_magnitude = 1 E10 | percent_water = 2.8 | population_estimate = 27,133,000 | population_estimate_year = July 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 42nd | population_census = 23,151,423| population_census_year = 2002| population_density = 196 | population_densitymi² = 508<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 56th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $42.17 billion<!-- cia.gov --> | GDP_PPP_rank = 81st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,675| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 152nd | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.526 | HDI_rank = 136th | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Unification of Nepal|Unification]] | sovereignty_note = [[1768-12-21]] | currency = [[Nepalese Rupee|Rupee]] | currency_code = NPR | time_zone = [[Nepal Time|NPT]] | utc_offset = +5:45 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +5:45| cctld = [[.np]] | calling_code = 977| footnotes = }} '''Nepal''' ({{IPAudio|Nepal.ogg|[nəˈpɑːl]}}), officially '''Kingdom of Nepal''', is a [[landlocked]] [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] [[country]] in [[South Asia]], bordered by the [[People's Republic of China]] to the north and [[India]] to the south, east and west. == संक्षिप्त == More than 80% of its people follow [[Hinduism]]. For a small country, the Nepali landscape is uncommonly diverse, ranging from the humid [[Terai]] in the south to the lofty [[Himalaya]]s in the north. It is notable that within a very small width the elevation of Nepal increases from the plain terrain to the tallest Himalayas leading to great vegetation. Nepal boasts eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including [[Mount Everest]] on the border with China. [[Kathmandu]] is the capital and largest city. The other main cities include Biratnagar, Birgunj, Janakpur, Pokhara, [[Nepalgunj]], Mahendranagar etc. The origin of the name ''Nepal'' is uncertain, but the most popular understanding is that it derived from ''Ne'' (holy) and ''pal'' (cave). After a long and rich history, during which the region splintered and coalesced under a variety of absolute rulers, Nepal became a [[constitutional monarchy]] in 1990. However, the monarchy retained many important and ill-defined powers. This arrangement was marked by increasing instability, both in the parliament and, since 1996, in large swathes of the country that have been fought over by [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)|Maoist]] insurgents. The Maoists, alienated from mainstream political parties, went underground and started a guerilla war against both monarchy and mainstream political parties. They have sought to overthrow feudal institutions, including the monarchy, and establish a republic. This has led to the ongoing [[Nepalese Civil War]] in which more than 13,000 people have died. On the pretext of quashing the insurgents, who now control about 70% of the country, the king closed down the parliament and sacked the elected prime minister in 2002 and started ruling through prime ministers appointed by him. He then unilaterally declared a "[[state of emergency]]" early in 2005, and assumed all executive powers. Following the [[Loktantra Andolan]], the king agreed to relinquish the sovereign power back to the people and reinstated the dissolved House of Representatives on [[April 24]], [[2006]]. Using its newly acquired sovereign authority, in [[May 19]] [[2006]], the newly resumed House of Representatives unanimously passed a motion to curtail the power of the king and declared Nepal a [[separation of church and state|Secular state]]. A complete rewrite of the realm's [[constitution]] is expected to happen in the near future. ==History== [[Neolithic]] tools found in the [[Kathmandu Valley]] indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of [[Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity lived in Nepal 2,500 years ago. {{inote|Library of Congress|History}} [[Indo-Aryan]] tribes entered the valley around 1500 BCE. Around 1000 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose. One of the princes of the [[Shakya]] confederation was [[Siddharta Gautama]] (563&ndash;483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the ''[[Buddha]]'' ("the one who has awakened"). By 250 BCE, the region came under the influence of the [[Mauryan empire]] of northern India, and later became a puppet state under the [[Gupta Dynasty]] in the 4th century CE. From the late 5th century CE, rulers called ''the [[Licchavi]]s'' governed the area. The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by a [[Newari]] era, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. By late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the influence of the [[Chalukya|Chalukaya Empire]] of [[South India|southern India]]. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised [[Hinduism]] instead of the prevailing Buddhism. [[Image:Patan temples.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Hindu temples in Patan, the capital one of the three medieval kingdoms]] [[Image:RaniOfNepal1920.jpg|250px|thumb|Nepalese royalty in the 1920s]] By the early 12th century, leaders were emerging whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix ''malla'' ("wrestler"). Initially their reign was marked by upheaval, but the kings consolidated their power over the next 200 years. By late 14th century much of the country began to come under a unified rule. This unity was short-lived: in 1482 the kingdom was carved into three -- [[Kathmandu]], [[Patan]], and [[Bhadgaon]] -- which had petty rivalry for centuries. In 1765 the [[Gorkha]] ruler [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] set out to unify the kingdoms, after first seeking arms and aid from India and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify Nepal three years later. This marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal. A dispute and subsequent war with [[Tibet]] over control of mountain passes forced Nepal to retreat and pay heavy repatriations. Rivalry with the [[British East India Company]] over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the brief but bloody [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1815&ndash;16), in which Nepal defended its present day borders but lost its territories west of the Kali River, including present day [[Uttaranchal]] state and several Punjab Hill States of present day [[Himachal Pradesh]]. The [[Treaty of Sugauli]] also ceded parts of the Terai and [[Sikkim]] to the Company in exchange for Nepalese [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]]. Factionalism among the [[royal family]] led to instability after the war. In 1846, a discovered plot to overthrow [[Jang Bahadur]], a fast-rising military leader by the reigning queen, led to the [[Kot Massacre]]. Armed clashes between [[military]] personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bahadur won and founded the [[Rana]] lineage. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British, and assisted the British during the [[Sepoy Rebellion]] in 1857, and later in both [[World War]]s. In 1923 the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal's independence was recognised by the UK. In the late 1940s, emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, China annexed Tibet in 1950, making India keen on stability in Nepal, to avoid an expansive military campaign. Thus India sponsored [[Tribhuvan]] as Nepal's new king in 1951, and a new government, mostly comprising the [[Nepali Congress Party]]. After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, the democratic experiment was dissolved in 1959, and a "partyless" [[panchayat]] system was made to govern Nepal. In 1989, the "Jan Andolan" (People's) Movement forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and establish a multiparty parliament in May 1991. Nepali Congress Party wins first democratic elections. Girija Prasad Koirala becomes prime minister. ===Recent events=== [[Image:Nepal map.png|thumb|350px|Map of Nepal]] On [[June 1]], [[2001]], the Heir Apparent [[Dipendra of Nepal|Dipendra]] reportedly went on a killing spree in the royal palace, in response to his parents' rejection of his choice of wife. His parents were killed and he died 3 days later. Following the carnage, the throne was inherited by Birendra's brother [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Gyanendra]]. In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy waned. {{fact}} On [[February 1, 2005]] Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers in the name of combating Maoist movement. {{inote|Timeline: Nepal|BBC News}} In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire but which was not reciprocated by the royal government which adamantly vowed to defeat the rebels by force. A few weeks later, the government stated that parliamentary elections would be held by 2007 even after the flopped municipal elections.{{inote|Nepal to hold polls in two years|Times of India}} By then with the support from the Maoists the seven parliamentary parties (SPA) had arranged a mass uprising against the tyrannical rule of King Gyanendra. However the royal government used various false reasons to quell the uprising. By then frustrated by lack of security, jobs and good governance, thousands of people ushered onto the streets demanding the king to renounce power outright but the royal government turned even more ferocious and continued its atrocities including daytime curfews amid Maoist blockade. Food shortages hit people so that they prepared to march into the city centre and encircle royal palace. The security forces turned brutal and the king seemed to think nothing had happened so far. Thousands were injured and 21 people died in the uprising, which was meant to be peaceful but turned violent by the government and its vigilantes. Foreign pressure continued to increase on King Gyanendra to surrender power so that on [[April 21]] [[2006]] Gyanendra announced that he was giving up absolute power and that "Power was being returned to the People". He called on the seven party coalitions to name a possible Prime Minister and that elections would be held as soon as possible. Many Nepalese protesters however, still carried out rallies in numerous cities and vowed to continue the stir until they would achieve complete abolishment of the monarchy. Finally after 19 days of protests, on [[April 24]] midnight, the king called for the country's parliament to reassemble on April 28. Parliament has since reassembled and already stripped the king of his power over the military, abolished his title as the descendent of a Hindu God, and required royalty to pay taxes. Furthermore, several royal officials have been indicted, and the Nepalese government is no longer referred to as "His Majesty's Government" which has been changed to "Government of Nepal". An election of the constituent assembly to rewrite the constitution has been declared unanimously to be held in the near future, with the possible abolition of the monarchy as part of constitutional change.{{fact}}. Following Gyanendra's relinquishing of absolute power, the Nepalese government and Maoist rebels agreed on a ceasefire. In August 2006, both parties came to an agreement on the issue of arms accountability, agreeing to ask the [[United Nations]] to oversee and keep track of the weapons cache of both sides. The government and the Maoists failed to come to an agreement on the future of the monarchy. ==Geography== [[Image:Nepal_topo_en.jpg|thumb|250px|Topographic map of Nepal]] [[Image:KaliGandaki.jpg|thumb|250px|The arid and barren Himalayan landscape]] Nepal is of roughly rectangular shape, 650&nbsp;km wide and 200&nbsp;km broad, with an area of 147,181&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]. Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: the Mountain, [[Hill Region|Hill]], and [[Terai Region]]s. These ecological belts run east-west and are bisected by Nepal's major river systems. The Terai Plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]]. They were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the [[Kosi]], the [[Narayani]] (India's [[Gandak]] River), and the [[Karnali]]. This region has a hot, humid climate. The Hill Region (''Pahar'' in Nepali) abuts the mountains and varies from 1,000 to 4,000 m in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the [[Mahabharat Lekh]] and [[Siwalik Hills|Shiwalik Range]] (also called the Churia Range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanised area. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural centre of Nepal. Unlike the valleys, elevations above 2,500 m are sparsely populated. The Mountain Region contains the highest region in the world. The world's highest mountain, [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmatha'' in Nepali) at 8,850 m is located on the border with [[Tibet]]. Eight of the world's [[Eight-thousander|ten highest mountains]] are located in Nepal. [[Kanchenjunga]], the world's third highest peak, is also located on its eastern border with [[Sikkim]]. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems. Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to altitude. The [[tropical]] and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 m, the [[temperate]] zone 1,200 to 2,400 m, the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 m, the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 m, and the arctic zone above 4,400 m. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalaya blocks cold winds from [[Central Asia]] in winter, and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns. Although Nepal shares no boundary with [[Bangladesh]], the two countries are separated by a narrow strip of land about 21 km wide, called the [[Chicken's Neck]]. Efforts are underway to make this area a free-trade zone. ==Economy== [[Image:Nepal One Rupee obverse.jpg|thumb|250px|A one-rupee banknote]] Nepal is one of the poorest and least developed nations in the world; up to half of its population lives below the [[poverty line]]. The capital crunch has affected development. The [[capital market]] is in its initial stage. The stock exchange is traditional. Only recently, the Opal Securities Investment Pvt. Ltd., the stock broker No. 4, has started posting real time data on the web, [[http://www.nepsestock.com]] at the initiative of [[Nabaraj Pokhrel]], [[http://www.nepsestock.com/contactus.php]]. Agriculture sustains 76% of the population and accounts for about 38% of the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]; services comprise 41%, and industry 21%. Hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. There are just over 4,000 km of paved roads, and one 59 km railway line in the south. Aviation is in a better state, with 46 airports, nine of them with paved runways. There is less than one telephone per 46 people; landline services are poor, although mobile telephony is in a reasonable state in some parts of the country. There are around 100,000 Internet connections, but after the imposition of the "state of emergency", intermittent losses of service have been reported.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} A lack of natural resources, its landlocked location, technological backwardness and the long-running civil war have also prevented Nepal from fully developing its economy. The country receives foreign aid from [[India]], [[PRC|China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]] and the [[European Union]]. The government's budget is about US$665 million, with expenditures of $1.1bn. The [[inflation]] rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation during the 1990s. The [[Nepalese Rupee]] has been tied to the [[Indian Rupee]] at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappeared. A long-standing economic agreement underpins a close relationship with India. The distribution of wealth among people is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. [[Image:Nepal landscape 1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Terraced farming on the foothills of the Himalayas]] Nepal's workforce of about 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labour. Agriculture employs 81% of the workforce, services 16% and manufacturing/craft-based industry 3%. Agricultural produce——mostly grown in the Terrai region bordering India——includes rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industry mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce, including [[jute]], sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. The spectacular landscape and deep, exotic culture of Nepal represents considerable potential for tourism, but growth in this export industry has been stifled by recent political events. The [[unemployment rate|rate of unemployment and underemployment]] approaches half of the working-age population. Thus many Nepalese move to India in search of work, the Gulf countries and Malaysia being new sources of work. Poverty is acute and many of Nepal's women are sold to Indian brothels, 7,000 each year albeit this insulting practise is heavily penalised and mass propaganda against it conducted .<ref>[http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm Nepal]</ref> Nepal receives US$50 million a year through the [[Gurkha]] soldiers who serve in the [[Indian Army|Indian]] and [[British Army|British]] armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. The total remittance value is worth around 1 billion USD, including money sent from Arab and Malaysia, who combinedly employ around 200,000 Nepalese. Nepal's GDP for the year 2005 is estimated at just over US$37 billion (adjusted to [[Purchasing Power Parity]]), making it the 83rd-largest economy in the world. Per-capita income is around US$1,402, ranked 163rd. Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, leather goods, [[jute]] goods and grain total $568 million. Import commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products and fertiliser total US$1.419 bn. India (48.8%), the US (22.3%), and [[Germany]] (8.5%) are its main export partners. Nepal's import partners include India (43%), the [[United Arab Emirates]] (10%), China (10%), [[Saudi Arabia]] (4.4%), and [[Singapore]] (4%).{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} ==Government and politics== Until 1990, Nepal was an [[absolute monarchy]] running under the executive control of the king. Faced with a people's movement against the absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a [[parliamentary monarchy]] with the king as the [[head of state]] and a prime minister as the [[head of the government]]. Nepal's legislature was [[bicameral]] consisting of a [[House of Representatives]] and a [[National Council]]. The House of Representatives consist of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members, 10 nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term, but was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepalese citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote. The executive comprised the King and the [[Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]]). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal have tended to be highly unstable; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991, either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch. The judiciary is made of the ''[[Sarbochha Adalat]]''&mdash;the [[Supreme Court]], appellate courts and various district courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges were appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. The Nepalese political landscape consists of more than two dozen political parties. Based on the parliamentary seats occupied by various parties since 1991, [[Nepali Congress Party]] (NCP), [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)]] (CPN-UML), [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party|National Democratic Party]] (NDP), [[Nepal Sadbhawana Party]] (NGP), [[People’s Front Nepal]] (PFN) and [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Party]] (NWPP) are significant ones. [[United People's Front of Nepal]] (UPFN), which had won third largest number of seats in 1991 parliamentary election, began to splinter in 1993. Its one faction later merged with [[Nepal Communist Party (Masal)]] to form [[PFN]]. However, the other faction established [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] in 1995, which staged an armed rebellion in 1996 and gradually emerged as a major political force - holding a balance of power in Nepal. All these political realignments have made the political scene of Nepal one of the most confusing in the world. Breakup of the parties had become a norm rather than an exception in Nepal. Parties never agreed on most issues of National significance. However, the situation began to change after King Gyanendra took an absolute power in 2005. In [[November 22]], [[2005]], the seven parliamentary parties of the [[Seven Party Alliance]] (SPA) and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] agreed on a historic and unprecedented 12-point [[memorandum of understanding]] (MOU) in [[November 22]], [[2005]] for peace and democracy. Nepalese from various walks of life and the international community regarded the MOU as an appropriate political response to the crisis that was developing in Nepal. In the backdrop of the historical sufferings of the Nepalese people and the enormous human cost of the last ten years of violent conflict, the MOU, which proposes a peaceful transition through an elected constituent assembly, created an acceptable formula for a united movement for democracy. As per the 12-point MOU, the [[Seven Party Alliance]] called for a protest movement and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] supported it. This led to a countrywide uprising that started in April 2006. All political forces including civil society and professional organizations actively galvanized the people. This resulted into massive and spontaneous demonstrations and rallies held across Nepal against the King Gyanendra's autocratic rule. The people's participation was so broad, momentous and pervasive that the king feared of being overrun. On April 21, 2006, King Gyanendra declared that the "power would be returned to the people". This had little effect on the people, who continued to occupy the streets of Kathmandu and other towns, openly defying the daytime curfew. Finally King Gyanendra announced the reinstatement the House of Representatives, so conceding one of the major demands of the SPA, at midnight of [[April 24]], [[2006]]. With this the coalition of political forces decided to call off the protests. Twenty-one people died and thousands were injured during the 19 days of protests. On [[May 19]], [[2006]], the parliament assumed total legislative power and gave executive power to the Government of Nepal (previously known as His Majesty's Government). Names of many institutions (including the army) were stripped of the "royal" adjective and the Raj Parishad (a council of the King's advisors) was abolished, with his duties assigned to the Parliament itself. The activities of the King became subject to parliamentary scrutiny and the King's properties were subjected to taxation. Moreover, Nepal was declared a secular state abrogating the previous status of a Hindu Kingdom, albeit the fear shown by midline Hindu communities over their concern over the abolishment of long founded tradition of Vedic systems. On July 19, 2006, the prime minister, G. P. Koirala, sent a letter to the United Nations announcing the intentions of the Nepalese Government to hold elections to a constituent assembly by April 2007. ==Military and foreign affairs== [[Image:NamcheBazar1.jpg|thumb|250px|The famous outpost of [[Namche Bazaar]] in the Khumbu region close to Mount Everest. The town is built on terraces in what resembles a giant Greek amphitheatre.]] Nepal's military consists of the Nepalese Army which includes the Nepalese Army Air Service, (the [[air force]] unit under it), and the [[Nepalese Police Force]]. On May 19, 2006 The House unanimously passed the proposal to rename Royal Nepal Army (RNA) as the “Nepali Army”. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military&mdash;1.5% of its GDP. Nepali Army having 90,000 soldiers of the country, which is currently engaged in the civil war against the [[Maoist]] [[insurgent]]s. Most of the equipment and arms are supplied by [[India]].<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html Asia Times Online]</ref> Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance with a long standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese citizens may travel to each others' countries without a [[passport]] or [[visa (document)|visa]]. Nepalese citizens may work in India without legal restriction. Although Nepal and India typically have close ties, from time to time Nepal becomes caught up in the problematic Sino-Indian relationship. India considers Nepal as part of its realm of influence, and views Chinese aid with concern. Some Indians consider Nepal to be part of a greater pan-Indian state, an attitude that has caused Nepalese antagonism towards India. In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India, the US, and the UK have worsened. These three foreign countries have been vociferous opponents to the crackdown on civil liberties in Nepal. China mainly seeks cooperation with Nepal on the issues of Tibet. Outside of Asia, Nepal has especially friendly relations with [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]][http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?land_id=120&type_id=14] and has historical military links with the [[United Kingdom]]. In July 2006, British authorities will be granting full British citizenship to all Nepalese and its dependants serving the British army during its occupation in the territory, and entitling them a full privilege to stay and work in the United Kingdom, this as a gesture of serving their colonial master. According to the press secretary approximately there are 100,000 eligible for application. Application can be obtained on the immigration website. [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/] ==Administrative Subdivisions== Nepal is divided into 14 [[Zones of Nepal|zones]] and 75 [[Districts of Nepal|districts]] grouped into five development zones or divisions. Each district is headed by a chief district officer responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries. ==Demographics== [[Image:Shiva_temple_in_Pashupatinath.jpg|thumb|250px|Famous [[Shiva]] [[Hindu]] [[temple]] in [[Pashupatinath]].]] Nepal has a total population of 27,676,547 as of July 2005, with a growth rate of 2.2%. 39% of the population is up to 14 years old, 57.3% are aged between 15 and 64, and 3.7% above 65. The median age is 20.07 (19.91 for males and 20.24 for females). There are 1,060 males for every 1,000 females. Life expectancy is 59.8 years (60.9 for males and 59.5 for females). Total [[Literacy|literacy rate]] is 53.74% (68.51% for males and 42.49% for females). According to the 2001 census, [[Hindus]] constitute 80.6% of the population. [[Buddhists]] make up 10.7%, [[Islam|Muslims]] 4.2%, [[Kirant]] 3.6%, other religions 0.9%. The largest ethnic group is the [[Chhettri]] (15.5%). Other groups are the [[Brahman-Hill]] 12.5%, [[Magar]] 7%, [[Tharu]] 6.6%, [[Tamang]] 5.5%, [[Newar]] 5.4%, [[Kami]] 3.9%, [[Yadav]] 3.9%, other 32.7%, unspecified 2.8%. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the national language with 47.8% of the population speaking it as their first language. Other languages include [[Maithili]] 12.1%, [[Bhojpuri]] 7.4%, [[Tharu]] (Dagaura/Rana) 5.8%, [[Tamang]] 5.1%, [[Nepal Bhasa]] 3.6%, [[Magar]] 3.3%, [[Awadhi]] 2.4%, other 10%, unspecified 2.5%. Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been in general very subtle and academic in nature due to the intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Both share common temples and worship common deities and many of Nepal's Hindus could also be regarded as Buddhists and [[vice versa]]. {{inote|Library of Congress|Religion and Society}}Buddhists are mostly concentrated in the eastern regions and the central Terrai. Buddhism was relatively more common among the Newar and Tibeto-Nepalese groups. Among the Tibeto-Nepalese, those most influenced by Hinduism were the [[Magar]], [[Sunwar]], [[Limbu]] and [[Rai]] peoples. Hindu influence is less prominent among the [[Gurung]], [[Bhutia]], and [[Thakali]] groups, who employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} {{inote|Library of Congress}} The northern mountains are sparsely populated. A majority of the population live in the central highlands despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the fertile Terrai belt in recent years. Kathmandu, with a population of 800,000, is the largest city in the country. ==Culture== Nepali culture is influenced by the cultures of Tibet, which borders to the north, and India, which borders to the south. There are similarities in clothing, language and food. A typical Nepali meal is ''dal-bhat'', boiled lentils served with rice and vegetables, and some spicy relish. This is consumed twice daily, once in the morning and again after sunset. Between these main meals, snacks such as ''chiura'' (beaten rice) and tea are consumed. Meat, eggs, and fish are also eaten, particularly in the mountainous regions, where the diet tends to be richer in protein. Millet-based alcoholic drinks are popular, including ''[[chhaang]]'' and the distilled ''[[rakshi]]''. Folklore is an integral part of Nepali society. Traditional stories are rooted in the reality of day-to-day life—tales of love, affection, battles, and demons and ghosts; they reflect and explain local lifestyles, cultures and belief systems. Many Nepali folktales are enacted in dance and music. The Newar people are well known for masked [[dances|dance]] that tell stories of the gods and heroes. Music is [[percussion instrument|percussion]]-based, sometimes with flutes or [[shawm]] accompanying the intense, nasal vocal lines. Musical styles are a variety of [[pop music|pop]], [[religious music|religious]] and [[folk music]], among other styles. [[Musical genre]]s from Tibet and India have had a strong influence on traditional Nepali music. Women, even of the musician castes, are less likely than men to play music, except in specific situations such as traditional all-female wedding parties. [[Image:Nepal house.jpg|thumb|250px|Houses in rural parts of Nepal are made up of stones and clay.]]The [[sarangi]], a four-stringed, hand-carved [[musical instrument|instrument]] is usually played by wandering minstrels. Since the sixties, [[Nepali rock]] or [[rock music]], sung to Nepali lyrics, has become popular among youth. Also catching on fast is Nepali rap and reggae, derived from African American artists and genres, which has blossomed with the advent of the music video industry. [[football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport, followed by [[cricket]] and [[kabaddi]]. The [[Martyrs Memorial Football League]] is the national football championship. There four television services viz. Nepal Television - the national television channel, NTV 2 Metro - a metro channel owned by the government and two private channels - Kantipur Television and Image Channel. Also many other networks, particularly those that originate in India, are available with the installation of increasingly popular satellite dishes. Lack of electrification makes this difficult. Radio is listened to throughout the kingdom; as of 2000, there were 12 radio stations. The Nepali year begins in mid-April and is divided into 12 months. Saturday is the official weekly day of rest. Main holidays include the National Day (birthday of the late king Tribhuvan) [[December 28]], Prithvi Jayanti, ([[January 11]]), and Martyr's Day ([[February 18]]) and a mix of Hindu and Buddhist festivals such as ''[[Dashai]]'' in autumn, and ''[[Tihar]]'' late autumn. Most marriages are arranged, and divorce is rare. [[Polygamy]] is banned by law; relatively isolated tribes in the north, such as the [[Dolpo]], practise [[polyandry]]. Nepal has a rich tradition of ceremonies, such as ''[[nwaran]]'' (the christening of a child), and the ''[[Pasni]]'', the day a child is first fed rice, and ''[[bratabandha]]'' (the penance ceremony) and ''[[gupha]]'' for prepubescent boys and girls, respectively. In ''[[bel bibaha]]'', preadolescent girls are "married" to the bel fruit tree, ensuring that the girl becomes and remains fertile. Most houses in rural Nepal are made up of a tight bamboo framework with mud and cow-dung walls. These dwellings remain cool in summers and retain warmth in winters. Dwellings at higher altitudes are mostly timber-based. The urban areas are filled with concrete structures up to 8 stories tall. ==See also== * [[नेपाल भाषा]] ==External links== *[http://welcomenepal.com/new/index.asp Nepal Tourism Board] *[http://www.nepalhmg.gov.np Government of Nepal] *[http://www.britannica.com/nations/Nepal Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Nepal'' Country Page] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5283.htm United States Department of State Profile of Nepal] *[http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html Library of Congress &ndash; Nepal] *[http://www.myhimalayas.com/travelogues/nepal.htm MyHimalayas - Travelogues and Pictures from various areas in Nepal] *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Nepal/ Open Directory Project -- Nepal] *{{wikitravel|Nepal}} *[http://planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/WebHome Planet Nepal Wiki] ==श्रोत== * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal आंगलभाषा विकिपिडिया] [[Category:Nepal]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:SAARC members]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Asia]] [[Category:Constitutional monarchies]] [[ar:نيبال]] [[an:Nepal]] [[az:Nepal]] [[bn:নেপাল]] [[zh-min-nan:Nepal]] [[be:Непал]] [[bg:Непал]] [[ca:Nepal]] [[cv:Непал]] [[cs:Nepál]] [[da:Nepal]] [[de:Nepal]] [[dv:ނޭޕާލް]] [[et:Nepal]] [[el:Νεπάλ]] [[es:Nepal]] [[eo:Nepalo]] [[eu:Nepal]] [[fa:نپال]] [[fo:Nepal]] [[fr:Népal]] [[fy:Nepal]] [[gl:Nepal - नेपाल अधिराज्य]] [[gu:નેપાળ]] [[ko:네팔]] [[hi:नेपाल]] [[hr:Nepal]] [[io:Nepal]] [[id:Nepal]] [[os:Непал]] [[is:Nepal]] [[it:Nepal]] [[he:נפאל]] [[ka:ნეპალი]] [[ks:नेपाल]] [[kw:Nepal]] [[ht:Nepal]] [[ku:Nepal]] [[la:Nepalia]] [[lv:Nepāla]] [[lt:Nepalas]] [[li:Nepal]] [[hu:Nepál]] [[ms:Nepal]] [[nl:Nepal]] [[ne:नेपाल]] [[ja:ネパール]] [[no:Nepal]] [[nn:Nepal]] [[oc:Nepal]] [[ug:نېپلا]] [[pam:Nepal]] [[nds:Nepal]] [[pl:Nepal]] [[pt:Nepal]] [[ro:Nepal]] [[ru:Непал]] [[sa:नेपाल]] [[sq:Nepali]] [[scn:Nepal]] [[simple:Nepal]] [[sk:Nepál]] [[sl:Nepal]] [[sr:Непал]] [[sh:Nepal]] [[fi:Nepal]] [[sv:Nepal]] [[tl:Nepal]] [[ta:நேபாளம்]] [[th:ประเทศเนปาล]] [[vi:Nepal]] [[tr:Nepal]] [[uk:Непал]] [[zh:尼泊尔]] 1675 3588 2006-12-22T07:51:36Z 210.23.5.11 /* External links */ '''टेलिभिजन''' एकस्य [[दूरसंचार]] यन्त्र [[चलचित्र]] व [[ध्वनि]] [[प्रसारण]] व संकलनेषु प्रयोजने| The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television from the [[television set]] to the [[television program|programming]] and [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]]. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far seeing" (Greek "tele," meaning far, and Latin "visus," meaning seeing). == ईतिहास == The origins of what would become today's television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873, and the invention of a scanning disk by [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television, relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image. While electromechanical techniques were developed prior to World War II, most notably by [[Charles Francis Jenkins]] and [[John Logie Baird]], completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of [[Philo Taylor Farnsworth]], [[Vladimir Zworykin]] and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Commercial broadcast programming, following years of experimental broadcasts seen only in a few specially-equipped homes, occurred in both the United States and the United Kingdom before World War II. The first television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (more than 240 lines) were made in England in 1936. So-called "System A" used 405 lines. Television did not become common in United States homes until the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (i.e., cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the owner of each television must pay a [[Television licence|license fee]] annually which is used to support the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]. == Adoption == Although Britain was the first country in the world to start large-scale public transmissions, the public uptake was initially very slow. Television sets were very expensive at first, and prices did not drop to an affordable level until technology developed during the [[Second World War]] for [[radar]] was introduced. As well as making televisions cheaper, it also made them safer and much smaller. These smaller, cheaper sets were more acceptable to the public. A major driver for television uptake in Britain was the [[Coronation]] of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953. This event was viewed by over 20 million people, and was for many their first exposure to television. People gathered for [[Coronation parties]], and many people bought television receivers specially in time for the event. During the year after the Coronation, television licence subscription increased by 50%. ==प्रविधि== ===Elements of a television system=== The elements of a simple television system are: * An image source - this may be a [[Professional video camera|camera]] for live pick-up of images or a [[flying spot scanner]] for transmission of [[motion picture|films]] * A sound source. * A [[transmitter]], which modulates one or more [[television signal]]s with both picture and sound information for transmission. * A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast. * A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light and audible sound. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous [[Satellite television|satellite]]s. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission [[bandwidth]], special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. <!-- Elements of a television system - block diagram here --> <!-- Image source, camera, film, magnetic tape, exceptionally computer-generated images--> <!-- Sound source --> <!-- Transmitter, over the air, bandwidth required, antenna, satellite system, cable system, digital encoding, scrambling --> <!-- Receiver, antenna, cable connection, satellite down-converter, digital decode, descramble--> <!-- Display, cathode ray tube, color tube, now LCD, historically mechanical scanned lamp--> <!-- Recorder, analog magnetic tape, now digital --> ===दृस्टि प्रविधि=== दृस्टि प्रविधि विकाशेनु विभिन्न प्रकारेन आधुनिक टिभी निर्मानम्: *'''CRT''': The most common displays are direct-view [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s for up to 40&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;cm) (in 4:3) and 46&nbsp;in (115&nbsp;cm) (in 16:9) [[diagonal]]ly. These are still the least expensive, and are a refined technology that can still provide the best overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed [[native resolution]], in some cases they are also capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The [[frame rate]] or refresh rate of a typical [[NTSC]] format CRT TV is 60&nbsp;Hz, and for the [[PAL]] format, it is 50&nbsp;Hz. A typical [[NTSC]] broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480&nbsp;pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the [[Vertical blanking interval|Vertical Blanking Interval]], or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast. *'''Rear projection''': Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100&nbsp;inch (254&nbsp;cm)) use [[projection]] technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]-based, and [[DLP]] (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. A variation is a [[video projector]], using similar technology, which projects onto a [[Projection screen|screen]]. *'''Flat panel LCD''' or '''plasma''': Modern advances have brought [[Flat panel display|flat panel]]s to TV that use [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|active matrix]] [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] or [[plasma display]] technology. Flat panel LCDs and [[plasma display]]s are as little as 1&nbsp;inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a [[pedestal]]. Some models can also be used as [[Computer display|computer monitor]]s.<br>{{seealso|Liquid crystal display television}} It is important to think about the living environment of your television before deciding on a single display technology. Each has its pros and cons, Flat panel LCD display can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural [[daylight]] or well lit rooms and so are best suited to dark viewing areas. A complete run down of the pros and cons of each display should be sought before purchasing a single television technology. ===Terminology for televisions=== Pixel [[Display resolution|resolution]] is the amount of individual points known as [[pixels]] on a given screen. A typical resolution of 800x600 means that the television display has 800 pixels across and 600&nbsp;pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast [[ratio]] is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and [[shadow]] detail. The [[brightness]] of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colours are. Measured in cd/m2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the [[image]]. ===Signal connections=== The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: [[Image:High Definition Multimedia Interface Plug.jpg|70px|right]] *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface|HDMI]] - a 19 or 29-pin industry-supported digital interface which supports standard, enhanced, or [[High-definition television|high-definition video]], plus multi-channel digital audio on a single cable. The video signal is [[Backward compatibility|backward-compatible]] with [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]. Increasingly common on displays, DVD players, and high-end PC [[graphics card]]s. [[Copy protection]] is implemented using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. HDMI 1.3 is required to enable high-definition content on [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] and [[HD DVD]] disks. [[Image:DVI Connector.JPG|70px|right]] *[[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] - a 17 to 29-pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry [[High-definition television|HDTV]] but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. [[Image:Component_video_RCA.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Component video]] - three separate [[RCA connector|RCA jack]]s (colored red, green and blue) carry three [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one brightness ([[Luminance (video)|luminance]]) and two colors ([[Chrominance|chromas]]), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" ([[interlace]]d) or "Y Pr Pb" ([[Progressive scan|progressive]]), or [[YUV]]. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to [[S-Video]] and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; it is less common in [[Europe]] but is starting to become more widely available. [[Image:SCART 20050724 003.jpg|70px|right]] *[[SCART]] - a large 21 pin connector that may carry [[Analog signal|analog]] signals consisting of: one video signal [[composite video]]; or two video signals [[S-Video]]; or for picture quality similar to [[component video]], three signals of separate red, green and blue or [[RGB color model|RGB]]; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and [[Synchronization|sync]] or RGBS; plus right and left [[line-level]] audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect-ratio]] flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in [[Europe]] since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest [[PAL]] DVD players and satellite receivers. [[Japan]] uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. The SCART connector is not used in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Image:SVideoConnector.jpg|70px|right]] *[[S-Video]] - small round connector with two separate [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for [[S-VHS]], [[8 mm video format|Hi-8]], and early [[NTSC]] DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. This will sometimes, completely incorrectly, be referred to as an [[S-VHS]] connector. Audio is not carried on this cable. [[Image:Composite.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Composite video]] - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the [[Analog signal|analog]] video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow [[RCA connector|RCA jack]] or occasionally a [[BNC connector]]. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left [[line-level]] audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables. *[[coaxial cable|Coaxial]] RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one [[coaxial cable]] and [[modulate]]d on a [[radio frequency]]. Most TVs manufactured since the 1970s provide a coaxial connection, and this is the type of cable typically used for [[cable television]]. Although still found on [[VHS]] tape-players, most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer supply an RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a [[modulation|modulator]] device. [[NTSC]] sets use a 75&nbsp;[[ohm]] F-connector; most [[PAL]] sets use a 50&nbsp;ohm Belling Lee. Most set-top TV antennas have a 300&nbsp;ohm [[Electrical impedance|impedance]], so to connect them to a coaxial input requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation. *300&nbsp;ohm [[twin-lead]] - The predecessor to [[coaxial cable]], generally a flat insulated cable with a pair of wires separated by 0.5&nbsp;inch, found on NTSC television sets from 1940 to about 1985, and originally used to connect the receiver to either an outdoor [[antenna]] or [[Dipole antenna|rabbit ears]], though twinlead line losses make an inefficient application for the former. Connection to the set was by connecting the wire to a pair of screws on the back of the television set. Nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] was 300&nbsp;ohms; connecting an older set to cable or VCRs requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation due to [[impedance mismatch]]. Twin-lead wiring is sensitive to nearby metal objects. Long runs must be properly supported away from metal objects and should be mounted with a loose twist in the cable - see [[unshielded twisted pair]] cables which operate by the same principle as properly installed twin-lead. *[[Optical fiber|Fiber optic]] - The latest in connections and only on extremely new and high quality TVs, fiber optics use a [[laser]] to transmit data along a glass fiber. Used for sound and/or video, can be found on newer TVs, high end video editing systems, as well as in high end computer systems. Can be referred to as [[S/PDIF]] digital-audio format. ===Aspect ratios=== '''[[Aspect ratio (image)|Aspect ratio]]''' refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 which was chosen to match the [[Academy ratio|Academy Ratio]] used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round [[cathode ray tube|cathode-ray tube]]s (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the [[manufacturing]] [[technology]] of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The [[BBC]]'s television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to [http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/Test-Cards/Test-Card-Technical.html#Aspect-Ratio 3 April 1950], when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed. In the 1950s, [[movie studio]]s moved towards [[widescreen]] aspect ratios such as [[CinemaScope]] in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a [[gimmick]], widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of [[panorama|panoramic]], others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to [[digital television]] systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen [[film|movie]]s, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called [[full screen anamorphic|anamorphic widescreen]] format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European [[PALPlus]] television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" [[DVD]]s; the [[ATSC]] [[High-definition television|HDTV]] system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both [[desktop computer|desktop]] and [[laptop]] computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or [[subtitle]]s, as opposed to viewing content full-screen. =====Aspect ratio incompatibility===== The television industry's changing of [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]s is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown: *in "[[letterbox]]" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom *with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "[[pan and scan]]", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown: *in "[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right *with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in "tilt and scan", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as [[Super 35 mm film|Super 35]] (championed by [[James Cameron]]) has been used to film a number of major movies such as [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[Austin Powers]]'', and ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (see also: [[List of top-grossing films shot in Super 35]]). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "[[full screen]]" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "[[Letterbox|letterboxing]]" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "[[pan-and-scan]]" cropping. === Sound === {{further|[[NICAM]]}} === Television add-ons === Today there are many television add-ons including [[Computer and video games|Video Game]] Consoles, [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]]s, [[Set-top box]]es for [[Cable television|Cable]] and [[Satellite television|Satellite]] reception, [[DVD]] players, or [[Digital video recorder|Digital Video Recorders]] (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. === New developments === *[[Ambilight]]™ *[[Broadcast flag]] *[[CableCARD]]™ *[[DLP|Digital Light Processing]] (DLP) *[[Digital Rights Management]] (DRM) *[[Digital television]] (DTV) *[[Digital Video Recorder]]s *[[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] TV (DBS) *[[DVD]] *[[Flicker-free]] (100&nbsp;Hz or 120&nbsp;Hz, depending on country) *[[High Definition TV]] (HDTV) *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface]] (HDMI) *[[IPTV]] *[[Internet television]] *[[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]] and [[Plasma display]] [[Flat panel display|Flat screen]] TV *[[Surface-conduction Electron-emitter Display|SED]] display technology *[[Organic light-emitting diode|OLED]] display technology *[[P2PTV]] *[[Pay-per-view]] *[[Picture-in-picture]] (PiP) *[[Pixelplus]] *[[Video on-demand]] (VOD) *[[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) *[[Web TV]] ==Geographical usage== *[[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]] {{main|Geographical usage of television}} ==Content== ===Advertising=== Since their inception in the USA in 1940, [[television commercial|TV commercial]]s have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by [[Nielsen Ratings]]. ===Programming=== Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #'''Original Run''' or '''First Run''' - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #'''[[Television syndication|Syndication]]''' - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, [[TV stations]] or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on [[Free-to-air|free-to-air (FTA)]] television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, [[Affiliate]]s rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't centered around local events. == Social aspects == ===Alleged dangers=== Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, [[scientist]]s and [[parent]]s are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government imposed a total ban on advertising to [[children]] under twelve in 1991 (see [[advertising]]). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 [[hour]]s of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the [[education]]al and maturational process. Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development (Norma Pecora, John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella, Children and Television: 50 Years of Research, published by Erlbaum Press, June, 2006) demonstrate that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence. In a recent study (February, 2006) published in the journal Media Psychology, volume 8, number 1, pages 25-37, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala-the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the Posterior Cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. A [[23 February]] [[2002]] article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other [[addiction]], a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching. A longitudinal study in [[New Zealand]] involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [[university]]. The changes in TV equipment and programming has been noted as one of the largest changes known to people because it was vital to people in the past as well as in the present. In [[Iceland]], television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Television's biggest social aspect is the fact that it allows users to instantly view content that may be occurring far away from where they are. Television has been a major contributor in the process of globalization. The Earth's residents can be linked by the programming they watch; but like the internet, television has been taken advantage of as a perfect medium for advertising and the spreading of thoughts and ideas. ===Technology trends=== In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their [[TV listings|schedules]] so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term ''appointment television'' was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment. The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the [[Videocassette recorder]] and the [[Digital video recorder]]. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer ''video on demand,'' a set of programs which could be watched at any time. Both [[mobile phone]] networks and the [[internet]] are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs. Mobile phone TV is planned to eventually become mainstream, after worldwide over-the-air digital TV takes over analogue and some technical difficulties can be overcome - especially the ones related to battery life. ===Suitability for audience=== Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, [[offensive]] or [[decency|indecent]]. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchasing of products. [[George Gerbner]] has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the [[Mean World Syndrome]], the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and been pitched at a low intellectual level. ==Further reading== *[[Erik Barnouw]], ''Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television'', Oxford University Press, 1992. *[[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''On Television'', The New Press, 2001. *Brooks, Tim and March, Earle, ''The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows'', Ballantine, Eighth Edition, 2002. *[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle'', Zone Books, 1995. *[[Jacques Derrida]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Echographies of Television'', Polity Press, 2002. *[[Jerry Mander]], ''Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television'', Perennial, 1978. * [[Neil Postman]], ''[[Amusing Ourselves to Death]]: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business''. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541 *Dr. Aric Sigman, ''Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives — And What We Can Do About It'', Vermilion, 2005. *Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, ''Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television'', Rutgers University Press, 2002. ==References== *David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, ''Tube: the Invention of Television'', Counterpoint, Washington D.C. USA, (1996) ISBN 1-887178-17-1 *Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, Jefferson, NC, USA, and London (2003) ISBN 0-7864-1220-8 ==See also== * [[Golden Age of Television]] * [[Archive of American Television]] * [[Composite monitor]] * [[European Broadcasting Union]] ([[EBU]]) * [[Electronic field production]] * [[Electronic news gathering]] * [[History of television]] * [[List of television topics]] * [[List of 'years in television']] * [[Lists of television channels]] * [[List of television programs|List of television programs/series]] * [[List of television personalities]] * [[Live television]] * [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [[PC card]] * [[S-video monitor]] * [[Teletext]] * [[TV/VCR combo]] * [[TV/FM DX|Long distance television reception (TV DX)]] * [[BARB]] * [[TV listings]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Television}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/ BBC Television] *[http://yourglobaltv.com online tv] free * [http://www.gooya.co.uk/worldtv.html A directory of world television channels] * [http://www.tvhistory.tv/ Television History — The First 75 Years] * [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/index.html The Encyclopedia of Television] at the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television] Some of the rarest sets in America * [http://www.the-best-of-television.com/ The #1 Online Television Resource] * [http://www.cherishedtelevision.co.uk/home.html Cherished Television] [[Category:Scottish inventions]] [[Category:Television| ]] [[af:Televisie]] [[ang:Feorrsīen]] [[ar:تلفزيون]] [[bs:Televizija]] [[bg:Телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió]] [[cs:Televize]] [[cy:Teledu]] [[da:Tv]] [[pdc:Guckbax]] [[de:Fernsehen]] [[et:Televisioon]] [[el:Τηλεόραση]] [[es:Televisión]] [[eo:Televido]] [[eu:Telebista]] [[fa:تلویزیون]] [[fr:Télévision]] [[ga:Teilifís]] [[ko:텔레비전]] [[hr:Televizija]] [[io:Televiziono]] [[id:Televisi]] [[it:Televisione]] [[he:טלוויזיה]] [[ku:Televîzyon]] [[la:Televisio]] [[lb:Televisioun]] [[lt:Televizija]] [[hu:Televízió]] [[ms:Televisyen]] [[nl:Televisie]] [[ja:テレビ]] [[no:TV]] [[ug:تېلېۋىزور]] [[nds:Kiekschapp]] [[pl:Telewizja]] [[pt:Televisão]] [[ro:Televiziune]] [[ru:Телевидение]] [[sco:Televeesion]] [[sq:Televizioni]] [[simple:Television]] [[sk:Televízia]] [[sl:Televizija]] [[sr:Телевизија]] [[fi:Televisio]] [[sv:TV]] [[tl:Telebisyon]] [[ta:தொலைக்காட்சி]] [[th:โทรทัศน์]] [[vi:Tivi]] [[tr:Televizyon]] [[uk:Телебачення]] [[fiu-vro:Televis'uun]] [[zh:电视]] 1676 3109 2006-08-11T20:20:17Z Eukesh 59 '''चिन्तनशास्त्र''' एक अध्ययनात्मक व प्रयोगात्मक वैज्ञानिक क्षेत्र हन्ति| चिन्तनशास्त्रे मनुष्ये मन, मस्तिस्क व विचारस्य अध्ययन करन्ति|| Psychology also refers to the application of such [[knowledge]] to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' [[everyday life|daily lives]] and the treatment of [[mental illness]]. Psychology differs from [[anthropology]], [[economics]], [[political science]], and [[sociology]] in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the [[mental function]] and overt [[behaviour]] of individuals, while the other disciplines rely more heavily on field studies and historical methods for extracting descriptive generalizations. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from [[biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of [[neuropsychology]] combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced. The word ''psychology'' comes from the [[ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]] ψυχή, ''[[psyche]]'' ("soul", "mind") and ''[[-logy|logy]]'', study). ==History== [[Image:Rudolf-Goclenius-1.jpg|thumb|Rudolf Goclenius]] [[Rudolph Goclenius]], a German scholastic philosopher, is credited with inventing the term 'psychology' (1590). The root of the word psychology ([[psyche]]) means "[[soul]]" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of the soul (in a religious sense of this term). Psychology as a medical discipline can be seen in [[Thomas Willis]]' reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of [[human brain|brain function]], as part of his [[1672]] [[anatomical]] treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). Until about the end of the [[19th century]], psychology was regarded as a branch of [[philosophy]]. In [[1879]] [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded a laboratory at the [[Leipzig]] University in Germany specifically to focus on the study of psychology. [[William James]] later published his [[1890]] book, ''[[Principles of Psychology]]'' which laid many of the foundations for the sorts of questions that [[psychologist]]s would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] (a pioneer in studies on [[memory]]) and the [[Russia]]n [[Ivan Pavlov]] (who discovered the learning process of [[classical conditioning]]). [[Image:Rodin The Thinker Laeken cemetery.jpg|thumb|left|[[Auguste Rodin]]'s ''The Thinker'', bronze cast by Alexis Rudier, [[Laeken]] Cemetery, [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]].]] Meanwhile, [[Sigmund Freud]], who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had invented and applied a method of [[psychotherapy]] known as [[psychoanalysis]]. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and [[introspection]], but was particularly focused on resolving mental distress and [[psychopathology]]. Freud's theories were wildly successful, not least because they aimed to be of practical benefit to individual patients, but also because they tackled subjects such as [[Human sexuality|sexuality]] and [[psychological repression|repression]] as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered [[taboo]] subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Although it has become fashionable to discredit many of Freud's more outlandish theories, his application of psychology to clinical work and his more mainstream work has been massively influential. Partly as a reaction to the subjective and introspective nature of psychology at the time, [[behaviorism|behaviourism]] began to become popular as a guiding psychological theory. Championed by [[psychologist]]s such as [[John B. Watson]], [[Edward Thorndike]], and [[B.F. Skinner]], behaviorists argued that psychology should be a science of behaviour, not the mind, they rejected the idea that internal mental states such as [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s, or goals, could be studied scientifically. In his paper "Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It" (1913), Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms no essential part of its methods" and "The behaviourist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute". Behaviourism was the dominant model in psychology for much of the early 20th century, largely due to the creation and successful application (not least of which in [[advertising]]) of [[conditioning]] theories as scientific models of human behaviour. However, it became increasingly clear that although behaviourism had made some important discoveries, it was deficient as a guiding theory of human behaviour. [[Noam Chomsky]]'s review of Skinner's book ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' (that aimed to explain [[language acquisition]] in a behaviourist framework) is considered one of the major factors in the ending of behaviourism's reign. Chomsky demonstrated that language could not purely be learnt from conditioning, as people could produce sentences unique in structure and meaning that couldn't possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language, implying that there must be internal states of mind that behaviourism rejected as illusory. Similarly, work by [[Albert Bandura]] showed that children could [[social learning theory|learn by social observation]], without any change in overt behaviour, and so must be accounted for by internal representations. [[Humanistic psychology]] emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to [[positivism|positivist]] and scientific approaches to the mind. It stresses a [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behaviour by conducting [[qualitative psychological research|qualitative research]]. The humanistic approach has its roots in [[existentialism|existentialist]] and [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were [[Abraham Maslow]] who formulated a [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of human needs]], [[Carl Rogers]] who created and developed client-centred therapy, and [[Fritz Perls]] who helped create and develop [[Gestalt therapy]]. The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as [[information processing]]. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]] as the dominant model of the mind. Links between [[brain]] and [[nervous system]] function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people like [[Charles Sherrington]] and [[Donald Olding Hebb|Donald Hebb]], and partly due to studies of people with [[brain injury]] (see [[cognitive neuropsychology]]). With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, [[neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuroscience]] have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology. With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as [[philosophy]], [[computer science]] and [[neuroscience]]) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of [[cognitive science]] has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way. However, many psychologists have not been happy with what they perceive as 'mechanical' models of the mind and human nature. Coming full circle, [[Transpersonal psychology]] and the [[Analytical Psychology]] of [[Carl Jung]] seek to return psychology to its spiritual roots. Others, such as [[Serge Moscovici]] and [[Gerard Duveen]], argue that behaviour and thought are essentially social in nature and seek to embed psychology in a broader social scientific study that incorporates the social meaning of experience and behaviour. ==Principles== ===Mind and brain=== Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behaviour and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behaviour as it actually occurs. In the past 20 years or so psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the [[brain]] or [[nervous system]]. It is still not clear in what ways these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness - or are both going on in various ways - or is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' which bears no direct relationship to neural processes? An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[neuropsychology]], and [[cognitive neuroscience]]. ===Schools of thought=== Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some [[psychologist]]s may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. {{See also|List of psychological schools}} ==Scope of psychology== Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the [[list of psychological topics]] and [[list of psychology disciplines]]. ===Research psychology=== Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in [[academic]] settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas of [[abnormal psychology]], [[biological psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]], [[comparative psychology]], [[developmental psychology]], [[personality psychology]], [[social psychology]] and others. Research psychology is contrasted with [[applied psychology]]. ====Abnormal psychology==== {{main|Abnormal psychology}} [[Abnormal psychology]] is the study of [[abnormal]] psychological behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology studies the nature of psychopathology and its causes, and this knowledge is applied to treating patients with psychological disorders in [[clinical psychology]]. The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], published by the [[American Psychiatric Association]], is the handbook used most often in diagnosing mental disorders in the United States.The current version of the book is known as DSM IV-TR. It lists a set of disorders and provides detailed descriptions on what constitutes a disorder, such as [[Major Depression]] or [[Anxiety Disorder]]. ====Biological psychology==== [[Image:Hypothalamus.jpg|thumb|150px|left||Image of the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the [[hypothalamus]].]] {{main|Biological psychology|Evolutionary psychology|Neuropsychology|Physiological psychology}} [[Biological psychology]] is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the [[central nervous system]], it is sensible to study how the [[brain]] functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in [[behavioral neuroscience]], [[cognitive neuroscience]], and [[neuropsychology]]. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the [[brain]] relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of [[brain injury]] in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. The approach of [[cognitive neuroscience]] to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use [[neuroimaging]] tools, such as [[fMRI]], to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task. ====Cognitive psychology==== [[Image:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork_english.png|thumb|150px|Neural network with two layers.]] {{main|Cognitive psychology}} The nature of [[thought]] is another core interest in psychology. [[Cognitive psychology]] studies [[cognition]], the [[mental function|mental processes]] underlying behavior. It uses [[information processing]] as a framework for understanding the mind. [[Perception]], [[learning]], [[problem solving]], [[memory]], [[attention]], [[language]] and [[emotion]] are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]], whose adherents argue for an [[information processing]] model of mental function, informed by [[positivism]] and [[experimental psychology]]. [[Cognitive science]] is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing. Both areas use [[computer simulation|computational models]] to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer. ====Comparative psychology==== {{main|Comparative psychology}} [[Comparative psychology]] refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of [[animal]]s other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as [[ethology]]. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of [[animal]]s is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., [[animal cognition]] and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., [[affective neuroscience]] and [[social neuroscience]]). ====Developmental psychology==== [[Image:Baby thinking Sofia SERRES.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A baby thinking]] {{main|Developmental psychology}} Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, [[developmental psychology]] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or [[moral development]]. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study [[aging]] and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]]'s theory of development in context (''The Ecology of Human Development'' - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research. ====Personality psychology==== [[Personality psychology]] studies enduring psychological patterns of [[behavior]], [[thought]] and [[emotion]], commonly called an individual's [[personality]]. Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. [[Trait theory|Trait theories]] attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of [[factor analysis]]. The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of [[Hans Eysenck]], which had three dimensions: [[extraversion]]&mdash;[[introversion]], [[neuroticism]]&mdash;[[emotion|emotional stability]], and [[psychoticism]]. [[Raymond Cattell]] proposed a theory of [[16 Personality Factors|16 personality factors]]. The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "[[Big Five personality traits|Big Five]]" theory, proposed by [[Lewis Goldberg]] and others. A different, but well known, approach to personality is that of [[Sigmund Freud]], whose ''structural theory of personality'' divided personality into the [[ego, superego, and id]]. Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists. ====Social psychology==== [[Image:Shibuya tokyo.jpg|thumb|150px|right||A crowd of people in [[Shibuya, Tokyo]].]] {{main|Social psychology}} [[Social psychology]] is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]] or [[persuasion]]), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] or [[stereotype]]s about other people. [[Social cognition]] is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior. A related area is [[community psychology]], which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than using the individual as the unit of measurement. "[[Sense of community]]" has become its conceptual center (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999). ===Applied psychology=== [[Applied psychology]] encompasses both psychological research that is designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as [[business management]], [[product design]], [[ergonomics]], [[nutrition]], and [[clinical medicine]]. [[Applied psychology]] includes the areas of [[clinical psychology]], [[industrial and organizational psychology]], [[human factors]], [[forensic psychology]], [[health psychology]], [[school psychology]] and others. ====Clinical psychology==== [[Clinical psychology]] is the application of [[abnormal psychology]] research to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of [[psychopathology]], including behavioral and mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with [[counseling]] and [[psychotherapy]], although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as [[psychiatry|psychiatrists]], clinical psychologists do not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with [[brain injury]]. This area is known as [[clinical neuropsychology]]. In recent years and particularly in the [[United States]], a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many research psychologists believe that many contemporary clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the research psychologists are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement resulted in the formation of the [[Association for Psychological Science]] by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the [[American Psychological Association]]. The majority of work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside a Cognitive-Behaviorial therapy (CBT) framework. CBT is an umbrella term that refers to a number of therapies which focus on changing cognitions and/or behaviors, rather than changing behavior exclusively, or discovering the unconscious causes of psychopatholgy (as in the psychodynamic school). The two most famous CBT therapies are Aaron T. Beck's [[cognitive therapy]] and Albert Ellis's [[rational emotive behaviour therapy]] (with cognitive therapy being, by far, the most extensively studied therapy in contemporary clinical psychology). ====Counseling psychology==== [[Counseling psychology]] as a psychological specialty facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counseling psychology differes from clinical psychology in that it is focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday [[stress]] as opposed to severe mental disorders. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, private practice, businesses, and community mental health centers. ====Educational psychology==== [[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in [[education|educational]] settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of [[school]]s as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as [[Lev Vygotsky]], [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Jerome Bruner]] has been influential in creating [[teaching]] methods and educational practices. ====Forensic psychology==== [[Forensic psychology]] is the area concerned with the application of psychological methods and principles to the legal arena. Most typically, forensic psychology involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. Typically, referrals to forensic practices constitute assessments for individuals that have ostensibly suffered neurologic insult(s). These patients have sought legal recourse, and the job of the forensic psychologist is to demonstrate that there is or is not (depending on their employ by either the prosecution or defense) a cause-and-effect relation between the accident and the subsequent (again, ostensible) neurologic change. A job required of the forensic psychologist in any case is the detection of [[malingering]], although this is not exclusive to forensics. Malingering, or the detection of 'faking' (this term is used somewhat liberally) is particularly germane to a forensic assessment, for obvious reasons. In addition to such applied practices, it also includes academic or empirical research on topics involving the relationship of law to human mental processes and behavior (see also [[legal psychology]]). ====Health psychology==== [[Health psychology]] is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, [[health psychology]] is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on [[quality of life]] or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care. ====Human factors psychology==== [[Human factors|Human factors psychology]] is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors psychology is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior. ====Industrial and organizational psychology==== [[Industrial and organizational psychology]] focuses to varying degrees on the psychology of the workforce, customer, and consumer, including issues such as the psychology of: * recruitment, selection and training; * job performance and [[Scientific_management|appraisal of performance]]; * job satisfaction; * factors of [[motivation]] including pay and working conditions; * [[change management]]; * [[work behavior]]; * [[stress (medicine)|stress]] at work; * [[Leadership#Specific_theories_of_leadership|leadership]]; and * [[management]]. Applications of industrial psychology include improving human performance and satisfaction in the workplace, as well as the improvement of organizational performance. The primary purpose of industrial psychologists is integration of psychometric research into applications that achieve these ends. (Bradberry and Greaves, 2005) ====School psychology==== [[School psychology]] is the area of discipline in order to help children and youth succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. School psychologists collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school (NASPonline.com, 2006). ==Research methods== [[Image:wundt.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German psychologist, generally acknowledged as a founder of [[experimental psychology]].]] Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of [[scientific method]], encompassing both [[qualitative research|qualitative]] [[ethology|ethological]] and [[quantitative psychological research|quantitative statistical]] modalities to generate and evaluate [[scientific explanation|explanatory]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] with regard to psychological [[pheneomenon|phenomena]]. Where research ethics and the state of development in a given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by [[experiment]]al protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. [[Qualitative psychological research]] utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including [[action research]], [[ethography]], [[ethnography]], [[exploratory statistics]], [[structured interview|structured]] and [[life history|unstructured]] [[interview]]s, and [[participant observation]], to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by classical experimentation. Research in [[humanistic psychology]] is more typically pursued by [[ethnography|ethnographic]], [[historical method|historical]], and [[historiography|historiographic]] methods. The [[psychological testing|testing]] of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. [[Psychometrics|Psychometric]] and [[statistics|statistical]] methods predominate, including various well-known standardised tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires. Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in [[applied psychology]] to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their work. Clinical psychology, among many of the various discipline of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology to help others. When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge, especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well. ===Controlled experiments=== [[Image:Skinner.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[B.F. Skinner]] was an American psychologist and pioneer of [[experimental psychology]] and [[behaviorism]].]] The majority of psychological research is conducted in the [[laboratory]] under controlled conditons. This method of research relies completely on the scientific method to determine the basis of behavior. Common measurements of behavior include [[reaction time]] and various [[Psychometrics|psychometric]] measurements. Experiments are conducted to test a particular [[hypothesis]]. As an example of a psychological experiment, one may want to test people's perception of different [[tone]]s. Specifically, one could ask the following question: is it easier for people to discriminate one pair of tones from another depending upon their frequency? To answer this, one would want to disprove the hypothesis that all tones are equally discriminable, regardless of their frequency. (See [[hypothesis testing]] for an explanation of why one would disprove a hypothesis rather than attempt to prove one.) A task to test this hypothesis would have a participant seated in a room listening to a series of tones. If the participant would make one indication (by pressing a button, for example) if they thought the tones were two different sounds, and another indication if they thought they were the same sound. The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable. The result of this particular experiment would probably indicate better discrimination of certain tones based on the human [[Absolute threshold of hearing|threshold of hearing]]. ===Correlational studies=== A [[correlation|correlational]] study uses [[statistics]] to determine if one [[variable]] is likely to co-occur with another variable. For example, one might be interested in whether or not a person's smoking is correlated with that individual's chance of getting lung cancer. One way to answer this would simply be to take a group of people who smoke and measure the proportion of those who get lung cancer within a certain time. In this particular case, one would probably find a high correlation. (Tobacco is already known to have a deleterious effect on the lungs). Based on this correlation alone, however, we cannot know for certain that smoking is the ''cause'' of lung cancer. It could be that those more prone to cancer are also more likely to take up smoking. A third alternative is that some other variable caused both conditons. This is a major limitation of correlational studies, exemplified by the fact that [[Correlation implies causation (logical fallacy)|correlation does not imply causation]]. ===Longitudinal studies=== A [[longitudinal study]] is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study [[specific language impairment]] (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations. ===Neuropsychological methods=== [[Neuropsychology]] involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either [[brain injury]] or [[mental illness]]. [[Cognitive neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuropsychiatry]] study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional dissociations') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism. In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioural experiments, brain-scanning or [[functional neuroimaging]] - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]], which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations. ===Computational modeling=== [[computer simulation|Computational modeling]] is a tool often used in [[cognitive psychology]] to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers are extremely fast, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualise hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. [[Connectionism]] uses [[neural nets]] to simulate the brain. Another method is [[symbolic modeling]], which represents different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include [[dynamic systems]] and [[stochastic process|stochastic]] modeling. == Criticism == Although modern mainstream psychology largely attempts to be a scientific endeavor, the field has a history of controversy. Some criticisms of psychology have been made on ethical and philosophical grounds. Some have argued that by subjecting the human mind to experimentation and statistical study, psychologists objectify persons; because it treats human beings as things, as objects that can be examined by experiment, psychology is sometimes portrayed as dehumanizing, ignoring or downplaying what is most essential about being human. Another common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science. Since some areas of psychology rely on "soft" research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, some have said that those areas of psychology are not as scientific as psychologists claim. Furthermore, methods such as introspection and expert analysis are commonplace, but since these methods are open to subjectivity and rely on speculation, many have disputed whether psychology should even be classified as a science, since objectivity, validity, and rigour are key attributes one rule for empiricism and science. Furthermore, many believe that the mind is not amenable to quantitative scientific research, and as support for their criticism cite the vast theoretical diversity of psychology, a discipline that involves significant disagreement about how the mind works. One approach calling itself [[critical psychology]] takes almost an opposite approach. Rather than scientific validity being the standard against which psychology research should be judged, critical psychology uses philosophical, analytical, political, economic and social theories such as [[Marxism]], constructionism, discourse analysis and qualitative approaches to criticize mainstream psychology, claiming among other things that it serves as a bulwark of an unjust or unsatisfying status quo when it should, instead, use its methods and knowledge base to critique and change societal norms. Students of psychology soon realize that the subject covers a huge range of material. Another criticism levelled at psychology and cognitive science is that the philosophical underpinnings of research are flawed. See [[functionalism (psychology)|functionalism]] and [[pragmatism]] for more. Another criticism of modern psychology is that it ignores [[spirituality]], the [[soul]], and spiritual concepts such as [[original sin]]. Not surprisingly, these arguments are made mostly by pious individuals, religious leaders (such as the [[Pope]]) and evangelists. These groups agree with the functionalists and pragmatics, in saying that the philosophical underpinnings of research are flawed, but they believe that the error of psychology is in its failure to acknowledge the crucial role that the [[soul]] plays in human behavior. There is also a criticism from empirical psychology researchers concerning the gap between research and clinical practice in psychology. A recent trend has seen the growth of dubious or unvalidated therapies such as [[neurolinguistic programming]], [[rebirthing]], and [[primal therapy]] being promoted by some psychotherapy bodies. Bodies such as the Scientific Review of Mental Health Practices have been set up to raise awareness and research about this issue ^{[http://www.srmhp.org/0101/raison-detre.html]}. ==References== *[[Aristotle]], Joe Sachs (translator). (350 BCE / 2001) ''On Memory and Recollection'' (''De Memoria et Reminiscentia''). Santa Fe, NM : Green Lion Press. ISBN 1888009179 *Bradberry, Travis and Greaves, Jean. (2005) [http://www.eiquickbook.com "The Emotional Intelligence Quick Book."] New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0743273265 *[[Urie Bronfenbrenner|Bronfenbrenner, U.]] (1979). ''The Ecology of Human Development''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22456-6 *Chavis, D.M., and Pretty, G. (1999). Sense of community: Advances in measurement and application. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 27(6), 635-642. * Rousseau, George (1990). ''The Languages of Psyche: Mind and Body in Enlightenment Thought'' (Berkeley, Los Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press). ISBN 0 520070445 *Sarason, S.B. (1986). Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14, 405-407. ==See also== * [[Psychologists]] * [[List of psychology topics|Psychological topics]] * [[List of publications in psychology|Important publications]] * [[List of psychologists|Prominent psychologists]] * [[List of psychology organizations|Organizations]] * [[The Psychology Wiki]] ===Related areas=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Anthropology]] * [[Aging]] * [[Artificial consciousness]] * [[Cognitive science]] * [[Complex system]]s * [[Counseling]] * [[Discourse analysis]] * [[Economics]] * [[Education]] {{col-break}} * [[Emotion]] * [[Ethology]] * [[Game theory]] * [[Hypnotherapy]] * [[Linguistics]] * [[Marketing]] * [[Moral value]] * [[Multilevel model]] * [[Neuroscience]] {{col-break}} * [[Philosophy of mind]] * [[Philosophy of psychology]] * [[Psychoanalysis]] * [[Psychodynamics]] * [[Psycholinguistics]] * [[Psychology of religion]] * [[Sociology]] * [[Structural equation modeling]] * [[Systems theory]] {{col-end}} ===Related topics=== * [[Aristotle]], ''[[On the Soul]]'' * [[Tabula rasa]] * [[Empiricism]] * [[Rationalism]] * [[Scientific method]] == External links == {{Sisterlinks|Psychology}} {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Psychology}} * [http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/ AmoebaWeb Psychology Resources] * [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec99/toc.html A Century of Psychology (APA)] * [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca Classics in the History of Psychology] * [http://www.clinicallypsyched.com Clinically Psyched] Clinical Psychology News and Forum * [http://www.psychology.net/ Current Events and News: Psychology.net] * [http://allpsych.com/dictionary/ Dictionary of Psychology] * [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology] * [http://www.psychomaster.com/ Psychology Search Engine] * {{wikia|psychology|Psychology}} * {{dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology/|Psychology}} * [http://zerzan.dzabalesku.net/sadrzaj/textz/html/Z_mass-psychology-of-misery.html ''The Mass Psychology of Misery''] by [[John Zerzan]] {{Social sciences-footer}} [[Category:Psychology| ]] [[Category:Human behavior]] [[Category:Social sciences]] [[Category:Behavioural sciences]] [[af:Sielkunde]] [[ar:علم النفس]] [[an:Sicolochía]] [[ast:Psicoloxía]] [[bn:মনস্তত্ত্ববিদ্যা]] [[bs:Psihologija]] [[br:Psikoloji]] [[bg:Психология]] [[ca:Psicologia]] [[ceb:Saykolohiya]] [[cs:Psychologie]] [[cy:Seicoleg]] [[da:Psykologi]] [[de:Psychologie]] [[et:Psühholoogia]] [[el:Ψυχολογία]] [[es:Psicología]] [[eo:Psikologio]] [[eu:Psikologia]] [[fa:روان‌شناسی]] [[fr:Psychologie]] [[fy:Psychology]] [[fur:Psicologjie]] [[ga:Síceolaíocht]] [[gl:Psicoloxía]] [[ko:심리학]] [[hi:मानस शास्त्र]] [[hr:Psihologija]] [[io:Psikologio]] [[id:Psikologi]] [[ia:Psychologia]] [[is:Sálfræði]] [[it:Psicologia]] [[he:פסיכולוגיה]] [[jv:Psikologi]] [[ka:ფსიქოლოგია]] [[csb:Psychòlogijô]] [[ky:Психология]] [[ku:Psîkologî]] [[lad:Psikolojiya]] [[la:Psychologia]] [[lv:Psiholoģija]] [[lb:Psychologie]] [[lt:Psichologija]] [[li:Psychologie]] [[hu:Pszichológia]] [[mk:Психологија]] [[mt:Psikoloġija]] [[ms:Psikologi]] [[nl:Psychologie]] [[ja:心理学]] [[no:Psykologi]] [[nn:Psykologi]] [[oc:Psicologia]] [[pl:Psychologia]] [[pt:Psicologia]] [[ro:Psihologie]] [[ru:Психология]] [[war:Psikolohiya]] [[sq:Psikologjia]] [[scn:Psicoluggìa]] [[simple:Psychology]] [[sk:Psychológia]] [[sl:Psihologija]] [[sr:Психологија]] [[sh:Psihologija]] [[su:Psikologi]] [[fi:Psykologia]] [[sv:Psykologi]] [[tl:Sikolohiya]] [[th:จิตวิทยา]] [[vi:Tâm lý học]] [[tpi:Saikolosi]] [[tr:Psikoloji]] [[uk:Психологія]] [[zh:心理学]] 1677 3110 2006-08-11T20:25:38Z Eukesh 59 '''राज्यनीति''' is a process by which decisions are made within groups. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within [[government]]s, politics is observed in all human (and many non-human) group interactions, including [[corporation|corporate]], [[academia|academic]], and [[religion|religious]] institutions. '''[[Political science]]''' (also political studies) is the study of the theory and practice of politics and the description and [[analysis]] of [[political system]]s and political behavior. ==अन्य परिभाषा== Alternative definitions of politics have been proposed that fulfill the needs of differing perspectives. They include: *'''Dictionary''' definitions, for example, "the art and science of government" [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/politics] *'''Textbook''' definitions, notably, a "process of conflict resolution in which support is mobilized and maintained for collective projects". -- An Introduction to Government and Politics ... [[Dickerson]] and [[Flanagan]] *'''Theorists''', such as [[Harold Lasswell]], who defined politics as "who gets what, when, where, and how." *and '''Practitioners''' like **[[Mao Zedong]], who said "Politics is war without bloodshed while war is politics with bloodshed." **and [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s cryptic remark, "Politics is the art of feasibility." ==प्राकृतिक राज्य== In 1651, [[Thomas Hobbes]] published his most famous work, ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]'', in which he proposed a model of early human development to justify the creation of a government. Hobbes described an ideal [[state of nature]] wherein every person had equal right to every resource in nature and was free to use any means to acquire those resources. He claimed that such an arrangement created a “war of all against all” (''[[bellum omnium contra omnes]]''). Further, he noted that men would enter into a [[social contract]] and would give up absolute rights for certain protections. Hobbes made a second claim: that the solution to the aggression problem was a centralized authoritarian [[state]], which he called Leviathan. While it appears that social cooperation and [[dominance hierarchy|dominance hierarchies]] predate human societies, Hobbes' model illustrates a rationale for the creation of [[societies]] ([[polity|polities]]). Another theory, proposed by [[biopolitics]] and based upon evolution is that politics is a macrotool created by man to organise itself for the collective survival of the group or polity. In effect, organising and promoting survival is the purpose, reason and practice of politics. ==Early history== [[V.G. Childe]] describes the transformation of human society that took place around [[6th millennium BCE|6000 BCE]] as an urban revolution. Among the features of this new type of civilization were the institutionalization of social stratification, non-agricultural specialised crafts (including priests and lawyers), taxation, and writing, all of which require clusters of densely populated settlements - [[city-states]]. The word ''politics'' is derived from the Greek word for city-state, "[[polis]]". Corporate, religious, academic and every other polity, especially those constrained by limited resources, contain dominance hierarchy and therefore politics. Politics is most often studied in relation to the administration of governments. The oldest form of government was tribal organization. Rule by elders was supplanted by [[monarchy]], often aided by military conquest, led to a system of [[Feudalism]] as an arrangement where a single family dominated the political affairs of a community. Monarchies have existed in one form or another for the past 5000 years of human history. ==Definitions== *'''[[Political power|Power]]''' according to political theorist, Hannah Arendt, is "the human ability not just to act but to act in concert." *'''[[Authority]]''' is the ability to enforce laws, to exact obedience, to command, to determine, or to judge. *A '''[[government]]''' is the body that has the authority to make and enforce rules or laws. *'''[[Legitimacy]]''' is an attribute of government gained through the acquisition and application of power in accordance with recognized or accepted standards or principles. *'''[[Sovereignty]]''' is the ability of a government to exert control over its territory free from outside influence. ==Theoretical view of political power== Many questions surround the political notion of power with both positive and negative aspects attached to it. Generally, power is considered integral in politics and is the subject of a great deal of debate and definitions that have evolved over time. Many academics define political power by referring to various academic disciplines including politics, sociology, group psychology, economics, and other facets of society. The multiple notions of political power that are put forth range from conventional views that simply revolve around the actions of politicians to those who view political power as an insidious form of institutionalized social control - most notably [[anarchism|"anarchists"]] and [[Anarcho-capitalism|"radical capitalists"]]. The main views of political power revolve around [[normative]], [[post-modern]], and [[sociological]] perspectives. ===Normative faces of power debate=== The faces of power debate has coalesced into a viable conception of three dimensions of power including ''decision-making'', ''agenda-setting'', and ''preference-shaping''. The decision-making dimension was first put forth by [[Robert Dahl]], who advocated the notion that political power is based in the formal political arena and is measured through voting patterns and the decisions made by politicians. This view was seen by many as simplistic and a second dimension to the notion of political power was added by academics [[Peter Bachrach]] and [[Morton Baratz]] involving agenda-setting. Bachrach and Baratz viewed power as involving both the formal political arena and behind the scenes agenda-setting by elite groups who could be either politicians and/or others (such as industrialists, campaign contributors, special interest groups and so on), often with a hidden agenda that most of the public may not be aware of. The third dimension of power was added by British academic [[Steven Lukes]] who felt that even with this second dimension, some other traits of political power needed to be addressed through the concept of 'preference-shaping'. This third dimension is inspired by many [[Neo-Gramscianism|Neo-Gramscian]] views such as [[cultural hegemony]] and deals with how [[civil society]] and the general public have their preferences shaped for them by those in power through the use of propaganda or the media. Ultimately, this third dimension holds that the general public may not be aware of what decisions are actually in their interest due to the invisible power of elites who work to distort their perceptions. Critics of this view claim that such notions are themselves elitist, which Lukes then clearly admits as one problem of this view and yet clarifies that as long as those who make claims that preferences are being shaped explain their own interests etc., there is room for more transparency. ===Postmodern challenge of normative views of power=== Some within the [[postmodern]] and [[post-structuralist]] field claim that power is something that is not in the hands of the few and is rather dispersed throughout society in various ways and that power relationships are part of everyday life. This is part of French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]]'s view, which he terms the ''microphysics'' of power and is part of a European debate over how to define power. Foucault seeks to convey a questioning of authority in various ways and also attempts to illustrate the repressive nature of power through societal controls which include institutional indoctrination (schools), surveillance (the police-state), and defining normal and abnormal behavior so as to stamp-out any challenges to the status quo. This view of power treads a line that leans more towards institutions as the basis of societal control (see [[New institutionalism]]) and ignores certain aspects of [[agency]] and [[ideation|ideational]] agendas. Power, according to Foucault, is 'ubiquitous' (everywhere in society) and cannot be easily measured or critiqued without a great deal of context. Critics such as [[Jurgen Habermas]] and [[Noam Chomsky]] charge that such views by Foucault and his followers are [[nihilist]]ic and even supportive of [[conservative]] and [[Social Darwinism]] views of society and defend the status quo of inegalitarian societies, which Foucault claims is a misreading of both his intent and conclusions which are that power must be questioned in all of its forms and not simply those aspects that some might view as inegalitarian since even humanism can be a mask for those seeking power. Ultimately, this concept of power has helped political analysis to question both itself and the societal controls that permeate all aspects of society, but the ambiguity of the post-modern challenge has left many to use the methodology sparingly since measuring power from a post-structuralist perspective remains somewhat problematic. Nietzsche wrote: "how can we help it that power likes to walk on crooked legs?" ==Pragmatic view of power== [[Samuel Gompers]]' maxim, often paraphrased as,"Reward your friends and punish your enemies," hints at two of the five types of power recognized by [[social psychology|social psychologists]]: '''incentive power''' (the power to reward) and '''coercive power''' (the power to punish). Arguably the other three grow out of these two. '''Legitimate power''', the power of the policeman or the referee, is the power given to an individual by a recognized authority to enforce standards of behavior. Legitimate power is similar to coercive power in that unacceptable behavior is punished by fine or penalty. '''Referent power''' is bestowed upon individuals by virtue of accomplishment or attitude. Fulfillment of the desire to feel similar to a celebrity or a hero is the reward for obedience. '''Expert power''' springs from education or experience. Following the lead of an experienced coach is often rewarded with success. Expert power is conditional to the circumstances. A brain surgeon is no help when your pipes are leaking. ==Authority and legitimacy== [[Max Weber]] identified three sources of legitimacy for authority, known as the [[tripartite classification of authority]]. He proposed three reasons why people follow the orders of those who give them: ===Traditional=== [[Traditional domination|Traditional authorities]] receive loyalty because they continue and support the preservation of existing values, the status quo. Traditional authority has the longest history. [[Patriarchy|Patriarchal]] (and more rarely [[Matriarchy|matriarchal]]) societies gave rise to hereditary monarchies where authority was given to descendants of previous leaders. Followers submit to this authority because "we've always done it that way." Examples of traditional authoritarians include [[absolute monarch]]s. ===Charismatic=== [[Charismatic domination|Charismatic authority]] grows out of the personal charm or the strength of an individual personality (see [[cult of personality]] for the most extreme version). Charismatic regimes are often short-lived, seldom outliving the charismatic figure that leads them. Examples of Charismatic regimes include: [[Julius Caesar]], [[Augustus]], [[Hitler]], [[Napoleon]], [[Mao Zedong|Mao]], and [[Fidel Castro]]. For a charismatic regime to survive the rule of the individual personality, it must transform its legitimacy into a different form of authority. An example of this would be [[Augustus]]' efforts to create the position of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[principate]] and establish a ruling dynasty, which could be viewed as a shift to a traditional form of authority, in the form of the [[principate]] that would exist in Rome for more than 400 years after his death. ===Legal-rational=== [[Legal domination|Legal-rational authorities]] receive their ability to compel behavior by virtue of the office that they hold. It is the authority that demands obedience to the office rather than the office holder. Modern democracies are examples of legal-rational regimes. People also abide by legal-rational authority because it makes sense to do so for the greater good of society. ==See also== {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|Politics}} *[[Food politics]] *[[List of politics by country articles]] *[[List of years in politics]] *[[Music and politics]] *[[Political compass]] *[[Political corruption]] *[[Political criticism]] *[[Political economy]] *[[Political movement]] *[[Political parties of the world]] *[[Political party]] *[[Political psychology]] *[[Political science]] *[[Political sociology]] *[[Political spectrum]] ==References== *[[Otto von Bismarck]]; remark, Aug. 11, 1867 *[[Dickerson]], Mark O. & [[Flanagan]]; Thomas, 1990 Introduction to Government & Politics: A Conceptual Approach. third edition *[[Gompers]], Samuel; “Men of Labor! Be Up and Doing,” editorial, ''[[American Federationist]]'', May 1906, p. 319 *[[Mao Zedong]]; Lecture, May 1938. "On Protracted War," Selected Works, vol. 2 (1965).) [[Category:Politics| ]] [[af:Politiek]] [[ar:سياسة]] [[an:Politica]] [[ast:Política]] [[bn:রাজনীতি]] [[bs:Politika]] [[br:Politikerezh]] [[bg:Политика]] [[ca:Política]] [[ceb:Politika]] [[cs:Politika]] [[da:Politik]] [[de:Politik]] [[et:Poliitika]] [[es:Política]] [[eo:Politiko]] [[fa:سیاست]] [[fr:Politique]] [[fy:Polityk]] [[fur:Politiche]] [[ga:Polaitíocht]] [[gl:Política]] [[ko:정치]] [[hr:Politika]] [[io:Politiko]] [[id:Politik]] [[ia:Politica]] [[it:Politica]] [[he:פוליטיקה]] [[ka:პოლიტიკა]] [[sw:Siasa]] [[la:Politica]] [[lb:Politik]] [[li:Polletiek]] [[ln:Politiki]] [[lt:Politika]] [[hu:Politika]] [[mk:Политика]] [[ms:Politik]] [[nl:Politiek]] [[ja:政治]] [[no:Politikk]] [[nrm:Politique]] [[nds:Politik]] [[pl:Polityka]] [[pt:Política]] [[ru:Политика]] [[sc:Polìtica]] [[scn:Pulitica]] [[simple:Politics]] [[su:Pulitik]] [[fi:Politiikka]] [[sv:Politik]] [[tl:Politika]] [[th:การเมือง]] [[tr:Politika]] [[uk:Політика]] [[zh:政治]] 1678 3112 2006-08-11T20:29:56Z Eukesh 59 /* History */ '''सुशांख्य यन्त्र (कम्प्युटर) विज्ञान''' is the study of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer system]]s.<ref>"''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies</ref><ref>"''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University</ref><ref>"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]</ref> Computer science has many [[diversity of computer science|sub-fields]]; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others (such as [[computational complexity theory]]) relate to properties of [[computational problem]]s. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing computations, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming language]]s to solve specific computational problems. == ईतिहास == The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[अंगुली सुशांख्य यन्त्र (digital computer)]]. Prior to the 1920s, the term ''computer'' referred to a human clerk who performed calculations. Early researchers in what came to be called computer science, such as [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], and [[Alan Turing]], were interested in the question of computability: what things can be computed by a human clerk who simply follows a list of instructions with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight? Part of the motivation for this work was the desire to develop ''computing machines'' that could automate the often tedious and error-prone work of a human computer. During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref> ==Major achievements== {{section-stub}} Despite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include: * A formal definition of [[computation]] and [[computability]], and proof that there are computationally [[halting problem|unsolvable]] and [[Intractable#Intractability|intractable]] problems<ref>{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=March 2000|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf|title=Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa 2000}}</ref>. * The concept of a [[programming language]], a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction<ref>{{cite book| |last=Abelson |first=H. |authorlink=Hal Abelson |coauthor=G.J. Sussman with J.Sussman |year=1996 |title=Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs |edition=2nd Ed. |publisher=MIT Press |id=ISBN 0-262-01153-0 |quote=The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called ''procedural epistemology'' &mdash; the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects. }}</ref> * Revolutionary technologies such as general-purpose [[computer]]s, the [[Internet]], [[digital signature]]s, [[electronic commerce]], and [[search engine]]s;<ref name="constable1997">{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=1997|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/Nature.pdf|title=Nature of the Information Sciences}}</ref> * The enabling of new types of scientific research, such as computational physics and computational chemistry.<ref name="constable1997"/> == Relationship with other fields == {{main|Diversity of computer science}} {{Wikiquotepar|Edsger Dijkstra}} Despite its name, computer science rarely involves the study of computers themselves. In fact, the renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] is often quoted as saying, ''"Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."'' The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of [[computer hardware]] is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called [[information technology]] or [[information systems]]. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement ''"Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing"'' credited to [[Stan Kelly-Bootle]]<ref>'''Computer Language''', Oct 1990</ref> and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive science]], [[physics]] (see [[quantum computing]]), and [[linguistics]]. Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref>. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]]. The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how [[Diversity of computer science|computer science is defined]]. Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, believe that the principle focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principle focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making them different disciplines. This view is promulgated by (among others) [[David Parnas]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Parnas | first = David L. | authorlink = David Parnas | year = 1998 | title = [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/parnas98software.html Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes] | journal = Annals of Software Engineering | volume = 6 | pages = 19&ndash;37 }}, p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}."</ref>. Still others maintain that software cannot be engineered at all. ==Fields of computer science== {{section-stub}} === Mathematical foundations === ; [[Cryptography]] : Algorithms for protecting private data, including [[encryption]]. ; [[Graph theory]] : Foundations for data structures and searching algorithms. ; [[Mathematical logic]] : Boolean logic and other ways of modeling logical queries. ; [[Type Theory]] : Formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understand properties of programs -- especially program safety. === Theory of computation === {{main|Theory of computation}} ; [[Automata theory]] : Different logical structures for solving problems. ; [[Computability theory (computer science)|Computability theory]] : What is calculable with the current models of computers. Proofs developed by [[Alan Turing]] and others provide insight into the possibilities of what may be computed and what may not. ; [[Computational complexity theory]] : Fundamental bounds (especially time and storage space) on classes of computations. === Algorithms and data structures === ; [[Analysis of algorithms]] : Time and space complexity of algorithms. ; [[Algorithms]] : Formal logical processes used for computation, and the efficiency of these processes. ; [[Data structure]]s : The organization of and rules for the manipulation of data. ; [[Genetic algorithm]]s : A genetic algorithm is a search technique to find approximate solutions to optimization and search problems. === Programming languages and compilers === ; [[Compiler]]s : Ways of translating computer programs, usually from [[high-level programming language|higher level]] languages to [[low-level programming language|lower level]] ones. Based heavily on mathematical logic. ; [[Programming language]]s : Formal language paradigms for expressing algorithms, and the properties of these languages (EG: what problems they are suited to solve). === Databases === ; [[Data mining]] : Study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documents and databases; closely related to [[information retrieval]]. === Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems === ; [[Concurrency (computer science)|Concurrency]] : The theory and practice of simultaneous computation; data safety in any multitasking or multithreaded environment. ; [[Distributed computing]] : Computing using multiple computing devices over a network to accomplish a common objective or task. ; [[Computer networking|Networking]] : Algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across different shared or dedicated media, often including [[error correction]]. ; [[Parallel computing]] : Computing using multiple concurrent threads of execution. ===Computer architecture === ; [[Computer architecture]] : The design, organization, optimization and verification of a computer system, mostly about [[CPU]]s and [[Memory (computers)|Memory]] subsystem (and the bus connecting them). ; [[Operating system]]s : Systems for managing computer programs and providing the basis of a useable system. ; === Software engineering === ; [[Computer programming]] : The act of writing algorithms in a [[programming language]]. ; [[Formal methods]] : Mathematical approaches for describing and reasoning about software designs. ; [[Software engineering]] : The principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs, as well as proper engineering practices. === Artificial intelligence === ; [[Artificial intelligence]] : The implementation and study of systems that exhibit an autonomous intelligence or behaviour of their own. ; [[Automated reasoning]] : Solving engines, such as used in [[Prolog]], which produce steps to a result given a query on a fact and rule database. ; [[Robotics]] : Algorithms for controlling the behavior of robots. ; [[Computer vision]] : Algorithms for identifying three dimensional objects from a two dimensional picture. ; [[Machine Learning]] : Automated creation of a set of rules and axioms based on input. === Computer graphics === ; [[Computer graphics]] : Algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically, and for integrating or altering visual and spatial information sampled from the real world. ; [[Image processing]] : Determining information from an image through computation. ; [[Human computer interaction]] : The study and design of computer interfaces that people use. === Scientific computing === ; [[Bioinformatics]] : The use of computer science to maintain, analyse, store [[biological data]] and to assist in solving biological problems such as protein folding. ==Computer science education== Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the [[theory of computation]], [[analysis of algorithms]], [[formal methods]], [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency theory]], [[databases]], [[computer graphics]] and [[systems analysis]], among others. They typically also teach [[computer programming]], but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming. == See also == *[[Computing]] *[[Informatics]] *[[List of basic computer science topics]] *[[List of computer science conferences]] *[[List of open problems in computer science]] *[[List of publications in computer science]] *[[List of prominent pioneers in computer science]] *[[List of software engineering topics]] *[[Career domains in computer science]] == References == <div class="references-small"> <references/> * [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998. * [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001. </div> == External links == {{wikibooks}} {{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Computer Science}} *[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science/ Open Directory Project: Computer Science] *[http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies] *[http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/computers_math/computer_science/ Computer Science Research News from ScienceDaily] [[Category:Computer science| ]] [[af:Rekenaarwetenskap]] [[an:Informatica]] [[ar:معلوماتية]] [[ast:Informática]] [[bg:Информатика]] [[bn:কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান]] [[br:Urzhiataerezh]] [[bs:Informatika]] [[ca:Informàtica]] [[cs:Informatika (počítačová věda)]] [[csb:Infòrmatika]] [[da:Datalogi]] [[de:Informatik]] [[el:Επιστήμη Υπολογιστών]] [[es:Ciencias de la computación]] [[eo:Komputiko]] [[et:Informaatika]] [[eu:Informatika]] [[fa:علم رایانه]] [[fi:Tietojenkäsittelytiede]] [[fr:Informatique]] [[fur:Informatiche]] [[fy:Ynformatika]] [[ga:Ríomheolaíocht]] [[gv:Sheanse Coearrooagh]] [[gl:Informática]] [[he:מדעי המחשב]] [[ko:전산학]] [[hr:Računarstvo]] [[hu:Számítástechnika]] [[ia:Informatica]] [[id:Ilmu komputer]] [[ie:Informatica]] [[io:Informatiko]] [[is:Tölvunarfræði]] [[it:Informatica]] [[iu:ᑐᓴᐅᒪᖃᑦᑕᐅᑎᔾᔪᑎᓂᒃ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᑎᔩᑦ]] [[ja:情報工学]] [[jbo:samske]] [[la:Informatica]] [[lb:Informatik]] [[li:Informatica]] [[lt:Informatika]] [[lv:Datorzinātne]] [[ml:കംപ്യുട്ടര്‍ ശാസ്ത്രം]] [[nds-nl:Komputerkunde]] [[nl:Informatica]] [[no:Informatikk]] [[oc:Informatica]] [[pl:Informatyka]] [[pt:Ciência da computação]] [[ro:Informatică]] [[ru:Информатика]] [[scn:Nfurmàtica]] [[simple:Computer science]] [[sk:Veda o počítačoch]] [[sl:Računalništvo]] [[sr:Информатика]] <!--[[sr:Рачунарство]]--> [[sv:Datavetenskap]] [[tl:Agham pangkompyuter]] [[th:วิทยาการคอมพิวเตอร์]] [[tr:Bilişim bilimi]] [[uk:Інформатика]] [[vi:Khoa học máy tính]] [[zh:计算机科学]] 1679 3115 2006-08-11T20:46:30Z Eukesh 59 [[टेलिभिजन]] moved to [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]]: more precise paali word #REDIRECT [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]] 1680 3364 2006-12-10T08:27:31Z 203.173.138.159 /* External links */ [[Image:Euclid.jpg|right|thumb|220px|[[Euclid]], a famous Greek mathematician known as the father of geometry, is shown here in detail from ''[[The School of Athens]]'' by [[Raphael]].]] '''Mathematics''' is the discipline that deals with concepts such as [[quantity]], [[structure]], [[space]] and [[change]]. It evolved, through the use of [[abstraction (mathematics)|abstraction]] and [[logic|logical]] [[reasoning]], from [[counting]], [[calculation]], [[measurement]] and the study of the [[shape]]s and [[motion (physics)|motion]]s of physical objects. [[Mathematician]]s explore these and related concepts, aiming to formulate new [[conjecture]]s and establish their truth by [[Rigour|rigorous]] deduction from appropriately chosen [[axiom]]s and [[definition]]s. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics is widespread, as it has been throughout history. Refinements of basic ideas are visible in ancient mathematical texts originating in [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and [[ancient India]], with increased rigour introduced by the [[ancient Greeks]]. From this point on, the development continued in short bursts until the [[Renaissance]] period of the [[16th century]] where mathematical innovations interacted with new [[scientific discoveries]] leading to an acceleration in understanding that continues to the present day. Today, mathematics is used throughout the world in many fields, including [[science]], [[engineering]], [[medicine]] and [[economics]]. The application of mathematics to such fields, often dubbed [[applied mathematics]], inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and has sometimes led to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in [[pure mathematics]] for its own sake without having any practical application in mind, although others may discover such applications later. The word "mathematics" is often abbreviated '''math''' in the [[North American English|U.S. and Canada]] and '''maths''' in [[British English|Britain]], [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]] and many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. ==Etymology== The word "mathematics" (Greek: μαθηματικά) comes from the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] μάθημα (''máthēma''), which means ''learning'', ''study'', ''science'', and additionally came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study", even in Classical times. Its adjective is μαθηματικός (''mathēmatikós''), ''related to learning'', or ''studious'', which likewise further came to mean ''mathematical''. In particular, μαθηματική τέχνη (''mathēmatikḗ tékhnē''), in [[Latin]] ''ars mathematica'', meant ''the mathematical art''. The apparent plural form in {{lan|English}}, like the {{lan|French}} plural form ''les mathématiques'' (and the less commonly used singular derivative ''la mathématique''), goes back to the Latin neuter plural ''mathematica'' ([[Cicero]]), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (''ta mathēmatiká''), used by [[Aristotle]], and meaning roughly "all things mathematical". Despite the form and etymology, the word, like the names of arts and sciences in general, is used as a singular [[mass noun]] in English today.<ref>''[[The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology]]'', 1983 reprint. ISBN 0-19-8611129.</ref><ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], second edition, ed. John Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989, ISBN 0198611862.</ref> ==History== [[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|right|A [[quipu]], a counting device used by the [[Inca Empire|Inca]].]] The evolution of mathematics might be seen to be an ever-increasing series of [[abstraction]]s, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstraction was probably that of [[number]]s. The realization that two apples and two oranges have something in common was a breakthrough in human thought. In addition to recognizing how to [[Counting|count]] ''physical'' objects, [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] peoples also recognized how to count ''abstract'' quantities, like [[time]] — [[day]]s, [[season]]s, [[year]]s. [[Arithmetic]] ([[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]]), naturally followed. Monolithic monuments testify to knowledge of [[geometry]]. Further steps need [[writing]] or some other system for recording numbers such as [[Tally sticks|tallies]] or the knotted strings called [[quipu]] used by the [[Inca empire]] to store numerical data. [[Numeral system]]s have been many and diverse. From the beginnings of recorded history, the major disciplines within mathematics arose out of the need to do calculations relating to [[taxation]] and [[commerce]], to understand the relationships among numbers, to [[land measurement|measure land]], and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical events]]. These needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics, into the studies of ''quantity'', ''structure'', ''space'', and ''change''. Mathematics since has been much extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries have been made throughout history and continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]], "The number of papers and books included in the [[Mathematical Reviews]] database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical [[theorem]]s and their [[mathematical proof|proof]]s."<ref>{{cite journal| author = Mikhail B. Sevryuk| year = 2006| month = January| title = Book Reviews| journal = [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]]| volume = 43| issue = 1| pages = 101-109| url = http://www.ams.org/bull/2006-43-01/S0273-0979-05-01069-4/S0273-0979-05-01069-4.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2006-06-24}}</ref> ==Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics== [[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|thumb|Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1643-1727), an inventor of [[infinitesimal calculus]].]] Mathematics arises wherever there are difficult problems that involve quantity, structure, space, or change. At first these were found in [[commerce]], [[land measurement]] and later [[astronomy]]; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] was one of the [[infinitesimal calculus]] inventors, [[Feynman]] invented the [[Feynman path integral]] using a combination of reasoning and physical insight, and today's [[string theory]] also inspires new mathematics. Some mathematics is only relevant in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. The remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematics often turns out to have practical applications is what [[Eugene Wigner]] has called "[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics]]." As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization in mathematics. One major distinction is between [[pure mathematics]] and [[applied mathematics]]. Within applied mathematics, two major areas have split off and become disciplines in their own right, [[statistics]] and [[computer science]]. Many mathematicians talk about the ''elegance'' of mathematics, its intrinsic [[aesthetics]] and inner [[beauty]]. [[Simplicity]] and [[generality]] are valued. There is beauty also in a clever proof, such as [[Euclid]]'s proof that there are infinitely many [[prime number]]s, and in a numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the [[fast Fourier transform]]. [[G. H. Hardy]] in ''[[A Mathematician's Apology]]'' expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. ==Notation, language, and rigor== [[Image:Pic79.png|right|thumb|In modern notation, simple expressions can describe complex concepts. This image is generated by a single [[equation]].]] Most of the mathematical notation we use today was not invented until the [[16th century]]. Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often find it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax and encodes information that would be difficult to write in any other way. Mathematical language also is hard for beginners. Words such as ''or'' or ''only'' have more precise meanings than in everyday speech. Also confusing to beginners, words such as ''[[open set|open]]'' and ''[[field (mathematics)|field]]'' have been given specialized mathematical meanings, and [[mathematical jargon]] includes technical terms such as ''[[homeomorphism]]'' and ''[[integrability|integrable]]''. It was said that [[Henri Poincaré]] was only elected to the [[Académie française]] so that he could tell them how to define ''[[automorphic|automorphe]]'' in their dictionary. But there is a reason for special notation and technical jargon: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as "rigor". Rigor is fundamentally a matter of [[mathematical proof]]. Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken "[[theorem]]s", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject (for example, in [[mathematical analysis]]). The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of [[Isaac Newton]] the methods employed were less rigorous. Problems inherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about [[computer-assisted proof]]s. Since large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be sufficiently rigorous. [[Axiom]]s in traditional thought were 'self-evident truths', but that conception is problematic. At a formal level, an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas of an [[axiomatic system]]. It was the goal of [[Hilbert's program]] to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] every (sufficiently powerful) axiomatic system has undecidable formulas; and so a final [[axiomatization]] of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to be (as far as its formal content) nothing but [[set theory]] in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory. ==Mathematics as science== [[Image:Carl Friedrich Gauss.jpg|right|thumb|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], while known as the "prince of mathematicians", did not believe that mathematics was worthy of study in its own right.]] [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".<ref>[[Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen|Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von]]: ''Gauss zum Gedächtniss'', 1856. (''Gauss zum Gedächtnis'' 1965 reprint by Sändig Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend: ISBN 3-253-01702-8, [http://www.amazon.de/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0000BN5SQ ASIN: B0000BN5SQ]).</ref> In the original Latin ''Regina Scientiarum'', as well as in {{lan|German}} ''Königin der Wissenschaften'', the word corresponding to ''science'' means (field of) knowledge. Indeed, this is also the original meaning in English, and there is no doubt that mathematics is in this sense a science. The specialization restricting the meaning to ''natural'' science is of later date. If one considers [[science]] to be strictly about the physical world, then mathematics, or at least [[pure mathematics]], is not a science. [[Karl Popper]] believed that mathematics was not experimentally [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]] and thus not a science.{{fact}} However, other thinkers, notably [[Imre Lakatos]], have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself. In his 2002 book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'', [[Stephen Wolfram]] argues that computational mathematics deserves to be explored empirically as a scientific field in its own right. An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as [[theoretical physics]]) are mathematics with axioms that are intended to correspond to reality. In fact, the theoretical physicist, J. M. Ziman, proposed that science is ''public knowledge'' and thus includes mathematics.<ref>{{cite paper|url=http://info.med.yale.edu/therarad/summers/ziman.htm|date=1968|title=Public Knowledge:An essay concerning the social dimension of science|author= Ziman, J.M., F.R.S.}}</ref> In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. [[intuition (knowledge)|Intuition]] and [[experiment|experimentation]] also play a role in the formulation of [[conjecture]]s in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. [[Experimental mathematics]] continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics, weakening the objection that mathematics does not utilize the [[scientific method]]. The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. While some in [[applied mathematics]] feel that they are scientists, those in pure mathematics often feel that they are working in an area more akin to [[logic]] and that they are, hence, fundamentally [[Philosophy|philosophers]]. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven [[liberal arts]]; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and [[engineering]] has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is ''created'' (as in art) or ''discovered'' (as in science). It is common to see [[University|universities]] divided into sections that include a division of ''Science and Mathematics'', indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the [[philosophy of mathematics]]. Mathematical awards are generally kept separate from their equivalents in science. The most prestigious award in mathematics is the [[Fields Medal]],<ref>"The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most influential award in mathematics."{{cite paper|url=http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_Monastyrsky.pdf|date=2001|title=Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal|author=Monastyrsky, Michael|publisher=Canadian Mathematical Society|accessdate=2006-07-28}}</ref> established in 1936 and now awarded every 4 years. It is usually considered the equivalent of science's [[Nobel prize]]. Another major international award, the [[Abel Prize]], was introduced in 2003. Both of these are awarded for a particular body of work, either innovation in a new area of mathematics or resolution of an outstanding problem in an established field. A famous list of 23 such open problems, called "[[Hilbert's problems]]", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician [[David Hilbert]]. This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the "[[Clay Mathematics Institute#The Millennium Prize problems|Millennium Prize Problems]]", was published in 2000. Solution of each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the [[Riemann hypothesis]]) is duplicated in Hilbert's problems. ==Fields of mathematics== [[Image:Abacus 6.png|right|thumb|Early mathematics was entirely concerned with the need to perform practical calculations, as reflected in this Chinese [[abacus]].]] As noted above, the major disciplines within mathematics first arose out of the need to do calculations in commerce, to understand the relationships between numbers, to measure land, and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical]] events. These four needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e., [[arithmetic]], [[algebra]], [[geometry]], and [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to [[Mathematical logic|logic]], to [[set theory]] ([[Foundations of mathematics|foundations]]), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences ([[applied mathematics]]), and more recently to the rigorous study of [[uncertainty]]. ===Quantity=== The study of quantity starts with [[number]]s, first the familiar [[natural number]]s and [[integer]]s ("whole numbers") and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in [[arithmetic]]. The deeper properties of integers are studied in [[number theory]], whence such popular results as [[Fermat's last theorem]]. Number theory also holds two widely-considered unsolved problems: the [[twin prime conjecture]] and [[Goldbach's conjecture]]. As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognised as a [[subset]] of the [[rational numbers]] ("fractions"). These, in turn, are contained within the [[real numbers]], which are used to represent continuous quantities. Real numbers are generalised to [[complex number]]s. These are the first steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include [[quarternions]] and [[octonions]]. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the [[transfinite numbers]], which formalise the concept of counting to infinite. Another area of study is size, which leads to the [[cardinal number]]s and then to another conception of infinity; the [[aleph number]]s, which allow meaningful comparison of the size of infinitely large sets. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1, 2, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\ldots, -1, 0, 1, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{1}{2}, \frac{2}{3}, 0.125,\ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{2}{3}, \pi, e, \sqrt{2},\ldots \,</math> || <math>5, i, 3i+2, e^{i\pi/3},\ldots \,</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s|| [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |} ===Structure=== Many mathematical objects, such as [[set]]s of numbers and [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, exhibit internal structure. The structural properties of these objects are investigated in the study of [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[field (mathematics)|fields]] and other abstract systems, which are themselves such objects. This is the field of [[abstract algebra]]. An important concept here is that of [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s, generalized to [[vector space]]s, and studied in [[linear algebra]]. The study of vectors combines three of the fundamental areas of mathematics; quantity, structure, and space. [[Vector calculus]] expands the field into a fourth fundamental area, that of change. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Elliptic curve simple.png|96px]] || [[Image:Rubik float.png|96px]] || [[Image:GroupDiagramD6.png|96px]] || [[Image:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Group theory]] || [[Order theory]] |} ===Space=== The study of space originates with [[geometry]] - in particular, [[Euclidean geometry]]. [[Trigonometry]] combines space and number, and encompasses the well-known [[Pythagorean theorem]]. The modern study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, [[Non-euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean geometries]] (which play a central role in [[general relativity]]) and [[topology]]. Quantity and space both play a role in [[analytic geometry]], [[differential geometry]], and [[algebraic geometry]]. Within differential geometry are the concepts of [[fiber bundles]] and calculus on [[manifold]]s. Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of [[polynomial]] equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of [[topological groups]], which combine structure and space. [[Lie group]]s are used to study space, structure, and change. [[Topology]] in all its many ramifications may have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics, and includes the long-standing [[Poincaré conjecture]] and the controversial [[four color theorem]], whose only proof, by computer, has never been verified by a human. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Pythagorean.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Taylorsine.svg|96px]] || [[Image:OsculatingCircle.png|96px]] || [[Image:Torus.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Koch curve.png|96px]] |- |[[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Topology]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} ===Change=== Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the [[natural science]]s, and [[calculus]] was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. [[function (mathematics)|Functions]] arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real numbers and real-valued functions is known as [[real analysis]], with [[complex analysis]] the equivalent field for the complex numbers. The [[Riemann hypothesis]], one of the most fundamental open questions in mathematics, is drawn from complex analysis. [[Functional analysis]] focuses attention on (typically infinite-dimensional) [[space#Mathematical spaces|space]]s of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is [[quantum mechanics]]. Many problems lead naturally to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as [[differential equation]]s. Many phenomena in nature can be described by [[dynamical system]]s; [[chaos theory]] makes precise the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still [[deterministic system (mathematics)|deterministic]] behavior. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | [[Image:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Vectorfield_jaredwf.png|96px]] || <math>\frac{d^2}{dx^2} y = \frac{d}{dx} y + c</math> || [[Image:Limitcycle.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:LorenzAttractor.png|96px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]]|| [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical system]]s || [[Chaos theory]] |} ===Foundations and philosophy=== In order to clarify the [[foundations of mathematics]], the fields of [[mathematical logic]] and [[set theory]] were developed. Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics on a rigid [[axiom]]atic framework, and studying the results of such a framework. As such, it is home to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems#Second incompleteness theorem|Gödel's second incompleteness theorem]], perhaps the most widely celebrated result in logic, which (informally) implies that there are always true theorems which cannot be proven. Modern logic is divided into [[recursion theory]], [[model theory]], and [[proof theory]], and is closely linked to [[theoretical computer science|theoretical]] [[computer science]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math> P \Rightarrow Q \,</math>|| [[Image:Venn_A_intersect_B.png|128px]] || [[Image:MorphismComposition-01.png|96px]] |- | [[Mathematical logic]] || [[Set theory]] || [[Category theory]] || |} ===Discrete mathematics=== [[Discrete mathematics]] is the common name for the fields of mathematics most generally useful in [[theoretical computer science]]. This includes [[Computability theory (computation)|computability theory]], [[computational complexity theory]], and [[information theory]]. Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most powerful known model - the [[Turing machine]]. Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems, although theoretically soluble by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to remain practically unfeasible, even with rapid advance of computer hardware. Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence concepts such as [[data compression|compression]] and [[Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory|entropy]]. As a relatively new field, discrete mathematics has a number of fundamental open problems. The most famous of these is the "[[Complexity classes P and NP|P=NP?]]" problem, one of the [[Millennium Prize Problems]]. It is widely believed that the answer to this problem is no. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math>\begin{matrix} (1,2,3) & (1,3,2) \\ (2,1,3) & (2,3,1) \\ (3,1,2) & (3,2,1) \end{matrix}</math> || [[Image:DFAexample.png|96px]] || [[Image:Caesar3.png|96px]] || [[Image:6n-graf.svg|96px]] |- | [[Combinatorics]] || [[Theory of computation]] || [[Cryptography]] || [[Graph theory]] |} ===Applied mathematics=== Applied mathematics considers the use of abstract mathematical tools in solving concrete problems in [[natural science]]. An important field in applied mathematics is [[statistics]], which uses [[probability theory]] as a tool and allows the description, analysis, and prediction of phenomena where chance plays a role. This is used in all the sciences. (Many statisticians, however, do not consider themselves to be mathematicians, but rather part of an allied group.) [[Numerical analysis]] investigates computational methods for efficiently solving a broad range of mathematical problems that are typically too large for human numerical capacity; it includes the study of [[rounding error]]s or other sources of error in computation. :[[Mathematical physics]] • [[Mechanics|Analytical mechanics]] • [[Fluid mechanics|Mathematical fluid dynamics]] • [[Numerical analysis]] • [[Optimization (mathematics)|Optimization]] • [[Probability]] • [[Statistics]] • [[Mathematical economics]] • [[Financial mathematics]] • [[Game theory]] • [[Mathematical biology]] • [[Cryptography]] • [[Operations research]] ==Common misconceptions== Mathematics is not a closed intellectual system, in which everything has already been worked out. There is no shortage of open problems. [[Pseudomathematics]] is a form of mathematics-like activity undertaken outside [[academia]], and occasionally by mathematicians themselves. It often consists of determined attacks on famous questions, consisting of proof-attempts made in an isolated way (that is, long papers not supported by previously published theory). The relationship to generally-accepted mathematics is similar to that between [[pseudoscience]] and real science. The misconceptions involved are normally based on: *misunderstanding of the implications of [[mathematical rigor]]; *attempts to circumvent the usual criteria for publication of [[mathematical paper]]s in a [[learned journal]] after [[peer review]], often in the belief that the journal is biased against the author; *lack of familiarity with, and therefore underestimation of, the existing literature. The case of [[Kurt Heegner]]'s work shows that the mathematical establishment is neither infallible, nor unwilling to admit error in assessing 'amateur' work. And like [[astronomy]], mathematics owes much to amateur contributors such as [[Pierre de Fermat|Fermat]] and [[Marin Mersenne|Mersenne]]. === Relationship between mathematics and physical reality === Mathematical concepts and theorems need not correspond to anything in the physical world. Insofar as a correspondence does exist, while mathematicians and physicists may select axioms and postulates that seem reasonable and intuitive, it is not necessary for the basic assumptions within an axiomatic system to be true in an empirical or physical sense. This leads to confusion on the part of those who assume that where mathematical concepts are named after or ostensibly correspond with aspects of reality (physics, economics, etc), they have a rigorous relationship with it. Such is simply not the case, and empirical testing of mathematical predictions is not a mathematical undertaking (see [[Mathematics#Mathematics as science|Mathematics as science]] above). Thus while most systems of axioms are derived from our perceptions and experiments, they are not dependent on them. Nevertheless, mathematics remains extremely useful for solving real-world problems. This fact led Eugene Wigner to write an essay, ''[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]''. === What mathematics is not === Mathematics is not about unrestricted [[theorem proving]], any more than [[literature]] is about the construction of [[grammar|grammatically correct]] [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s. Mathematics is not [[accountancy]]. Although arithmetic computation is crucial to accountants, their main concern is to verify that computations are correct through a system of doublechecks. Advances in abstract mathematics are mostly irrelevant to the efficiency of bookkeeping, but the use of computers clearly does matter. Mathematics is not [[numerology]]. Numerology uses [[modular arithmetic]] to reduce names and dates down to numbers, but assigns emotions or traits to these numbers intuitively or on the basis of traditions. ==References== <div class="references-small"> <references/> *[[Morris Kline|Kline, Morris]], ''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times'', Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0195061357. </div> ==Further reading== *Benson, Donald C., ''The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies'', Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0195139194. *[[Carl B. Boyer|Boyer, Carl B.]], ''A History of Mathematics'', Wiley; 2 edition (March 6, 1991). ISBN 0471543977. &mdash; A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number to contemporary Mathematics. *Courant, R. and H. Robbins, ''What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods'', Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (July 18, 1996). ISBN 0195105192. *[[Philip J. Davis|Davis, Philip J.]] and [[Reuben Hersh|Hersh, Reuben]], ''The Mathematical Experience''. Mariner Books; Reprint edition (January 14, 1999). ISBN 0395929687.&mdash; A gentle introduction to the world of mathematics. *Gullberg, Jan, ''Mathematics—From the Birth of Numbers''. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October 1997). ISBN 039304002X. &mdash; An encyclopedic overview of mathematics presented in clear, simple language. *Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), ''[[Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]]''. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000. &mdash; A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten (expensive) volumes, the most complete and authoritative work available. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online [http://eom.springer.de/default.htm]. *Pappas, Theoni, ''The Joy Of Mathematics'', Wide World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989). ISBN 0933174659. *{{cite book | last = Paulos | first = John Allen | authorlink = John Allen Paulos | year = 1996 | title = A Mathematician Reads the Newspaper | publisher = Anchor | id = ISBN 038548254X}} ==See also== * [[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics portal]] * [[Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[Mathematical game]] * [[Mathematical problem]] 1681 3312 2006-10-25T22:01:03Z 69.246.213.81 /* Introduction */ free [[Image:Telephone-modele-W48.jpg|thumb|right|An old rotary telephone]] [[Image:Tphone2.jpg|right|thumb|A basic modern telephone]] The '''telephone''' or '''phone''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''tele'' = far away and ''phone'' = voice) is a [[telecommunication]]s device which is used to [[transmitter|transmit]] and receive [[sound]] (most commonly [[Human voice|voice]] and speech) across distance. Most telephones operate through transmission of [[Signal (information theory)|electric signals]] over a complex [[public switched telephone network|telephone network]] which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other. [[Image:ATTtelephone-large.jpg|thumb|right|Touch-tone telephone]] ==Introduction== [[Image:Uniden EXAI3985 DTMF buttons.jpg|thumb|right|A [[touch-tone]] telephone [[keypad]]<!---->]] An elementary telephone system would consist of three elements: * the equipment located at each subscriber which converts sound to electrical signals and back, and which allows the subscriber to answer or initiate a call, * a central switching facility which interconnects all the subscribers * wiring or other means to connect the subscriber to the central switching facility. There are three principal ways a subscriber may be connected to the telephone network: * Historically, and still very commonly, by dedicated physical wire connections run in overhead or underground cables; * By radio, as in a cordless, cellular, satellite or radiotelephone and * By [[voice over IP|voice over internet protocol]] (VoIP) telephones, which use [[Broadband Internet access|broadband internet]] connections. Between end users, transmissions across a network may be carried by [[fibre optic]] cable, land line cable, point to point [[microwave]] or [[satellite]] relay. Until relatively recently, a "telephone" generally referred only to landlines. [[Cordless telephone|Cordless]] and [[mobile phone]]s are now common in many places around the world, with mobile phones expected to gradually displace the conventional landline telephone. Unlike a mobile phone, a cordless telephone is considered to be landline because it is only useable within a short distance of a small personal or domestic [[base station]] connected to a fixed phone line. ==History== [[Image:CNAM-IMG 0564.jpg|thumb|Copy of the original phone of [[Graham Bell]] at the ''[[Musée des Arts et Métiers]]'' in Paris]] [[Image:1896_telephone.jpg|thumb|1896 Telephone ([[Sweden]])]] [[Image:Phone handset.jpeg|thumb|A telephone [[handset]]]] The identity of the inventor of the electric telephone remains in dispute. [[Antonio Meucci]], [[Johann Philipp Reis]], and [[Alexander Graham Bell]], amongst others, have all been credited with the [[invention]]. The very early history of the telephone is a confusing morass of claim and counterclaim, which was not clarified by the huge mass of lawsuits which hoped to resolve the patent claims of individuals. Much money was expended, particularly in the [[Bell Telephone]] companies, and the aggressive defence of the Bell patents resulted in much confusion. Additionally, the earliest investigators preferred publication in the popular press and demonstration to investors instead of scientific publication and demonstration to fellow scientists. It is important to note that there is probably no single "inventor of the telephone". The modern telephone is the result of work done by many hands, all worthy of recognition of their addition to the field. Only in the last ten years, however, has the [[Great Britain|British]] government announced that it now recognises (primarily for educational purposes) [[Antonio Meucci]] (see below) as the 'first inventor' of the telephone.{{fact}} {{see|Timeline of the telephone |Invention of the telephone}} ===Early development=== The following is a brief summary of the history of the invention of the telephone: *[[1849]] [[Antonio Meucci]], an Italian living in [[Havana]], demonstrates a device he later called a telephone. (The demonstration involves direct electrical connections to people.) *[[1854]] [[Charles Bourseul]] publishes a description of a make-break telephone transmitter and receiver but does not construct a working instrument. *[[1854]] Meucci demonstrates an electric telephone in New York. [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html] *[[1860]] [[Johann Philipp Reis]] demonstrates a "telephon" using a pressure contact transmitter after the make-break design of Bourseul and a knitting needle receiver. Witnesses said they heard human voices being transmitted. *[[1860]] Meucci demonstrates his telephone on Staten Island. *[[1861]] Reis manages to transfer voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet, see [[Reis' telephone]]. *[[1864]] In an attempt to give his musical automaton a voice, [[Innocenzo Manzetti]] invents the 'Speaking telegraph'. He shows no interest in patenting his device, but it is reported in newspapers. *[[1865]] Meucci reads of Manzetti's invention and writes to the editors of two newspapers claiming priority and quoting his first experiment in 1849. He writes "I do not wish to deny Mr. Manzetti his invention, I only wish to observe that two thoughts could be found to contain the same discovery, and that by uniting the two ideas one can more easily reach the certainty about a thing this important." If he reads Meucci's offer of collaboration, Manzetti does not respond. *[[1871]] Meucci files a patent [[caveat]] (a statement of intention to patent). *[[1872]] [[Elisha Gray]] founds [[Western Electric]] Manufacturing Company. *1872 Prof Vanderwyde demonstrated Reis's telephone in New York. *July 1873 [[Thomas Edison]] notes variable resistance in carbon grains due to pressure and builds a rheostat based on the principle. *May 1874 Gray invents electromagnet device for transmitting musical tones. Some of his receivers use steel diaphragms. *December 1874 Gray demonstrates his musical tones device at the Presbyterian Church in Highland Park, Illinois and lectures on the possibility of transmitting speech. *[[2 June]] [[1875]] [[Alexander Graham Bell]] transmits the sound of plucked steel reeds using electromagnet instruments. *[[1 July]] [[1875]] Bell uses a bi-directional "gallows" telephone that was able to transmit "indistinct but voicelike sounds" but not clear speech. Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments. *1875 [[Thomas Edison]] experiments with [[acoustic telegraphy]] and in November builds an electro-dynamic receiver but does not exploit it. *[[11 February]] [[1876]] Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone, but does not build one. *[[14 February]] [[1876]] (about 9:30 am) Gray or his lawyer brings to the Patent Office Gray's caveat for the telephone. (A caveat was a notice of intention to file a patent application) *[[14 February]] [[1876]] (about 11:30am) Bell's lawyer brings to the Patent Office Bell's patent application for the telephone. Bell's lawyer requested that it be registered immediately in the cash blotter. **About two hours later Elisha Gray's caveat was registered in the cash blotter. Although Gray could have converted his caveat into a patent application, he did not do so. *[[7 March]] [[1876]] Bell's US patent 174,465 for the telephone is granted. *[[10 March]] [[1876]] Bell transmits speech "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you." using a liquid transmitter and an electromagnetic receiver. *[[16 May]] [[1876]] [[Thomas Edison]] files first patent application for [[acoustic telegraphy]]. *[[20 January]] [[1877]] Edison "first succeeded in transmitting over wires many articulated sentences" using carbon granules as a pressure sensitive variable resistance under the pressure of a diaphragm (Josephson, p143). *[[30 January]] [[1877]] Bell's US patent 186,787 is granted for an electro-magnetic telephone with transmitter and receiver using steel diaphrams and a call bell. *[[4 March]] [[1877]] [[Emile Berliner]] invents a [[microphone]] based on the "loose contact" between two metal electrodes, an improvement on the Reis telephone, and in April 1877 files a caveat of an invention in process. * [[27 April]] [[1877]] Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was granted May 3, 1892 after a 15 year delay due to litigation. In 1892 a federal court ruled Edison and not Berliner was the inventor of the carbon transmitter. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1979. Edison's carbon granules transmitter and Bell's electromagnetic receiver were used by the Bell system for many decades thereafter (Josephson, p 146). ===Later history=== [[Image:Ericofon.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Ericofon]] was a very futuristic handset when it was introduced in 1956.]] The history of additional inventions and improvements of the electrical telephone includes the [[carbon microphone]] (later replaced by the [[electret]] microphone now used in almost all telephone transmitters), the manual [[telephone switchboard|switchboard]], the [[rotary dial]], the [[automatic telephone exchange]], the computerized [[telephone switch]], Touch Tone® [[dialing]] ([[DTMF]]), and the digitization of sound using different coding techniques including pulse code modulation or [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] (which is also used for .[[WAV]], .AIF files and compact discs). Newer systems include [[Voice over IP|IP telephony]], [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]], [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], mobile [[cellular phone]] systems, [[cordless]] telephones, and the [[UMTS|third generation cell phone]] systems that promise to include high-speed [[Cellular digital packet data|packet data]] transfer. The industry has divided into telephone equipment manufacturers and telephone network operators (telcos). Operating companies often hold a national [[monopoly]]. In the United States, the [[Bell System]] was vertically integrated. It fully or partially owned the telephone companies that provided service to about 80% of the telephones in the country and also owned [[Western Electric]], which manufactured or purchased virtually all the equipment and supplies used by the local telephone companies. The Bell System divested itself of the local telephone companies in 1984 in order to settle an [[antitrust]] suit brought against it by the [[United States Department of Justice]]. In 1926 Bell Labs and the British Post Office engineered the first two-way conversation across the Atlantic. The first commercial transatlantic telephone call was between [[New York City]] and [[London]] and occurred on [[January 7]], [[1927]]. ==Digital Telephony== {{main|Digital Telephony}} The [[Public Switched Telephone Network]] (PSTN) has gradually evolved towards digital telephony which has improved the capacity and quality of the network. End-to-end [[Analog signal|analog]] telephone networks were first modified in the 1970s by upgrading long-haul transmission networks with [[SONET]] technology and [[fiber optic]] transmission methods. Digital transmission made it possible to carry multiple digitized [[switched circuit]]s on a single transmission medium (known as ''[[multiplexing]]''). While today the end instrument remains analog, the analog signals reaching the aggregation point ([[Serving Area Interface]] (SAI) or the [[central office]] (CO) ) are typically converted to [[digital signals]]. [[Digital loop carrier]]s (DLC) are often used, placing the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog [[local loop]] to legacy status. ==Wireless phone systems== While the term "[[wireless]]" means [[radio]] and can refer to any telephone that uses radio waves, it is primarily used for [[cell phone]]s. In the [[United States]] wireless companies tend to use the term wireless to refer to a wide range of services while the cell phone itself is called a mobile phone, mobile, [[Personal Communications Service|PCS phone]], cell phone or simply cell with the trend now moving towards [[mobile]]. The changes in terminology is partially due to providers using different terms in [[marketing]] to differentiate newer digital services from older analog systems and services of one company from another. ===Cordless telephone=== [[Image:CordlessUniden-large.jpg|right|thumb|125px|Cordless handset]] [[Cordless telephone]]s, invented by Teri Pall in 1965, consist of a base unit that connects to the land-line system and also communicates with remote [[handset]]s by low power [[radio]]. This permits use of the handset from any location within range of the base. Because of the power required to transmit to the handset, the base station is powered with an [[electronic power supply]]. Thus, cordless phones typically do not function during power outages. Initially, cordless phones used the 1.7 MHz frequency range to communicate between base and handset. Because of quality and range problems, these units were soon superseded by systems that used [[frequency modulation]] (FM) at higher frequency ranges (49 MHz, 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz). The 2.4 GHz cordless phones can interfere with certain [[wireless LAN]] protocols ([[IEEE 802.11|802.11b/g]]) due to the usage of the same frequencies. On the 2.4 GHz band, several "channels" are utilized in an attempt to guard against degradation in the quality of the voice signal due to crowding. The range of modern cordless phones is normally on the order of a few hundred [[meters]]. ===Mobile phones=== {{see|Mobile phone}} Most modern mobile phone systems are cell-structured. [[Radio]] is used to communicate between a handset and nearby [[cell site]]s. When a handset gets too far from a cell site, a computer system commands the handset and a closer cell site to take up the communications on a different channel without interrupting the call. Radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource. The higher frequencies used by cell phones have advantages over short distances. Connection distance is somewhat predictable and can be controlled by adjusting the power level. By only using enough power to connect to the "nearest" cell site phones using one cell site will cause almost no interference with phones using the same frequencies on another cell site. The higher frequencies also work well with various forms of [[multiplexing]] which allows more than one phone to connect to the same tower with the same set of frequencies. ====Satellite phones==== {{see|Satellite phone}} Some mobile telephones, especially those used in remote locations, where constructing a [[cell network]] would be too unprofitable or difficult, instead communicate directly with an orbiting [[satellite]]. Such devices tend to be bulkier than cell-based mobile phones, as they require a large [[antenna]] or [[satellite dish|dish]] for communicating with the satellite, but do not require ground based transmitters, making them useful for communicating from remote areas and disaster zones. ===Semi-Cordless Phone=== There are phones that work as a [[cordless]] phone when near their corresponding base station (and sometimes other base stations) and work as a [[wireless phone]] when in other locations but for a variety of reasons did not become popular. Some kinds of cordless phones work like cellular phones but only within a small private network covering a building or group of buildings. These kinds of systems using [[VoIP]] are popular in hospitals and factories where the same wireless network can be used for both data and voice. == VoIP Telephony== [[Image:voip-wifi.jpg|right|thumb|125px|A [[WiFi]]-based [[VoIP]] phone]] Also known as [[Internet]] telephony or [[Voice over IP]] (VoIP), digital telephony is a [[disruptive technology]] that is rapidly replacing traditional telephone networks. In [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]] up to 10% of subscribers, as of January [[2005]], have switched from analog to digital telephone service. A recent [[Newsweek]] article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing." [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6831938/site/newsweek/] There are many VoIP providers on the market (such as [[Packet8]], [[Vonage]], and [[Sunrocket]]) at the moment, and statistics suggest over 40% of the world population will have switched to VoIP by year 2010.{{fact}} Digital telephones use a [[broadband]] [[Internet]] connection to transmit conversations as [[data packet]]s. In addition to replacing the PSTN, digital telephony is also competing with [[mobile phone]] networks by offering free or lower cost connections via [[WiFi]] [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)|hotspot]]s. As mentioned above [[VoIP]] is also used on private wireless networks which may or may not have a connection to the outside telephone network. ==Telephone equipment research labs== [[Bell Labs]] is a noted telephone equipment research laboratory, amongst its other research fields.. ==Telephone operating companies== In some countries, many telephone operating companies (commonly abbreviated to ''[[Telephone company|telco]]'' in American English) are in competition to provide [[telephone]] services. Some of them include those in the following list. However, the list only includes providers of copper wires from the [[Telephone exchange|exchange]] to the user, not those who only supply "[[Voice over IP]]" or only transport voice signals between exchanges. <!-- Are there companies to whom this assertion does not apply? --> ''See also'': [[List of telephone operating companies]] ==Trivia== *The modern handset came into existence when a Swedish lineman tied a microphone and earphone to a stick so he could keep a hand free. *The folding portable phone was an intentional copy of the fictional futuristic communicators (which in use actually more closely resembled [[walkie-talkie]]s, [[Nextel]]-style) used in the television show [[Star Trek]], though similar devices were seen in other TV shows before that. *In [[Unicode]], telephones are depicted with the characters whose [[hexadecimal]] codes are 260E (☎), 260F (☏) and 2706 (✆), (but may not display properly in some browsers). == See also == <!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Note: the list got too long, and needed subject categories. Please add new links under the correct heading. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --> {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone equipment=== * [[431A]] * [[610 (telephone)|610]] * [[Answering machine]] * [[Cordless telephone]] * [[Cellular repeater]] * [[Emergency telephone]] * [[Modem]] * [[Payphone]] * [[Pen register]] * [[Photophone]] * [[Telautograph]] * [[Telecommunications Device for the Deaf]] (TDD or TTY) * [[Telegraphy|Telegraph]] * [[Telephone switchboard|Switchboard]] * [[Teleprinter#Telex|Telex]] * [[Teletype]] * [[Electronic Switching System]] {{col-break}} ===Telephone equipment manufacturers=== {{commons|Telephone}} Several manufacturers build telephones of all kinds. Some of these are: *[[Aastra Technologies]] *[[Advanced American Telephones]] (makers of [[AT&T]] Telephones) *[[Alcatel]] *[[Avaya]] *[[Clarity Products]] (makers of amplified telephones) *[[Conair]] (makers of [[Southwestern Bell]] Freedom Phone) *[[Convedia]] *[[Ericsson]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Kyocera]] *[[Marconi]] *[[Mitel]] *[[Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nortel]] *[[palmOne]] / [[Handspring]] *[[Philips]] *[[Samsung]] *[[Siemens AG]] *[[Sony Ericsson]] *[[Unical Enterprises]] (makers of [[Northwestern Bell]] Phones) *[[Uniden]] *[[US Electronics]] (makers of [[BellSouth]] Products) {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone technology=== * [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line]] (ADSL) * [[Automatic call distributor |Automatic Call Distribution]] * [[AIOD leads]] * [[ANAC]] * [[ANI]] * [[Assistive technology]] * [[Automatic redial]] * [[Call capture]] * [[Call forwarding]] * [[Call waiting]] * [[Caller ID]] * [[Call-through telecom]] * [[Computer telephony integration]] (CTI) * [[Customer premises equipment]] (CPE) * [[Dial tone]] * [[Digital subscriber line]] (DSL) * [[Direct dial]] * [[Direct distance dialing]] * [[Dual tone multi frequency]] (DTMF) * [[Interactive Voice Response]] (IVR) * [[Last Call Return]] (*69) * [[Telephone feature code]] (* code) * [[Party line (telephony)]] * [[Plain old telephone service]] (POTS) * [[Ringing signal]] * [[Signal strength]] * [[Videotex]] * [[Voice over Internet Protocol]] (VOIP) {{col-break}} ===Telephone system, organization, and structure=== * [[Area code]] * [[Office code]] * [[Basic exchange telecommunications radio service]] * [[Bell System]] * [[Call center]] * [[Competitive local exchange carrier]] (CLEC) * [[Foreign exchange service]] * [[Incumbent local exchange company]] (ILEC) * [[Key system]] * [[Local exchange company]] (LEC) * [[Public Switched Telephone Network]] (PSTN) * [[Regional Bell operating company]] (RBOC) * [[Post office]] * [[Private line]] * [[Private branch exchange]] (PBX) * [[Station set]] {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone hacking and exploitation=== * [[Blue box]] * [[Bomb threat]] * [[Prank call|Crank (or prank) call]] * [[Demon dialing]] * [[Phreaking|(Phone) phreaking]] * [[Speed dialer]] * [[Telephone fraud]] * [[War dialing]] {{col-break}} === Telephony in the USA === * [[Competitive local exchange carrier]] (CLEC) * [[Federal Standard 1037C]] * [[Interexchange carrier]] (IXC) * [[List of telephony terms]] * [[Local access and transport area]] (LATA) * [[Local exchange carrier]] (LEC) * [[Modification of Final Judgment]] * [[Part 68|Federal Regulations - Part 68]] * [[Regional Bell operating company]] (RBOC) === Telephony outside the USA === * [[Telecom]] * [[Telecommunications industry in China]] {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone terminology=== * [[Call originator]] * [[Call waiting]] * [[Called party]] * [[Caller (telecommunications)|Caller]] * [[Calling party]] * [[Circuit busy]] * [[payphone|COCOT]] * [[Deaf]] * [[Emergency telephone number]] * [[End instrument]] * [[Fax]] * [[Help desk]] * [[telephone hook|Hook]] * [[Hook Flash]] * [[Hunt Group]] * [[Infrastructure]] * [[Interactive voice response]] (IVR) * [[Telephone Line|Line]] * [[Local loop]] * [[Long-distance operator]] * [[Operator assistance]] * [[Person-to-person]] * [[Red telephone]], [[Red telephone box]], * [[Ringer equivalency number]] (REN) * [[Ringing signal]] * [[Rural radio service]] * [[Smartphone]] * [[Station-to-station]] * [[Telemarketing]] * [[Telephone booth]] * [[Telephone call]] * [[Telephone card]] * [[Telephone directory]] * [[Telephone exchange]] * [[Telephone tapping]] * [[Telephone User Interface]] (TUI) * [[Telephony Application Programming Interface]] (TAPI) * [[Trap and trace]] * [[TWX]] * [[Vertical service code]] * [[Visiophone]], [[vision]] telephone * [[Voicemail]] * [[Western Union]] * [[Wide Area Telephone Service]] (WATS) * [[WATS line]] * [[Wireless network]] * [[Wi-Fi]] * [[Zenith number]] {{col-break}} ===Telephone Standards=== ====Wired Standards==== * [[RJ-11, RJ-12, RJ-14, RJ-25|RJ-11]] * [[RJ-45]] * [[BS 6312]] ====Wireless Standards ==== There are many standards for common carrier wireless telephony, often with incompatible standards used in the same nation: * First generation - Analog ** [[marine and mobile radio telephony]] ** [[AMPS]] *** [[CDPD]] ** [[Nordic Mobile Telephone|NMT]] * Satellite systems- digital ** [[Inmarsat]] ** [[Iridium (satellite)]] * Second generation ([[2G]]) - Digital ** [[IS-95|CDMA IS-95A]] ** [[Global system for mobile communications|GSM]], (different frequencies for different continents: see GSM article) ** [[iDEN]] ** [[TDMA IS-136]] * [[2.5G]] ** [[IS-95|CDMA IS-95B]] ** [[GPRS]] ** [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] ** [[PDC-P]] * Third generation ([[3G]]) ** [[IS-2000|CDMA 2000]] ** [[UMTS]], also called [[W-CDMA]] ** [[TD-SCDMA]] ====Other ==== * [[Flat rate]] {{col-end}} == Patents == {{wiktionarypar|telephone}} * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0174465 US 174,465] -- ''Telegraphy'' (Bell's first telephone patent) -- Alexander Graham Bell * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0474230 US 474,230] -- ''Speaking Telegraph'' (graphite transmitter) -- Thomas Edison * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0203016 US 203,016] -- ''Speaking Telephone'' (carbon button transmitter) -- Thomas Edison * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0222390 US 222,390] -- ''Carbon Telephone'' (carbon granules transmitter) -- Thomas Edison {{wiktionarypar|cordless telephone}} * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3449750 US 3,449,750] -- ''Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Appartus'' -- G. H. Sweigert * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3663762 US 3,663,762] -- ''Cellular Mobile Communication System'' -- Amos Edward Joel (Bell Labs) == References == * Coe, Lewis (1995). ''The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History'', McFarland, North Carolina, 1995. ISBN 0-7864-0138-9 * Evenson, A. Edward (2000). ''The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray - Alexander Bell Controversy'', McFarland, North Carolina, 2000. ISBN 0-7864-0883-9 * Baker, Burton H. (2000). ''The Gray Matter: The Forgotten Story of the Telephone'', Telepress, St. Joseph, MI, 2000. ISBN 0-615-11329-X * Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). ''The Worldwide History of Telecommunications'', IEEE Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 2003. ISBN 0471205052 *Josephson, Matthew (1959) ''Edison: A Biography'' McGraw Hill, New York. ISBN 07-033046-8 ==Further reading== *[[Robert Sobel]] ''The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition'' (Weybright & Talley [[1974]]), ISBN 0-679-40064-8. <!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Wikipedia is not a collection of external links. Please don't add links to your company here - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --> == External links == * [http://runeberg.org/teleapp/index.htm 1906 telephones and equipment (Swedish)] ''Kungliga Telegrafverkets apparater'' (Royal Telegraph Administration apparatus) at Project Runeberg - digitized images of telephone and switchboard equipment * [http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/telephone.htm Howstuffworks.com article on telephones] * [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1139/science_technology/telephones/ CBC Digital Archives - Canada Says Hello: The First Century of the Telephone] [[Category:Telephony]] [[Category:Office equipment]] [[ang:Feorrspreca]] [[ar:هاتف]] [[ast:Teléfonu]] [[bs:Telefon]] [[bg:Телефон]] [[ca:Telèfon]] [[cs:Telefon]] [[da:Telefon]] [[de:Telefon]] [[el:Τηλέφωνο]] [[es:Teléfono]] [[eo:Telefono]] [[eu:Telefono]] [[fa:تلفن]] [[fr:Téléphone]] [[gl:Teléfono]] [[hr:Telefon]] [[id:Telepon]] [[it:Telefono]] [[he:טלפון]] [[sw:Simu]] [[lv:Telefons]] [[lt:Telefonas]] [[hu:Távbeszélő]] [[mr:दूरध्वनी]] [[ms:Telefon]] [[nl:Telefoon]] [[ja:電話]] [[no:Telefon]] [[pl:Telefon]] [[pt:Telefone]] [[ru:Телефон]] [[simple:Telephone]] [[sk:Telefón]] [[sl:Telefon]] [[sr:Телефон]] [[fi:Puhelin]] [[sv:Telefon]] [[tl:Telepono]] [[ta:தொலைபேசி]] [[th:โทรศัพท์]] [[vi:Điện thoại]] [[tr:Telefon]] [[uk:Телефон]] [[zh:电话]] [[zh-yue:電話]] 1682 3122 2006-08-12T07:22:18Z Eukesh 59 {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" ! align="center" bgcolor="#ECE5CA"|<big>''' Learn Pali '''</big> |- bgcolor="#FAF9EC" valign="top" | style="border-top:1px solid #996600; padding-right:10px;" align="justify" | * [http://www.pali.dk/ Pali.dk] - A newly started project aimed at creating free online Pāli dictionaries and educational resources. * [http://www.palitext.com/ Pali Text Society] * [http://www.pratyeka.org/narada/ A basic Pāli language textbook (free) in Unicode PDF format] * [http://www.pratyeka.org/pali/ Resources for reading & writing Pāli in indigenous scripts: Burmese, Sri Lankan, & Cambodian] * [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=50 Pāli Discussion Forum] * [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ Pāli-English dictionary] * [http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/ Complete Pāli Canon in romanized Pali and Sinhala, mostly also in English translation] * [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/index.html Pāli Canon selection] * [http://accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/learningpali.html A guide to learning the Pāli language] * [http://www.vri.dhamma.org/publications/pali/primer/ "Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (requires installation of special fonts)] * [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/uni/u-palicb/e00.htm "Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (UTF-8 encoded)] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/ele_pali.pdf Free/Public-Domain Elementary Pāli Course--PDF format] * [http://www.orunla.org/tm/pali/htpali/pcourse.html Free/Public-Domain Pāli Course--html format] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/paligram.pdf Free/Public-Domain Pāli Grammar (in PDF file)] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/palidict.pdf Free/Public-Domain Pāli Buddhist Dictionary (in PDF file)] * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Pali Yahoo discussion group on Pāli] * [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=50 E-Sangha Pāli Discussion Forum: for experts and students] * [http://ca.geocities.com/palistudy/ Geocities discussion group on Pāli (homepage)] * [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Pali Comprehensive list of Pāli texts on Wikisource] * [http://www.metta.lk/pali-utils/Pali-Proper-Names/index.html Buddhist Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names], HTML version of the book by G.P. Malalasekera, 1937-8 * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/palireader Pāli Text Reader (software)] *[http://www.jainworld.com/scriptures/ Jain Scriptures] |} 1683 3125 2006-08-16T15:51:34Z Eukesh 59 * [[बुद्ध]] 1684 3126 2006-08-16T15:54:03Z Eukesh 59 [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|A stone image of the Buddha.]] In [[Buddhism]], a '''Buddha''' ([[Sanskrit]], [[Pāli]]) is any being who has become fully awakened or [[Bodhi|enlightened]], has permanently overcome [[anger]], [[greed]], and [[ignorance]], and has achieved complete liberation from [[suffering]], better known as [[Nirvana]]. It is commonly used to refer to [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhartha Gautama]], the historical founder of [[Buddhism]]. ''Buddha'' literally means "awakened" or "that which has become aware". It is the [[past participle]] of the [[Sanskrit]] root ''budh'', i.e. "to awaken", "to know", or "to become aware". The word ''Buddha'' is simply a title that means 'The Awakened One'. A typical misconception tends to link Buddha as the Buddhist counterpart of the entity known as [[God]]; however, Buddhism is non-theistic, in the sense of not generally teaching the existence of a supreme Creator God (see [[God in Buddhism]]) or depending on any supreme being for enlightenment, in Buddhism, Buddha is a guide and teacher who points the way. The commonly accepted definition of the term "God" refers to a being who not only rules but actually created the Universe in the [[Origin belief|Beginning]]. Such ideas and concepts are disputed by Buddha and Buddhists in many of his discourses. The supreme origin and creator of our world and universe isn't God in Buddhism, but [[Avidya]] or ignorance. Buddhists try to dispel this darkness through constant practice, wisdom and compassion known as [[prajna]]. In the [[Pali Canon]] Buddha refers to anyone who has become Enlightened (i.e. having awakened to the truth, or ''[[Dharma]]'') on their own, without a teacher to point out the [[Dhamma|Dharma]], in a time when the teachings on the [[Four Noble Truths]] or the [[Eightfold Path]] do not exist in the world. Generally, Buddhists do not consider [[Siddhartha Gautama]] to have been the only Buddha. In the [[Pali Canon]] there is a mention of Gautama Buddha as being the 28th Buddha (see [[List of the 28 Buddhas]]). A common buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named [[Maitreya]]. Buddhism teaches that anyone can become awakened and experience [[Nirvana]]. [[Theravada]] Buddhism teaches that one doesn't need to become a Buddha to become awakened and experience Nirvana, since an [[Arahant]] also has those qualities. Some Buddhist texts such as the [[Lotus Sutra]] imply that all beings will become Buddhas at some point in time. == Types of Buddhas == {{main|Types of Buddhas}} In the [[Pali Canon]], there are considered to be two types of Buddhas: [[Samyaksambuddha]] (Sammasambuddha) and [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyeka Buddha]] (Paccekabuddha). 1. [[Samyaksambuddha]]s (Pali: ''Sammasambuddha'') attains Buddhahood and decides to teach others the truth that he has discovered. They lead others to awakening by teaching the [[Dharma]] in a time or world where it has been forgotten or has not been taught before. The Historical Buddha, [[Siddhartha Gautama]], is considered a Samyak-sambuddha. See also the [[List of the 28 Buddhas|list of 28 sammasambuddhas]] 2. [[Pratyekabuddha]]s (Pali: ''Paccekabuddha''), sometimes called Silent Buddhas) are similar to Samyaksambuddhas in that they attain [[Nirvana]] and acquire the same powers as a Sammasambuddha does, but they choose not to teach what they have discovered. They are second to the Buddhas in their spiritual development. They do ordain others; their admonition is only in reference to good and proper conduct (abhisamācārikasikkhā). In some texts, the Paccekabuddha is described as one who understands the Dharma by his own efforts, but does not obtain omniscience nor mastery over the Fruits (phalesu vasībhāvam).[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/pa/pacceka_buddha.htm] One 12th century Theravadin commentary uses the term Savakabuddha to describe the enlightened disciple. According to this scripture there are 3 types of Buddhas. In this case, however, the common definition of the meaning of the word Buddha (as one who discovers the Dhamma without a teacher) does not apply any more. Mainstream Theravadin and Mahayana scriptures do not recognize this term and state there are only two kinds of Buddha. Disciples of a Sammasambuddha are called [[Savaka]]s (hearers or followers) or [[Arahants]] (Noble One). These terms have slightly varied meanings but can all be used to describe the enlightened disciple. ''Anubuddha'' is a rarely used term, but was used by the Buddha in the ''Khuddakapatha''<ref> Ratanasutta:56</ref> as to those who become Buddha's after being given instruction. Enlightened disciples attain Nirvana and Parinirvana as the two types of Buddhas do. The most generally used term for them is [[Arahant]]. ==Characteristics of a Buddha== ===Nine characteristics=== Buddhists meditate on (or contemplate) the Buddha as having nine characteristics: :"The Blessed One is: :#a worthy one :#perfectly self enlightened :#stays in perfect knowledge :#well gone :#unsurpassed knower of the world :#unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed :#teacher of the Divine Gods and humans :#the Enlightened One :#the Blessed One or fortunate one These 9 characteristics are frequently mentioned in the [[Pali Canon]], and are chanted daily in many Buddhist monasteries. ===Spiritual realizations=== All traditions hold that a Buddha has completely purified his mind of greed, aversion and ignorance, and that he has put an end to [[samsara]]. A Buddha is fully awakened and has realized the ultimate truth of life ([[Dharma]]), and thus ended (for himself) the [[suffering]] which unawakened people experience in life. Also, a Buddha is complete in all spiritual powers that a human being can develop, and posesses them in the highest degree possible. ===The Nature of Buddha=== {{see|Buddhology}} The various buddhist schools hold some varying interpretations on the nature of Buddha. ====Pali Canon: Buddha was human==== {{main|Buddha - God or Man}} From the [[Pali Canon]] emerges the view that Buddha was human, endowed with the greatest psychic powers ([[Kevatta Sutta]]). The body and mind (the five [[khandha]]s) of a Buddha are impermanent and changing, just like the body and mind of ordinary people. However, a Buddha recognizes the unchanging nature of the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], which is an eternal principle and an unconditioned and timeless phenomenon. This view is common in the Theravada school, and the other [[early Buddhist schools]]. ====Eternal Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism==== {{main|Eternal Buddha}} Some schools of Mahayana Buddhism believe that the Buddha is no longer essentially a human being but has become a being of a different order altogether and that the Buddha, in his ultimate transcendental "body/mind" mode as [[Dharmakaya]], has an eternal and infinite life (see [[eternal Buddha]]) and is possessed of great and immeasurable qualities. In the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]] the Buddha declares: "Nirvana is stated to be eternally abiding. The Tathagata [Buddha] is also thus, eternally abiding, without change." This is a particularly important metaphysical and soteriological doctrine in the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Tathagatagarbha]] sutras. According to the Tathagatagarbha sutras, failure to recognise the Buddha's eternity and - even worse - outright denial of that eternity is deemed a major obstacle to the attainment of complete Awakening ([[bodhi]]). == Depictions of the Buddha in art == [[Image:ShwedagonIMG 7662.JPG|thumb|Buddha statues at Shwedagon Paya]] [[Image:ShwedagonIMG 7656.JPG|thumb|Jade Buddha statue at Shwedagon Paya]] Buddhas are frequently represented in the form of statues and paintings. Commonly seen designs include: * Seated Buddha * Reclining Buddha * Standing Buddha *''[[Hotei]]'', the obese, [[Laughing Buddha]], usually seen in [[China]]. This figure is believed to be a representation of a medieval Chinese monk who is associated with Maitreya, the future Buddha, and it is therefore not technically a Buddha image. * The 'Emaciated Buddha', which shows Siddartha Gautama during his extreme ascetic practice of starvation. The Buddha statue shown calling for rain is a pose common in [[Laos]]. ===Markings=== Most depictions of Buddha contain a certain number of ''markings'', which are considered the signs of his enlightenment. These signs vary regionally, but two are common: * A protuberance on the top of the head (denoting superb mental accuity) * Long earlobes (denoting superb perception) In the [[Pali Canon]] there is frequent mention of a list of [[Thirty-two marks of the Buddha|32 physical marks of Buddha]]. ===Hand-gestures=== The poses and hand-gestures of these statues, known respectively as [[asana]]s and [[mudra]]s, are significant to their overall meaning. The popularity of any particular mudra or asana tends to be region-specific, such as the ''[[Vajra]]'' (or ''Chi Ken-in'') mudra, which is popular in [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] but rarely seen in [[India]]. Others are more universally common, for example, the ''Varada'' (Wish Granting) mudra is common among standing statues of the Buddha, particularly when coupled with the ''Abhaya'' (Fearlessness and Protection) mudra. ==Sources== <references/> *''What the Buddha Taught'' (Grove Press, Revised edition July 1974), by Walpola Rahula *''Buddha - The Compassionate Teacher'' (2002), by K.M.M.Swe ==See also== {{sisterlinks|Buddha}} *[[Gautama Buddha]] *[[List of the 28 Buddhas]] *[[Maitreya|Maitreya Buddha]] *[[Amitabha|Amitabha Buddha]] *[[Vairocana|Vairocana Buddha]] *[[Buddha-nature]] *[[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]] *[[Eternal Buddha]] *[[Buddha as an Avatara of Vishnu]] *[[List of Buddha claimants]] *[[Thirty-two marks of the Buddha]] *[[Fourteen unanswerable questions]] ==External links== * [http://www.aboutbuddha.org About Buddha] - Excerpts about the life of Buddha from ''Introduction to Buddhism'' * [http://www.accesstoinsight.org Very extensive database of sutras and other Buddhist articles] * [http://www.buddhaslists.com Information on Buddha's lists] * [http://www.gautamabuddha.org Mahamevnawa Buddhist Monastery - Sri Lanka] * [http://www.mettaforest.org/ Free dhamma talks and articles] * [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ The Buddha and His Dhamma] * [http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and a huge forum.] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/index.htm Buddhist Studies] * [http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal] * [http://www.meditateinlondon.org.uk/about-buddha.php About Buddha - the Founder of Buddhism] * [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/burmese/cooler/80Scenes/80_scenes_of_buddhas_life.htm The Life of the Buddha in 80 Scenes from the Ananda Temple,Bagan,Myanmar] * [http://www.buddhanature.com Songs and Meditations of the Tibetan Dhyani Buddhas] * [http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk The Complete Text of the Mahaparinirvana Sutra], on the eternal nature of the Buddha * [http://www.vri.dhamma.org/publications/buddha.html Gotama the Buddha] - Info from the website of the vipassana meditation technique as taught by [[S. N. Goenka]]. * [http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism.html Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]- Worldwide Non-Sectarian Buddhist Community. * [http://www.lensculture.com/buddha.html Images of Buddha] - worldwide submitted photos [[Category:Buddha]] [[Category:Buddha|*]] [[Category:Buddhism]] [[ar:بوذا]] [[ba:Будда]] [[bg:Буда]] [[cs:Buddha]] [[da:Buddha]] [[de:Buddha]] [[es:Buda]] [[eo:Budho]] [[fr:Bouddha]] [[ko:부처]] [[id:Buddha]] [[zu:uBudha]] [[it:Buddha]] [[he:גאוטמה בודהא]] [[jv:Buddha]] [[kn:ಬುಧ್ದ]] [[hu:Buddha]] [[ms:Buddha]] [[nl:Boeddha]] [[ja:仏陀]] [[nn:Buddha]] [[nds:Buddha]] [[pl:Budda]] [[pt:Buda]] [[ro:Buddha]] [[ru:Будда]] [[simple:Buddha]] [[sk:Budha]] [[sl:Buda]] [[sr:Буда]] [[fi:Buddha]] [[sv:Buddha]] [[th:พระพุทธเจ้า]] [[vi:Bụt]] [[tpi:Buda]] [[uk:Сиддхартха Гаутама Будда]] [[zh:佛]] 1685 3128 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default The given page title was invalid or had an inter-language or inter-wiki prefix. It may contain one more characters which cannot be used in titles. 1686 3129 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default anon. only 1687 3130 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default April 1688 3131 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default asc 1689 3132 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default August 1690 3133 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default You are not allowed to execute the action you have requested. 1691 3134 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default The action you have requested is limited to users in the group $1. 1692 3135 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default The action you have requested is limited to users in one of the groups $1. 1693 3136 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default The action you have requested is limited to users in one of the groups $1. 1694 3138 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default Account creation from this IP address (<b>$1</b>) has been blocked. This is probably due to persistent vandalism from your school or Internet service provider. 1695 3139 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default Can't create account 1696 3140 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default View category page 1697 3141 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default You do not have a valid email address set in your [[Special:Preferences|user preferences]]. 1698 3142 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default account creation blocked 1699 3143 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default The database is not locked. 1700 3144 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default December 1701 3145 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default desc 1702 3146 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default February 1703 3147 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default Fri 1704 3148 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default Date 1705 3149 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default Description 1706 3150 2006-08-31T19:06:56Z MediaWiki default Name 1707 3151 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Search for image name: 1708 3152 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Size (bytes) 1709 3153 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default User 1710 3154 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default file 1711 3155 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Go! 1712 3156 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default 1713 3157 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Go to page 1714 3158 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default next page &rarr; 1715 3159 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default &larr; previous page 1716 3160 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Transfer pages into namespace: 1717 3162 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default "$1" is already blocked 1718 3163 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Error: Block ID $1 not found. It may have been unblocked already. 1719 3164 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Block anonymous users only 1720 3165 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Prevent account creation 1721 3166 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default January 1722 3167 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default July 1723 3168 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default June 1724 3170 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Display users starting at: 1725 3172 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default The database lock file is not writable. To lock or unlock the database, this needs to be writable by the web server. 1726 3173 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default March 1727 3174 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default May 1728 3175 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default View message page 1729 3176 2006-08-31T19:06:57Z MediaWiki default Mon 1730 3177 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Username: 1731 3180 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default November 1732 3181 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default October 1733 3182 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Revision as of $1; $5<br />($6) $3 | $2 | $4 ($7) 1734 3183 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Sat 1735 3184 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Search 1736 3185 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default You searched for '''[[:$1]]''' 1737 3186 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default You searched for '''$1''' 1738 3187 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default September 1739 3188 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Most viewed pages 1740 3189 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Sun 1741 3190 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default No results 1742 3191 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default First page 1743 3192 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Last page 1744 3193 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Show $1 items per page 1745 3194 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Go 1746 3195 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Next page 1747 3196 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Previous page 1748 3197 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default View template page 1749 3198 2006-08-31T19:06:58Z MediaWiki default Thu 1750 3199 2006-08-31T19:06:59Z MediaWiki default Tue 1751 3200 2006-08-31T19:06:59Z MediaWiki default (a file on your computer) 1752 3296 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default 72 (a valid, publicly accessible URL) 1753 3203 2006-08-31T19:06:59Z MediaWiki default View help page 1754 3204 2006-08-31T19:06:59Z MediaWiki default View logs for this page 1755 3205 2006-08-31T19:06:59Z MediaWiki default Wed 1756 3587 2006-12-19T09:59:13Z 209.67.215.162 Unknown 1758 3210 2006-09-25T20:35:27Z 202.161.131.76 {{चिकित्सा}} 1759 3211 2006-09-25T20:36:38Z 202.161.131.76 <br clear=all /> {| style="margin:0 auto;" align=center width="80%" class="toccolours" !style="background:#ccccff"|<big>[[स्वास्थ्य विज्ञान]] – [[चिकित्साशास्त्र]]</big> |- |align=center|[[मूर्छाशास्त्र]](Anesthesiology)&nbsp;| [[चर्मशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[आकस्मिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[साधारण चिकित्सक]]&nbsp;| [[आन्तरिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[स्नायुशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[प्रसवशास्त्र]] व [[महिलारोग शास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[कार्यव्याधि चिकित्सा]](Occupational Medicine)&nbsp;| [[रोगशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[बालरोगशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[भौतिक चिकित्सा र पूनर्स्थापना]]&nbsp;| [[मानसिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[सामाजिक स्वास्थ्य]]&nbsp;| [[चिकित्सा विकिरणशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[शल्यचिकित्सा]] |- !style="background:#ccccff"| [[आन्तरिक चिकित्सा]] क्षेत्रा |- |align=center| [[हृदयशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ग्रन्थिशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ग्यास्त्रोएन्टेरोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[रक्तशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[कम्युनिकेबल रोग चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[ईन्टेन्सिभ केयर चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[मृगौलाशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ओन्कोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[फोक्सोशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[रिउम्याटोलोजी]] |- !style="background:#ccccff"| [[शल्यचिकित्सा]] क्षेत्रा |- |align=center| [[हृदयछाती शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[चार्मिक शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[साधारण शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[महिला शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[स्नायुशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[नेत्रशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[मुख व अनुहार शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[अंग प्रत्यारोपण]]&nbsp;| [[हाडजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[ओटोल्यारिंजियोलोजी]]&nbsp;<small>(ENT)</small>&nbsp;| [[बाल्यशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[प्लास्टिक शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[क्यान्सर शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[चोट शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[युरोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[धमनी शल्यचिकित्सा]] |} 1760 3212 2006-09-25T20:39:09Z 202.161.131.76 {{चिकित्सा}} 1761 3356 2006-12-10T08:24:50Z 203.173.138.159 Replacing page with '{{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}}' {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1762 3220 2006-09-30T11:07:59Z Xandi 69 +iw '''><(((*>''' [[pt:User:Xandi]] [[aa:User:Xandi]] [[af:Gebruiker:Xandi]] [[ak:User:Xandi]] [[als:Benutzer:Xandi]] [[am:User:Xandi]] [[an:Usuario:Xandi]] [[ang:User:Xandi]] [[ar:مستخدم:Xandi]] [[arc:User:Xandi]] [[as:User:Xandi]] [[ast:Usuariu:Xandi]] [[ay:Utilisateur:Xandi]] [[av:Участник:Xandi]] [[az:İstifadəçi:Xandi]] [[ba:Ҡатнашыусы:Xandi]] [[be:Удзельнік:Xandi]] [[bg:Потребител:Xandi]] [[bm:Utilisateur:Xandi]] [[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Xandi]] [[bo:User:Xandi]] [[br:Implijer:Xandi]] [[bs:User:Xandi]] [[ca:Usuari:Xandi]] [[ch:User:Xandi]] [[chr:User:Xandi]] [[co:User:Xandi]] [[ceb:User:Xandi]] [[cs:Wikipedista:Xandi]] [[csb:Brëkòwnik:Xandi]] [[cy:Defnyddiwr:Xandi]] [[cv:Хутшăнакан:Xandi]] [[da:Bruger:Xandi]] [[dv:User:Xandi]] [[dz:User:Xandi]] [[ee:User:Xandi]] [[el:Χρήστης:Xandi]] [[en:User:Xandi]] [[eo:Vikipediisto:Xandi]] [[es:Usuario:Xandi]] [[et:Kasutaja:Xandi]] [[eu:user:Xandi]] [[fa:کاربر:Xandi]] [[ff:User:Xandi]] [[fi:Käyttäjä:Xandi]] [[fiu-vro:User:Xandi]] [[fj:User:Xandi]] [[fo:Brúkari:Xandi]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Xandi]] [[frp:User:Xandi]] [[fur:Utent:Xandi]] [[fy:Meidogger:Xandi]] [[ga:Úsáideoir:Xandi]] [[gd:User:Xandi]] [[gl:User:Xandi]] [[got:User:Xandi]] [[gu:User:Xandi]] [[haw:User:Xandi]] [[he:משתמש:Xandi]] [[hi:सदस्य:Xandi]] [[kj:User:Xandi]] [[hr:Suradnik:Xandi]] [[hu:User:Xandi]] [[hz:User:Xandi]] [[ia:Usator:Xandi]] [[id:user:Xandi]] [[ig:User:Xandi]] [[ii:User:Xandi]] [[ilo:User:Xandi]] [[io:User:Xandi]] [[is:User:Xandi]] [[it:Utente:Xandi]] [[iu:User:Xandi]] [[ja:利用者:Xandi]] [[jv:Panganggo:Xandi]] [[ka:მომხმარებელი:Xandi]] [[kg:User:Xandi]] [[ki:User:Xandi]] [[kj:User:Xandi]] [[kk:User:Xandi]] [[km:User:Xandi]] [[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Xandi]] [[kr:User:Xandi]] [[ks:User:Xandi]] [[ksh:Medmaacher:Xandi]] [[ku:Bikarhêner:Xandi]] [[kv:Участник:Xandi]] [[kw:User:Xandi]] [[la:Usor:Xandi]] [[lad:User:Xandi]] [[lb:user:Xandi]] [[lg:User:Xandi]] [[li:Gebroeker:Xandi]] [[lij:User:Xandi]] [[lmo:User:Xandi]] [[ln:User:Xandi]] [[lo:User:Xandi]] [[lt:Naudotojas:Xandi]] [[lv:Lietotājs:Xandi]] [[mg:User:Xandi]] [[mi:user:Xandi]] [[mk:Корисник:Xandi]] [[ml:User:Xandi]] [[mo:User:Xandi]] [[mr:User:Xandi]] [[ms:User:Xandi]] [[mt:User:Xandi]] [[nah:Usuario:Xandi]] [[nap:User:Xandi]] [[nds:Bruker:Xandi]] [[nds-nl:Gebruker:Xandi]] [[ng:User:Xandi]] [[nl:Gebruiker:Xandi]] [[nn:User:Xandi]] [[no:Bruker:Xandi]] [[nrm:User:Xandi]] [[ny:User:Xandi]] [[nv:User:Xandi]] [[oc:User:Xandi]] [[om:User:Xandi]] [[or:User:Xandi]] [[os:Архайæг:Xandi]] [[pa:ਮੈਂਬਰ:Xandi]] [[pam:User:Xandi]] [[pap:User:Xandi]] [[pdc:User:Xandi]] [[pl:Wikipedysta:Xandi]] [[pms:Ciaciarade:Xandi]] [[ps:User:Xandi]] [[qu:Usuario:Xandi]] [[rm:User:Xandi]] [[rn:User:Xandi]] [[ro:Utilizator:Xandi]] [[ru:Участник:Xandi]] [[rw:User:Xandi]] [[sa:User:Xandi]] [[sc:Utente:Xandi]] [[scn:User:Xandi]] [[sco:User:Xandi]] [[sd:User:Xandi]] [[se:User:Xandi]] [[sg:User:Xandi]] [[sh:User:Xandi]] [[si:User:Xandi]] [[simple:User:Xandi]] [[sk:Redaktor:Xandi]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Xandi]] [[sn:User:Xandi]] [[sq:User:Xandi]] [[sr:Корисник:Xandi]] [[ss:User:Xandi]] [[st:User:Xandi]] [[su:Pamaké:Xandi]] [[sv:Användare:Xandi]] [[sw:User:Xandi]] [[ta:பயனர்:Xandi]] [[te:సభ్యుడు:Xandi]] [[tet:User:Xandi]] [[tg:Корбар:Xandi]] [[th:ผู้ใช้:Xandi]] [[ti:User:Xandi]] [[tk:User:Xandi]] [[tl:User:Xandi]] [[tn:User:Xandi]] [[tpi:User:Xandi]] [[tr:Kullanıcı:Xandi]] [[tt:Äğzä:Xandi]] [[tum:User:Xandi]] [[ty:User:Xandi]] [[tw:User:Xandi]] [[udm:Викиавтор:Xandi]] [[uk:Користувач:Xandi]] [[ur:صارف:Xandi]] [[uz:User:Xandi]] [[ve:User:Xandi]] [[vec:Utente:Xandi]] [[vi:user:Xandi]] [[vls:User:Xandi]] [[xal:Орлцач:Xandi]] [[xh:User:Xandi]] [[yi:באַניצער:Xandi]] [[yo:User:Xandi]] [[wa:Uzeu:Xandi]] [[war:User:Xandi]] [[wo:User:Xandi]] [[za:User:Xandi]] [[zh:User:Xandi]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Xandi]] [[zh-yue:User:Xandi]] [[zu:User:Xandi]] 1763 3227 2006-10-07T05:57:46Z Eukesh 59 {{हिन्दू धम्म}} 1764 3229 2006-10-07T06:02:44Z Eukesh 59 {| align="left" class="toccolours" style="clear:both;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | {| style="background:orange; border: 0px; padding: 0px; spacing:0px;width:100%;" |- | width="60%"; style="text-align:center; font-size:100%;" | '''[[हिन्दू धम्म]]''' |} {| |align="right" style="font-size: 90%; " |'''[[श्रुति(हिन्दू धम्म)|श्रुति]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[वेद]] · [[उपनिषद]] · [[श्रुत]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[स्मृति(हिन्दू धम्म)|स्मृति]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ईतिहास (हिन्दू धम्म)|ईतिहास]] ([[रामायण]], [[महाभारत]], [[श्रीमदभागवत गीता]]) · [[पुराण]] · [[सुत्र]] · [[आगम(धम्म)|आगम]] ([[तन्त्र]], [[यन्त्र]]) · [[वेदान्त]] |- |valign="top" align=right style="font-size: 90%;" |'''विचार''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[अवतार]] · [[आत्मा (हिन्दू धर्म)|आत्मा]] · [[ब्राह्मन]] · [[कोसस]] · [[धम्म(हिन्दू धम्म)|धम्म]] · [[कर्म (हिन्दू धम्म)|कर्म]] · [[मोक्ष]] · [[माया (हिन्दू धम्म)|माया]] · [[इष्ट-देव]] · [[मुर्ति]] · [[पूनर्जन्म(हिन्दू धम्म)|पूनर्जन्म]] · [[संसार(हिन्दू धम्म)|संसार]] · [[तत्त्व(हिन्दू धम्म)|तत्त्व]] · [[त्रिमुर्ति]] · [[कतुर्थ]];· [[गुरु-शिष्य परम्परा|गुरु]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[हिन्दू दर्शन|दर्शन]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[हिन्दू मान्यता|मान्यता]] · [[प्राचीन हिन्दू धम्म]] · [[साँख्य(हिन्दू धर्म)|साँख्य]] · [[न्याय(हिन्दू धम्म)|न्याय]] · [[वैशेषिक]] · [[योग]] · [[मीमांसा]] · [[वेदान्त]] · [[तन्त्र]] · [[भक्ति योग|भक्ति]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[परम्परा(हिन्दू धम्म)|परम्परा]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ज्योतिष]] · [[आयुर्वेद]] · [[आरति]] · [[भजन]] · [[दर्शन(हिन्दू धम्म)|दर्शन]] · [[दिक्षा]] · [[मन्त्र|मन्त्र]] · [[पुजा]] · [[सत्संग]] · [[स्तोत्र]] · [[हिन्दू विवाह|विवाह]] · [[यज्ञ]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" | '''[[गुरु]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[आदि शंकर|शंकर]] · [[रामानुज]] · [[श्री माधवाचार्य|माधवाचार्य]] · [[रामकृष्ण परमहंस|रामकृष्ण]] · [[शारदा देवी|शारदा देवी]] · [[स्वमी विवेकानन्द|विवेकानन्द]] · [[नारायण गुरु]] · [[श्री औरोबिन्दो|औरोबिन्दो]] · [[रमन महार्षि]] · [[स्वामी शिवानन्द सरस्वती|शिवानन्द]] · [[स्‍वामी चिन्‍मयानन्‍द|चिन्‍मयानन्‍द]] · [[सत्गुरु शिवाय शुब्रमुनियस्वमी|शुब्रमुनियस्वमी]] · [[स्वामीनारायण]] · [[ए सी भक्तिवेदान्त स्वमी प्रभुपद|प्रभुपद]] · [[लोकेनाथ]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"| '''[[हिन्दू विभाजन|विभाजन]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[वैष्णभ]] · [[शैव]] · [[शक्ति]] · [[स्मृति]] · [[हिन्दू पूनरुत्थान]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"|'''[[हिन्दू देवता|देवता]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[हिन्दू देवता नाम]] · [[हिन्दू कथा]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"|'''[[युग]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[सत्य युग]] · [[त्रेता युग]] · [[द्वापर युग]] · [[कलि युग]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[हिन्दू वर्ण व्यवस्था|वर्ण]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ब्राह्मन]] · [[क्षत्रीय]] · [[वैश्य]] · [[शुद्र]] · [[दलित]] · [[वर्णाश्रम धम्म]] | |} </div> </div> <noinclude> [[en:Hinduism]] [[new:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[pt:Predefinição:Hinduísmo]] </noinclude> 1765 3231 2006-10-14T10:21:44Z Eukesh 59 {|align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style="border:2px solid #e1eaee; border-collapse:separate;font-size:120%" |- |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/०|०-९]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/अ|अ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/आ|आ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/इ|इ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ई|ई]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/उ|उ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ऊ|ऊ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ए|ए]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ऐ|ऐ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ओ|ओ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/औ|औ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/अं|अं]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/क|क]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ख|ख]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ग|ग]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/घ|घ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ङ|ङ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/च|च]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/छ|छ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ज|ज]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/झ|झ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ञ|ञ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ट|ट]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ठ|ठ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ड|ड]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ढ|ढ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-right:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ण|ण]] |- |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Categories|श्रेणी]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/त|त]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/थ|थ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/द|द]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ध|ध]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/न|न]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/प|प]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/फ|फ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ब|ब]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/भ|भ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/म|म]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/य|य]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/र|र]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ल|ल]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/व|व]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/श|श]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ष|ष]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/स|स]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ह|ह]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/क्ष|क्ष]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/त्र|त्र]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ज्ञ|ज्ञ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ऋ|ऋ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ॠ়|ॠ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ॐ|ॐ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/श्र|श्र]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/अः|अः]] |} <!-- * <span style="font-size:120%"> [[Special:Allpages/Category:!|!]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:०|०-९]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अ|अ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:आ|आ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:इ|इ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ई|ई]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:उ|उ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऊ|ऊ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ए|ए]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऐ|ऐ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ओ|ओ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:औ|औ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अं|अं]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अः|अः]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:क|क]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ख|ख]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ग|ग]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:घ|घ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ङ|ङ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:च|च]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:छ|छ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ज|ज]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:झ|झ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ञ|ञ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ट|ट]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ठ|ठ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ड|ड]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ढ|ढ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ण|ण]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:त|त]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:थ|थ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:द|द]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ध|ध]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:न|न]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:प|प]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:फ|फ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ब|ब]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:भ|भ]][[Special:Allpages/Category:म|म]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:य|य]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:र|र]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ल|ल]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:व|व]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:श|श]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ष|ष]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ह|ह]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:क्ष|क्ष]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:त्र|त्र]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ज्ञ|ज्ञ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऋ|ऋ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ॠ|ॠ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ॐ|ॐ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:श्र|श्र]]</span> --> 1766 3232 2006-10-15T10:53:20Z Vargenau 70 Bonjour, Je suis un Wikipédien français. Merci de me contacter sur [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hello, I am a French Wikipedian. Please contact me on [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hallo, Ich bin ein französischer Wikipedia Benutzer. Bitte gehen Sie zu : [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. 1768 3234 2006-10-15T10:55:32Z Escarbot 71 {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot en cours de test''' |- | Ce robot en cours de test est destiné à faire des interwikis. |- | Dresseur : [[:fr:Utilisateur:Vargenau|Vargenau]] |- | Laissez vos commentaires sur [[:fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Vargenau|ma page de discussion]]. Merci. |} {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot currently under test''' |- | This robot currently under test will only be used to make interwiki links. |- | Owner: [[:fr:Utilisateur:Vargenau|Vargenau]] |- | Please leave your comments (in French or English) on [[:fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Vargenau|my French talk page]]. Thank you. |} 1770 3240 2006-10-25T19:40:35Z MediaWiki default 1771 3241 2006-10-25T19:40:35Z MediaWiki default 1772 3242 2006-10-25T19:40:36Z MediaWiki default Your IP address is blocked from editing, and so is not allowed to use the password recovery function to prevent abuse. 1773 3243 2006-10-25T19:40:36Z MediaWiki default 1774 3244 2006-10-25T19:40:37Z MediaWiki default 1775 3247 2006-10-25T19:40:38Z MediaWiki default 1776 3248 2006-10-25T19:40:38Z MediaWiki default The following pages do not link to other pages in this wiki. 1777 3249 2006-10-25T19:40:38Z MediaWiki default 1778 3250 2006-10-25T19:40:38Z MediaWiki default 1779 3251 2006-10-25T19:40:39Z MediaWiki default Editing user <b>$1</b> 1780 3254 2006-10-25T19:40:44Z MediaWiki default Atom 1781 3255 2006-10-25T19:40:44Z MediaWiki default RSS 1782 3256 2006-10-25T19:40:46Z MediaWiki default 1783 3259 2006-10-25T19:40:46Z MediaWiki default 1784 3260 2006-10-25T19:40:47Z MediaWiki default This page was last modified $2, $1. 1785 3261 2006-10-25T19:40:47Z MediaWiki default This page was last modified $2, $1 by $3. 1786 3262 2006-10-25T19:40:47Z MediaWiki default 1787 3263 2006-10-25T19:40:47Z MediaWiki default 1788 3264 2006-10-25T19:40:47Z MediaWiki default 1789 3265 2006-10-25T19:40:47Z MediaWiki default The following pages are not linked from other pages in this wiki. 1790 3266 2006-10-25T19:40:47Z MediaWiki default 1791 3267 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default 1792 3268 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default 1793 3269 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default 1794 3270 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default 1795 3271 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default 1796 3272 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default 1797 3273 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default My preferences 1798 3274 2006-10-25T19:40:48Z MediaWiki default 1799 3276 2006-10-25T19:40:49Z MediaWiki default 1800 3278 2006-10-25T19:40:50Z MediaWiki default {{PLURAL:$1|Category|Categories}} 1801 3279 2006-10-25T19:40:50Z MediaWiki default 1802 3280 2006-10-25T19:40:50Z MediaWiki default 1803 3281 2006-10-25T19:40:50Z MediaWiki default 1804 3283 2006-10-25T19:40:52Z MediaWiki default You have not specified target revision or revisions to perform this function on. 1805 3284 2006-10-25T19:40:52Z MediaWiki default No target revision 1806 3285 2006-10-25T19:40:53Z MediaWiki default Go 1807 3286 2006-10-25T19:40:53Z MediaWiki default 1808 3287 2006-10-25T19:40:54Z MediaWiki default 1809 3288 2006-10-25T19:40:55Z MediaWiki default A password reminder has already been sent, within the last $1 hours. To prevent abuse, only one password reminder will be sent per $1 hours. 1810 3289 2006-10-25T19:40:55Z MediaWiki default Disable variants conversion 1811 3291 2006-10-25T19:40:56Z MediaWiki default 1812 3292 2006-10-25T19:40:56Z MediaWiki default 1813 3293 2006-10-25T19:40:56Z MediaWiki default 1814 3294 2006-10-25T19:40:57Z MediaWiki default 1815 3295 2006-10-25T19:40:57Z MediaWiki default 1816 3297 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default 1817 3298 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default kk 1818 3299 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default kk-cn 1819 3300 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default kk-kz 1820 3301 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default kk-tr 1821 3302 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default 1822 3303 2006-10-25T19:40:58Z MediaWiki default 1823 3307 2006-10-25T19:40:59Z MediaWiki default Watch this page 1824 3308 2006-10-25T19:40:59Z MediaWiki default &lt; 1825 3309 2006-10-25T19:40:59Z MediaWiki default 1826 3314 2006-11-05T18:55:24Z Eukesh 59 [http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Eukesh Please contact me here if you need to] 1827 3366 2006-12-10T13:27:49Z Escarbot 71 robot Adding: aa, ab, af, ak, als, am, an, ang, ar, arc, as, ast, av, ay, az, ba, bat-smg, be, bg, bh, bi, bm, bn, bo, bpy, br, bs, bug, ca, cbk-zam, ce, ceb, ch, cho, chr, chy, co, cr, cs, csb, cv, cy, da, de, diq, dv, dz, ee, el, en, eo, es, et, e {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[aa:India]] [[ab:India]] [[af:Indië]] [[ak:India]] [[als:Indien]] [[am:ህንድ]] [[an:India]] [[ang:India]] [[ar:الهند]] [[arc:India]] [[as:ভারত]] [[ast:India]] [[av:India]] [[ay:India]] [[az:Hindistan]] [[ba:India]] [[bat-smg:India]] [[be:Індыя]] [[bg:Индия]] [[bh:भारत]] [[bi:India]] [[bm:India]] [[bn:ভারত]] [[bo:India]] [[bpy:ভারত]] [[br:India]] [[bs:Indija]] [[bug:India]] [[ca:Índia]] [[cbk-zam:India]] [[ce:India]] [[ceb:Indiya]] [[ch:India]] [[cho:India]] [[chr:India]] [[chy:India]] [[co:India]] [[cr:India]] [[cs:Indie]] [[csb:Indie]] [[cv:Инди]] [[cy:India]] [[da:Indien]] [[de:Indien]] [[diq:Hindıstan]] [[dv:ހިންދުސްތާން]] [[dz:India]] [[ee:India]] [[el:Ινδία]] [[en:India]] [[eo:Barato]] [[es:India]] [[et:India]] [[eu:India]] [[fa:هند]] [[fi:Intia]] [[fiu-vro:India]] [[fj:India]] [[fo:India]] [[fr:Inde]] [[frp:Ende]] [[fur:Indie]] [[fy:Yndia]] [[ga:An India]] [[gd:Na h-Innseachan]] [[gl:India - भारत]] [[gn:India]] [[got:𐌹𐌽𐌳𐌹𐌰]] [[gu:ભારત]] [[gv:Yn Injey]] [[ha:India]] [[haw:ʻInia]] [[he:הודו]] [[hi:भारत]] [[ho:India]] [[hr:Indija]] [[ht:End]] [[hu:India]] [[hy:Հնդկաստան]] [[hz:India]] [[ia:India]] [[id:India]] [[ie:India]] [[ig:India]] [[ilo:India]] [[io:India]] [[is:Indland]] [[it:India]] [[iu:ᐃᓐᑎᐊ]] [[ja:インド]] [[jbo:xingu'e]] [[jv:India]] [[ka:ინდოეთი]] [[kg:India]] [[ki:India]] [[kj:India]] [[kk:Үндістан]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌា]] [[kn:ಭಾರತ]] [[ko:인도]] [[ks:ہِندوستان]] [[ksh:Inndije]] [[ku:Hindistan]] [[kv:India]] [[kw:Eynda]] [[ky:India]] [[la:India]] [[lb:Indien]] [[li:India]] [[lij:India]] [[lmo:India]] [[ln:India]] [[lo:India]] [[lt:Indija]] [[lv:Indija]] [[map-bms:India]] [[mg:India]] [[mh:India]] [[mi:Inia (whenua)]] [[mk:Индија]] [[ml:ഇന്ത്യ]] [[mn:Энэтхэг]] [[mo:Индия]] [[mr:भारत]] [[ms:India]] [[mt:Indja]] [[mus:India]] [[my:India]] [[na:India]] [[nah:Indiyān]] [[nap:Innia]] [[nds:Indien]] [[nds-nl:India]] [[ne:भारत]] [[ng:India]] [[nl:India]] [[nn:India]] [[no:India]] [[nov:India]] [[nrm:Înde]] [[nv:India]] [[ny:India]] [[oc:Índia]] [[om:India]] [[or:ଭାରତ]] [[os:Инди]] [[pa:ਭਾਰਤ]] [[pam:India]] [[pap:India]] [[pdc:India]] [[pih:India]] [[pl:Indie]] [[pms:India]] [[ps:هند]] [[pt:Índia]] [[qu:Indiya]] [[rm:India]] [[rmy:Indiya (Bharat)]] [[rn:India]] [[ro:India]] [[roa-rup:India]] [[ru:Индия]] [[ru-sib:Индия]] [[sa:भारत]] [[sc:Ìndia]] [[scn:Innia]] [[sco:Indie]] [[sd:India]] [[se:India]] [[sg:India]] [[sh:Indija]] [[si:ඉන්දියාව]] [[simple:India]] [[sk:India]] [[sl:Indija]] [[sm:India]] [[sn:India]] [[so:Hindiya]] [[sq:India]] [[sr:Индија]] [[ss:India]] [[st:India]] [[su:India]] [[sv:Indien]] [[sw:Uhindi]] [[ta:இந்தியா]] [[te:భారత దేశము]] [[tet:Índia]] [[tg:Ҳиндустон]] [[th:ประเทศอินเดีย]] [[ti:India]] [[tk:Hindistan]] [[tl:India]] [[to:ʻInitia]] [[tpi:India]] [[tr:Hindistan]] [[ts:India]] [[tt:Hindstan]] [[tum:India]] [[tw:India]] [[ty:’Inītia]] [[udm:Индия]] [[ug:ھىندىستان]] [[uk:Індія]] [[ur:بھارت]] [[uz:Hindiston]] [[ve:India]] [[vec:India]] [[vi:Ấn Độ]] [[vo:India]] [[wa:Inde]] [[war:India]] [[wo:India]] [[wuu:印度]] [[xal:India]] [[xh:India]] [[yi:אינדיע]] [[za:India]] [[zh:印度]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō͘]] [[zh-yue:印度]] [[zu:India]] 1828 3321 2006-11-29T17:25:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{एलेमेन्ट}} {{एलेमेन्ट}} 1829 3330 2006-12-04T17:18:14Z Eukesh 59 [[Template:एलेमेन्ट]] moved to [[Template:तत्त्व]] <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[एलेमेन्ट(रसायनशास्त्र)|एलेमेन्ट]]([[रसायनशास्त्र]])'''</div> <div class="NavContent"> {| | align="center" style="font-size: 110%;"| [[हाइड्रोजन]]-[[हेलियम]]-[[लिथियम]]-[[बेरिलियम]]-[[बोरोन]]-[[कार्बोन]]-[[नाइट्रोजन]]-[[अक्सिजन]]-[[फ्लोरिन]]-[[नियोन]]-[[सोडियम]]-[[म्याग्नेजियम]]-[[एलुमिनियम]]-[[सिलिकन]]-[[फस्फोरस]]-[[सल्फर]]-[[क्लोरिन]]-[[आर्गन]]-[[पोटासियम]]-[[क्याल्सियम]]-[[स्क्यान्डियम]]-[[टाइटानियम]]-[[भ्यानडियम]]-[[क्रोमियम]]-[[म्याङ्यानिज]]-[[आइरन]]-[[कोबाल्ट]]-[[निकेल]]-[[कपर]]-[[जिंक]]-[[ग्यालियम]]-[[जर्मेनियम]]-[[आर्सेनिक]]-[[सेलेनियम]]-[[ब्रोमिन]]-[[कृप्टन]]-[[रुबिडियम]]-[[स्ट्रोन्सियम]]-[[यितृयम]]-[[जर्कोनियम]]-[[नायोबियम]]-[[मोलिब्डेनम]]-[[टेक्नेसियम]]-[[रुथेनियम]] -[[रोडियम]]-[[प्यालिडियम]]-[[सिल्भर]]-[[क्याड्मियम]]-[[इन्डियम]]-[[टिन]]-[[एन्टिमोनी]]-[[टेलुरियम]]-[[आयोडिन]]-[[जेनन]]-[[सेसियम]]-[[बेरियम]]-[[ल्यान्थानम]]-[[सेरियम]]-[[प्रासियोडाइमियम]]-[[नियोडाइमियम]]-[[प्रोमेथियम]]-[[समारियम]]-[[युरोपियम]]-[[ग्याडोलिनियम]]-[[टर्बियम]]-[[डिस्प्रोसियम]]-[[होल्मियम]]-[[अर्बियम]]-[[थुलियम]]-[[यिट्टरबियम]]-[[लुटेटियम]]-[[हाफ्नियम]]-[[टान्टालम]]-[[टंग्स्टेन]]-[[रेनियम]]-[[अस्मियम]]-[[इरिडियम]]-[[प्लाटिनम]]-[[औरियम]]-[[मर्करी]]-[[थ्यालियम]]-[[लिड]]-[[बिस्मुथ]]-[[पोलोनियम]]-[[एस्टाटिन]]-[[रेडन]]-[[फ्रान्सियम]]-[[रेडियम]]-[[एक्टिनियम]]-[[थोरियम]]-[[प्रोट्याक्टिनियम]]-[[युर्यानियम]]-[[नेप्टुनियम]]-[[प्लुटोनियम]]-[[अमेरिसियम]]-[[क्युरियम]]-[[बर्केलियम]]-[[क्यालिफोर्नियम]]-[[आइन्स्टाइनियम]]-[[फर्मियम]]-[[मेन्डेलेभियम]]-[[नोबेलियम]]-[[लरेन्सियम]]-[[रुथरफोर्डियम]]-[[डब्नियम]]-[[सीबोर्गियम]]-[[बोरियम]]-[[ह्यासियम]]-[[मेइट्नेरियम]]-[[उनउननिलियम]]-[[उनउनउनियम]]-[[उनउनबियम]]-[[उनउनक्वाडृयम]]-[[उनउनहेक्जियम]] |} </div> </div> [[Category:रसायनशास्त्र]] 1830 3327 2006-12-04T17:09:58Z Eukesh 59 Vandalism deletion 1831 3484 2006-12-16T00:11:29Z Eukesh 59 '''हाइड्रोजन''' एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1832 3331 2006-12-04T17:18:14Z Eukesh 59 [[Template:एलेमेन्ट]] moved to [[Template:तत्त्व]] #REDIRECT [[Template:तत्त्व]] 1833 3489 2006-12-16T00:16:20Z Eukesh 59 एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1834 3488 2006-12-16T00:16:15Z Eukesh 59 एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1835 3335 2006-12-04T17:38:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1836 3336 2006-12-04T17:44:57Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1837 3337 2006-12-04T17:48:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1838 3338 2006-12-04T17:52:11Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1839 3339 2006-12-04T17:54:52Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1840 3340 2006-12-04T17:58:23Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1841 3341 2006-12-04T17:58:50Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1842 3342 2006-12-04T17:59:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1843 3491 2006-12-16T00:16:58Z Eukesh 59 एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1844 3348 2006-12-10T08:22:15Z 203.173.138.159 New page: [[Image:Icono aviso borrar.png|80px|left]] '''This page is a candidate for speedy deletion!''' If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedi... [[Image:Icono aviso borrar.png|80px|left]] '''This page is a candidate for speedy deletion!''' If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedia:Speedy deletions. If this page obviously does not meet the criteria for speedy deletion, or you intend to fix it, please remove this notice, but do not remove this notice from articles that you have created yourself. 1845 3365 2006-12-10T09:27:11Z 62.8.72.61 New page: counselling psychology counselling psychology 1860 3391 2006-12-14T00:38:21Z Eukesh 59 [[Āngalabhāsā]] moved to [[आंगलभाषा]] #REDIRECT [[आंगलभाषा]] 1861 3396 2006-12-14T16:28:08Z Eukesh 59 Replacing page with '{{अमेरिका}}' {{अमेरिका}} 1862 3397 2006-12-14T16:28:25Z Eukesh 59 New page: <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]स्... <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]स्य राज्या व राजधानी'''</div> <div class="NavContent"> {| | align="center" style="font-size: 110%;"| [[अलाबामा]] ([[मोन्टगोमरी]]) | [[अलास्का]] ([[जुन्यु]]) | [[अराइजोना]] ([[फिनिक्स]]) | [[आर्कान्स:]] ([[लिटिल रक]]) | [[क्यालिफोर्निया]] ([[सेक्रामेन्टो]]) | [[कोलोर्याडो]] ([[डेन्भर]]) | [[कनेक्टिकट]] ([[हार्टफोर्ड]]) | [[डेलावेर]] ([[डोभर]]) | [[डिस्ट्रिक्ट अफ कोलम्बिया]] ([[वासिंगटन डि सि]]) | [[फ्लोरिडा]] ([[टालाहासे]]) | [[ज्योर्जिया]] ([[एट्लान्टा]]) | [[हवाई]] ([[होनालुलु]]) | [[आइडाहो]] ([[बोइज]]) | [[इलिनोइ]] ([[स्प्रिंगफिल्ड]]) | [[इन्डियाना]] ([[इन्डियानापोलिस]]) | [[आयोवा]] ([[डेस् म्वाने]]) | [[कान्सास्]] ([[टोपेका]]) | [[केन्चकी]] ([[फ्र्यांकफोर्ट]]) | [[लुइजियाना]] ([[बेटन रु]]) | [[मेइन]] ([[अगस्टा]]) | [[मेरील्यान्ड]] ([[एनापोलिस]]) | [[म्यासेच्युसेट्स]] ([[बोस्टन]]) | [[मिसिगन]] ([[ल्यान्सिंग]]) | [[मिनेसोटा]] ([[सन्त पल]]) | [[मिसिसिप्पी]] ([[ज्याकसन]]) | [[मिसौरी]] ([[जेफर्सन सिटी]]) | [[मोन्टाना]] ([[हेलेना]]) | [[नेब्रास्का]] ([[लिंकन]]) | [[नेभेदा]] ([[कार्सन सिटी]]) | [[न्हु ह्याम्प्शायर]] ([[कन्कर्ड]]) | [[न्हु जर्सी]] ([[ट्रेन्टन]]) | [[न्हु मेक्सिको]] ([[सान्ता फे]]) | [[न्हु यर्क]] ([[अल्बानी]]) | [[उत्तर क्यारोलिना]] ([[र्यालेइ]]) | [[उत्तर डेकोटा]] ([[बिस्मार्क]]) | [[ओहायो]] ([[कोलम्बस]]) | [[ओक्लाहोमा]] ([[ओक्लाहोमा सिटी]]) | [[ओरेगन]] ([[सालेम]]) | [[पेन्सिल्भेनिया]] ([[ह्यारिसबर्ग]]) | [[रोड टापू]] ([[प्रोभिडेन्स]]) | [[दक्षिण क्यारोलिना]] ([[कोलम्बिया]]) | [[दक्षिण ड्याकोटा]] ([[पियेरे]]) | [[टेनिसी]] ([[न्यास्भिल्ल]]) | [[टेक्सास]] ([[अस्टिन]]) | [[उटाह]] ([[साल्ट लेक सिटी]]) | [[भर्मोन्ट]] ([[मोन्टपेलियर]]) |[[भर्जिनिया]] ([[रिचमन्ड]]) | [[वासिंगटन]] ([[ओलम्पिया]]) | [[पश्चिम भर्जिनिया]] ([[चार्ल्सटन]]) | [[विन्कोसिन]] ([[मेडिसन]]) | [[वायोमिंग]] ([[चेइनी]]) |} </div> </div> [[Category:संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]] 1863 3398 2006-12-14T16:28:49Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1864 3399 2006-12-14T16:29:06Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1865 3400 2006-12-14T16:29:23Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1866 3401 2006-12-14T16:29:55Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1867 3402 2006-12-14T16:30:13Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1868 3403 2006-12-14T16:30:36Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1869 3404 2006-12-14T16:30:53Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1870 3405 2006-12-14T16:31:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1871 3406 2006-12-14T16:31:28Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1872 3407 2006-12-14T16:31:45Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1873 3408 2006-12-14T16:32:07Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1874 3409 2006-12-14T16:32:51Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1875 3410 2006-12-14T16:33:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1876 3411 2006-12-14T16:33:35Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1877 3412 2006-12-14T16:33:58Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1878 3413 2006-12-14T16:34:14Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1879 3414 2006-12-14T16:34:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1880 3415 2006-12-14T16:34:51Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1881 3416 2006-12-14T16:35:08Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1882 3417 2006-12-14T16:35:24Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1883 3418 2006-12-14T16:35:41Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1884 3419 2006-12-14T16:35:57Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1885 3420 2006-12-14T16:36:14Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1886 3421 2006-12-14T16:36:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1887 3422 2006-12-14T16:36:53Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1888 3423 2006-12-14T16:37:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1889 3424 2006-12-14T16:37:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1890 3425 2006-12-14T16:37:49Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1891 3426 2006-12-14T16:38:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1892 3427 2006-12-14T16:38:22Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1893 3428 2006-12-14T16:38:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1894 3429 2006-12-14T16:38:55Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1895 3430 2006-12-14T16:39:11Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1896 3431 2006-12-14T16:39:28Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1897 3432 2006-12-14T16:39:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1898 3433 2006-12-14T16:40:01Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1899 3434 2006-12-14T16:40:17Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1900 3435 2006-12-14T16:40:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1901 3436 2006-12-14T16:40:56Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1902 3437 2006-12-14T16:41:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1903 3438 2006-12-14T16:41:57Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1904 3439 2006-12-14T16:42:15Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1905 3440 2006-12-14T16:42:31Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1906 3441 2006-12-14T16:42:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1907 3442 2006-12-14T16:43:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1908 3443 2006-12-14T16:43:20Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1909 3444 2006-12-14T16:43:38Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1910 3445 2006-12-14T16:43:56Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1911 3446 2006-12-14T16:44:13Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1912 3447 2006-12-14T16:44:30Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1913 3448 2006-12-14T16:44:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1914 3449 2006-12-14T16:45:02Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1915 3450 2006-12-14T16:45:18Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1916 3451 2006-12-14T16:45:37Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1917 3452 2006-12-14T16:45:54Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1918 3453 2006-12-14T16:46:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1919 3454 2006-12-14T16:46:27Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1920 3455 2006-12-14T16:46:45Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1921 3456 2006-12-14T16:47:32Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1922 3457 2006-12-14T16:47:57Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1923 3458 2006-12-14T16:48:12Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1924 3459 2006-12-14T16:48:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1925 3460 2006-12-14T16:48:46Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1926 3461 2006-12-14T16:49:01Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1927 3462 2006-12-14T16:49:19Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1928 3577 2006-12-16T00:31:59Z Eukesh 59 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पाली] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devanagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {{Index}} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिफोन) - [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (বাংলা)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 1929 3469 2006-12-15T13:27:54Z Pill 73 New page: <div style="border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; margin: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-top:0.8em;"> {| width=100% border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" s... <div style="border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; margin: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-top:0.8em;"> {| width=100% border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:#F9F9F9;" |- valign="top" | width="100%" style="text-align:center" | [[:w:de:User:Pill|German Wikipedia user page]] | [[User talk:Pill|talk page]] | [[User:Pill/monobook.js|monobook]] |} </div> I am [[:m:User:Pill|Pill]]. :''Please use my [[:m:User talk:Pill|Meta talk page]] to leave me messages.'' 1930 3470 2006-12-15T13:28:06Z Pill 73 New page: document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="' + 'http://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=User:Pill/monobook.js' + '&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript... document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="' + 'http://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=User:Pill/monobook.js' + '&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript&dontcountme=s"></script>'); 1931 3478 2006-12-15T15:13:27Z Eukesh 59 Restoring the content before vandalism '''Please note:''' I speak [[:en:English language|English]]. - [[User:Dcljr|dcljr]] ---- 1932 3479 2006-12-15T15:18:12Z Eukesh 59 New page: Bonjour, Je suis un Wikipédien français. Merci de me contacter sur [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hello, I am a French Wikipedian. Please contact me on [[:fr:Discussion_Util... Bonjour, Je suis un Wikipédien français. Merci de me contacter sur [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hello, I am a French Wikipedian. Please contact me on [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hallo, Ich bin ein französischer Wikipedia Benutzer. Bitte gehen Sie zu : [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. 1933 3480 2006-12-15T15:19:32Z Eukesh 59 New page: {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot en cours de test''' |- | Ce robot en ... {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot en cours de test''' |- | Ce robot en cours de test est destiné à faire des interwikis. |- | Dresseur : [[:fr:Utilisateur:Vargenau|Vargenau]] |- | Laissez vos commentaires sur [[:fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Vargenau|ma page de discussion]]. Merci. |} {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot currently under test''' |- | This robot currently under test will only be used to make interwiki links. |- | Owner: [[:fr:Utilisateur:Vargenau|Vargenau]] |- | Please leave your comments (in French or English) on [[:fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Vargenau|my French talk page]]. Thank you. |} 1934 edit=sysop:move=sysop 3482 2006-12-15T15:25:28Z Eukesh 59 Protected "[[User:Porrokan]]" [edit=sysop:move=sysop] This user has been blocked infinitely for deliberate vandalism with obscene content. 1935 3490 2006-12-16T00:16:39Z Eukesh 59 एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1936 3486 2006-12-16T00:15:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1937 3487 2006-12-16T00:15:19Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1938 3492 2006-12-16T00:17:20Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1939 3493 2006-12-16T00:17:24Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1940 3494 2006-12-16T00:17:54Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1942 3496 2006-12-16T00:18:09Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1943 3497 2006-12-16T00:18:14Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1944 3498 2006-12-16T00:18:36Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1945 3499 2006-12-16T00:18:40Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1946 3500 2006-12-16T00:18:56Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1947 3501 2006-12-16T00:18:59Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1948 3502 2006-12-16T00:19:13Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1949 3503 2006-12-16T00:19:16Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1950 3504 2006-12-16T00:19:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1951 3505 2006-12-16T00:19:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1952 3506 2006-12-16T00:19:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1953 3507 2006-12-16T00:19:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1954 3508 2006-12-16T00:20:00Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1955 3509 2006-12-16T00:20:03Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1956 3510 2006-12-16T00:20:15Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1957 3511 2006-12-16T00:20:18Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1958 3512 2006-12-16T00:20:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1959 3513 2006-12-16T00:20:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1960 3514 2006-12-16T00:21:06Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1961 3515 2006-12-16T00:21:28Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1962 3516 2006-12-16T00:21:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1963 3517 2006-12-16T00:21:45Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1964 3518 2006-12-16T00:21:49Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1965 3519 2006-12-16T00:22:02Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1966 3520 2006-12-16T00:22:06Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1967 3521 2006-12-16T00:22:17Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1968 3522 2006-12-16T00:22:21Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1969 3523 2006-12-16T00:22:32Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1970 3524 2006-12-16T00:22:35Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1971 3525 2006-12-16T00:22:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1972 3526 2006-12-16T00:22:50Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1973 3527 2006-12-16T00:23:04Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1974 3528 2006-12-16T00:23:07Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1975 3529 2006-12-16T00:23:19Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1976 3530 2006-12-16T00:23:22Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1977 3531 2006-12-16T00:23:35Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1978 3532 2006-12-16T00:23:38Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1979 3533 2006-12-16T00:23:50Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1980 3534 2006-12-16T00:24:03Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1981 3535 2006-12-16T00:24:08Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1982 3536 2006-12-16T00:24:21Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1983 3537 2006-12-16T00:24:25Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1984 3538 2006-12-16T00:24:37Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1985 3539 2006-12-16T00:24:41Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1986 3540 2006-12-16T00:24:59Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1987 3541 2006-12-16T00:25:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1988 3542 2006-12-16T00:25:17Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1989 3543 2006-12-16T00:25:20Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1990 3544 2006-12-16T00:25:32Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1991 3545 2006-12-16T00:25:36Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1992 3546 2006-12-16T00:25:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1993 3547 2006-12-16T00:25:52Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1994 3548 2006-12-16T00:26:04Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1995 3549 2006-12-16T00:26:08Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1996 3550 2006-12-16T00:26:20Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1997 3551 2006-12-16T00:26:24Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1998 3552 2006-12-16T00:26:36Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1999 3553 2006-12-16T00:26:40Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2000 3554 2006-12-16T00:26:51Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2001 3555 2006-12-16T00:26:55Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2002 3556 2006-12-16T00:27:08Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2003 3557 2006-12-16T00:27:11Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2004 3558 2006-12-16T00:27:23Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2005 3559 2006-12-16T00:27:26Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2006 3560 2006-12-16T00:27:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2007 3561 2006-12-16T00:27:42Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2008 3562 2006-12-16T00:27:54Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2009 3563 2006-12-16T00:27:58Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2010 3564 2006-12-16T00:28:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2011 3565 2006-12-16T00:28:14Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2012 3566 2006-12-16T00:28:25Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2013 3567 2006-12-16T00:28:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2014 3568 2006-12-16T00:28:41Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2015 3569 2006-12-16T00:28:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2016 3570 2006-12-16T00:29:00Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2017 3571 2006-12-16T00:29:04Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2018 3572 2006-12-16T00:29:22Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2019 3573 2006-12-16T00:29:31Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2020 3574 2006-12-16T00:29:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2021 3575 2006-12-16T00:29:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2022 3576 2006-12-16T00:30:01Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2023 3578 2006-12-16T14:53:48Z Tiyoringo 76 New page: == バベル == <table style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; width: 242px; border: #99B3FF solid 1px"> <tr><td><center>'''[[Wikipedia:Babel]]'''</center></td></tr> <... == バベル == <table style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; width: 242px; border: #99B3FF solid 1px"> <tr><td><center>'''[[Wikipedia:Babel]]'''</center></td></tr> <tr><td>{{User ja}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User en-2}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User de-1}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User zh-1}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User es-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User fr-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User it-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User nl-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User pt-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User ru-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User simple-2}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User BirthdayYear|1|9|7|X}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User windows}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User browser:Microsoft Internet Explorer}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User inclusionist}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User 歴検 2級世界史}}</td></tr> <!--<tr><td>{{User death-expand}}</td></tr>--> <tr><td>{{User Hutu}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User Yahoo! JAPAN}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User Google}}</td></tr> </table> == 他言語版リンク == *[[aa:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[ab:Участник:Tiyoringo|アブハズ語（アブハジア共和国）]] *[[af:Gebruiker:Tiyoringo|アフリカーンス語（南アフリカなど）]] *[[ak:User:Tiyoringo|アカン語（ガーナ、コートジボアール）]] *[[als:Benutzer:Tiyoringo|アレマン語（スイス、高地ドイツ）]] *[[am:User:Tiyoringo|アムハラ語（エチオピア）]] *[[an:Usuario:Tiyoringo|アラゴン語（スペインの一部）]] *[[ang:User:Tiyoringo|古英語]] *[[ar:مستخدم:Tiyoringo|アラビア語]] *[[arc:User:Tiyoringo|現代アッシリア語]] *[[as:User:Tiyoringo|アッサム語（インド・アッサム地方）]] *[[ast:Usuariu:Tiyoringo|アストゥーリア語（ポルトガルの方言）]] *[[av:Участник:Tiyoringo|アヴァル語（ダゲスタン共和国）]] *[[ay:User:Tiyoringo|アイマラ語（ボリビア・ペルー）]] *[[az:İstifadəçi:Tiyoringo|アゼルバイジャン語]] *[[ba:Ҡатнашыусы:Tiyoringo|バシキール語（バシコルトスタン）]] *[[bar:User:Tiyoringo|ババリア語]] *[[bat-smg:User:Tiyoringo|（リトアニアの一部）]] *[[be:Удзельнік:Tiyoringo|ベラルーシ語]] *[[bg:Потребител:Tiyoringo|ブルガリア語]] *[[bh:User:Tiyoringo|ビハリ語（インド・ビハール州）]] *[[bi:User:Tiyoringo|ビスラマ語（バヌアツ、ニューカレドニア）]] *[[bm:Utilisateur:Tiyoringo|バンバラ語（マリ、ブルキナファソ、コートジボアール、ガンビア）]] *[[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Tiyoringo|ベンガル語（バングラデシュ）]] *[[bo:User:Tiyoringo|チベット語]] *[[bpy:User:Tiyoringo|（バングラデシュ・ミャンマー国境地方）]] *[[br:Implijer:Tiyoringo|ブルトン語（ブルターニュ地方）]] *[[bs:Korisnik:Tiyoringo|ボスニア語]] *[[bug:User:Tiyoringo|ブギス語（スラウェシ島南部）]] *[[bxr:User:Tiyoringo|（ブリヤート語（ブリヤート共和国）]] *[[ca:Usuari:Tiyoringo|カタルーニャ語（カタロニア地方）]] *[[cbk-zam:User:Tiyoringo|スペイン語系言語（フィリピン南部）]] *[[cdo:User:Tiyoringo|閩東語]] *[[ce:User:Tiyoringo|チェチェン語]] *[[ceb:User:Tiyoringo|セブアノ語（セブ島ほか）]] *[[ch:User:Tiyoringo|チャモロ語（グアム、マリアナ諸島）]] *[[cho:User:Tiyoringo|チョクト語（アメリカ先住民）]] *[[chr:User:Tiyoringo|チェロキー語（アメリカ先住民の一部）]] *[[chy:User:Tiyoringo|（アメリカ先住民）]] *[[co:User:Tiyoringo|コルシカ語]] *[[cr:User:Tiyoringo|クリー語（カナダ、アルバータ州/ラブラドル州）]] *[[cs:Wikipedista:Tiyoringo|チェコ語]] *[[csb:Brëkòwnik:Tiyoringo|カシューブ語（ポーランドの一部など）]] *[[cu:User:Tiyoringo|古代教会スラヴ語（東ヨーロッパ）]] *[[cv:Хутшăнакан:Tiyoringo|チュヴァシ語（ヴォルガ川周辺の一部]] *[[cy:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[da:Bruger:Tiyoringo|デンマーク語]] *[[de:Benutzer:Tiyoringo|ドイツ語]] *[[diq:User:Tiyoringo|（トルコ東部）]] *[[dv:User:Tiyoringo|ディベヒ語（モルディブ）]] *[[dz:User:Tiyoringo|ゾンカ語（ブータン）]] *[[el:Χρήστης:Tiyoringo|ギリシャ語]] *[[eml:User:Tiyoringo|（サンマリノ）]] *[[en:User:Tiyoringo|英語]] *[[eo:Vikipediisto:Tiyoringo|エスペラント語（人工言語）]] *[[es:Usuario:Tiyoringo|スペイン語]] *[[et:Kasutaja:Tiyoringo|エストニア語]] *[[eu:Lankide:Tiyoringo|バスク語（バスク地方）]] *[[ewe:User:Tiyoringo|エウェ語（ガーナ、トーゴ）]] *[[fa:کاربر:Tiyoringo|ペルシア語（イラン、タジキスタン、アフガニスタン）]] *[[ff:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[fi:Käyttäjä:Tiyoringo|フィンランド語]] *[[fiu-vro:User:Tiyoringo|ヴォロ語（エストニア南東部）]] *[[fj:User:Tiyoringo|フィジー語（フィジー）]] *[[fo:Brúkari:Tiyoringo|フェロー語（フェロー諸島）]] *[[fr:Utilisateur:Tiyoringo|フランス語]] *[[frp:User:Tiyoringo|アルピタン語（フランス、イタリア、スイス国境地帯）]] *[[fur:Utent:Tiyoringo|フリウリ語（イタリア、スロベニア国境地帯）]] *[[fy:Meidogger:Tiyoringo|フリジア語（北海沿岸など）]] *[[ga:Úsáideoir:Tiyoringo|アイルランド語]] *[[gd:User:Tiyoringo|スコットランド・ゲール語]] *[[gl:User:Tiyoringo|ガリシア語]] *[[glk:User:Tiyoringo|（イラン・カスピ海沿岸）]] *[[gn:User:Tiyoringo|グアラニー語（パラグアイ、ボリビア）]] *[[got:User:Tiyoringo|ゴート語（ほぼ死語）]] <!-- *[[gsw:User:Tiyoringo]](als:Benutzer:Tiyoringo) --> *[[gu:User:Tiyoringo|グジャラート語（インド、グジャラート州）]] *[[gv:User:Tiyoringo|マン島語]] *[[ha:User:Tiyoringo|ハウサ語（ナイジェリア北部など）]] *[[haw:User:Tiyorinho|ハワイ語]] *[[he:משתמש:Tiyoringo|ヘブライ語]] *[[hi:सदस्य:Tiyoringo|ヒンディー語（インドの大部分）]] *[[ho:User:Tiyoringo|（パプアニューギニアの一部）]] *[[hr:Suradnik:Tiyoringo|クロアチア語]] *[[hsb:User:Tiyoringo|（ザクセン）]] *[[ht:User:Tiyoringo|ハイチ語]] *[[hu:User:Tiyoringo|ハンガリー語]] *[[hy:User:Tiyoringo|アルメニア語]] *[[hz:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[ia:Usator:Tiyoringo|インターリングア（国際補助語）]] *[[id:Pengguna:Tiyoringo|イド語（人工言語）]] *[[ie:User:Tiyoringo|インターリングア（国際補助語）]] *[[ig:User:Tiyoringo|イボ語（ナイジェリア、赤道ギニア）]] *[[ii:User:Tiyoringo|彝語（四川省、雲南省少数民族）]] *[[ik:User:Tiyoringo|イヌイット語（アラスカなど）]] *[[ilo:User:Tiyoringo|イロカノ語（ルソン島北部）]] *[[io:User:Tiyoringo|イド語（人工言語）]] *[[is:Pengguna:Tiyoringo|アイスランド語]] *[[it:Utente:Tiyoringo|イタリア語]] *[[iu:User:Tiyoringo|イヌクティトゥット語（カナダ北極海沿岸地方）]] *[[ja:利用者:Tiyoringo|日本語]] *[[jbo:User:Tiyoringo|ロジバン（人工言語）]] *[[jv:Panganggo:Tiyoringo|ジャワ語（ジャワ島中部、東部）]] *[[ka:მომხმარებელი:Tiyoringo|グルジア語]] <!-- *[[kaa:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] --> *[[kg:User:Tiyoringo|コンゴ語（コンゴ共和国、コンゴ民主共和国、アンゴラ]] *[[ki:User:Tiyoringo|（ケニアの一部）]] *[[kj:User:Tiyoringo|（ナミビア、アンゴラ）]] *[[kk:Қатысушы:Tiyoringo|カザフ語]] <!-- *[[kk-cn:User:Tiyoringo]] *[[kk-kz:User:Tiyoringo]] *[[kk-tr:User:Tiyoringo]] --> *[[kl:User:Tiyoringo|グリーンランド語]] *[[km:User:Tiyoringo|クメール語（カンボジア）]] *[[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Tiyoringo|カンナダ語（インド南部）]] *[[ko:사용자:Tiyoringo|朝鮮語]] *[[kr:User:Tiyoringo|（ナイジェリア、チャド、ニジェール、カメルーン）]] *[[ks:User:Tiyoringo|カシミール語（カシミール地方）]] *[[ksh:Medmaacher:Tiyoringo|リプアーリ語（ラインラント、ベルギー東部）]] *[[ku:Bikarhêner:Tiyoringo|クルド語]] *[[kv:Участник:Tiyoringo|コミ語（ロシア・コミ共和国）]] *[[kw:User:Tiyoringo|コーンウォル語（イギリス、コーンウォル地方）]] *[[ky:User:Tiyoringo|キルギス語]] *[[la:Usor:Tiyoringo|ラテン語]] *[[lad:User:Tiyoringo|ジュデズモ語（スペイン系ユダヤ人）]] *[[lb:User:Tiyoringo|ルクセンブルク語]] *[[lbe:User:Tiyoringo|（ダゲスタン共和国南部）]] *[[lg:User:Tiyoringo|ガンダ語（ウガンダ）]] *[[li:Gebroeker:Tiyoringo|リンブルグ語（低地ドイツ語）]] *[[lij:User:Tiyoringo|リグリア語]] *[[lmo:User:Tiyoringo|ロンバルド語（ロンバルディア地方）]] *[[ln:User:Tiyoringo|リンガラ語（コンゴ民主共和国、コンゴ共和国）]] *[[lo:User:Tiyoringo|ラーオ語（ラオス）]] *[[lt:Naudotojas:Tiyoringo|リトアニア語]] *[[lv:Lietotājs:Tiyoringo|ラトビア語]] *[[map-bms:User:Tiyoringo|バニュマス語（ジャワ島中部ほか）]] *[[mg:User:Tiyoringo|マダガスカル語]] *[[mh:User:Tiyoringo|マーシャル語（マーシャル諸島、ナウル）]] *[[mi:User:Tiyoringo|マオリ語（ニュージーランド先住民）]] *[[mk:Корисник:Tiyoringo|マケドニア語]] *[[ml:User:Tiyoringo|マラヤラム語（インド南部）]] *[[mn:User:Tiyoringo|モンゴル語]] *[[mo:User:Tiyoringo|モルドバ語]] *[[mr:User:Tiyoringo|マラーティー語（インド西部）]] *[[ms:Pengguna:Tiyoringo|マレー語]] *[[mt:User:Tiyoringo|マルタ語]] *[[mus:User:Tiyoringo|（アメリカ先住民）]] *[[my:User:Tiyoringo|ビルマ語（ミャンマー）]] *[[mzn:User:Tiyoringo|マザーンダラン語（イラン・カスピ海沿岸）]] *[[na:User:Tiyoringo|ナウル語]] *[[nah:Usuario:Tiyoringo|ナワトル語（メキシコ先住民）]] *[[nap:Utente:Tiyoringo|ナポリ語]] *[[nds:Bruker:Tiyoringo|低ザクセン語（ドイツ北部）]] *[[nds-nl:Gebruker:Tiyoringo|オランダ低ザクセン語（オランダ北部）]] *[[ne:User:Tiyoringo|ネパール語（ネパール）]] *[[new:User:Tiyoringo|ネパール語（ネパール）]] *[[ng:User:Tiyoringo|（ナミビア、アンゴラ南部）]] *[[nl:Gebruiker:Tiyoringo|オランダ語]] *[[nn:Brukar:Tiyoringo|ニーノシュク（ノルウェーの方言）]] *[[no:Bruker:Tiyoringo|ノルウェー語]] <!-- *[[non:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] --> *[[nov:User:Tiyoringo|ノヴィアル（人工言語）]] *[[nrm:User:Tiyoringo|ノルマン語（ノルマンディー地方）]] *[[nv:User:Tiyoringo|ナバホ語（ニューメキシコ州、ユタ州先住民族）]] *[[ny:User:Tiyoringo|チェワ語（マラウイ）]] *[[oc:Utilizaire:Tiyoringo|オック語（ガスコーニュ地方など）]] *[[om:User:Tiyoringo|オロモ語（エチオピア、ケニア）]] *[[or:User:Tiyoringo|オリヤー語（インド・オリッサ州）]] *[[os:Архайæг:Tiyoringo|オセット語（北オセチア共和国）]] *[[pa:User:Tiyoringo|パンジャブ語（インド・パンジャブ州、パキスタン）]] *[[pag:User:Tiyoringo|（ルソン島中部）]] *[[pam:User:Tiyoringo|パンパンガ語（フィリピン北部の一部）]] *[[pap:User:Tiyoringo|ポルトガル語系言語（オランダ領アンチル諸島及びアルバ）]] *[[pdc:User:Tiyoringo|ペンシルバニア・ドイツ語（ペンシルバニア州、カナダ・アメリカ国境）]] *[[pi:User:Tiyoringo|パーリ語（上座仏教教典）]] *[[pih:User:Tiyoringo|ノーフォーク語（オーストラリア領ノーフォーク島）]] *[[pl:Wikipedysta:Tiyoringo|ポーランド語]] *[[pms:Utent:Tiyoringo|ピエモンテ語（ピエモンテ地方）]] *[[ps:User:Tiyoringo|パシュトー語（アフガニスタンの一部）]] *[[pt:Usuário:Tiyoringo|ポルトガル語]] <!-- *[[pt-br:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] --> *[[qu:Usuario:Tiyoringo|ケチュア語（インカ帝国）]] *[[rm:User:Tiyoringo|ロマンシュ語（スイス）]] *[[rmy:Jeno:Tiyoringo|ロマ語（ジプシー）]] *[[rn:User:Tiyoringo|ルンディ語（ブルンジ）]] *[[ro:Utilizator:Tiyoringo|ルーマニア語]] *[[roa-rup:User:Tiyoringo|アルーマニア語（ルーマニア語の流れを持つ）]] *[[roa-tar:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[ru:Участник:Tiyoringo|ロシア語]] *[[ru-sib:User:Tiyoringo|（シベリア）]] *[[rw:User:Tiyoringo|（ルワンダ）]] *[[sa:User:Tiyoringo|サンスクリット語（インドの古典言語）]] *[[sc:Utente:Tiyoringo|サルディーニャ語（サルディーニャ島）]] *[[scn:User:Tiyoringo|シチリア語（シチリア島）]] *[[sco:User:Tiyoringo|スコットランド語]] *[[sd:User:Tiyoringo|シンディー語（パキスタン、シンド州）]] *[[se:User:Tiyoringo|北部サーミ語（ラップランド）]] *[[sg:User:Tiyoringo|サンゴ語（中央アフリカ共和国）]] *[[sh:User:Tiyoringo|セルビア・クロアチア語]] *[[si:User:Tiyoringo|シンハラ語（スリランカ）]] *[[simple:User:Tiyoringo|シンプル英語]] *[[sk:Redaktor:Tiyoringo|スロバキア語]] *[[sl:Uporabnik:Tiyoringo|スロベニア語]] *[[sm:User:Tiyoringo|サモア語]] *[[sn:User:Tiyoringo|ショナ語（ジンバブエなど）]] *[[so:User:Tiyoringo|ソマリ語（ソマリア）]] *[[sq:Përdoruesi:Tiyoringo|アルバニア語]] *[[sr:Корисник:Tiyoringo|セルビア語]] <!-- *[[sr-ec:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[sr-el:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[sr-jc:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[sr-jl:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] --> *[[ss:User:Tiyoringo|スワジ語（スワジランド）]] *[[st:User:Tiyoringo|ソト語（レソト）]] *[[su:Pamaké:Tiyoringo|スンダ語]] *[[sv:Användare:Tiyoringo|スウェーデン語]] *[[sw:User:Tiyoringo|スワヒリ語（ケニア、タンザニア）]] *[[ta:பயனர்:Tiyoringo|タミル語（スリランカ）]] *[[te:సభ్యుడు:Tiyoringo|テルグ語（インド南東部）]] *[[tet:User:Tiyoringo|テトゥン語（東ティモール）]] *[[tg:User:Tiyoringo|タジク語]] *[[th:ผู้ใช้:Tiyoringo|タイ語]] *[[ti:User:Tiyoringo|ティグリヤ語]] *[[tk:User:Tiyoringo|トルクメン語（トルクメニスタン）]] *[[tl:User:Tiyoringo|タガログ語（フィリピン）]] *[[tlh:User:Tiyoringo|クリンゴン語（スタートレック）]] *[[tn:User:Tiyoringo|ツワナ語（ボツワナ）]] *[[to:User:Tiyoringo|トンガ語]] *[[tokipona:User:Tiyoringo|トキポナ（人工言語）]] *[[tpi:User:Tiyoringo|トク・ピジン（パプア・ニューギニア、ソロモン諸島、バヌアツ）]] *[[tr:Kullanıcı:Tiyoringo|トルコ語]] *[[ts:User:Tiyoringo|（モザンビーク、スワジランドなど）]] *[[tt:Äğzä:Tiyoringo|タタール語（北アジア）]] *[[tum:User:Tiyoringo|トゥンブカ語（マラウイなど）]] *[[tw:User:Tiyoringo|トウィ語（ガーナ）]] *[[ty:User:Tiyoringo|タヒチ語]] <!-- *[[tyv:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] ---> *[[udm:Викиавтор:Tiyoringo|ウドムルト語（ロシアの一部）]] *[[ug:User:Tiyoringo|ウィグル語]] *[[uk:Користувач:Tiyoringo|ウクライナ語]] *[[ur:صارف:Tiyoringo|ウルドゥー語（パキスタン、インドなど）]] *[[uz:User:Tiyoringo|ウズベク語（ウズベキスタン）]] *[[ve:User:Tiyoringo|（南アフリカ、ジンバブエ）]] *[[vec:Utente:Tiyoringo|ヴェネツィア語]] *[[vi:Thành viên:Tiyoringo|ベトナム語]] *[[vls:Gebruker:Tiyoringo|フラマン語]] *[[vo:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[wa:Uzeu:Tiyoringo|ワロン語（ベルギー南部）]] *[[war:User:Tiyoringo|ワライワライ語（フィリピン中部）]] *[[wo:User:Tiyoringo|ウォロフ語（セネガル、ガンビア、モーリタニア）]] *[[wuu:User:Tiyoringo|呉語（上海ほか）]] *[[xal:Орлцач:Tiyoringo|オイラト語（モンゴル西部など）]] *[[xh:User:Tiyoringo|（南アフリカ共和国）]] *[[yi:באַניצער:Tiyoringo|イディッシュ語（ユダヤ人、主に中欧、東欧）]] *[[yo:User:Tiyoringo|ヨルバ語（ナイジェリア）]] *[[za:User:Tiyoringo|チワン語（広西省少数民族など）]] *[[zea:User:Tiyoringo|オランダ南西部北海沿岸地方]] *[[zh:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] *[[zh-classical:User:Tiyoringo|古文/文言文（漢文）]] <!-- *[[zh-cn:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] *[[zh-hk:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] --> *[[zh-min-nan:User:Tiyoringo|閩南語（福建省南部）]] <!-- *[[zh-sg:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] *[[zh-tw:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] --> *[[zh-yue:User:Tiyoringo|広東語]] *[[zu:User:Tiyoringo|ズールー語（南アフリカ、ズールー族）]] == プロフィール(PROFILE) == *[[:ja:Wikipedia:善意にとる]] === BASKETBALL === *[[NBA]]、[[w:New York Knics|ニューヨーク・ニックス]]のファン。 *[[2006年バスケットボール世界選手権]]のうち、[[さいたまスーパーアリーナ]]で行なわれた20試合中、12試合を観戦した。 **決勝戦（[[スペイン]]対[[ギリシャ]]）7位8位決定戦（[[リトアニア]]対[[ドイツ]]）(4階席より観戦,仕事のため7位8位決定戦は第2Qぐらいから)[[画像:20060903 2157~001.jpg]] **3位から6位決定戦（[[アメリカ]]対[[アルゼンチン]]）、（[[フランス]]対[[トルコ]]）スタンドS席より観戦 **5位から8位戦（フランス対ドイツ）、（トルコ対リトアニア）、アリーナS席(ゴール裏2列目)より観戦 **準々決勝2日目（アメリカ対ドイツ）、（ギリシャ対フランス）、アリーナS席より観戦 **ベスト8決定戦2日目（アメリカ対[[ニュージーランド]]）、（ドイツ対[[ナイジェリア]]）、（フランス対[[アンゴラ]]）、（ギリシャ対[[中国]]）、午前午後は観客入替（1日4試合スタンドS席より観戦、午後は最後列） *購入したグッズ **ピンバッジ（観戦したほぼ全ての試合、スペイン優勝、その他多数） **[[タオル]][[マフラー]]（ギリシャ（中国戦後）、トルコ（フランス戦後）ドイツ（ナイジェリア戦後？）） **Tシャツ（予選Bグループのもの2種類（黒、白）、ギリシャ、トルコ、北海道の絵柄入りの記念Tシャツ（[[札幌]]ラウンドのもの、ただしXXXサイズ、[[北海道]]出身の職場の人へプレゼント） **お菓子3種類 **タイピン（優勝カップ） **ボールペン（[[バツマル]]） **シャーペン（バツマル） *購入したグッズ（公式以外） **[[携帯ストラップ]]（キティ）部活動シリーズ *購入予定グッズ（DVD全てのセット） *:さすがに30,000円のトーナメントピンバッジ限定200か300セットは購入しませんでした。何年か前だったり、10,000円くらいなら買ってました。 === OTHER SPORTS === *[[NFL]]、[[Chicago Bears|シカゴ・ベアーズ]]のファン。 *[[Jリーグ]]、[[ジェフ千葉]]（[[古河電工]]のときより）のファン。 *天皇杯（サッカー）に出場したことのある大学の出身。J1のチームとの試合には応援に出かけました。 == リンク(LINK) == *[[利用者:Tiyoringo/立ち上げ記事]] *[http://www.nba.com/hawks/ アトランタ・ホークス] *[http://www.nba.com/celtics/ ボストンセルティックス] *[http://www.nba.com/bobcats/index_main.html シャーロット・ボブキャッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/bulls/ シカゴ・ブルズ] *[http://www.nba.com/cavaliers/ クリーブランド・キャバリアーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/mavericks/ ダラス・マーベリックス] *[http://www.nba.com/nuggets/ デンバー・ナゲッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/pistons/index_main.html デトロイト・ピストンズ] *[http://www.nba.com/warriors/index_main.html ゴールデンステート・ウォリアーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/rockets/index_main.html ヒューストン・ロケッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/pacers/ インディアナ・ペイサーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/clippers/index_main.html ロサンゼルス・クリッパーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/lakers/ ロサンゼルス・レイカーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/grizzlies/ メンフィス・グリズリーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/heat/ マイアミ・ヒート] *[http://www.nba.com/bucks/ ミルウォーキー・バックス] *[http://www.nba.com/timberwolves/ ミネソタ・ティンバーウルブズ] *[http://www.nba.com/nets/ ニュージャージー・ネッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/hornets/ ニューオーリンズ・ホーネッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/knicks/ ニューヨーク・ニックス] *[http://www.nba.com/magic/index_main.html オーランド・マジック] *[http://www.nba.com/sixers/index_main.html フィラデルフィア・セブンティシクサーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/suns/index_main.html フェニックス・サンズ] *[http://www.nba.com/blazers/ ポートランド・トレイルブレイザーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/kings/ サクラメント･キングス] *[http://www.nba.com/spurs/ サンアントニオ・スパーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/sonics/ シアトル・スーパーソニックス] *[http://www.nba.com/raptors/ トロント・ラプターズ] *[http://www.nba.com/jazz/ ユタ・ジャズ] *[http://www.nba.com/wizards/index_main.html ワシントン･ウィザーズ] 2024 3581 2006-12-17T16:33:51Z Eukesh 59 New page: '''नेपाल स्काउट''' [[नेपाल]]स्यः स्काउटिंग व गाइडिंग संस्था अस्तु। [[Category:स्का... '''नेपाल स्काउट''' [[नेपाल]]स्यः स्काउटिंग व गाइडिंग संस्था अस्तु। [[Category:स्काउट]] 2025 3582 2006-12-17T22:54:49Z Ev 77 New page: I don't speak Pali. I speak English. Hablo castellano. Ich spreche Deutsch. {{Babel-5|pi-0|en-3|es|de-2|fr-1}} [[meta:User:Ev]] *You can leave me a message on [[m:User talk:Ev|my talk ... I don't speak Pali. I speak English. Hablo castellano. Ich spreche Deutsch. {{Babel-5|pi-0|en-3|es|de-2|fr-1}} [[meta:User:Ev]] *You can leave me a message on [[m:User talk:Ev|my talk page on meta]]. *Vous pouvez me laisser un message sur [[m:User talk:Ev|ma page de discussion sur méta]]. *Puede dejarme un mensaje en [[m:User talk:Ev|mi página de discusión en meta]]. *Puoi lasciarmi un messaggio nella [[m:User talk:Ev|mia pagina di discussione su meta]]. *Sie können mir eine Nachricht auf [[m:User talk:Ev|meiner Diskussionsseite im meta]] hinterlassen. ( Please, help me by adding a similar message in Pali at the top of the list, and removing this petition at the same time. Thanks :-) 2026 3586 2006-12-18T21:30:41Z 121.1.6.130 Unknown 2027 3589 2006-12-22T07:52:44Z 210.23.5.11 New page: *[http://yourglobaltv.com online tv] free *[http://yourglobaltv.com online tv] free 2028 3590 2006-12-22T07:53:33Z 210.23.5.11 New page: *[http://yourglobaltv.com online tv] free *[http://yourglobaltv.com online tv] free