Wikipedia http://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4 MediaWiki 1.10alpha first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk Image Image talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk 1 edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed 1 2004-08-29T00:33:06Z ==This subdomain is reserved for the creation of a Wikipedia in the <b>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/&#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356; &#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356;]</b> language.== If you speak this language and think it would be cool to have your own Encyclopedia then '''you''' can make it. '''''Go ahead. Translate this page and start working on your Encyclopedia.''''' [http://en.wikipedia.org For more information go to the main website] <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 2 2005-01-02T11:11:51Z 210.55.230.17 ==This subdomain is reserved for the creation of a Wikipedia in the <b>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/&#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356; &#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356;]</b> language. There are currently {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} articles.== If you speak this language and think it would be cool to have your own Encyclopedia then '''you''' can make it. '''''Go ahead. Translate this page and start working on your Encyclopedia.''''' [http://en.wikipedia.org For more information go to the main website] <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 3 2005-01-16T10:20:55Z 80.171.110.144 /* This subdomain is reserved for the creation of a Wikipedia in the <b>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/&#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356; &#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356;]</b> language. There are currently {{NU ==This subdomain is reserved for the creation of a Wikipedia in the <b>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/&#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356; &#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356;]</b> language. There are currently {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} articles...== If you speak this language and think it would be cool to have your own Encyclopedia then '''you''' can make it. '''''Go ahead. Translate this page and start working on your Encyclopedia.''''' [http://en.wikipedia.org For more information go to the main website] <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 4 2005-01-16T10:23:40Z 80.171.110.144 /* This subdomain is reserved for the creation of a Wikipedia in the <b>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/&#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356; &#2346;&#2366;&#2367;&#2356;]</b> language. There are currently {{NU Svagatam Vikhi-Nikhilakose! Imam saddakoso samanakicco hoti, abaddho nikhilakosam karetum. Vikhi-Saddakoso Vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sahaayo. Imam nikhilakosam aaraddhakato phussamaase 16, 2549. Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatthuni likhitaa honti. Tuvampi imasmim saddakose vatthuni likheyya! Api ca kho sabbe vatthuni abaddhaa bhavetabbaa... <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 9 2005-01-16T10:48:18Z Sihasabho 6 Svagatam Vikhi-Nikhilakose! Imam saddakoso samanakicco hoti, abaddho nikhilakosam karetum. Vikhi-Saddakoso Vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sahaayo. Imam nikhilakosam aaraddhakato phussamaase 16, 2549. Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatthuni likhitaa honti. Tuvampi imasmim saddakose vatthuni likheyya! Api ca kho sabbe vatthuni abaddhaa bhavetabbaa... [[Buddho]] <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 10 2005-01-16T12:27:06Z Sihasabho 6 {| width="85%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>» P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO «</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;agatam]]! '''Vikhi[[Saddakoso]]''' (angalabhasaya: Wiktionary), cooperandi opus est ut creatur Liberum Dictionarium verborum omnium ex linguis omnibus. Omnes ad participandum invitantur. Hoc temporis sunt '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' articuli. <p>Nota bene contributa omnia Victionario liberata habentur ex Potestate tabulae liberae GNU (vide singula in [[Victionarium:Verba privata]]). |} Svagatam Vikhi-Nikhilakose! Imam saddakoso samanakicco hoti, abaddho nikhilakosam karetum. Vikhi-Saddakoso Vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sahaayo. Imam nikhilakosam aaraddhakato phussamaase 16, 2549. Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatthuni likhitaa honti. Tuvampi imasmim saddakose vatthuni likheyya! Api ca kho sabbe vatthuni abaddhaa bhavetabbaa... [[Buddho]] <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 11 2005-01-16T12:50:42Z Sihasabho 6 {| width="85%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>» P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO «</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhi-[[Nikhilakoso]]''' ([[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wiktionary) Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddho nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhi-Saddakoso vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} [[Buddho]] <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 12 2005-01-16T12:52:19Z Sihasabho 6 {| width="85%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>» P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO «</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhi-[[nikhilakoso]]''' ([[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddho nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhi-Saddakoso vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} <div style="width:85%; padding:10px; background-color:#ffffcc; border:1px solid #ffff66;"> '''Other wikis''' <small> [http://sep11.wikipedia.org September 11 memorial wiki/Wiki memoriale des 11 Septembrem] | [http://meta.wikipedia.org Meta-Wikipedia/Meta-Vicipaedia] | [http://wiktionary.org Wikitonary/Victionaria] | [http://wikibooks.org Wikibooks/Vicilibraria] | [http://wikiquote.org Wikiquote/Viciquotas] | [http://wikisource.org Wikisource] | [http://wikitravel.org Wikitravel] </small> </div> [[aa:]] [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ar:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[as:]] [[ast:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[ay:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bo:]] [[bs:]] [[cs:]] [[co:]] [[cs:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[ga:]] [[gl:]] [[gn:]] [[gu:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[kn:]] [[ko:]] [[ks:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[ln:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[lo:]] [[lt:]] [[lv:]] [[hu:]] [[mi:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mn:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[mt:]] <!-- missing WikiMedia 1.3 support --> [[my:]] [[na:]] [[nah:]] [[nds:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[om:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[ps:]] [[pt:]] [[qu:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[sw:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tk:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[ug:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[uz:]] [[vi:]] [[vo:]] [[xh:]] [[yo:]] [[za:]] [[zh:]] [[zu:]] 13 2005-01-16T12:58:47Z Sihasabho 6 {| width="85%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>» P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO «</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhi-[[nikhilakoso]]''' ([[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddho nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhi-Saddakoso vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vicipaedia" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #EFE9AA; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://bowks.net/wiki/la/vikipaedia.gif<br/><small>Super '''''duo milia''''' articulorum apud Vicipaediam Latinam!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Ave! Vicipaedia cooperandi opus est ut creatur Libera Encyclo&shy;paedia. Omnes ad partici&shy;pandum invitati sunt. Nunc sunt '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' articuli. |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VicipaediaIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Pagina Mensis''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{PaginaMensis}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Collaboratio et Coordinatio''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Wikipedia:Taberna|Vicipaedia Taberna]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|Auxilium pro editione (anglice)]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|Auxilium pro editione (latine)]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Vincula''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Nova apud Vicipaediam]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Paginae novae]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Cave: numquam aliorum iura (©) frange!''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Adde quae scis, sed memento id quod addis modificari ameliorarique posse ab aliis utentibus. |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vicipaediae in Linguis Aliis''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VicipaediaLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 14 2005-01-16T13:02:58Z Sihasabho 6 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vicipaedia" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #EFE9AA; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://bowks.net/wiki/la/vikipaedia.gif<br/><small>Super '''''duo milia''''' articulorum apud Vicipaediam Latinam!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="85%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>» P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO «</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhi-[[nikhilakoso]]''' ([[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddho nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhi-Saddakoso vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Ave! Vicipaedia cooperandi opus est ut creatur Libera Encyclo&shy;paedia. Omnes ad partici&shy;pandum invitati sunt. Nunc sunt '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' articuli. |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VicipaediaIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Pagina Mensis''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{PaginaMensis}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Collaboratio et Coordinatio''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Wikipedia:Taberna|Vicipaedia Taberna]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|Auxilium pro editione (anglice)]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|Auxilium pro editione (latine)]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Vincula''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Nova apud Vicipaediam]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Paginae novae]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Cave: numquam aliorum iura (©) frange!''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Adde quae scis, sed memento id quod addis modificari ameliorarique posse ab aliis utentibus. |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vicipaediae in Linguis Aliis''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VicipaediaLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 15 2005-01-16T13:59:37Z Sihasabho 6 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vicipaedia" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #EFE9AA; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi.jpg<br/><small>P&#257;tukarotha '''''p&#257;&#7735;i''''' bh&#257;s&#257; loke bahujanahit&#257;ya bahujanasukh&#257;ya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikoso ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhi-Saddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Nava |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Collaboratio et Coordinatio''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Wikipedia:Taberna|Vicipaedia Taberna]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|Auxilium pro editione (anglice)]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|Auxilium pro editione (latine)]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Vincula''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Nova apud Vicipaediam]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Paginae novae]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Cave: numquam aliorum iura (©) frange!''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Adde quae scis, sed memento id quod addis modificari ameliorarique posse ab aliis utentibus. |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vicipaediae in Linguis Aliis''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VicipaediaLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 16 2005-01-16T14:09:55Z Sihasabho 6 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>P&#257;tukarotha '''''p&#257;&#7735;i''''' bh&#257;s&#257; loke bahujanahit&#257;ya bahujanasukh&#257;ya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikoso ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Nava |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Collaboratio et Coordinatio''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Wikipedia:Taberna|Vicipaedia Taberna]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|Auxilium pro editione (anglice)]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|Auxilium pro editione (latine)]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Vincula''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Nova apud Vicipaediam]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Paginae novae]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Cave: numquam aliorum iura (©) frange!''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Adde quae scis, sed memento id quod addis modificari ameliorarique posse ab aliis utentibus. |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vicipaediae in Linguis Aliis''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VicipaediaLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 18 2005-01-16T14:55:07Z Sihasabho 6 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>P&#257;tukarotha '''''p&#257;&#7735;i''''' bh&#257;s&#257; loke bahujanahit&#257;ya bahujanasukh&#257;ya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikoso ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Nav&#ani vatth&#363;ni: | # [[Buddho]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Collaboratio et Coordinatio''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Wikipedia:Taberna|Vicipaedia Taberna]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|Auxilium pro editione (anglice)]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|Auxilium pro editione (latine)]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Vincula''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Nova apud Vicipaediam]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Paginae novae]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Cave: numquam aliorum iura (©) frange!''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Adde quae scis, sed memento id quod addis modificari ameliorarique posse ab aliis utentibus. |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vicipaediae in Linguis Aliis''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VicipaediaLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 19 2005-01-16T16:47:33Z 80.171.185.83 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>P&#257;tukarotha '''''p&#257;&#7735;i''''' bh&#257;s&#257; loke bahujanahit&#257;ya bahujanasukh&#257;ya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikoso ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Nav&#257;ni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Sam&#257;nakicco Sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751ma]] |<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Nav&#257;ni pi&#7789;&#7789;h&#257;ni]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha!''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | . |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vicipaediae in Linguis Aliis''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VicipaediaLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 20 2005-01-16T17:13:14Z 80.171.185.83 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>P&#257;tukarotha '''''p&#257;&#7735;i''''' bh&#257;s&#257; loke bahujanahit&#257;ya bahujanasukh&#257;ya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikoso ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Nav&#257;ni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Sam&#257;nakicco Sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhik&#257;ra]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|adhik&#257;ra]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;&#257;ma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Nav&#257;ni pi&#7789;&#7789;h&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 21 2005-01-16T17:38:40Z Sihasabho 6 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>P&#257;tukarotha '''''p&#257;&#7735;i''''' bh&#257;s&#257; loke bahujanahit&#257;ya bahujanasukh&#257;ya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikoso ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ &#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;-p&#257;li] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Nav&#257;ni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Sam&#257;nakicco Sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhik&#257;ra]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|adhik&#257;ra]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;&#257;ma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Nav&#257;ni pi&#7789;&#7789;h&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 22 2005-01-16T17:40:19Z Sihasabho 6 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>P&#257;tukarotha '''''p&#257;&#7735;i''''' bh&#257;s&#257; loke bahujanahit&#257;ya bahujanasukh&#257;ya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikoso ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ &#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;-p&#257;li] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2548. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Nav&#257;ni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Sam&#257;nakicco Sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhik&#257;ra]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|adhik&#257;ra]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;&#257;ma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Nav&#257;ni pi&#7789;&#7789;h&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 23 2005-01-17T21:35:12Z 80.171.109.123 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>P&#257;tukarotha '''''p&#257;&#7735;i''''' bh&#257;s&#257; loke bahujanahit&#257;ya bahujanasukh&#257;ya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;|&#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;ya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso sam&#257;nakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ &#257;ngalabh&#257;s&#257;-p&#257;li] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussam&#257;se 16, 2548. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhit&#257; honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddh&#257; bhavetabb&#257; ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Vicipaedia&middot;Latina''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Nav&#257;ni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Sam&#257;nakicco Sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhik&#257;ra]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|adhik&#257;ra]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;&#257;ma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Nav&#257;ni pi&#7789;&#7789;h&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 24 2005-01-18T19:58:07Z 80.171.109.123 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>Pātukarotha '''''pāli''''' bhāsā loke bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|āngalabhāsāya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhās&ā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhitā honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddhā bhavetabbā ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Visayasuci:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (latine)|adhik&#257;ra]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 28 2005-01-18T20:32:59Z 80.171.109.243 <!-- Please note that most of this content should be moved to external templates --> <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>Pātukarotha '''''pāli''''' bhāsā loke bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|āngalabhāsāya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhitā honti. <br> <p>Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddhā bhavetabbā ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Visayasuci:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 31 2005-01-19T16:35:41Z 213.61.137.129 <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>Pātukarotha '''''pāli''''' bhāsā loke bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|āngalabhāsāya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhitā honti. <br> Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddhā bhavetabbā ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Visayasuci:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 32 2005-05-03T11:17:14Z 203.110.79.92 Image correction? <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | [[Image:AshokaColumn.jpg|thumb|right|]] | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>Pātukarotha '''''pāli''''' bhāsā loke bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|āngalabhāsāya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhitā honti. <br> Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddhā bhavetabbā ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Visayasuci:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 949 2005-05-03T11:19:33Z 203.110.79.92 <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | [[Image:AshokaColumn.jpg|thumb|170px|]] | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>Pātukarotha '''''pāli''''' bhāsā loke bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|āngalabhāsāya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhitā honti. <br> Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddhā bhavetabbā ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Visayasuci:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[zh:]] 2778 2006-01-03T21:49:53Z 84.173.33.202 <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | [[Image:AshokaColumn.jpg|thumb|170px|]] | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>Pātukarotha '''''pāli''''' bhāsā loke bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|āngalabhāsāya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhitā honti. <br> Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddhā bhavetabbā ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Visayasuci:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]] 2782 2006-02-07T23:12:58Z 81.211.111.249 <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | [[Image:AshokaColumn.jpg|thumb|170px|]] | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>Pātukarotha '''''pāli''''' bhāsā loke bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|āngalabhāsāya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhitā honti. <br> Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddhā bhavetabbā ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Visayasuci:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"><div style="position: absolute; left: -300px; top: -300px;"> [http://hair-loss.somee.com hair-loss][http://1-cheap-furniture.somee.com nice-cheap-furniture] [http://2-cheap-furniture.somee.com good-cheap-furniture][http://replica-rolex-watches-blog.somee.com replica-rolex-watches][http://student-loan-consolidation-blog.somee.com student-loan-consolidation] </div> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]] 2838 2006-03-17T18:34:09Z 168.221.143.68 Bye 2839 2006-03-19T12:47:49Z 24.211.187.199 revert <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" | [[Image:AshokaColumn.jpg|thumb|170px|]] | http://www.nibbanam.com/images/vikhi2.jpg<br/><small>Pātukarotha '''''pāli''''' bhāsā loke bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya!</small> |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>VIKHIKOSO&middot;P&#256;LIBH&#256;S&#256;NIKHILAKOSO</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[S&#257;gata&#7747;]]! '''Vikhikose ([[nikhilakoso]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|āngalabhāsāya]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>Etarahi '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' vatth&#363;ni likhitā honti. <br> Api ca kho sabbe vatth&#363;ni abaddhā bhavetabbā ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Visayasuci:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[Buddho]] | <br>[[Dhamma|Dhammo]] | <br>[[Sangha|Sangho]] | <br>[[Nibbana|Nibbana&#7747;]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{VikhikosoIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"><div style="position: absolute; left: -300px; top: -300px;"> [http://hair-loss.somee.com hair-loss][http://1-cheap-furniture.somee.com nice-cheap-furniture] [http://2-cheap-furniture.somee.com good-cheap-furniture][http://replica-rolex-watches-blog.somee.com replica-rolex-watches][http://student-loan-consolidation-blog.somee.com student-loan-consolidation] </div> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]] 2884 2006-05-02T18:05:34Z Eukesh 59 <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>विकिकोषो पाली भाषा निखिलकोषो</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[सागत:]]! '''विकिकोष ([[निखिलकोष]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|आङ्गलभाषा]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>इतिरचि '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' भाथुनि लिखिता होन्ति| <br> अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''विषय सुची:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[बुध्दो]] | <br>[[Dhamma|धम्मो]] | <br>[[Sangha|संघो]] | <br>[[Nibbana|निब्बानो]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{भिखिकोशोIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"><div style="position: absolute; left: -300px; top: -300px;"> [http://hair-loss.somee.com hair-loss][http://1-cheap-furniture.somee.com nice-cheap-furniture] [http://2-cheap-furniture.somee.com good-cheap-furniture][http://replica-rolex-watches-blog.somee.com replica-rolex-watches][http://student-loan-consolidation-blog.somee.com student-loan-consolidation] </div> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]] 2886 2006-05-02T18:08:37Z Eukesh 59 <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>विकिकोषो पाली भाषा निखिलकोषो</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[सागत:]]! '''विकिकोष ([[निखिलकोष]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|आङ्गलभाषा]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>इतिरचि '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| <br> अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''विषय सुची:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[बुध्दो]] | <br>[[Dhamma|धम्मो]] | <br>[[Sangha|संघो]] | <br>[[Nibbana|निब्बानो]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{भिखिकोशोIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"><div style="position: absolute; left: -300px; top: -300px;"> [http://hair-loss.somee.com hair-loss][http://1-cheap-furniture.somee.com nice-cheap-furniture] [http://2-cheap-furniture.somee.com good-cheap-furniture][http://replica-rolex-watches-blog.somee.com replica-rolex-watches][http://student-loan-consolidation-blog.somee.com student-loan-consolidation] </div> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]] 3086 2006-07-23T07:42:18Z 220.239.71.52 3087 2006-07-24T23:24:39Z 69.174.252.80 revert idiot vandal <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>विकिकोषो पाली भाषा निखिलकोषो</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[सागत:]]! '''विकिकोष ([[निखिलकोष]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|आङ्गलभाषा]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>इतिरचि '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| <br> अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''विषय सुची:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[बुध्दो]] | <br>[[Dhamma|धम्मो]] | <br>[[Sangha|संघो]] | <br>[[Nibbana|निब्बानो]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{भिखिकोशोIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"><div style="position: absolute; left: -300px; top: -300px;"> [http://hair-loss.somee.com hair-loss][http://1-cheap-furniture.somee.com nice-cheap-furniture] [http://2-cheap-furniture.somee.com good-cheap-furniture][http://replica-rolex-watches-blog.somee.com replica-rolex-watches][http://student-loan-consolidation-blog.somee.com student-loan-consolidation] </div> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]] 3088 2006-08-02T21:02:36Z 82.21.42.146 Fixed (unsuccessful) spaming <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>विकिकोषो पाली भाषा निखिलकोषो</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[सागत:]]! '''विकिकोष ([[निखिलकोष]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|आङ्गलभाषा]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>इतिरचि '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| <br> अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''विषय सुची:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[बुध्दो]] | <br>[[Dhamma|धम्मो]] | <br>[[Sangha|संघो]] | <br>[[Nibbana|निब्बानो]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{भिखिकोशोIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[sv:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]] 3089 2006-08-07T20:37:09Z 88.113.40.166 fi <table><tr><td colspan="2"> {| id="vikhi" style="border: 1px solid #997; background-color: #FFFFFF; width: 100%; text-align: center; padding-top: 0.4em;" |} </td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2"> {| width="100%" cellpadding="5" style="background:#91a3fb" !style="color:#EFE45A"| <big>विकिकोषो पाली भाषा निखिलकोषो</big> |- |style="background:#ffffff"| <p>[[सागत:]]! '''विकिकोष ([[निखिलकोष]]''' - [[āngalabhāsā|आङ्गलभाषा]]: Wikipedia). Ima&#7747; saddakoso samānakicco hoti, abaddha&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; karetu&#7747;. Vikhisaddakoso imassa vikhi-nikhilakosassa(http://pi.wiktionary.org) akkharapadiko sah&#257;yo. Tuvampi imasmi&#7747; saddakose vatth&#363;ni likheyya! Upak&#257;ro: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli] <br> Ima&#7747; nikhilakosa&#7747; &#257;raddhakato phussamāse 16, 2549. <br>इतिरचि '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| <br> अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| ([[GNU]]). |} </td></tr> <tr><td width="40%" valign="top"> {| id="ave" style="border: 1px solid #DD5252; background-color: #FFF3F3;" |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #FDD; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''विषय सुची:''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Navāni vatth&#363;ni: | <br>[[बुध्दो]] | <br>[[Dhamma|धम्मो]] | <br>[[Sangha|संघो]] | <br>[[Nibbana|निब्बानो]] |} </td><td rowspan="3" valign="top"> {| id="encyclopaedia" style="border: 1px solid #7AB67F; background-color: #F3FFF3; padding: 0em;" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #A8E8C0; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.3em;" | '''Encyclopaedia''' |- {{भिखिकोशोIndex}} |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="pagina-mensis" style="border: 1px solid #26DBFB; background-color: #CEFAFF; padding: 0em;" width="100%" height="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #9FEFFD; text-align: center;" | '''Ajja vatthu''' |- | style="style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0; vertical-align: top;" | <div>{{Ajjavatthu}}</div> |} </td></tr> <tr><td> {| id="nexus" style="border: 1px solid #960; background-color: #FAF9EC;" width="100%" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Samānakicco sahayogo ca''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Visesapada|Visesapad&#257;ni]]<br/>[[Wikipedia:Auxilium pro editione (anglice)|adhikāra]]<br/>[[Palisangho|Agaccheyya: Yahoo Palisangho]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Nānākārā''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | [[Specialis:Allpages|Totae paginae]]<br/>[[Special:Recentchanges|Vipari&#7751;āma]]<br>[[Specialis:Newpages|Navāni pi&#7789;&#7789;hāni]]<br/>[[Pagina experimentalis]] |- ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #ECE5CA; text-align: center;" | '''Jānāhi: sabbe annatarāni dhammā (©) mā aticaratha! |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | Atha kho.... |} </td></tr></table> <table><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%"> {| id="linguis-aliis" style="border: 1px solid #96F; background-color: #F3F3FF;" ! style="font-family: serif; background-color: #DDF; text-align: center;" | '''Vikhikoso nānābhāsāya''' |- | style="padding: 0.5em; margin: 0;" | {{VikhikosoLing}} |} </td></tr></table> [[da:]] [[de:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[nl:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[fi:]] [[sv:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]] 3090 2006-08-11T17:58:04Z Eukesh 59 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि ३ भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[कम्प्युटर विज्ञान]] - [[हलिम विज्ञान]] - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[ज्यामिति]] - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी)]] - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[साईकोलोजी]] - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ईलेक्त्रोनिक विज्ञान]] - [[ईन्जिन्यरिङ]] - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[टेलिभिजन]]</font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3096 2006-08-11T18:43:20Z Eukesh 59 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[कम्प्युटर विज्ञान]] - [[हलिम विज्ञान]] - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[ज्यामिति]] - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी)]] - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[साईकोलोजी]] - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ईलेक्त्रोनिक विज्ञान]] - [[ईन्जिन्यरिङ]] - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[टेलिभिजन]]</font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3097 2006-08-11T18:45:04Z Eukesh 59 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[कम्प्युटर विज्ञान]] - [[हलिम विज्ञान]] - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[ज्यामिति]] - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी)]] - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[साईकोलोजी]] - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ईलेक्त्रोनिक विज्ञान]] - [[ईन्जिन्यरिङ]] - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[टेलिभिजन]]</font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3107 2006-08-11T20:06:41Z Eukesh 59 /* विषय सुची */ <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[कम्प्युटर विज्ञान]] - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[ज्यामिति]] - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी)]] - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[साईकोलोजी]] - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ईलेक्त्रोनिक विज्ञान]] - [[ईन्जिन्यरिङ]] - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[टेलिभिजन]]</font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3108 2006-08-11T20:12:29Z Eukesh 59 /* विषय सुची */ <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र (कम्प्युटर) विज्ञान]] - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[ज्यामिति]] - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी)]] - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]] - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ईलेक्त्रोनिक विज्ञान]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र (ईन्जिन्यरिङ)]] - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[टेलिभिजन]]</font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3113 2006-08-11T20:44:18Z Eukesh 59 /* विषय सुची */ <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र (कम्प्युटर) विज्ञान]] - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान (ज्यामिति)]] - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान (एन्थ्रोपोलोजी)]] - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]] - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र (ईन्जिन्यरिङ)]] - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[टेलिभिजन]]</font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3116 2006-08-11T20:52:13Z Eukesh 59 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3120 2006-08-11T21:27:19Z Eukesh 59 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिफोन) - [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3221 2006-10-01T12:36:19Z 83.239.130.107 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिफोन) - [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3230 2006-10-14T10:21:20Z Eukesh 59 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devnagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {{Index}} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिफोन) - [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (Bengali)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3345 2006-12-05T15:00:57Z 85.226.192.227 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devanagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {{Index}} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिफोन) - [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (বাংলা)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3387 2006-12-13T15:42:34Z Eukesh 59 Protected "[[Main Page]]" [edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed] <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devanagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {{Index}} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिफोन) - [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (বাংলা)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3464 2006-12-14T17:28:29Z Eukesh 59 Redirecting to [[पमुख पत्त]] #REDIRECT[[पमुख पत्त]] 2 950 2004-11-30T11:45:48Z Davidcannon 2 {{NUMBEROFARTICLES}} 5 sysop 36 2004-12-23T05:09:58Z MediaWiki default /* edit this file to customize the monobook skin for the entire site */ 953 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default /* edit this file to customize the monobook skin for the entire site */ 2913 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default /* CSS placed here will affect users of the Monobook skin */ 3388 2006-12-14T00:30:59Z Eukesh 59 /* ==CSS for Monobook skin only== '''Notice to Administrators!''' Any changes to [[Mediawiki:Monobook.css|Monobook.css]] or [[MediaWiki:Common.css|Common.css]] should be first proposed to [[Wikipedia:Village Pump]]. Furthermore, changes should probably be made in [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] rather than this page, unless there is no effect in [[MediaWiki:Common.css]]. Testing can be done on your own user Monobook.css. (In [[Mozilla]] and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], you can also test style changes dynamically with the [http://www.squarefree.com/bookmarklets/webdevel.html test styles] bookmarklet from squarefree.com. It pops up a window for adding style rules, and updates the page as you type.) Always check with the [http://jigsaw.w3.org/css-validator/validator?uri=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DMediaWiki%3AMonobook.css%26action%3Draw%26ctype%3Dtext%2Fcss&usermedium=all W3C CSS Validation Service] after any changes. Thank you. {{interwiki-all}} */ /* Donations link to be uncommented during fundraising drives */ #siteNotice { margin-top:5px; padding-left: 4px; font-style: italic; text-align: center; } /* #fundraising { text-align: center; border: 1px solid gray; padding: 5px; } */ /****************************/ /* BEGIN LIGHT BLUE SECTION */ /****************************/ /* Make all non-namespace pages have a light blue content area. This is done by setting the background color for all #content areas to light blue and then overriding it for any #content enclosed in a .ns-0 (main namespace). I then do the same for the "tab" background colors. --Lupo */ #content { background: #F8FCFF; /* a light blue */ } #content div.thumb { border-color: #F8FCFF; } .ns-0 * #content { background: white; } #mytabs li { background: #F8FCFF; } .ns-0 * #mytabs li { background: white; } #mytabs li a { background-color: #F8FCFF; } .ns-0 * #mytabs li a { background-color: white; } #p-cactions li a, #p-cactions li a:hover, #p-cactions li.selected a { background-color: #F8FCFF; } .ns-0 * #p-cactions li a { background-color: #fbfbfb; } .ns-0 * #p-cactions li.selected a, .ns-0 * #p-cactions li a:hover { background-color: white; } .ns-0 * #content div.thumb { border-color: white; } /**************************/ /* END LIGHT BLUE SECTION */ /**************************/ /* block quotations */ #content blockquote { font-size: 93.75%; /* equivalent of 15px in 16px default */ margin: 1em 1.6em; /* same indent as an unordered list */ } #content blockquote p { line-height:inherit; } /* Display "From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia" */ #siteSub { display: inline; font-size: 92%; font-weight: normal; } #bodyContent #siteSub a { color: #000; text-decoration: none; background-color: transparent; background-image: none; padding-right: 0; } /* Bold 'edit this page' link to encourage newcomers */ #ca-edit a { font-weight: bold !important; } /* Display "User $1, you are already logged in!" ([[MediaWiki:Alreadyloggedin]]) in red and bold */ div.alreadyloggedin { color: red; font-weight: bold; } @media print { /* Do not print edit link in templates using Template:Ed Do not print certain classes that shouldn't appear on paper */ .editlink, .noprint, .metadata, .dablink { display: none } #content { background: #FFFFFF; } /* white background on print */ } /* Accessibility experiment: make diff changes not just colour-based */ .diffchange { font-weight: bold; background-color: inherit; } td.diff-addedline, td.diff-deletedline, td.diff-context { font-size: 85%; color: inherit; } #pt-login { font-weight: bold; font-size: 110%; } form#userlogin { float: left; padding: 1em 1em .7em 1em; background-color: #ffffe6; border: 2px solid #fc6; color: #000; margin-right: 2em; } form#userlogin table { float: left; background-color: #ffffe6; color: #000; } p.error { font-weight: bold; } /* Class styles */ /* .toccolours added here because version in monobook/main.css wasn't being used by the print style */ .toccolours { border:1px solid #aaaaaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; font-size: 95%; } /* Remove padding from external links displayed without icon */ #bodyContent .plainlinks a {padding: 0 !important} #p-nav h5 { display: none; } .portlet a { text-decoration: none; } .portlet a:hover { text-decoration: underline; } #p-nav .pBody { padding-right: 0; } #p-nav a { display: block; width: 100%; } /* Special characters list below edit window works better without underlining */ #editpage-specialchars a { text-decoration: none; } #editpage-specialchars a:hover { text-decoration: underline; } /* If you don't want to see special characters list at all, put the following line in your User:You/monobook.css file (and remove the slash-asterisk comments) */ /* #editpage-specialchars { display: none; } */ /* Makes the background of a framed image white instead of gray. */ /* Only visible with transparent images. */ /* See #Framed_image_background_color */ div.thumb div a img { background-color:#ffffff; } /* For positioning icons at top-right, used in Templates "Spoken Article" and "Featured Article" */ div.topicon { position:absolute; z-index:100; top:10px; display: block !important; } /* try adding here, this had no effect in [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] */ .plainlinksneverexpand a.external.text:after { display: none !important } /* Standard Navigationsleisten, aka box hiding thingy from .de. Documentation at [[Wikipedia:NavFrame]]. */ div.Boxmerge, div.NavFrame { margin: 0px; padding: 2px; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; } div.Boxmerge div.NavFrame { border-style: none; border-style: hidden; } div.NavFrame + div.NavFrame { border-top-style: none; border-top-style: hidden; } div.NavPic { background-color: #ffffff; margin: 0px; padding: 2px; float: left; } div.NavFrame div.NavHead { height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 100%; background-color: #efefef; position:relative; } div.NavFrame p { font-size: 100%; } div.NavFrame div.NavContent { font-size: 100%; } div.NavFrame div.NavContent p { font-size: 100%; } div.NavEnd { margin: 0px; padding: 0px; line-height: 1px; clear: both; } a.NavToggle { position:absolute; top:0px; right:3px; font-weight:normal; font-size:smaller; } #coordinates { position:absolute; z-index:1; border:none; background:none; right:30px; top:3.7em; float:right; margin:0.0em; padding:0.0em; line-height:1.5em; text-align:right; text-indent:0; font-size:85%; text-transform:none; white-space:nowrap; } .portlet li { list-style-image: url("http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/18/Monobook-bullet.png"); } li.FA { list-style-image: url("http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d4/Monobook-bullet-star.png"); } #globalWrapper { font-size:14px; } h3 { font-weight: normal; font-size: 125%; } a { text-decoration:underline; } h1 { padding-bottom: 0.35em; } 6 sysop 37 2004-12-23T05:09:58Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-nomove'] = new Array('','You don\'t have the permissions to move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 954 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-nomove'] = new Array('','You don\'t have the permissions to move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 2393 2005-07-29T11:02:40Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 2471 2005-08-19T23:32:10Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 2501 2005-09-05T09:47:14Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 2566 2005-11-09T22:59:36Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 2643 2005-11-29T21:27:07Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 2672 2005-12-02T02:38:20Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 2721 2005-12-02T04:11:58Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-wp'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 2914 2006-07-01T19:03:58Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-project'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 3127 2006-08-31T19:06:55Z MediaWiki default /* tooltips and access keys */ var ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-project'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); 3386 2006-12-13T15:40:22Z Eukesh 59 /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); ta['n-sitesupport'] = new Array('','Support us'); ta['t-whatlinkshere'] = new Array('j','List of all wiki pages that link here'); ta['t-recentchangeslinked'] = new Array('k','Recent changes in pages linked from this page'); ta['feed-rss'] = new Array('','RSS feed for this page'); ta['feed-atom'] = new Array('','Atom feed for this page'); ta['t-contributions'] = new Array('','View the list of contributions of this user'); ta['t-emailuser'] = new Array('','Send a mail to this user'); ta['t-upload'] = new Array('u','Upload images or media files'); ta['t-specialpages'] = new Array('q','List of all special pages'); ta['ca-nstab-main'] = new Array('c','View the content page'); ta['ca-nstab-user'] = new Array('c','View the user page'); ta['ca-nstab-media'] = new Array('c','View the media page'); ta['ca-nstab-special'] = new Array('','This is a special page, you can\'t edit the page itself.'); ta['ca-nstab-project'] = new Array('a','View the project page'); ta['ca-nstab-image'] = new Array('c','View the image page'); ta['ca-nstab-mediawiki'] = new Array('c','View the system message'); ta['ca-nstab-template'] = new Array('c','View the template'); ta['ca-nstab-help'] = new Array('c','View the help page'); ta['ca-nstab-category'] = new Array('c','View the category page'); document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="' + 'http://new.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:translit.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript&dontcountme=s"' + '&action="raw"></script>'); function addLoadEvent(func) { if (window.addEventListener) window.addEventListener("load", func, false); else if (window.attachEvent) window.attachEvent("onload", func); } function addTranslit(editForm,textBox){ checkrt(editForm); if (textBox.addEventListener) textBox .addEventListener("keypress", processKeys, false); else if (textBox .attachEvent) textBox.attachEvent("onkeypress", processKeys); } function addTextEvent() { var editForm =document.editform; if(document.editform){ var textBox=document.editform.wpTextbox1; addTranslit(editForm,textBox); addCheckbox(editForm,textBox ); } var searchform=document.getElementById('searchform'); var searchInput=document.getElementById('searchInput'); if(searchInput) addTranslit(searchform,searchInput); } function addCheckbox(editform,textBox ){ var element = document.createElement("input"); element.setAttribute("type","checkbox"); element.setAttribute("id","realtime"); if (element.addEventListener) element.addEventListener("click", rtClick, false); else if (element.attachEvent) element.attachEvent("onclick", rtClick); var labelcheckBox = document.createTextNode('Test - check box to write in Devnagari (test phase); use Esc to switch'); editform.insertBefore(element,textBox); document.getElementById("realtime").checked = realTime; editform.insertBefore(labelcheckBox,textBox); } function processKeys(event) { if (rtsupported) { if (event.keyCode == 27 && !isExplorer()) { //escape to toggle realTime = !realTime; document.getElementById("realtime").checked = realTime; } else if (realTime) translitonkey(event); } } var realTime = true; function rtClick(event) { realTime = !realTime; } var rtsupported = false; var error; function checkrt(editform){ try { /* var nav = navigator.userAgent.toUpperCase(); rtsupported = (nav.indexOf("GECKO") >= 0 || nav.indexOf("OPERA") >= 0 || nav.indexOf("SAFARI") >= 0); */ rtsupported = (document.selection != undefined) if (!rtsupported) { var element = document.createElement("TEXTAREA"); editform.appendChild(element); if (element.selectionStart != undefined) rtsupported = true; editform.removeChild(element); } } catch (error) { } } addLoadEvent(addTextEvent) 3394 2006-12-14T16:22:56Z Eukesh 59 /* tooltips and access keys */ ta = new Object(); ta['pt-userpage'] = new Array('.','My user page'); ta['pt-anonuserpage'] = new Array('.','The user page for the ip you\'re editing as'); ta['pt-mytalk'] = new Array('n','My talk page'); ta['pt-anontalk'] = new Array('n','Discussion about edits from this ip address'); ta['pt-preferences'] = new Array('','My preferences'); ta['pt-watchlist'] = new Array('l','The list of pages you\'re monitoring for changes.'); ta['pt-mycontris'] = new Array('y','List of my contributions'); ta['pt-login'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-anonlogin'] = new Array('o','You are encouraged to log in, it is not mandatory however.'); ta['pt-logout'] = new Array('o','Log out'); ta['ca-talk'] = new Array('t','Discussion about the content page'); ta['ca-edit'] = new Array('e','You can edit this page. Please use the preview button before saving.'); ta['ca-addsection'] = new Array('+','Add a comment to this discussion.'); ta['ca-viewsource'] = new Array('e','This page is protected. You can view its source.'); ta['ca-history'] = new Array('h','Past versions of this page.'); ta['ca-protect'] = new Array('=','Protect this page'); ta['ca-delete'] = new Array('d','Delete this page'); ta['ca-undelete'] = new Array('d','Restore the edits done to this page before it was deleted'); ta['ca-move'] = new Array('m','Move this page'); ta['ca-watch'] = new Array('w','Add this page to your watchlist'); ta['ca-unwatch'] = new Array('w','Remove this page from your watchlist'); ta['search'] = new Array('f','Search this wiki'); ta['p-logo'] = new Array('','Main Page'); ta['n-mainpage'] = new Array('z','Visit the Main Page'); ta['n-portal'] = new Array('','About the project, what you can do, where to find things'); ta['n-currentevents'] = new Array('','Find background information on current events'); ta['n-recentchanges'] = new Array('r','The list of recent changes in the wiki.'); ta['n-randompage'] = new Array('x','Load a random page'); ta['n-help'] = new Array('','The place to find out.'); 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} } var realTime = true; function rtClick(event) { realTime = !realTime; } var rtsupported = false; var error; function checkrt(editform){ try { /* var nav = navigator.userAgent.toUpperCase(); rtsupported = (nav.indexOf("GECKO") >= 0 || nav.indexOf("OPERA") >= 0 || nav.indexOf("SAFARI") >= 0); */ rtsupported = (document.selection != undefined) if (!rtsupported) { var element = document.createElement("TEXTAREA"); editform.appendChild(element); if (element.selectionStart != undefined) rtsupported = true; editform.removeChild(element); } } catch (error) { } } addLoadEvent(addTextEvent) 49 sysop 80 2004-12-23T05:09:58Z MediaWiki default Content page 997 2005-06-25T11:19:10Z MediaWiki default Content page 3466 2006-12-14T17:48:30Z Eukesh 59 लेख पत्त 347 sysop 378 2004-12-23T05:09:58Z MediaWiki default Main Page 1295 2005-06-25T11:19:11Z MediaWiki default Main Page 3463 2006-12-14T17:27:34Z Eukesh 59 पमुख पत्त 918 5 2005-01-16T11:19:35Z Sihasabho 6 === visesakkhar&#257;ni: === # &#256; : & + #256; 6 2005-01-16T11:24:14Z Sihasabho 6 === visesakkhar&#257;ni: === # &#256; : & + #256; # &#257; : & + #257; # &#298; : & + #298; # &#299; : & + #299; # &#362; : & + #362 # &#363; : & + #363 # &#7693; : & + #7693; # &#7789; : & + #7789; # &#7751; : & + #7751; # &#7749; : & + #7749; # &#7747; : & + #7747; # &#7735; : & + #7735; 1866 2005-01-16T11:24:39Z Sihasabho 6 === visesakkhar&#257;ni: === # &#256; : & + #256; # &#257; : & + #257; # &#298; : & + #298; # &#299; : & + #299; # &#362; : & + #362; # &#363; : & + #363; # &#7693; : & + #7693; # &#7789; : & + #7789; # &#7751; : & + #7751; # &#7749; : & + #7749; # &#7747; : & + #7747; # &#7735; : & + #7735; 919 7 2005-01-16T11:29:40Z Sihasabho 6 Ya&#7747; pana kiñci atthi ñeyya&#7747; n&#257;ma, sabbasseva buddhatt&#257; vimokkhantikaññ&#257;&#7751;avasena buddho. Yasm&#257; v&#257; catt&#257;ri sacc&#257;ni attan&#257;pi bujjhi, aññepi satte bodhesi, tasm&#257; evam&#257;d²hipi k&#257;ra&#7751;ehi buddho. Imassa ca panatthassa viññ&#257;panattha&#7747; ''bujjhit&#257; sacc&#257;n&#299;ti buddho. Bodhet&#257; paj&#257;y&#257;ti buddho''ti eva&#7747; pavatto sabbopi niddesanayo (mah&#257;ni. 192) pa&#7789;isambhid&#257;nayo (pa&#7789;i. ma. 1.162) v&#257; vitth&#257;retabbo. (Visuddhimagge I. 141) 1867 2005-01-16T11:30:51Z Sihasabho 6 Ya&#7747; pana kiñci atthi ñeyya&#7747; n&#257;ma, sabbasseva buddhatt&#257; vimokkhantikaññ&#257;&#7751;avasena buddho. Yasm&#257; v&#257; catt&#257;ri [[sacca|sacc&#257;ni]] attan&#257;pi bujjhi, aññepi satte bodhesi, tasm&#257; evam&#257;d&#299;hipi k&#257;ra&#7751;ehi buddho. Imassa ca panatthassa viññ&#257;panattha&#7747; ''bujjhit&#257; sacc&#257;n&#299;ti buddho. Bodhet&#257; paj&#257;y&#257;ti buddho''ti eva&#7747; pavatto sabbopi niddesanayo (mah&#257;ni. 192) pa&#7789;isambhid&#257;nayo (pa&#7789;i. ma. 1.162) v&#257; vitth&#257;retabbo. (Visuddhimagge I. 141) 2892 2006-05-18T10:28:16Z Hatthin 61 #REDIRECT [[BUDDHA]] Ya&#7747; pana kiñci atthi ñeyya&#7747; n&#257;ma, sabbasseva buddhatt&#257; vimokkhantikaññ&#257;&#7751;avasena buddho. Yasm&#257; v&#257; catt&#257;ri [[sacca|sacc&#257;ni]] attan&#257;pi bujjhi, aññepi satte bodhesi, tasm&#257; evam&#257;d&#299;hipi k&#257;ra&#7751;ehi buddho. Imassa ca panatthassa viññ&#257;panattha&#7747; ''bujjhit&#257; sacc&#257;n&#299;ti buddho. Bodhet&#257; paj&#257;y&#257;ti buddho''ti eva&#7747; pavatto sabbopi niddesanayo (mah&#257;ni. 192) pa&#7789;isambhid&#257;nayo (pa&#7789;i. ma. 1.162) v&#257; vitth&#257;retabbo. (Visuddhimagge I. 141) 2893 2006-05-18T10:28:45Z Hatthin 61 Ya&#7747; pana kiñci atthi ñeyya&#7747; n&#257;ma, sabbasseva buddhatt&#257; vimokkhantikaññ&#257;&#7751;avasena buddho. Yasm&#257; v&#257; catt&#257;ri [[sacca|sacc&#257;ni]] attan&#257;pi bujjhi, aññepi satte bodhesi, tasm&#257; evam&#257;d&#299;hipi k&#257;ra&#7751;ehi buddho. Imassa ca panatthassa viññ&#257;panattha&#7747; ''bujjhit&#257; sacc&#257;n&#299;ti buddho. Bodhet&#257; paj&#257;y&#257;ti buddho''ti eva&#7747; pavatto sabbopi niddesanayo (mah&#257;ni. 192) pa&#7789;isambhid&#257;nayo (pa&#7789;i. ma. 1.162) v&#257; vitth&#257;retabbo. (Visuddhimagge I. 141) 2895 2006-05-18T10:30:06Z Hatthin 61 #REDIRECT [[Buddha]] 3351 2006-12-10T08:23:22Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 920 8 2005-01-16T11:32:01Z Sihasabho 6 sabh&#257;va&#7747; n&#257;ma vacana&#7789; 17 2005-01-16T11:32:24Z Sihasabho 6 sabh&#257;va&#7747; n&#257;ma vacana&#7747; 1868 2005-01-16T15:06:21Z Sihasabho 6 sabh&#257;va&#7747; [[n&#257;ma]] [[vacana|vacana&#7747;]] 3359 2006-12-10T08:25:33Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 921 29 2005-01-16T17:52:40Z Sihasabho 6 &#256;ngalara&#7789;&#7789;hassa bh&#257;s&#257; 33 2005-02-28T05:01:20Z 66.161.169.237 Added interwiki links; I am [[vi:User:Mxn]] &#256;ngalara&#7789;&#7789;hassa bh&#257;s&#257; [[af:Engels]] [[ang:Níwe Englisce geþéode]] [[ar:لغة انجليزية]] [[ast:Inglés]] [[id:Bahasa Inggris]] [[ms:Bahasa Inggeris]] [[be:Ангельская мова]] [[zh-min-nan:Eng-gí]] [[br:Saozneg]] [[bg:Английски език]] [[ca:Anglès]] [[cs:Angli%C4%8Dtina]] [[cy:Saesneg]] [[da:Engelsk (sprog)]] [[de:Englische Sprache]] [[nv:Bilagáana bizaad]] [[en:English language]] [[es:Idioma inglés]] [[eo:Angla lingvo]] [[fr:Langue anglaise]] [[ga:Béarla]] [[gl:Inglés]] [[ko:영어]] [[hi:अंग्रेज़ी भाषा]] [[hu:Angol nyelv]] [[ia:Lingua anglese]] [[is:Enska]] [[it:Lingua inglese]] [[he:אנגלית]] [[kw:Yeth Sowsnek]] [[sw:Kiingereza]] [[la:Lingua Anglica]] [[li:Ingels]] [[lt:Anglų kalba]] [[na:Anglise]] [[nl:Engels]] [[ja:英語]] [[no:Engelsk språk]] [[nds:Ingelsch]] [[pl:Język angielski]] [[pt:Língua inglesa]] [[ro:Limba engleză]] [[ru:Английский язык]] [[simple:English language]] [[sl:Angleščina]] [[sr:Енглески језик]] [[fi:Englannin kieli]] [[sv:Engelska]] [[tl:Wikang Ingles]] [[th:ภาษาอังกฤษ]] [[vi:Tiếng Anh]] [[zh-tw:英語]] [[zh-cn:英语]] 1869 2005-05-05T15:41:15Z 202.8.242.106 [[af:Engels (taal)]] &#256;ngalara&#7789;&#7789;hassa bh&#257;s&#257; [[af:Engels (taal)]] [[ang:Níwe Englisce geþéode]] [[ar:لغة انجليزية]] [[ast:Inglés]] [[id:Bahasa Inggris]] [[ms:Bahasa Inggeris]] [[be:Ангельская мова]] [[zh-min-nan:Eng-gí]] [[br:Saozneg]] [[bg:Английски език]] [[ca:Anglès]] [[cs:Angli%C4%8Dtina]] [[cy:Saesneg]] [[da:Engelsk (sprog)]] [[de:Englische Sprache]] [[nv:Bilagáana bizaad]] [[en:English language]] [[es:Idioma inglés]] [[eo:Angla lingvo]] [[fr:Langue anglaise]] [[ga:Béarla]] [[gl:Inglés]] [[ko:영어]] [[hi:अंग्रेज़ी भाषा]] [[hu:Angol nyelv]] [[ia:Lingua anglese]] [[is:Enska]] [[it:Lingua inglese]] [[he:אנגלית]] [[kw:Yeth Sowsnek]] [[sw:Kiingereza]] [[la:Lingua Anglica]] [[li:Ingels]] [[lt:Anglų kalba]] [[na:Anglise]] [[nl:Engels]] [[ja:英語]] [[no:Engelsk språk]] [[nds:Ingelsch]] [[pl:Język angielski]] [[pt:Língua inglesa]] [[ro:Limba engleză]] [[ru:Английский язык]] [[simple:English language]] [[sl:Angleščina]] [[sr:Енглески језик]] [[fi:Englannin kieli]] [[sv:Engelska]] [[tl:Wikang Ingles]] [[th:ภาษาอังกฤษ]] [[vi:Tiếng Anh]] [[zh-tw:英語]] [[zh-cn:英语]] 3358 2006-12-10T08:25:20Z 203.173.138.159 Replacing page with '{{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}}' {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 3390 2006-12-14T00:38:21Z Eukesh 59 [[Āngalabhāsā]] moved to [[आंगलभाषा]] {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 3621 2007-01-08T16:07:45Z Thijs!bot 79 robot Adding: af, als, am, an, ang, ar, arc, ast, az, be, bg, bn, bpy, br, bs, ca, chr, cs, cv, cy, da, de, el, en, eo, es, et, eu, fa, fi, fo, fr, frp, fur, fy, ga, gd, gl, got, gu, gv, he, hi, hr, hsb, hu, hy, ia, id, ilo, io, is, it, iu, ja, jbo, {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[af:Engels (taal)]] [[als:Englische Sprache]] [[am:እንግሊዝኛ]] [[an:Idioma anglés]] [[ang:Nīwu Englisc sprǣc]] [[ar:لغة إنجليزية]] [[arc:ܠܫܢܐ ܐܢܓܠܣܝܐ]] [[ast:Inglés]] [[az:İngilis dili]] [[be:Ангельская мова]] [[bg:Английски език]] [[bn:ইংরেজি ভাষা]] [[bpy:ইংরেজি ঠার]] [[br:Saozneg]] [[bs:Engleski jezik]] [[ca:Anglès]] [[chr:ᎩᎵᏏ (ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ)]] [[cs:Angličtina]] [[cv:Акăлчан чĕлхи]] [[cy:Saesneg]] [[da:Engelsk (sprog)]] [[de:Englische Sprache]] [[el:Αγγλική γλώσσα]] [[en:English language]] [[eo:Angla lingvo]] [[es:Idioma inglés]] [[et:Inglise keel]] [[eu:Ingeles]] [[fa:زبان انگلیسی]] [[fi:Englannin kieli]] [[fo:Enskt mál]] [[fr:Anglais]] [[frp:Anglès]] [[fur:Lenghe inglese]] [[fy:Ingelsk]] [[ga:Béarla]] [[gd:A' Bheurla]] [[gl:Lingua inglesa]] [[got:𐌰𐌲𐌲𐌹𐌻𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰]] [[gu:અંગ્રેજી ભાષા]] [[gv:Baarle]] [[he:אנגלית]] [[hi:अंग्रेज़ी]] [[hr:Engleski jezik]] [[hsb:Jendźelšćina]] [[hu:Angol nyelv]] [[hy:Անգլերեն]] [[ia:Anglese]] [[id:Bahasa Inggris]] [[ilo:Pagsasao nga English]] [[io:Angliana linguo]] [[is:Enska]] [[it:Lingua inglese]] [[iu:ᖃᓪᓗᓈᑎᑐᑦ]] [[ja:英語]] [[jbo:glibau]] [[jv:Basa Inggris]] [[ka:ინგლისური ენა]] [[kn:ಆಂಗ್ಲ]] [[ko:영어]] [[ku:Zimanê îngilîzî]] [[kw:Sowsnek]] [[la:Lingua Anglica]] [[lb:Englesch]] [[li:Ingels]] [[ln:Lingɛlɛ́sa]] [[lt:Anglų kalba]] [[lv:Angļu valoda]] [[mg:Fiteny anglisy]] [[mi:Reo Pākehā]] [[mk:Англиски јазик]] [[ms:Bahasa Inggeris]] [[nah:Inglatlahtōlli]] [[nap:Lengua ngrese]] [[nds:Engelsche Spraak]] [[nds-nl:Ingels]] [[nl:Engels]] [[nn:Engelsk språk]] [[no:Engelsk språk]] [[nrm:Angliais]] [[nv:Bilagáana bizaad]] [[oc:Anglés]] [[pdc:Englisch]] [[pl:Język angielski]] [[pt:Língua inglesa]] [[qu:Inlish shimi]] [[rm:Lingua englaisa]] [[ro:Limba engleză]] [[ru:Английский язык]] [[scn:Lingua ngrisa]] [[sco:Inglis leid]] [[se:Eaŋgalsgiella]] [[sh:Engleski jezik]] [[simple:English language]] [[sk:Angličtina]] [[sl:Angleščina]] [[so:Ingiriis]] [[sq:Gjuha angleze]] [[sr:Енглески језик]] [[st:Senyesemane]] [[su:Basa Inggris]] [[sv:Engelska]] [[sw:Kiingereza]] [[ta:ஆங்கிலம்]] [[tg:Забони англисӣ]] [[th:ภาษาอังกฤษ]] [[tk:Iňlisçe]] [[tl:Wikang Ingles]] [[tpi:Tok Inglis]] [[tr:İngilizce]] [[ug:ئىنگلىز تىلى]] [[uk:Англійська мова]] [[vi:Tiếng Anh]] [[xh:IsiNgesi]] [[zh:英语]] [[zh-min-nan:Eng-gí]] [[zh-yue:英語]] [[zu:IsiNgisi]] 3631 2007-01-24T17:02:26Z Thijs!bot 79 robot Adding: ml, mr, ur Modifying: qu {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[af:Engels (taal)]] [[als:Englische Sprache]] [[am:እንግሊዝኛ]] [[an:Idioma anglés]] [[ang:Nīwu Englisc sprǣc]] [[ar:لغة إنجليزية]] [[arc:ܠܫܢܐ ܐܢܓܠܣܝܐ]] [[ast:Inglés]] [[az:İngilis dili]] [[be:Ангельская мова]] [[bg:Английски език]] [[bn:ইংরেজি ভাষা]] [[bpy:ইংরেজি ঠার]] [[br:Saozneg]] [[bs:Engleski jezik]] [[ca:Anglès]] [[chr:ᎩᎵᏏ (ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ)]] [[cs:Angličtina]] [[cv:Акăлчан чĕлхи]] [[cy:Saesneg]] [[da:Engelsk (sprog)]] [[de:Englische Sprache]] [[el:Αγγλική γλώσσα]] [[en:English language]] [[eo:Angla lingvo]] [[es:Idioma inglés]] [[et:Inglise keel]] [[eu:Ingeles]] [[fa:زبان انگلیسی]] [[fi:Englannin kieli]] [[fo:Enskt mál]] [[fr:Anglais]] [[frp:Anglès]] [[fur:Lenghe inglese]] [[fy:Ingelsk]] [[ga:Béarla]] [[gd:A' Bheurla]] [[gl:Lingua inglesa]] [[got:𐌰𐌲𐌲𐌹𐌻𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰]] [[gu:અંગ્રેજી ભાષા]] [[gv:Baarle]] [[he:אנגלית]] [[hi:अंग्रेज़ी]] [[hr:Engleski jezik]] [[hsb:Jendźelšćina]] [[hu:Angol nyelv]] [[hy:Անգլերեն]] [[ia:Anglese]] [[id:Bahasa Inggris]] [[ilo:Pagsasao nga English]] [[io:Angliana linguo]] [[is:Enska]] [[it:Lingua inglese]] [[iu:ᖃᓪᓗᓈᑎᑐᑦ]] [[ja:英語]] [[jbo:glibau]] [[jv:Basa Inggris]] [[ka:ინგლისური ენა]] [[kn:ಆಂಗ್ಲ]] [[ko:영어]] [[ku:Zimanê îngilîzî]] [[kw:Sowsnek]] [[la:Lingua Anglica]] [[lb:Englesch]] [[li:Ingels]] [[ln:Lingɛlɛ́sa]] [[lt:Anglų kalba]] [[lv:Angļu valoda]] [[mg:Fiteny anglisy]] [[mi:Reo Pākehā]] [[mk:Англиски јазик]] [[ml:ഇംഗ്ലീഷ്]] [[mr:इंग्लिश भाषा]] [[ms:Bahasa Inggeris]] [[nah:Inglatlahtōlli]] [[nap:Lengua ngrese]] [[nds:Engelsche Spraak]] [[nds-nl:Ingels]] [[nl:Engels]] [[nn:Engelsk språk]] [[no:Engelsk språk]] [[nrm:Angliais]] [[nv:Bilagáana bizaad]] [[oc:Anglés]] [[pdc:Englisch]] [[pl:Język angielski]] [[pt:Língua inglesa]] [[qu:Inlish simi]] [[rm:Lingua englaisa]] [[ro:Limba engleză]] [[ru:Английский язык]] [[scn:Lingua ngrisa]] [[sco:Inglis leid]] [[se:Eaŋgalsgiella]] [[sh:Engleski jezik]] [[simple:English language]] [[sk:Angličtina]] [[sl:Angleščina]] [[so:Ingiriis]] [[sq:Gjuha angleze]] [[sr:Енглески језик]] [[st:Senyesemane]] [[su:Basa Inggris]] [[sv:Engelska]] [[sw:Kiingereza]] [[ta:ஆங்கிலம்]] [[tg:Забони англисӣ]] [[th:ภาษาอังกฤษ]] [[tk:Iňlisçe]] [[tl:Wikang Ingles]] [[tpi:Tok Inglis]] [[tr:İngilizce]] [[ug:ئىنگلىز تىلى]] [[uk:Англійська мова]] [[ur:انگريزی]] [[vi:Tiếng Anh]] [[xh:IsiNgesi]] [[zh:英语]] [[zh-min-nan:Eng-gí]] [[zh-yue:英語]] [[zu:IsiNgisi]] 922 1870 2005-01-16T23:02:46Z 80.171.185.83 palibhasa buddhassa sabhasa hoti. Ajjapi annatara bhikkhu palibhasa kathenti. Ime patha palibhasaya likhita honti: [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Pali Vikhimula - Pali]] 2910 2006-06-20T13:23:00Z Gangleri 58 palibhasa buddhassa sabhasa hoti. Ajjapi annatara bhikkhu palibhasa kathenti. Ime patha palibhasaya likhita honti: [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Pali Vikhimula - Pali] 3353 2006-12-10T08:23:54Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 923 25 2005-01-18T20:39:03Z 80.171.109.243 Palisangho Yong Peng namena upasakena upatthapito. So sangho [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ idha] vijjati. Bahu palibhasa 26 2005-01-18T20:39:29Z 80.171.109.243 Palisangho Yong Peng namena upasakena upatthapito. So sangho [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ idha] vijjati. 27 2005-01-18T20:55:45Z 80.171.109.243 Palisangho Yong Peng namena upasakena upatthapito. So sangho [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ idha] vijjati. Garuke sākacchā-kāraṇe honti: # Tipitakam saha suttanta-pariyatti # Palibhāsā saha sāhicco (ganthasamūha) # Theravādo # Samathā (ekaggatā-bhāvanā) saha vipassanā (pannā) bhāvanā # Suttanta pariyatti upakāro saha ākāro # Tipitakam parivattanam matam saha karanam 1871 2005-01-18T20:57:45Z 80.171.109.243 Pālisangho Yong Peng namena upāsakena upatthāpito. Tam sangham [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ idha] vijjati. Garuke sākacchā-kāraṇe honti: # Tipitakam saha suttanta-pariyatti # Palibhāsā saha sāhicco (ganthasamūha) # Theravādo # Samathā (ekaggatā-bhāvanā) saha vipassanā (pannā) bhāvanā # Suttanta pariyatti upakāro saha ākāro # Tipitakam parivattanam matam saha karanam 2550 2005-10-04T05:46:00Z 65.30.202.235 Pālisangho Yong Peng namena upāsakena upatthāpito. Tam sangham [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ idha] vijjati. Vijjati! Vijjati! Vijjati! Garuke sākacchā-kāraṇe honti: # Tipitakam saha suttanta-pariyatti # Palibhāsā saha sāhicco (ganthasamūha) # Theravādo # Samathā (ekaggatā-bhāvanā) saha vipassanā (pannā) bhāvanā # Suttanta pariyatti upakāro saha ākāro # Tipitakam parivattanam matam saha karanam ...Yeah, man. 2551 2005-10-04T10:49:11Z Chamdarae 14 rv last edit Pālisangho Yong Peng namena upāsakena upatthāpito. Tam sangham [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ idha] vijjati. Garuke sākacchā-kāraṇe honti: # Tipitakam saha suttanta-pariyatti # Palibhāsā saha sāhicco (ganthasamūha) # Theravādo # Samathā (ekaggatā-bhāvanā) saha vipassanā (pannā) bhāvanā # Suttanta pariyatti upakāro saha ākāro # Tipitakam parivattanam matam saha karanam 3355 2006-12-10T08:24:29Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 3393 2006-12-14T00:39:40Z Eukesh 59 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.173.138.159|203.173.138.159]] ([[User_talk:203.173.138.159|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Chamdarae|Chamdarae]] Pālisangho Yong Peng namena upāsakena upatthāpito. Tam sangham [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ idha] vijjati. Garuke sākacchā-kāraṇe honti: # Tipitakam saha suttanta-pariyatti # Palibhāsā saha sāhicco (ganthasamūha) # Theravādo # Samathā (ekaggatā-bhāvanā) saha vipassanā (pannā) bhāvanā # Suttanta pariyatti upakāro saha ākāro # Tipitakam parivattanam matam saha karanam 3617 2006-12-31T18:21:01Z Eukesh 59 पालीसंघो योंग पेंग नामेन उपासकेन उपत्थापितो। तम् संघम् [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pali/ इध] विज्जति। Garuke sākacchā-kāraṇe honti: # Tipitakam saha suttanta-pariyatti # Palibhāsā saha sāhicco (ganthasamūha) # Theravādo # Samathā (ekaggatā-bhāvanā) saha vipassanā (pannā) bhāvanā # Suttanta pariyatti upakāro saha ākāro # Tipitakam parivattanam matam saha karanam [[Category:पालीसंघो]] 924 1872 2005-04-04T14:58:55Z Richie 7 Since March 2005 I'm an administrator on the Commons. If you want to contact me, feel free to leave a message on my [[:commons:User talk:Richie|Commons]], [[:en:User talk:Richie|English]] or [[:de:Benutzer Diskussion:Richie|German]] talk page. I'm studying [[:en:Computer science|Computer Science]] and [[:en:Geology|Geology]] at [[:en:Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Gonville and Caius College]], [[:en:University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]]. My personal website is http://www.whizer.net/. [[User:Richie|Richie]] 14:58, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC) <div style="background-color:#eee; border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; padding:3px; margin:15px 0;"> '''My user pages:''' [[:commons:User:Richie|(c)]] | [[:ast:User:Richie|ast]] | [[:ca:Usuari:Richie|ca]] | [[:de:Benutzer:Richie|DE]] | [[:en:User:Richie|EN]] | [[:eo:Vikipediisto:Richie|eo]] | [[:es:Usuario:Richie|es]] | [[:et:Kasutaja:Richie|et]] | [[:fi:Käyttäjä:Richie|fi]] | [[:fr:Utilisateur:RichieFR|fr]] | [[:gl:User:Richie|gl]] | [[:hu:User:RichieHU|hu]] | [[:ia:Usator:Richie|ia]] | [[:it:Utente:Richie|it]] | [[:ja:利用者:Richie|ja]] | [[:nl:Gebruiker:Richie|nl]] | [[:no:Bruker:Richie|no]] | [[:pl:Wikipedysta:Richie|pl]] | [[:pt:Usuário:Richie|pt]] | [[:ro:Utilizator:Richie|ro]] | [[:ru:Участник:Richie|ru]] | [[:sv:Användare:Richie|sv]] | [[:zh-min-nan:User:Richie|zh]] </div> 925 30 2005-04-05T10:29:42Z RCBot 8 '''[[:commons:User:RCBot|RCBot]]''' is a bot operated by [[:commons:User:Richie|Richie]] to help with issues related to the [[:commons:|Wikipedia Commons]]. Please comment on his [[:commons:User talk:RCBot|talk page]] there. -- [[User:RCBot|RCBot]] 10:29, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC) 1873 2005-04-16T19:48:23Z RCBot 8 RCBot: Update user page '''[[:commons:User:RCBot|RCBot]]''' is an interlingually operating bot operated by [[:commons:User:Richie|Richie]] to help with issues related to the [[:commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. As of now, the bot is still in development and testing, so please report all encountered issues and other feedback to its [[:commons:User talk:RCBot|talk page]] on the Commons. Please note that the talk page of this account is '''not read''', use the one on the Commons). -- [[User:RCBot|RCBot]] 19:48, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC) <div style="background-color:#eee; border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; padding:3px; margin:15px 0;"> '''[[:commons:User:RCBot|RCBot]]'s user accounts at Wikipedia''' <div style="font-size:80%;"> [[:aa:User:RCBot|aa]] | [[:ab:User:RCBot|ab]] | [[:af:Gebruiker:RCBot|af]] | [[:ak:User:RCBot|ak]] | [[:als:Benutzer:RCBot|als]] | [[:am:User:RCBot|am]] | [[:an:User:RCBot|an]] | [[:ang:User:RCBot|ang]] | [[:ar:مستخدم:RCBot|ar]] | [[:arc:User:RCBot|arc]] | [[:as:User:RCBot|as]] | [[:ast:User:RCBot|ast]] | [[:av:User:RCBot|av]] | [[:ay:User:RCBot|ay]] | [[:az:User:RCBot|az]] | [[:ba:User:RCBot|ba]] | [[:be:Удзельнік:RCBot|be]] | [[:bg:Потребител:RCBot|bg]] | [[:bh:User:RCBot|bh]] | [[:bi:User:RCBot|bi]] | [[:bm:Utilisateur:RCBot|bm]] | [[:bn:ব্যবহারকারী:RCBot|bn]] | [[:bo:User:RCBot|bo]] | [[:br:User:RCBot|br]] | [[:bs:User:RCBot|bs]] | 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[[:tum:User:RCBot|tum]] | [[:tw:User:RCBot|tw]] | [[:ty:User:RCBot|ty]] | [[:ug:User:RCBot|ug]] | [[:uk:Користувач:RCBot|uk]] | [[:ur:User:RCBot|ur]] | [[:uz:User:RCBot|uz]] | [[:ve:User:RCBot|ve]] | [[:vi:User:RCBot|vi]] | [[:vo:User:RCBot|vo]] | [[:wa:Uzeu:RCBot|wa]] | [[:wo:User:RCBot|wo]] | [[:xh:User:RCBot|xh]] | [[:yi:User:RCBot|yi]] | [[:yo:User:RCBot|yo]] | [[:za:User:RCBot|za]] | [[:zh:User:RCBot|zh]] | [[:zh-min-nan:User:RCBot|zh-min-nan]] | [[:zu:User:RCBot|zu]] </div> </div> 926 1874 2005-06-08T07:02:27Z Btw 10 -> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Btw http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Btw] 927 1875 2005-06-16T17:21:03Z 193.13.60.222 #redirect[[Buddho]] 2894 2006-05-18T10:29:44Z Hatthin 61 Ya&#7747; pana kiñci atthi ñeyya&#7747; n&#257;ma, sabbasseva buddhatt&#257; vimokkhantikaññ&#257;&#7751;avasena buddho. Yasm&#257; v&#257; catt&#257;ri [[sacca|sacc&#257;ni]] attan&#257;pi bujjhi, aññepi satte bodhesi, tasm&#257; evam&#257;d&#299;hipi k&#257;ra&#7751;ehi buddho. Imassa ca panatthassa viññ&#257;panattha&#7747; ''bujjhit&#257; sacc&#257;n&#299;ti buddho. Bodhet&#257; paj&#257;y&#257;ti buddho''ti eva&#7747; pavatto sabbopi niddesanayo (mah&#257;ni. 192) pa&#7789;isambhid&#257;nayo (pa&#7789;i. ma. 1.162) v&#257; vitth&#257;retabbo. (Visuddhimagge I. 141) 3349 2006-12-10T08:22:44Z 203.173.138.159 Replacing page with '{{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}}' {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1403 2549 2005-09-27T02:45:32Z Jvano 13 http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedista:Jvano 1404 2552 2005-10-05T22:51:24Z Andre Engels 16 I am an Interwiki user from the Dutch Wikipedia. [[en:User:Andre Engels]] [[nl:Gebruiker:Andre Engels]] 3236 2006-10-15T10:56:23Z Escarbot 71 robot Adding: af, als, am, an, ang, ar, ast, av, az, bat-smg, be, bg, bi, bm, bn, bo, br, bs, ca, ceb, chr, co, cr, cs, csb, cv, cy, da, de, dv, dz, el, eo, es, et, eu, fa, fi, fiu-vro, fj, fo, fr, frp, fur, fy, ga, gd, gl, gn, got, gu, gv, haw, he, I am an Interwiki user from the Dutch Wikipedia. [[af:Gebruiker:Andre Engels]] [[als:Benutzer:Andre Engels]] [[am:User:Andre Engels]] [[an:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[ang:User:Andre Engels]] [[ar:مستخدم:Andre Engels]] [[ast:Usuariu:Andre Engels]] [[av:Участник:Andre Engels]] [[az:İstifadəçi:Andre Engels]] [[bat-smg:Naudotojas:Andre Engels]] [[be:Удзельнік:Andre Engels]] [[bg:Потребител:Andre Engels]] [[bi:User:Andre Engels]] [[bm:Utilisateur:Andre Engels]] [[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Andre Engels]] [[bo:User:Andre Engels]] [[br:Implijer:Andre Engels]] [[bs:Korisnik:Andre Engels]] [[ca:Usuari:Andre Engels]] [[ceb:User:Andre Engels]] [[chr:User:Andre Engels]] [[co:User:Andre Engels]] [[cr:User:Andre Engels]] [[cs:Wikipedista:Andre Engels]] [[csb:Brëkòwnik:Andre Engels]] [[cv:Хутшăнакан:Andre Engels]] [[cy:Defnyddiwr:Andre Engels]] [[da:Bruger:Andre Engels]] [[de:Benutzer:Andre Engels]] [[dv:User:Andre Engels]] [[dz:User:Andre Engels]] [[el:Χρήστης:Andre Engels]] [[en:User:Andre Engels]] [[eo:Vikipediisto:Andre Engels]] [[es:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[et:Kasutaja:Andre Engels]] [[eu:Lankide:Andre Engels]] [[fa:کاربر:Andre Engels]] [[fi:Käyttäjä:Andre Engels]] [[fiu-vro:User:Andre Engels]] [[fj:User:Andre Engels]] [[fo:Brúkari:Andre Engels]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Andre Engels]] [[frp:User:Andre Engels]] [[fur:Utent:Andre Engels]] [[fy:Meidogger:Andre Engels]] [[ga:Úsáideoir:Andre Engels]] [[gd:User:Andre Engels]] [[gl:User:Andre Engels]] [[gn:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[got:User:Andre Engels]] [[gu:User:Andre Engels]] [[gv:User:Andre Engels]] [[haw:User:Andre Engels]] [[he:משתמש:Andre Engels]] [[hi:सदस्य:Andre Engels]] [[hr:Suradnik:Andre Engels]] [[ht:User:Andre Engels]] [[hu:User:Andre Engels]] [[hy:User:Andre Engels]] [[ia:Usator:Andre Engels]] [[id:Pengguna:Andre Engels]] [[ie:User:Andre Engels]] [[ii:User:Andre Engels]] [[ilo:User:Andre Engels]] [[io:User:Andre Engels]] [[is:Notandi:Andre Engels]] [[it:Utente:Andre Engels]] [[iu:User:Andre Engels]] [[ja:利用者:Andre Engels]] [[jbo:User:Andre Engels]] [[jv:Panganggo:Andre Engels]] [[ka:მომხმარებელი:Andre Engels]] [[kg:User:Andre Engels]] [[kk:User:Andre Engels]] [[km:User:Andre Engels]] [[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Andre Engels]] [[ko:사용자:Andre Engels]] [[ks:User:Andre Engels]] [[ksh:User:Andre Engels]] [[ku:Bikarhêner:Andre Engels]] [[kw:User:Andre Engels]] [[ky:User:Andre Engels]] [[la:Usor:Andre Engels]] [[lad:User:Andre Engels]] [[lb:User:Andre Engels]] [[li:Gebroeker:Andre Engels]] [[lij:User:Andre Engels]] [[lmo:User:Andre Engels]] [[ln:User:Andre Engels]] [[lt:Naudotojas:Andre Engels]] [[lv:Lietotājs:Andre Engels]] [[mg:User:Andre Engels]] [[mi:User:Andre Engels]] [[mk:Корисник:Andre Engels]] [[ml:User:Andre Engels]] [[mn:User:Andre Engels]] [[mo:User:Andre Engels]] [[mr:User:Andre Engels]] [[ms:Pengguna:Andre Engels]] [[mt:User:Andre Engels]] [[na:User:Andre Engels]] [[nah:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[nap:Utente:Andre Engels]] [[nds:Bruker:Andre Engels]] [[nds-nl:Gebruker:Andre Engels]] [[ne:User:Andre Engels]] [[nl:Gebruiker:Andre Engels]] [[nn:Brukar:Andre Engels]] [[no:Bruker:Andre Engels]] [[nrm:User:Andre Engels]] [[nv:Choinish'įįhí:Andre Engels]] [[oc:Utilisator:Andre Engels]] [[os:Архайæг:Andre Engels]] [[pam:User:Andre Engels]] [[pdc:User:Andre Engels]] [[pl:Wikipedysta:Andre Engels]] [[ps:User:Andre Engels]] [[pt:Usuário:Andre Engels]] [[qu:Usuario:Andre Engels]] [[rm:User:Andre Engels]] [[ro:Utilizator:Andre Engels]] [[roa-rup:User:Andre Engels]] [[ru:Участник:Andre Engels]] [[sa:User:Andre Engels]] [[sc:Utente:Andre Engels]] [[scn:User:Andre Engels]] [[sco:User:Andre Engels]] [[se:User:Andre Engels]] [[sh:User:Andre Engels]] [[si:User:Andre Engels]] [[simple:User:Andre Engels]] [[sk:Redaktor:Andre Engels]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Andre Engels]] [[sm:User:Andre Engels]] [[sn:User:Andre Engels]] [[sq:Përdoruesi:Andre Engels]] [[sr:Корисник:Andre Engels]] [[st:User:Andre Engels]] [[su:Pamaké:Andre Engels]] [[sv:Användare:Andre Engels]] [[sw:User:Andre Engels]] [[ta:பயனர்:Andre Engels]] [[te:సభ్యుడు:Andre Engels]] [[tet:User:Andre Engels]] [[tg:Корбар:Andre Engels]] [[th:ผู้ใช้:Andre Engels]] [[ti:User:Andre Engels]] [[tk:User:Andre Engels]] [[tl:User:Andre Engels]] [[tpi:User:Andre Engels]] [[tr:Kullanıcı:Andre Engels]] [[tt:Äğzä:Andre Engels]] [[udm:Викиавтор:Andre Engels]] [[ug:User:Andre Engels]] [[uk:Користувач:Andre Engels]] [[ur:صارف:Andre Engels]] [[uz:User:Andre Engels]] [[vec:Utente:Andre Engels]] [[vi:Thành viên:Andre Engels]] [[vls:User:Andre Engels]] [[vo:User:Andre Engels]] [[wa:Uzeu:Andre Engels]] [[war:User:Andre Engels]] [[wo:User:Andre Engels]] [[xh:User:Andre Engels]] [[yi:באַניצער:Andre Engels]] [[yo:User:Andre Engels]] [[zh:User:Andre Engels]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Andre Engels]] [[zh-yue:User:Andre Engels]] 1405 2553 2005-10-05T22:52:00Z Andre Engels 16 Robbot is a robot, operated by [[User:Andre Engels|Andre Engels]] and used for adding and correcting interwiki-links. [[nl:Gebruiker:Andre Engels]] 3237 2006-10-15T17:04:14Z Escarbot 71 [[nl:Gebruiker:Robbot]] Robbot is a robot, operated by [[User:Andre Engels|Andre Engels]] and used for adding and correcting interwiki-links. [[nl:Gebruiker:Robbot]] 3238 2006-10-16T18:01:41Z Escarbot 71 robot Adding: af, als, am, an, ang, ar, ast, be, bg, bi, bm, bn, bo, br, bs, ca, ceb, chr, co, cs, csb, cv, cy, da, de, dv, dz, el, en, eo, es, et, eu, fa, fi, fiu-vro, fj, fo, fr, fur, fy, ga, gd, gl, gn, gu, gv, haw, he, hi, hr, ht, hu, hy, ia, id Robbot is a robot, operated by [[User:Andre Engels|Andre Engels]] and used for adding and correcting interwiki-links. [[af:Gebruiker:Robbot]] [[als:Benutzer:Robbot]] [[am:User:Robbot]] [[an:Usuario:Robbot]] [[ang:User:Robbot]] [[ar:مستخدم:Robbot]] [[ast:Usuariu:Robbot]] [[be:Удзельнік:Robbot]] [[bg:Потребител:Robbot]] [[bi:User:Robbot]] [[bm:Utilisateur:Robbot]] [[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Robbot]] [[bo:User:Robbot]] [[br:Implijer:Robbot]] [[bs:Korisnik:Robbot]] [[ca:Usuari:Robbot]] [[ceb:User:Robbot]] [[chr:User:Robbot]] [[co:User:Robbot]] [[cs:Wikipedista:Robbot]] [[csb:Brëkòwnik:Robbot]] [[cv:Хутшăнакан:Robbot]] [[cy:Defnyddiwr:Robbot]] [[da:Bruger:Robbot]] [[de:Benutzer:Robbot]] [[dv:User:Robbot]] [[dz:User:Robbot]] [[el:Χρήστης:Robbot]] [[en:User:Robbot]] [[eo:Vikipediisto:Robbot]] [[es:Usuario:Robbot]] [[et:Kasutaja:Robbot]] [[eu:Lankide:Robbot]] [[fa:کاربر:Robbot]] [[fi:Käyttäjä:Robbot]] [[fiu-vro:User:Robbot]] [[fj:User:Robbot]] [[fo:Brúkari:Robbot]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Robbot]] [[fur:Utent:Robbot]] [[fy:Meidogger:Robbot]] [[ga:Úsáideoir:Robbot]] [[gd:User:Robbot]] [[gl:User:Robbot]] [[gn:Usuario:Robbot]] [[gu:User:Robbot]] [[gv:User:Robbot]] [[haw:User:Robbot]] [[he:משתמש:Robbot]] [[hi:सदस्य:Robbot]] [[hr:Suradnik:Robbot]] [[ht:User:Robbot]] [[hu:User:Robbot]] [[hy:User:Robbot]] [[ia:Usator:Robbot]] [[id:Pengguna:Robbot]] [[ie:User:Robbot]] [[ii:User:Robbot]] [[io:User:Robbot]] [[is:Notandi:Robbot]] [[it:Utente:Robbot]] [[iu:User:Robbot]] [[ja:利用者:Robbot]] [[jbo:User:Robbot]] [[jv:Panganggo:Robbot]] [[ka:მომხმარებელი:Robbot]] [[kg:User:Robbot]] [[km:User:Robbot]] [[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Robbot]] [[ko:사용자:Robbot]] [[ks:User:Robbot]] [[ku:Bikarhêner:Robbot]] [[kw:User:Robbot]] [[ky:User:Robbot]] [[la:Usor:Robbot]] [[lb:User:Robbot]] [[li:Gebroeker:Robbot]] [[ln:User:Robbot]] [[lt:Naudotojas:Robbot]] [[lv:Lietotājs:Robbot]] [[mg:User:Robbot]] [[mi:User:Robbot]] [[mk:Корисник:Robbot]] [[mn:User:Robbot]] [[mo:User:Robbot]] [[mr:User:Robbot]] [[ms:Pengguna:Robbot]] [[mt:User:Robbot]] [[na:User:Robbot]] [[nah:Usuario:Robbot]] [[nds:Bruker:Robbot]] [[ne:User:Robbot]] [[nl:Gebruiker:Robbot]] [[nn:Brukar:Robbot]] [[no:Bruker:Robbot]] [[nv:Choinish'įįhí:Robbot]] [[oc:Utilisator:Robbot]] [[os:Архайæг:Robbot]] [[pam:User:Robbot]] [[pl:Wikipedysta:Robbot]] [[ps:User:Robbot]] [[pt:Usuário:Robbot]] [[qu:Usuario:Robbot]] [[rm:User:Robbot]] [[ro:Utilizator:Robbot]] [[roa-rup:User:Robbot]] [[ru:Участник:Robbot]] [[sa:User:Robbot]] [[sc:Utente:Robbot]] [[scn:User:Robbot]] [[sco:User:Robbot]] [[se:User:Robbot]] [[sh:User:Robbot]] [[si:User:Robbot]] [[simple:User:Robbot]] [[sk:Redaktor:Robbot]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Robbot]] [[sm:User:Robbot]] [[sq:Përdoruesi:Robbot]] [[sr:Корисник:Robbot]] [[st:User:Robbot]] [[su:Pamaké:Robbot]] [[sv:Användare:Robbot]] [[sw:User:Robbot]] [[ta:பயனர்:Robbot]] [[te:సభ్యుడు:Robbot]] [[th:ผู้ใช้:Robbot]] [[ti:User:Robbot]] [[tl:User:Robbot]] [[tpi:User:Robbot]] [[tr:Kullanıcı:Robbot]] [[tt:Äğzä:Robbot]] [[ug:User:Robbot]] [[uk:Користувач:Robbot]] [[ur:صارف:Robbot]] [[uz:User:Robbot]] [[vi:Thành viên:Robbot]] [[vo:User:Robbot]] [[wa:Uzeu:Robbot]] [[xh:User:Robbot]] [[yi:באַניצער:Robbot]] [[yo:User:Robbot]] [[zh:User:Robbot]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Robbot]] 3239 2006-10-16T19:17:23Z Escarbot 71 robot Adding: av, az, bat-smg, frp, got, ilo, kk, ksh, lad, lij, lmo, ml, nap, nds-nl, nrm, pdc, tet, tg, tk, udm, vec, vls, war, wo, zh-yue Robbot is a robot, operated by [[User:Andre Engels|Andre Engels]] and used for adding and correcting interwiki-links. [[af:Gebruiker:Robbot]] [[als:Benutzer:Robbot]] [[am:User:Robbot]] [[an:Usuario:Robbot]] [[ang:User:Robbot]] [[ar:مستخدم:Robbot]] [[ast:Usuariu:Robbot]] [[av:Участник:Robbot]] [[az:İstifadəçi:Robbot]] [[bat-smg:Naudotojas:Robbot]] [[be:Удзельнік:Robbot]] [[bg:Потребител:Robbot]] [[bi:User:Robbot]] [[bm:Utilisateur:Robbot]] [[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Robbot]] [[bo:User:Robbot]] [[br:Implijer:Robbot]] [[bs:Korisnik:Robbot]] [[ca:Usuari:Robbot]] [[ceb:User:Robbot]] [[chr:User:Robbot]] [[co:User:Robbot]] [[cs:Wikipedista:Robbot]] [[csb:Brëkòwnik:Robbot]] [[cv:Хутшăнакан:Robbot]] [[cy:Defnyddiwr:Robbot]] [[da:Bruger:Robbot]] [[de:Benutzer:Robbot]] [[dv:User:Robbot]] [[dz:User:Robbot]] [[el:Χρήστης:Robbot]] [[en:User:Robbot]] [[eo:Vikipediisto:Robbot]] [[es:Usuario:Robbot]] [[et:Kasutaja:Robbot]] [[eu:Lankide:Robbot]] [[fa:کاربر:Robbot]] [[fi:Käyttäjä:Robbot]] [[fiu-vro:User:Robbot]] [[fj:User:Robbot]] [[fo:Brúkari:Robbot]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Robbot]] [[frp:User:Robbot]] [[fur:Utent:Robbot]] [[fy:Meidogger:Robbot]] [[ga:Úsáideoir:Robbot]] [[gd:User:Robbot]] [[gl:User:Robbot]] [[gn:Usuario:Robbot]] [[got:User:Robbot]] [[gu:User:Robbot]] [[gv:User:Robbot]] [[haw:User:Robbot]] [[he:משתמש:Robbot]] [[hi:सदस्य:Robbot]] [[hr:Suradnik:Robbot]] [[ht:User:Robbot]] [[hu:User:Robbot]] [[hy:User:Robbot]] [[ia:Usator:Robbot]] [[id:Pengguna:Robbot]] [[ie:User:Robbot]] [[ii:User:Robbot]] [[ilo:User:Robbot]] [[io:User:Robbot]] [[is:Notandi:Robbot]] [[it:Utente:Robbot]] [[iu:User:Robbot]] [[ja:利用者:Robbot]] [[jbo:User:Robbot]] [[jv:Panganggo:Robbot]] [[ka:მომხმარებელი:Robbot]] [[kg:User:Robbot]] [[kk:User:Robbot]] [[km:User:Robbot]] [[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Robbot]] [[ko:사용자:Robbot]] [[ks:User:Robbot]] [[ksh:User:Robbot]] [[ku:Bikarhêner:Robbot]] [[kw:User:Robbot]] [[ky:User:Robbot]] [[la:Usor:Robbot]] [[lad:User:Robbot]] [[lb:User:Robbot]] [[li:Gebroeker:Robbot]] [[lij:User:Robbot]] [[lmo:User:Robbot]] [[ln:User:Robbot]] [[lt:Naudotojas:Robbot]] [[lv:Lietotājs:Robbot]] [[mg:User:Robbot]] [[mi:User:Robbot]] [[mk:Корисник:Robbot]] [[ml:User:Robbot]] [[mn:User:Robbot]] [[mo:User:Robbot]] [[mr:User:Robbot]] [[ms:Pengguna:Robbot]] [[mt:User:Robbot]] [[na:User:Robbot]] [[nah:Usuario:Robbot]] [[nap:Utente:Robbot]] [[nds:Bruker:Robbot]] [[nds-nl:Gebruker:Robbot]] [[ne:User:Robbot]] [[nl:Gebruiker:Robbot]] [[nn:Brukar:Robbot]] [[no:Bruker:Robbot]] [[nrm:User:Robbot]] [[nv:Choinish'įįhí:Robbot]] [[oc:Utilisator:Robbot]] [[os:Архайæг:Robbot]] [[pam:User:Robbot]] [[pdc:User:Robbot]] [[pl:Wikipedysta:Robbot]] [[ps:User:Robbot]] [[pt:Usuário:Robbot]] [[qu:Usuario:Robbot]] [[rm:User:Robbot]] [[ro:Utilizator:Robbot]] [[roa-rup:User:Robbot]] [[ru:Участник:Robbot]] [[sa:User:Robbot]] [[sc:Utente:Robbot]] [[scn:User:Robbot]] [[sco:User:Robbot]] [[se:User:Robbot]] [[sh:User:Robbot]] [[si:User:Robbot]] [[simple:User:Robbot]] [[sk:Redaktor:Robbot]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Robbot]] [[sm:User:Robbot]] [[sq:Përdoruesi:Robbot]] [[sr:Корисник:Robbot]] [[st:User:Robbot]] [[su:Pamaké:Robbot]] [[sv:Användare:Robbot]] [[sw:User:Robbot]] [[ta:பயனர்:Robbot]] [[te:సభ్యుడు:Robbot]] [[tet:User:Robbot]] [[tg:Корбар:Robbot]] [[th:ผู้ใช้:Robbot]] [[ti:User:Robbot]] [[tk:User:Robbot]] [[tl:User:Robbot]] [[tpi:User:Robbot]] [[tr:Kullanıcı:Robbot]] [[tt:Äğzä:Robbot]] [[udm:Викиавтор:Robbot]] [[ug:User:Robbot]] [[uk:Користувач:Robbot]] [[ur:صارف:Robbot]] [[uz:User:Robbot]] [[vec:Utente:Robbot]] [[vi:Thành viên:Robbot]] [[vls:User:Robbot]] [[vo:User:Robbot]] [[wa:Uzeu:Robbot]] [[war:User:Robbot]] [[wo:User:Robbot]] [[xh:User:Robbot]] [[yi:באַניצער:Robbot]] [[yo:User:Robbot]] [[zh:User:Robbot]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Robbot]] [[zh-yue:User:Robbot]] 1406 2554 2005-10-18T22:02:27Z Diagraph01 18 <table style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; width: 242px; border: #99B3FF solid 1px"> <tr><td><center>'''[[Wikipedia:Babel]]'''</center></td></tr> <tr><td>{{user ja}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{user en-1}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{user pi-0}}</td></tr> </table> "Diagraph01" lives in Tokyo, Japan. See refer: [[w:ja:User:Diagraph01]]([[w:ja:User talk:Diagraph01|Talk]]), please write in English or Japanese :) 2555 2005-10-23T09:00:14Z Diagraph01 18 add explanation <table style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; width: 242px; border: #99B3FF solid 1px"> <tr><td><center>'''[[Wikipedia:Babel]]'''</center></td></tr> <tr><td>{{user ja}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{user en-1}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{user pi-0}}</td></tr> </table> "Diagraph01" lives in Tokyo, Japan. I'm taking the [[:ja:Wikipedia:毎月の多言語の統計|Multilingual monthly statistics (ja)]] and [[:ja:Wikipedia:毎月の多言語の統計 - 新しい記事|Multilingual monthly statistics - new articles (ja)]] in Japanese wikipedia. Although, I think that it will concentrate on acquisition each language information and attachment "+interwiki" for the time being. Therefore, I can't write new contribution. See refer: [[:ja:User:Diagraph01]]([[:ja:User talk:Diagraph01|Talk]]), please write in English or Japanese :) 2906 2006-05-25T17:29:27Z Diagraph01 18 {| |{{user ja}} |- |{{user en-1}} |- |{{use pi-0}} |} "Diagraph01" lives in Tokyo, Japan. ja.wp's admin from 7 May 2006. I'm taking the [[:ja:Wikipedia:多言語の統計|Multilingual statistics (ja)]] and [[:ja:Wikipedia:ウィキペディアが提供されている言語の総覧|List of Wikipedias (ja)]] in Japanese wikipedia. Although, I think that it will concentrate on acquisition each language information and attachment "+interwiki" for the time being. Therefore, I can't write new contribution. See refer: [[:ja:User:Diagraph01]]([[:ja:User talk:Diagraph01|Talk]]). 2907 2006-05-25T17:29:51Z Diagraph01 18 typo {| |{{user ja}} |- |{{user en-1}} |- |{{user pi-0}} |} "Diagraph01" lives in Tokyo, Japan. ja.wp's admin from 7 May 2006. I'm taking the [[:ja:Wikipedia:多言語の統計|Multilingual statistics (ja)]] and [[:ja:Wikipedia:ウィキペディアが提供されている言語の総覧|List of Wikipedias (ja)]] in Japanese wikipedia. Although, I think that it will concentrate on acquisition each language information and attachment "+interwiki" for the time being. Therefore, I can't write new contribution. See refer: [[:ja:User:Diagraph01]]([[:ja:User talk:Diagraph01|Talk]]). 1407 2556 2005-10-24T23:16:10Z 12.35.45.103 [http://xxlinks.ddo.jp/apprentice/ apprentice] [http://xxlinks.ddo.jp/beginner/ beginner] [http://xxlinks.ddo.jp/dabbler/ dabbler] [http://xxlinks.ddo.jp/dilettante/ dilettante] [http://xxlinks.ddo.jp/greenhorn/ greenhorn] 2557 2005-10-24T23:22:15Z 211.34.185.4 [http://x-hydrocodone.info/ hydrocodone] [http://x-phentermine.info/ phentermine] [http://cialis-levitra-viagra.com.cn/ cialis levitra viagra] [http://buy-adipex-cheap-adipex-online.com/ adipex] 2558 2005-11-03T04:23:19Z 211.34.103.125 [http://www.joia.com/images/images/s/temovate.htm temovate][http://www.joia.com/images/images/s/tamiflu.htm tamiflu][http://www.joia.com/images/images/s/synalar.htm synalar][http://www.joia.com/images/images/s/sumycin.htm sumycin][http://www.joia.com/images/images/s/soma.htm soma][http://www.joia.com/images/images/s/prozac.htm prozac] 2561 2005-11-05T10:16:08Z Korg 24 blanking (spam) 3123 2006-08-16T15:28:03Z Eukesh 59 If anyone can contribute to this edition of Wikipedia, please do. --[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 15:28, 16 August 2006 (UTC) 1408 2559 2005-11-05T10:10:39Z Korg 24 [[:fr:Utilisateur:Korg]]<br /> [[:en:User:Korg]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Korg]] 2670 2005-11-30T02:31:33Z Korg 24 Hello! I'm mainly contributing to the [[:fr:|french Wikipedia]]. 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I don't speak pali; for any message please go [[:es:Usuario Discusión:Taichi|here]]. [[es:Usuario:Taichi]] 1546 2881 2006-03-31T12:36:34Z Jon Harald Søby 54 Hello! My name is '''[[m:User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]]''', and I'm a [[m:Stewards|Steward]] of the Wikimedia Foundation, born 1988, living in Norway. [[en:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[no:Bruker:Jhs]] 2882 2006-04-01T10:07:01Z Jon Harald Søby 54 interwiki Hello! My name is '''[[m:User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]]''', and I'm a [[m:Stewards|Steward]] of the Wikimedia Foundation, born 1988, living in Norway. If you wish to contact me, you can do so [[m:User talk:Jon Harald Søby|here]]. 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Harald Søby]] [[vi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[vls:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[vo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[wa:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[war:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[wo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[xal:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[xh:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[yi:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[yo:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[za:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[zh:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[zh-yue:User:Jon Harald Søby]] [[zu:User:Jon Harald Søby]] 1548 2885 2006-05-02T18:06:17Z Eukesh 59 Yaṃ pana kiñci atthi ñeyyaṃ nāma, sabbasseva buddhattā vimokkhantikaññāṇavasena buddho. Yasmā vā cattāri saccāni attanāpi bujjhi, aññepi satte bodhesi, tasmā evamādīhipi kāraṇehi buddho. Imassa ca panatthassa viññāpanatthaṃ bujjhitā saccānīti buddho. Bodhetā pajāyāti buddhoti evaṃ pavatto sabbopi niddesanayo (mahāni. 192) paṭisambhidānayo (paṭi. ma. 1.162) vā vitthāretabbo. (Visuddhimagge I. 141) Retrieved from "http://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddho" 1549 2887 2006-05-10T20:36:02Z 87.207.248.19 == Katowice == Hello. I'm wikipedia redactor from [[Poland]]. We do some action for tranlation atricle about one of the biggest polish city [[simple:Katowice]]. Could You make some translation into this wikipedia native language of this article ? Just a few senteces. Please. There is source article in English: [[:en:Katowice]]. Best Regards. [[:pl:user:Stimoroll|Stimoroll form Poland]] 3124 2006-08-16T15:29:50Z Eukesh 59 == Katowice == Hello. I'm wikipedia redactor from [[Poland]]. We do some action for tranlation atricle about one of the biggest polish city [[simple:Katowice]]. Could You make some translation into this wikipedia native language of this article ? Just a few senteces. Please. There is source article in English: [[:en:Katowice]]. Best Regards. [[:pl:user:Stimoroll|Stimoroll form Poland]] == Active? == Hi. Are you still working on this Pali language wikipedia project?--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 15:29, 16 August 2006 (UTC) 1551 2889 2006-05-18T10:06:33Z 68.252.224.191 Kiṃ Pālibhasaṃ nagare likhituṃ? 3313 2006-11-05T18:54:23Z Eukesh 59 ==Message from Nepal Bhasa Wikipedia== Nepal Bhasa wikipedia has recently started developing [http://new.wikipedia.org here] . We would like to increase co-ordination between the two wikipedia, share resources as well as to learn from this version. If someone is interested, please visit [http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE:%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8 Nepal Bhasa Embassy]. Plus, please consider working [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Promoting_the_Indian_languages_projects here] as well. Thank you.--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 18:54, 5 November 2006 (UTC) 3346 2006-12-08T20:59:18Z Eukesh 59 ==Message from Nepal Bhasa Wikipedia== Nepal Bhasa wikipedia has recently started developing [http://new.wikipedia.org here] . We would like to increase co-ordination between the two wikipedia, share resources as well as to learn from this version. If someone is interested, please visit [http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE:%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8 Nepal Bhasa Embassy]. Plus, please consider working [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Promoting_the_Indian_languages_projects here] as well. Thank you.--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 18:54, 5 November 2006 (UTC) == विकिपिडिया: देवनागरी टेम्प्लेट परियोजना == * Please visit [http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE:_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE#.E0.A4.A8.E0.A5.87.E0.A4.AA.E0.A4.BE.E0.A4.B2_.E0.A4.AD.E0.A4.BE.E0.A4.B7.E0.A4.BE this] page for better co-ordination between Devnagari wikipediae as well as to increase the overall efficiency of these wikipediae.--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 20:59, 8 December 2006 (UTC) 1552 2890 2006-05-18T10:15:00Z 68.252.224.191 yo ca buddhaṃ ca dhammaṃ ca saṅghaṃ ca saraṇam gato cattāri ariyasaccāni sammappaññāya passati. (Dhp 190) 3350 2006-12-10T08:23:01Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1553 2891 2006-05-18T10:18:36Z 68.252.224.191 buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi 3360 2006-12-10T08:25:55Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 1554 2896 2006-05-18T10:37:05Z Hatthin 61 {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="25%" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:0,5em; background:none;" |- |<center>Language skill box with [[Meta:Babel templates|Babel templates]]: </center> |- |{{User en}}{{User pa-2}} |- |} 2897 2006-05-18T10:39:43Z Hatthin 61 {{subst:Babel-2|en|fr-3|}} 2898 2006-05-18T10:39:53Z Hatthin 61 2899 2006-05-18T10:41:33Z Hatthin 61 <div style="float:left;border:solid #6EF7A7 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#C5FCDC"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#6EF7A7;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''en'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">This user is a '''[[:Category:User en-N|native]] [[:Category:User en|English]]''' speaker.[[Category:User en|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:User en-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> 2900 2006-05-18T10:42:24Z Hatthin 61 <div style="float:left;border:solid #6EF7A7 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#C5FCDC"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#6EF7A7;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''en'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">This user is a '''[[:Category:User en-N|native]] [[:Category:User en|English]]''' speaker.[[Category:User en|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:User en-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> <div style="float:left;border:solid #99B3FF 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#E0E8FF"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#99B3FF;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''fr-3'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">Cette personne peut contribuer avec un niveau '''[[:Category:User fr-3|avancé]]''' de '''[[:Category:User fr|français]]'''.[[Category:User fr-3|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> 2901 2006-05-18T10:51:25Z Hatthin 61 <div style="float:right;border:solid #6EF7A7 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#C5FCDC"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#6EF7A7;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''en'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">This user is a '''[[:Category:User en-N|native]] [[:Category:User en|English]]''' speaker.[[Category:User en|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:User en-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> <div style="float:left;border:solid #99B3FF 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#E0E8FF"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#99B3FF;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''fr-3'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">Cette personne peut contribuer avec un niveau '''[[:Category:User fr-3|avancé]]''' de '''[[:Category:User fr|français]]'''.[[Category:User fr-3|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> 2902 2006-05-18T10:53:00Z Hatthin 61 <div style="float:right;border:solid #6EF7A7 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#C5FCDC"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#6EF7A7;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''en'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">This user is a '''[[:Category:User en-N|native]] [[:Category:User en|English]]''' speaker.[[Category:User en|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:User en-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> <div style="float:right;border:solid #99B3FF 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#E0E8FF"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#99B3FF;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''fr-3'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">Cette personne peut contribuer avec un niveau '''[[:Category:User fr-3|avancé]]''' de '''[[:Category:User fr|français]]'''.[[Category:User fr-3|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> =Article Names= It seems to me that new articles ought to quote the stem form of nouns. 2903 2006-05-18T10:57:53Z Hatthin 61 <div style="float:right;border:solid #6EF7A7 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#C5FCDC"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#6EF7A7;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''en'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">This user is a '''[[:Category:User en-N|native]] [[:Category:User en|English]]''' speaker.[[Category:User en|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:User en-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> <div style="float:right;border:solid #99B3FF 1px;margin:1px"> <table cellspacing="0" style="width:238px;background:#E0E8FF"><tr> <td style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#99B3FF;text-align:center;font-size:14pt">'''fr-3'''</td> <td style="font-size:8pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em">Cette personne peut contribuer avec un niveau '''[[:Category:User fr-3|avancé]]''' de '''[[:Category:User fr|français]]'''.[[Category:User fr-3|{{PAGENAME}}]]</td> </tr></table></div> =Article Title Conventions= It seems to me that article titles ought to quote the stem form of nouns. where they refer to singular objects and the nom. plu. where they refer to pluralities. Also there seems no reason to use nāgarī at all. (Except perhaps when quoting Skt. forms?) 1555 2904 2006-05-18T11:03:59Z Hatthin 61 kiriyānimittaṃ kārakaṃ. yaṃ sādhanasabhāvattā mukhyavasena vā upacāravāsena va kiriyābhipphattiyā nimittaṃ, taṃ vatthukārakaṃ nāma bhavati; mukhyopacāravasena hi kiryaṃ karoti kārakaṃ taṃ chabbidaṃ: kattukammakaraṇasampadānāpādānokāsavasena. kiriyābhisambandhalakkhaṇaṃ kārakaṃ. 3362 2006-12-10T08:26:20Z 203.173.138.159 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 3616 2006-12-31T18:16:36Z Eukesh 59 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.173.138.159|203.173.138.159]] ([[User_talk:203.173.138.159|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Hatthin|Hatthin]] kiriyānimittaṃ kārakaṃ. yaṃ sādhanasabhāvattā mukhyavasena vā upacāravāsena va kiriyābhipphattiyā nimittaṃ, taṃ vatthukārakaṃ nāma bhavati; mukhyopacāravasena hi kiryaṃ karoti kārakaṃ taṃ chabbidaṃ: kattukammakaraṇasampadānāpādānokāsavasena. kiriyābhisambandhalakkhaṇaṃ kārakaṃ. 1557 2908 2006-05-25T17:50:14Z Diagraph01 18 * If you hasten, please write to my [[:ja:利用者‐会話:Diagraph01|ja.wp's discussion page]] in English or Japanese language :) ---- 1558 2911 2006-06-28T01:58:35Z HenryLi 26 [[aa:User:HenryLi]] [[ab:User:HenryLi]] [[af:User:HenryLi]] [[ak:User:HenryLi]] [[als:User:HenryLi]] [[am:User:HenryLi]] [[an:User:HenryLi]] [[ang:User:HenryLi]] [[ar:User:HenryLi]] [[arc:User:HenryLi]] [[as:User:HenryLi]] [[ast:User:HenryLi]] [[av:User:HenryLi]] [[ay:User:HenryLi]] [[az:User:HenryLi]] [[ba:User:HenryLi]] [[bat-smg:User:HenryLi]] [[be:User:HenryLi]] [[bg:User:HenryLi]] [[bh:User:HenryLi]] [[bi:User:HenryLi]] [[bm:User:HenryLi]] [[bn:User:HenryLi]] [[bo:User:HenryLi]] [[br:User:HenryLi]] [[bs:User:HenryLi]] [[bug:User:HenryLi]] [[ca:User:HenryLi]] [[ce:User:HenryLi]] [[ceb:User:HenryLi]] [[ch:User:HenryLi]] [[cho:User:HenryLi]] [[chr:User:HenryLi]] [[chy:User:HenryLi]] [[co:User:HenryLi]] [[cr:User:HenryLi]] [[cs:User:HenryLi]] [[csb:User:HenryLi]] [[cv:User:HenryLi]] [[cy:User:HenryLi]] [[da:User:HenryLi]] [[de:User:HenryLi]] [[dv:User:HenryLi]] [[dz:User:HenryLi]] [[ee:User:HenryLi]] [[el:User:HenryLi]] [[en:User:HenryLi]] [[eo:User:HenryLi]] [[es:User:HenryLi]] [[et:User:HenryLi]] [[eu:User:HenryLi]] [[fa:User:HenryLi]] [[ff:User:HenryLi]] [[fi:User:HenryLi]] [[fiu-vro:User:HenryLi]] [[fj:User:HenryLi]] [[fo:User:HenryLi]] [[fr:User:HenryLi]] [[frp:User:HenryLi]] [[fur:User:HenryLi]] [[fy:User:HenryLi]] [[ga:User:HenryLi]] [[gd:User:HenryLi]] [[gl:User:HenryLi]] [[gn:User:HenryLi]] [[got:User:HenryLi]] [[gu:User:HenryLi]] [[gv:User:HenryLi]] [[ha:User:HenryLi]] [[haw:User:HenryLi]] [[he:User:HenryLi]] [[hi:User:HenryLi]] [[ho:User:HenryLi]] [[hr:User:HenryLi]] [[ht:User:HenryLi]] [[hu:User:HenryLi]] [[hy:User:HenryLi]] [[hz:User:HenryLi]] [[ia:User:HenryLi]] [[id:User:HenryLi]] [[ie:User:HenryLi]] [[ig:User:HenryLi]] [[ii:User:HenryLi]] [[ik:User:HenryLi]] [[ilo:User:HenryLi]] [[io:User:HenryLi]] [[is:User:HenryLi]] [[it:User:HenryLi]] [[iu:User:HenryLi]] [[ja:User:HenryLi]] [[jbo:User:HenryLi]] [[jv:User:HenryLi]] [[ka:User:HenryLi]] [[kg:User:HenryLi]] [[ki:User:HenryLi]] [[kj:User:HenryLi]] [[kk:User:HenryLi]] [[kl:User:HenryLi]] [[km:User:HenryLi]] [[kn:User:HenryLi]] [[ko:User:HenryLi]] [[kr:User:HenryLi]] [[ks:User:HenryLi]] [[ksh:User:HenryLi]] [[ku:User:HenryLi]] [[kv:User:HenryLi]] [[kw:User:HenryLi]] [[ky:User:HenryLi]] [[la:User:HenryLi]] [[lad:User:HenryLi]] [[lb:User:HenryLi]] [[lg:User:HenryLi]] [[li:User:HenryLi]] [[lij:User:HenryLi]] [[lmo:User:HenryLi]] [[ln:User:HenryLi]] [[lo:User:HenryLi]] [[lt:User:HenryLi]] [[lv:User:HenryLi]] [[map-bms:User:HenryLi]] [[mg:User:HenryLi]] [[mh:User:HenryLi]] [[mi:User:HenryLi]] [[mk:User:HenryLi]] [[ml:User:HenryLi]] [[mn:User:HenryLi]] [[mo:User:HenryLi]] [[mr:User:HenryLi]] [[ms:User:HenryLi]] [[mt:User:HenryLi]] [[mus:User:HenryLi]] [[my:User:HenryLi]] [[na:User:HenryLi]] [[nah:User:HenryLi]] [[nap:User:HenryLi]] [[nb:User:HenryLi]] [[nds:User:HenryLi]] [[nds-nl:User:HenryLi]] [[ne:User:HenryLi]] [[ng:User:HenryLi]] [[nl:User:HenryLi]] [[nn:User:HenryLi]] [[no:User:HenryLi]] [[nrm:User:HenryLi]] [[nv:User:HenryLi]] [[ny:User:HenryLi]] [[oc:User:HenryLi]] [[om:User:HenryLi]] [[or:User:HenryLi]] [[os:User:HenryLi]] [[pa:User:HenryLi]] [[pam:User:HenryLi]] [[pap:User:HenryLi]] [[pdc:User:HenryLi]] [[pi:User:HenryLi]] [[pih:User:HenryLi]] [[pl:User:HenryLi]] [[pms:User:HenryLi]] [[ps:User:HenryLi]] [[pt:User:HenryLi]] [[qu:User:HenryLi]] [[rm:User:HenryLi]] [[rmy:User:HenryLi]] [[rn:User:HenryLi]] [[ro:User:HenryLi]] [[roa-rup:User:HenryLi]] [[ru:User:HenryLi]] [[rw:User:HenryLi]] [[sa:User:HenryLi]] [[sc:User:HenryLi]] [[scn:User:HenryLi]] [[sco:User:HenryLi]] [[sd:User:HenryLi]] [[se:User:HenryLi]] [[sg:User:HenryLi]] [[sh:User:HenryLi]] [[si:User:HenryLi]] [[simple:User:HenryLi]] [[sk:User:HenryLi]] [[sl:User:HenryLi]] [[sm:User:HenryLi]] [[sn:User:HenryLi]] [[so:User:HenryLi]] [[sq:User:HenryLi]] [[sr:User:HenryLi]] [[ss:User:HenryLi]] [[st:User:HenryLi]] [[su:User:HenryLi]] [[sv:User:HenryLi]] [[sw:User:HenryLi]] [[ta:User:HenryLi]] [[te:User:HenryLi]] [[tet:User:HenryLi]] [[tg:User:HenryLi]] [[th:User:HenryLi]] [[ti:User:HenryLi]] [[tk:User:HenryLi]] [[tl:User:HenryLi]] [[tn:User:HenryLi]] [[to:User:HenryLi]] [[tpi:User:HenryLi]] [[tr:User:HenryLi]] [[ts:User:HenryLi]] [[tt:User:HenryLi]] [[tum:User:HenryLi]] [[tw:User:HenryLi]] [[ty:User:HenryLi]] [[udm:User:HenryLi]] [[ug:User:HenryLi]] [[uk:User:HenryLi]] [[ur:User:HenryLi]] [[uz:User:HenryLi]] [[ve:User:HenryLi]] [[vec:User:HenryLi]] [[vi:User:HenryLi]] [[vls:User:HenryLi]] [[vo:User:HenryLi]] [[wa:User:HenryLi]] [[war:User:HenryLi]] [[wo:User:HenryLi]] [[xal:User:HenryLi]] [[xh:User:HenryLi]] [[yi:User:HenryLi]] [[yo:User:HenryLi]] [[za:User:HenryLi]] [[zh:User:HenryLi]] [[zh-min-nan:User:HenryLi]] [[zu:User:HenryLi]] 1666 3091 2006-08-11T18:13:36Z Eukesh 59 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=lawngreen><big>पाली भाषा</big></th></tr> <tr><td>वार्तालाप स्थान:<td> [[नेपाल]], [[भारत]], [[श्रीलंका]], [[बर्मा]], [[थाईल्यान्ड]] <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td>[[दक्षिण एशिया]] <tr><td>वक्ता<td> <tr><td valign=top>[[भाषा परिवार]]<br>[[ भाषा वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[भारोपेली]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[भारतो-फारसी]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[भारतो-आर्य]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''' पाली ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=lawngreen>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td>pi <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-2<td>pli </table> '''Pāli''' is a Middle [[Indo-Aryan language|Indo-Aryan dialect]] or [[prakrit]]. It is most famous as the [[Liturgical language]] in which the scriptures of [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]] (also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] or in Pāli the [[Tipitaka]]) were written down in [[Sri Lanka]] in the [[1st century BCE]] in the Sinhalese script. Pāli has been written in a variety of [[Writing Systems|scripts]], from [[Brahmi]], [[Devanāgarī]] and other [[Indic]] scripts through to a [[Latin alphabet|romanised]] (western) form devised by [[Thomas William Rhys Davids|T. W. Rhys Davids]] of the [[Pali Text Society]]. ==Language origins and development== The word Pāli itself signifies "line" or "(canonical) text", and this name for the language seems to have its origins in commentarial traditions, wherein the "Pāli" (in the sense of the line of original text quoted) was distinguished from the commentary or the vernacular following after it on the Manuscript page. As such, the name of the language has caused some debate among scholars of all ages; the spelling of the name also varies, being found with both long "ā" ([ɑː]) and short "a" ([a]), and also with either a [[retroflex]] ([ɭ]) or non-[[retroflex]] ([l]) "l" sound. To this day, there is no single, standard spelling of the term; all four spellings can be found in textbooks. Pāli is a [[literary language]] of the [[Prakrit]] language family; it is not now (and never was) an informal, spoken language, in the sense of a [[mother tongue]]. Despite excellent scholarship on this problem, there is persistent confusion as to the inter-relation of Pāli to the vernacular of ancient [[Magadhi language|Magadhi]]. Pāli was considered by early [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]s to be linguistically similar to Old [[Magadhi language|Magadhi]] or even a direct continuation of that language. Many [[Theravada]] sources refer to the Pāli language as “Magadhan” or the “language of Magadhi”. However, [[Magadhi language|Magadhi]] of Asoka's inscriptions is an Eastern Indian language whereas Pāli most closely resembles Western Indian inscriptions. There are many remarkable analogies between Pali and an old form of Magadhi, - Ardhamagadhi, which is preserved in ancient Jain texts. Ardhamagadhi differs from Magadhi proper on similar points as Pali. For example, Ardhamagadhi too does not change ''r'' into ''l'', and in the noun inflexion it shows the ending ''-o'' instead instead of Magadhic ''-e'' at least in many metrical places. This similarity is not accidental, since the founder of Jain religion Mahavira preached in the same area as Buddha Gotama. Oskar von Hinuber has suggested that Pāli may have originated as a form of [[lingua franca]] or trade language used at the time of the [[Ashoka]]n Empire. By the time of the spread of Buddhism to [[Sri Lanka]] (by missionaries sent by King [[Ashoka]] ([[Ashoka|Aśoka]]), according to [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] sources), Pāli was a significant enough literary language that it had already been used to record the complete [[Tipitaka]]. After the Pāli Canon was transmitted to [[Sri Lanka]], it continued to be preserved entirely in Pāli, while the commentarial tradition that accompanied it (according to the information provided by [[Buddhaghosa]]) was translated into [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]] and preserved in local languages for several generations. However it was ultimately supplanted by [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] as a literary and religious language following the formulation of Classical [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] by the scholar [[Panini]] in [[India]]. In [[Sri Lanka]], Pāli is thought to have entered into a period of decline around the 5th Century (as [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] rose in prominence), but ultimately survived. The work of [[Buddhaghosa]] was largely responsible for its reemergence as an important scholarly language in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] thought. The [[Visuddhimagga]] and the other commentaries that [[Buddhaghosa]] compiled codified and condensed the [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]] commentarial tradition that had been preserved and expanded in [[Sri Lanka]] since the 3rd Century. Today Pāli is studied mainly to gain access to [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] scriptures, and is frequently chanted in a ritual context. The secular literature of Pāli historical chronicals, medical texts, and inscriptions, is also of great historical importance. The great centers of Pāli learning remain in the [[Theravada]] nations of [[South-East Asia]]: [[Burma|Myanmar]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]]. Pāli scholarship in Northern [[India]] generally ended with the rise of the [[Sena dynasty]], with an uncertain process of decline in peninsular [[India]], perhaps lasting the longest in [[Orissa]], i.e., eventually ending (along with [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] practice itself) with the fall of the last resistance to the expanding [[Islam|Muslim]] empires on the subcontinent. Since the 19th century, various societies for the revival of Pāli studies in [[India]] have promoted awareness of the language and its literature, perhaps most notably the [[Maha Bodhi Society]] founded by [[Anagarika Dharmapala|Anagarika Dhammapala]]. In [[Europe]], the [[Pali Text Society]] has been a major force in promoting the study of Pāli by Western scholars since its founding in [[1881]]. Based in the [[United Kingdom]], the society publishes romanised Pāli editions, along with many [[English language|English]] translations of these sources. The [[Pali Text Society]] was in part founded to compensate for the very low level of funds allocated to [[Indology]] in late 19th century [[England]]; incongruously, the English were not nearly so robust in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Prakrit]] language studies as [[Germany]], [[Russia]] and even [[Denmark]]—a situation that many would say continues to this day. Without the inspiration of colonial holdings such as the former [[Britain|British]] occupation of [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Myanmar|Burma]], institutions such as the [[Danish Royal Library]] have built up major collections of Pāli manuscripts, and major traditions of Pāli studies. ==Lexicon== Virtually every word in Pāli has [[cognate]]s in the other Prakritic "[[Middle Indo-Aryan languages]]", e.g., the [[Jain Prakrit]]s. The relationship to earlier [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] (e.g., [[Vedic language]]) is less direct and more complicated. Historically, influence between Pāli and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] has been felt in both directions. The Pāli language's resemblance to [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] is often exaggerated by comparing it to later Sanskrit compositions -- which were written centuries after Sanskrit ceased to be a living language, and are influenced by developments in Middle Indic, including the direct borrowing of a portion of the Middle Indic lexicon; whereas, a good deal of later Pāli technical terminology has been borrowed from the vocabulary of equivalent disciplines in Sanskrit, either directly or with certain phonological adaptations. Post-Canonical Pāli also possesses a few loan-words from local languages where Pāli was used (e.g. Sri Lankans adding Sinhalese words to Pāli). These usages differentiate the Pāli found in the [[Sutta Pitaka|Suttapiṭaka]] from later compositions such as the Pāli commentaries on the canon and folklore (e.g., the stories of the [[Jataka|Jātaka]] commentaries), and comparative study (and dating) of texts on the basis of such loan-words is now a specialized trade unto itself. Pāli was not exclusively used to convey the teachings of the [[Buddha]], as can be deduced from the existence of a number of secular texts, such as books of medical science/instruction, in Pāli. However, scholarly interest in the language has been focused upon religious and philosophical literature, because of the unique window it opens on one phase in the development of [[Buddhism]]. ===[[Emic and etic|Emic]] views of Pāli=== Although [[Sanskrit]] was said, in [[brahmin|brahmanical]] tradition, to be the unchanging language spoken by the gods, in which each word had an inherent significance, this view of language was not shared in the early [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] tradition, in which words were only conventional and mutable signs. Neither the [[Buddha]] nor his early followers shared the brahmans' reverence for the [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic]] language or its [[Veda|sacred texts]]. This view of language naturally extended to Pāli, and may have contributed to its usage (as an approximation or standardization of local Middle Indic dialects) in place of Sanskrit. In popular thought, however, Pāli recitations were often thought to have a supernatural power (which could be attributed to their meaning, the character of the reciter, or the qualities of the language itself), and in the early strata of Buddhist literature we can already see Pāli '''[[dharani|dhāraṇī]]'''s used as charms, e.g. against the bite of snakes. Many people in [[Theravada]] cultures still believe that taking a vow in Pāli has a special significance, and, as one example of the supernatural power assigned to chanting in the language, the recitation of the vows of [[Angulimala|Aṅgulimāla]] are believed to alleviate the pain of childbirth in [[Sri Lanka]]. In [[Thailand]], the chanting of a portion of the [[Abhidhamma|Abhidhammapiṭaka]] is believed to be beneficial to the recently departed, and this ceremony routinely occupies as much as seven working days. Interestingly, there is nothing in the latter text that relates to this subject, and the origins of the custom are unclear. ==Phonology== ===Vowels=== {| class="wikitable" !rowspan="2"|Height !Colspan="4"|Backness |- !Front !Central !Back |- !High |align="center"|'''i''' [i] '''ī''' [iː] |style="background:silver"| |align="center"|'''u''' [u] '''ū''' [uː] |- !Mid |align="center"|'''e''' [e], [eː] |align="center"|'''a''' [ɐ] |align="center"|'''o''' [o], [oː] |- !Low |style="background:silver"| |align="center"|'''ā''' [aː] |style="background:silver"| |- |} Long and short vowels are only contrastive in open syllables; in closed syllables, all vowels are always short. Short and long '''e''' and '''o''' are in complementary distribution: the short variants occur only in closed syllables, the long variants occur only in open syllables. Short and long '''e''' and '''o''' are therefore not distinct phonemes. ===Consonants=== {| class="wikitable" !rowspan="4"|[[Place of articulation]] !colspan="10"|[[Manner of articulation]] |- !colspan="5"|[[Plosive|Stops]] !colspan="4"|[[Approximant consonant|Approximants]] !rowspan="3"|[[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]] |- !colspan="2"|[[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]] !colspan="3"|[[Voiced consonant|Voiced]] !colspan="2"|Non-laterals !colspan="2"|[[Lateral consonant|Laterals]] |- ![[Aspiration (phonetics)|Unaspirated]] !Aspirated !Unaspirated !Aspirated ![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] !Unaspirated !Aspirated !Unaspirated !Aspirated |- ![[Velar consonant|Velars]] |align = "center"|'''k''' |align = "center"|'''kh''' |align = "center"|'''g''' |align = "center"|'''gh''' |align = "center"|'''ṅ''' |colspan="5" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Palatal consonant|Palatals]] |align = "center"|'''c''' |align = "center"|'''ch''' |align = "center"|'''j''' |align = "center"|'''jh''' |align = "center"|'''ñ''' |align = "center"|'''y''' |colspan="4" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]] |align = "center"|'''ṭ''' |align = "center"|'''ṭh''' |align = "center"|'''ḍ''' |align = "center"|'''ḍh''' |align = "center"|'''ṇ''' |colspan="2" style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''ḷ''' |align = "center"|'''ḷh''' |style="background:silver"| |- ![[Dental consonant|Dentals]] |align = "center"|'''t''' |align = "center"|'''th''' |align = "center"|'''d''' |align = "center"|'''dh''' |align = "center"|'''n''' |colspan="7" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolars]] |colspan="5" style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''r''' |style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''l''' |style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''s''' |- ![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabials]] |align = "center"|'''p''' |align = "center"|'''ph''' |align = "center"|'''b''' |align = "center"|'''bh''' |align = "center"|'''m''' |colspan="5" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Labiodental consonant|Labiodentals]] |colspan="5" style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''v''' |colspan="4" style="background:silver"| |- ![[Glottal consonant|Glottals]] |colspan="9" style="background:silver"| |align = "center"|'''h''' |} The sounds listed above, except for '''ṅ''', '''ḷ''' and '''ḷh''' are distinct phonemes in Pāli. '''ṅ''' only occurs before velar stops. '''ḷ''' and '''ḷh''' are allophones of '''ḍ''' and '''ḍh''' when they occur singly between vowels. ==Example of Pāli with English translation== :Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā, manoseṭṭhā manomayā; :Manasā ce paduṭṭhena, bhāsati vā karoti vā, :Tato nam dukkhaṃ anveti, cakkaṃ'va vahato padaṃ. '''Element for element gloss''' :Mano-pubbaṅ-gam=ā dhamm=ā, mano-seṭṭh=ā mano-may=ā; :Mind-before-going=''m.pl.nom.'' [[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharma]]=''m.pl.nom.'', mind-foremost=''m.nom.pl.'' mind-made=''m.nom.pl.'' :Manas=ā ce paduṭṭh=ena, bhāsa=ti vā karo=ti vā, :Mind=''n.sg.inst.'' if corrupted=''n.sg.inst.'' speak=''3.sg.pr.'' either act=''3.sg.pr.'' or, :Ta=to naṃ dukkhaṃ anv-e=ti, cakkaṃ 'va vahat=o pad=aṃ. :That=from him suffering after-go=''3.sg.pr.'', wheel as carrying(beast)=m.sg.gen. foot=n.sg.acc. The three compounds in the first line literally mean: :manopubbaṅgama "whose precursor is mind", "having mind as a fore-goer or leader" :manoseṭṭha "whose foremost member is mind", "having mind as chief" :manomaya "consisting of mind" or "made by mind" The literal meaning is therefore: "The [[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]] have mind as their leader, mind as their chief, are made of/by mind. If [someone] either speaks or acts with a corrupted mind, from that [cause] suffering goes after him, as the wheel [of a cart follows] the foot of a draught animal." A slightly freer translation by Acharya Buddharakkhita :Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. :If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts suffering follows him :like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox. ==Pāli and Sanskrit== Although Pāli cannot be considered a direct descendant of either Classical [[Sanskrit]] or of the older [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic dialect]], the languages are obviously very closely related and the common characteristics of Pāli and Sanskrit were always easily recognized by those in India who were familiar with both. Indeed, a very large proportion of Pāli and Sanskrit word-stems are absolutely identical in form, differing only in details of inflection. The connections were sufficiently well-known that technical terms from Sanskrit were easily converted into Pāli by a set of conventional phonological transformations. These transformations mimicked a subset of the phonological developments that had occurred in Proto-Pāli. Because of the prevalence of these transformations, it is not always possible to tell whether a given Pāli word is a part of the old [[Prakrit]] lexicon, or a transformed borrowing from Sanskrit. The existence of a Sanskrit word regularly corresponding to a Pāli word is not always secure evidence of the Pāli etymology, since, in some cases, artificial Sanskrit words were created by back-formation from Prakrit words. The following phonological processes are not intended as an exhaustive description of the historical changes which produced Pāli from its Old Indic ancestor, but rather are a summary of the most common phonological equations between Sanskrit and Pāli, with no claim to completeness. ===Vowels and diphthongs=== *Sanskrit '''ai''' and '''au''' always monophthongize to Pāli '''e''' and '''o''', respectively ::Examples: '''maitrī''' → '''mettā''', {{unicode|'''auṣadha'''}} → '''osadha''' *Sanskrit '''aya''' and '''ava''' likewise often reduce to Pāli '''e''' and '''o''' ::Examples: '''dhārayati''' → '''dhāreti''', '''avatāra''' → '''otāra''', '''bhavati''' → '''hoti''' *Sanskrit '''avi''' becomes Pāli '''e''' (i.e. '''avi''' → '''ai''' → '''e''') ::Example: '''sthavira''' → '''thera''' *{{unicode|Sanskrit '''ṛ''' appears in Pāli as '''a''', '''i''' or '''u''', often agreeing with the vowel in the following syllable. '''ṛ''' also sometimes becomes '''u''' after labial consonants.}} ::Examples: {{unicode|'''kṛta''' → '''kata''', '''tṛṣṇa''' → '''taṇha''', '''smṛti''' → '''sati''', '''ṛṣi''' → '''isi''', '''dṛṣṭi''' → '''diṭṭhi''', '''ṛddhi''' → '''iddhi''', '''ṛju''' → '''uju''', '''spṛṣṭa''' → '''phuṭṭha''', '''vṛddha''' → '''vuddha'''}} *Sanskrit long vowels are shortened before a sequence of two following consonants. ::Examples: {{unicode|'''kṣānti''' → '''khanti''', '''rājya''' → '''rajja''', '''īśvara''' → '''issara''', '''tīrṇa''' → '''tiṇṇa''', '''pūrva''' → '''pubba'''}} ===Consonants=== ====Sound changes==== *{{unicode|The Sanskrit sibilants '''ś''', '''ṣ''', and '''s''' merge together as Pāli '''s''' ::Examples: '''śaraṇa''' → '''saraṇa''', '''doṣa''' → '''dosa'''}} *{{unicode|The Sanskrit stops '''ḍ''' and '''ḍh''' become '''ḷ''' and '''ḷh''' between vowels (as in Vedic) ::Example: '''cakravāḍa''' → '''cakkavāḷa''', '''virūḍha''' → '''virūḷha'''}} ====Assimilations==== =====General rules===== *Many [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilations]] of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pāli, producing a large number of [[Gemination|geminate]] (double) consonants. Since [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] of a geminate consonant is only phonetically detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate {{unicode|'''kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph''' and '''bh''' appear as '''kkh, ggh, cch, jjh, ṭṭh, ḍḍh, tth, ddh, pph''' and '''bbh''', not as ''khkh, ghgh'' etc.}} *When assimilation would produce a geminate consonant (or a sequence of unaspirated stop+aspirated stop) at the beginning of a word, the initial geminate is simplified to a single consonant. ::Examples: {{unicode|'''prāṇa''' → '''pāṇa''' (not ''ppāṇa''), '''sthavira''' → '''thera'''}} (not ''tthera''), '''dhyāna''' → '''jhāna''' (not ''jjhāna''), '''jñāti''' → '''ñāti''' (not ''ññāti'') *When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence. ::Examples: '''uttrāsa''' → '''uttāsa''' (not ''utttāsa''), '''mantra''' → '''manta''' (not ''mantta''), '''indra''' → '''inda''' (not ''indda''), '''vandhya''' → '''vañjha''' (not ''vañjjha'') *The sequence '''vv''' resulting from assimilation changes to '''bb''' ::Example: '''sarva''' → savva → '''sabba''', '''pravrajati''' → pavvajati → '''pabbajati''', '''divya''' → divva → '''dibba''' =====Total assimilation===== Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the preceding sound. ======Progressive assimilations====== *Internal [[visarga]] assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant ::Examples: {{unicode|'''duḥkṛta''' → '''dukkata''', '''duḥkha''' → '''dukkha''', '''duḥprajña''' → '''duppañña''', '''niḥkrodha'''}} (={{unicode|'''niṣkrodha'''}}) → '''nikkodha''', {{unicode|'''niḥpakva''' (='''niṣpakva''') → '''nippakka''', '''niḥśoka''' → '''nissoka''', '''niḥsattva'''}} → '''nissatta''' *In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop ::Examples: '''vimukti''' → '''vimutti''', '''dugdha''' → '''duddha''', '''utpāda''' → '''uppāda''', '''pudgala''' → '''puggala''', '''udghoṣa''' → '''ugghosa''', '''adbhuta''' → '''abbhuta''', '''śabda''' → '''sadda''' *In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal ::Example: '''unmatta''' → '''ummatta''', '''pradyumna''' → '''pajjunna''' *'''j''' assimilates to a following '''ñ''' (i.e., '''jñ''' becomes '''ññ''') ::Examples: '''prajñā''' → '''paññā''', '''jñāti''' → '''ñāti''' *The Sanskrit liquid consonants '''r''' and '''l''' assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or '''v''' ::Examples: '''mārga''' → '''magga''', '''karma''' → '''kamma''', '''varṣa''' → '''vassa''', '''kalpa''' → '''kappa''', '''sarva''' → savva → '''sabba''' *'''r''' assimilates to a following '''l''' ::Examples: '''durlabha''' → '''dullabha''', '''nirlopa''' → '''nillopa''' *'''d''' sometimes assimilates to a following '''v''', producing vv → '''bb''' ::Examples: '''udvigna''' → uvvigga → '''ubbigga''', '''dvādaśa''' → '''bārasa''' (beside '''dvādasa''') *'''t''' and '''d''' may assimilate to a following '''s''' or '''y''' when a morpheme boundary intervenes ::Examples: '''ut+sava''' → '''ussava''', '''ud+yāna''' → '''uyyāna''' ======Regressive assimilations====== *Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs; see below) ::Examples: '''agni''' → '''aggi''', '''ātman''' → '''atta''', '''prāpnoti''' → '''pappoti''', '''śaknoti''' → '''sakkoti''' *'''m''' assimilates to an initial sibilant ::Examples: '''smarati''' → '''sarati''', '''smṛti''' → '''sati''' *Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters without following nasals (see '''Partial assimilations''' below) ::Examples: {{unicode|'''tīkṣṇa''' → tikṣa → '''tikkha''', '''lakṣmī''' → lakṣī →'''lakkhī'''}} *The Sanskrit liquid consonants '''r''' and '''l''' assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or '''v''' ::Examples: {{unicode|'''prāṇa''' → '''pāṇa'''}}, '''grāma''' → '''gāma''', '''śrāvaka''' → '''sāvaka''', '''agra''' → '''agga''', '''indra''' → '''inda''', '''pravrajati''' → pavvajati → '''pabbajati''', '''aśru''' → '''assu''' *'''y''' assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals ::Examples: {{unicode|'''cyavati''' → '''cavati''', '''jyotiṣ''' → '''joti''', '''rājya''' → '''rajja''', '''matsya''' → macchya → '''maccha''', '''lapsyate''' → lacchyate → '''lacchati''', '''abhyāgata''' → '''abbhāgata''', '''ākhyāti''' → '''akkhāti''', '''saṃkhyā''' → '''saṅkhā''' (but also '''saṅkhyā'''), '''ramya''' → '''ramma'''}} *'''y''' assimilates to preceding non-initial '''v''', producing vv → '''bb''' ::Example: '''divya''' → divva → '''dibba''', '''veditavya''' → veditavva → '''veditabba''', '''bhāvya''' → bhavva → '''bhabba''' *'''y''' and '''v''' assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing '''ss''' ::Examples: '''paśyati''' → '''passati''', '''śyena''' → '''sena''', '''aśva''' → '''assa''', '''īśvara''' → '''issara''', {{unicode|'''kariṣyati'''}} → '''karissati''', '''tasya''' → '''tassa''', '''svāmin''' → '''sāmī''' *'''v''' sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop ::Examples: '''pakva''' → '''pakka''', '''catvāri''' → '''cattāri''', '''sattva''' → '''satta''', '''dhvaja''' → '''dhaja''' =====Partial and mutual assimilation===== *Sanskrit [[Sibilant consonant|sibilants]] before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes aspirated; e.g. {{unicode|'''śc''', '''st''', '''ṣṭ''' and '''sp''' become '''cch''', '''tth''', '''ṭṭh''' and '''pph'''}} ::Examples: {{unicode|'''paścāt''' → '''pacchā''', '''asti''' → '''atthi''', '''stava''' → '''thava''', '''śreṣṭha''' → '''seṭṭha''', '''aṣṭa''' → '''aṭṭha''', '''sparśa''' → '''phassa'''}} *In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like sibilant-stop sequences; e.g. {{unicode|'''str''' and '''ṣṭr''' become '''tth''' and '''ṭṭh''' ::Examples: '''śāstra''' → śasta → '''sattha''', '''rāṣṭra''' → raṣṭa → '''raṭṭha'''}} *'''t''' and '''p''' become '''c''' before '''s''', and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences '''ts''' and '''ps''' become '''cch''') ::Examples: '''vatsa''' → '''vaccha''', '''apsaras''' → '''accharā''' *A sibilant assimilates to a preceding '''k''' as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence {{unicode|'''kṣ'''}} becomes '''kkh''') ::Examples: {{unicode|'''bhikṣu''' → '''bhikkhu''', '''kṣānti''' → '''khanti'''}} *Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by '''y''' converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the '''y''' assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. '''ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny''' become '''cc, cch, jj, jjh, ññ'''; likewise '''ṇy''' becomes '''ññ'''. Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change. ::Examples: '''tyajati''' → cyajati → '''cajati''', '''satya''' → sacya → '''sacca''', '''mithyā''' → michyā → '''micchā''', '''vidyā''' → vijyā → '''vijjā''', '''madhya''' → majhya → '''majjha''', '''anya''' → añya → '''añña''', '''puṇya''' → puñya → '''puñña''', '''vandhya''' → vañjhya → vañjjha → '''vañjha''' *The sequence '''mr''' becomes '''mb''', via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate. ::Examples: '''āmra''' → ambra → '''amba''', '''tāmra''' → '''tamba''' ====Epenthesis==== An [[Epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel is sometimes inserted between certain consonant-sequences. As with '''ṛ''', the vowel may be '''a''', '''i''', or '''u''', depending on the influence of a neighboring consonant or of the vowel in the following syllable. '''i''' is often found near '''i''', '''y''', or palatal consonants; '''u''' is found near '''u''', '''v''', or labial consonants. *Sequences of stop + nasal are sometimes separated by '''a''' or '''u''' ::Example: '''ratna''' → '''ratana''', '''padma''' → '''paduma''' ('''u''' influenced by labial '''m''') *The sequence '''sn''' may become '''sin''' initially ::Examples: '''snāna''' → '''sināna''', '''sneha''' → '''sineha''' *'''i''' may be inserted between a consonant and '''l''' ::Examples: '''kleśa''' → '''kilesa''', '''glāna''' → '''gilāna''', '''mlāyati''' → '''milāyati''', '''ślāghati''' → '''silāghati''' *An epenthetic vowel may be inserted between an initial sibilant and '''r''' ::Example: '''śrī''' → '''sirī''' *The sequence '''ry''' generally becomes '''riy''' ('''i''' influenced by following '''y'''), but is still treated as a two-consonant sequence for the purposes of vowel-shortening ::Example: '''ārya''' → arya → '''ariya''', '''sūrya''' → surya → '''suriya''', '''vīrya''' → virya → '''viriya''' *'''a''' or '''i''' is inserted between '''r''' and '''h''' ::Example: '''arhati''' → '''arahati''', '''garhā''' → '''garahā''', '''barhiṣ''' → '''barihisa''' *There is sporadic epenthesis between other consonant sequences ::Examples: '''caitya''' → '''cetiya''' (not ''cecca''), '''vajra''' → '''vajira''' (not ''vajja'') ====Other changes==== *Any Sanskrit sibilant before a nasal becomes a sequence of nasal followed by '''h''', i.e. {{unicode|'''ṣṇ''', '''sn''' and '''sm''' become '''ṇh''', '''nh''', and '''mh'''}} ::Examples: {{unicode|'''tṛṣṇa''' → '''taṇha''', '''uṣṇīṣa''' → '''uṇhīsa''', '''asmi''' → '''amhi'''}} *The sequence '''śn''' becomes '''ñh''', due to assimilation of the '''n''' to the preceding palatal sibilant ::Example: '''praśna''' → praśña → '''pañha''' *The sequences '''hy''' and '''hv''' undergo [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]] ::Examples: '''jihvā''' → '''jivhā''', {{unicode|'''gṛhya'''}} → '''gayha''', '''guhya''' → '''guyha''' *'''h''' undergoes metathesis with a following nasal ::Example: {{unicode|'''gṛhṇāti''' → '''gaṇhāti'''}} *'''y''' is geminated between '''e''' and a vowel ::Examples: '''śreyas''' → '''seyya''', '''Maitreya''' → '''Metteyya''' *Voiced aspirates such as '''bh''' and '''gh''' on rare occasions become '''h''' ::Examples: '''bhavati''' → '''hoti''', '''-ebhiṣ''' → '''-ehi''', '''laghu''' → '''lahu''' *Dental and retroflex sounds sporadically change into one another :: Examples: {{unicode|'''jñāna''' → '''ñāṇa''' (not ''ñāna''), '''dahati''' → '''ḍahati''' (beside Pāli '''dahati''') '''nīḍa''' → '''nīla''' (not ''nīḷa''), '''sthāna''' → '''ṭhāna''' (not ''thāna''), '''duḥkṛta''' → '''dukkaṭa''' (beside Pāli '''dukkata''')}} ===Exceptions=== There are several notable exceptions to the rules above; many of them are common Prakrit words rather than borrowings from Sanskrit. *'''ārya''' → '''ayya''' (beside '''ariya''') *'''guru''' → '''garu''' (adj.) (beside '''guru''' (n.)) *{{unicode|'''puruṣa''' → '''purisa''' (not ''purusa'')}} *{{unicode|'''vṛkṣa''' → rukṣa → '''rukkha''' (not ''vakkha'')}} ==Pāli writing== ===Pāli Alphabet with Diacritics=== Historically, the first written record of the Pāli canon is believed to have been composed in [[Sri Lanka]], based on a prior oral tradition. The transmission of written Pāli has retained a universal system of alphabetic values, but has expressed those values in a stunning variety of actual scripts. This is confusing to many westerners, who tend to assume that one script is ineluctably tied to one set of phonemes. Early Pāli inscriptions made during the reign of the [[Maurya]]n emperor [[Ashoka]] were composed in the Ashokan [[Brahmi]] script; in [[Sri Lanka]], Pāli texts were recorded in [[Sinhala]] script. Other local scripts (most prominently [[Burmese language|Burmese]] and [[Thai language|Thai]]) have been used to record Pāli. A standardized system of romanization was introduced in the 19th Century to permit Westerners to study Pāli with greater ease. In modern times, Pāli texts have also been reproduced in the [[Devanāgarī]] and [[Mongolian]] scripts to permit wider study. The Pāli alphabetical order is as follows: * {{unicode|'''a ā i ī u ū e o ṃ k kh g gh ṅ c ch j jh ñ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l ḷ (ḷh) v s h'''}} The linked pages will facilitate the comparison of the Romanized phonetic alphabet to the corresponding alphabets of the [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/burmese.htm Burmese], [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sinhala.htm Sinhalese], [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm Cambodian], [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/lao.htm Lao], [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/thai.htm Thai] and other writing systems used to express the Pāli language. === How to Set up fonts for Pāli transliteration === There are several fonts to use for Pāli transliteration. However, older ASCII fonts such as Leedsbit PaliTranslit, Times_Norman, Times_CSX+, Skt Times, Vri RomanPali CN/CB etc., are not recommendable since they are not compatible with one another and technically out of date. On the contrary, fonts based on the [[Unicode]] standard are recommended because Unicode seems to be the future for all fonts and also because they are easily portable to one another. However, not all Unicode fonts contain the necessary characters. To properly display all the diacritic marks used for romanized Pāli (or for that matter, Sanskrit), a Unicode font must contain the following character ranges: * Basic Latin: U+0000 – U+007F * Latin-1 Supplement: U+0080 – U+00FF * Latin Extended-A: U+0100 – U+017F * Latin Extended-B: U+0180 – U+024F * Latin Extended Additional: U+1E00 – U+1EFF [http://www.thdl.org/tools/diafonts.html The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library] provides links to several Unicode diacritic fonts usable for typing Pāli together with ratings and installation instructions. And an English Buddhist monk titled Bhikkhu Pesala provides some Pāli Unicode fonts he has designed himself [http://aimwell.org/Fonts/fonts.html here]. Further, [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/fonts.html the font section] of Alanwood's Unicode Resources have links to several general purpose fonts that can be used for Pāli typing if they cover the character ranges above. '''Note for Linux users''': Installation files (.exe files) cannot be used on Linux. However, one can copy the font files from the Fonts folder of a Windows system into the folder /usr/share/fonts on a Linux one. In addition, some new Linux distributions, such as Ubuntu and RedHat, have packages available for Devanāgarī fonts and extended Latin fonts both used for Pali. Recent versions of Mac OS X also include similar font characters sets. === How to Type Pāli with Diacritics=== After the fonts have been set up, there are two alternatives to prepare the available diacritics for typing 1. One should go to a wordprocessor such as Microsoft Word to set up the shortcut keys for diacritic characters. In the case of Microsoft Word, select either font in the font combo box, then go to menu item Insert→Symbol. The Symbol dialog box pops up. Under the Symbols tab, select one out of the three in the Font combo box: under it should be a grid of characters. For each desired character in the grid, select it by clicking on it, then click on the "Shortcut Key..." command button: the Customize Keyboard dialog box pops up. Pressing the desired shortcut key combination makes it show up in the "Press new shortcut key:" text box. Click the "Assign" command button, then click on "Close" and repeat this for each desired character. When done, close the Symbol dialog box. Shortcut keys need be assigned only for one Unicode font. If one needs to change the font, just select the required section, go to the font combo box, and make the change. This method will work as long as both original and target fonts are of Unicode encoding, and both provide necessary diacritics for Pāli. This is why Unicode fonts are recommended. 2. Or one should install an input method editor such as Keyman (which can be downloaded free from [http://www.tavultesoft.com/keyman/downloads/ here] after due registration). A good Keyman keyboard providing Pāli/Sanskrit diacritics and Devanagari can be obtained [http://www.daouyen.com/Download/HeidelbergIMEkmx.zip here] (documentation included) for US, US International, and German keyboards. Alternatively, if one has to use many Latin characters besides Pāli and Sanskrit, another good keyboard (documentation included) can be downloaded [http://scholarsfonts.net/kbdsonly.exe here]. Then follow the instructions in the respective documentations to type Pāli diacritics. Or There are also keyboard layouts that can be directly installed on Windows such as [http://www.thdl.org/cgi-tibet/register.pl?diadll the one] provided by [http://www.thdl.org/ The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library]. ===Pāli text in ASCII=== The Velthuis scheme was originally developed in 1991 by Frans Velthuis for use with his "devnag" Devanāgarī font, designed for the TEX typesetting system. This system of representing Pāli diacritical marks has been used in some websites and discussion lists. The following table compares various conventional renderings and shortcut key assignments: {| class="wikitable" ! character ! ASCII rendering ! character name ! Unicode number ! key combination ! HTML code |- | align="center"|ā || aa || a macron || 61580 || Alt+A || &amp;#257; |- | align="center"|ī || ii || i macron || 61620 || Alt+I || &amp;#299; |- | align="center"|ū || uu || u macron || 61672 || Alt+U || &amp;#363; |- | align="center"|ṃ || .m || m dot-under || <!--61655--> || <!--Alt+M--> || &amp;#7747; |- | align="center"|ṇ || .n || n dot-under || 61686 || Alt+N || &amp;#7751 |- | align="center"|ñ || ~n || n tilde || 61590 || Alt+Ctrl+N || &amp;ntilde; |- | align="center"|ṭ || .t || t dot-under || 61642 || Alt+T || &amp;#7789; |- | align="center"|ḍ || .d || d dot-under || 61622 || Alt+D || &amp;#7693; |- | align="center"|ṅ || "n || n dot-over || 61626 || Ctrl+N || &amp;#7751; |- | align="center"|ḷ || .l || l dot-under || 61634 || Alt+L || &amp;#7735; |} ==References== See entries for "Pali" (written by scholar K.R. Norman of the Pali Text Society) and "India--Buddhism" in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Language and Religion'', (Sawyer ed.) ISBN 0080431674 The standard text for studying Pāli in the English-speaking world remains A.K. Warder's ''Introduction to Pali'', published by the [[Pali Text Society]]. (3rd ed. published 1991, ISBN 0860131971). Some students find Warder to be too complex for individuals with limited linguistic background. Lily de Silva's ''Pali Primer'' is often recommended as a more gentle introduction to the language (1st ed. published by Vipassana Research Institute Publications, 1994, ISBN 817414014X) ==See also== *[[IAST|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]] ==External links== {{interwiki|code=pi}} * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pli Pāli at Ethnologue] * [http://www.pali.dk/ Pali.dk] - A newly started project aimed at creating free online Pāli dictionaries and educational resources. * [http://www.palitext.com/ Pali Text Society] * [http://www.pratyeka.org/narada/ A basic Pāli language textbook (free) in Unicode PDF format] * [http://www.pratyeka.org/pali/ Resources for reading & writing Pāli in indigenous scripts: Burmese, Sri Lankan, & Cambodian] * [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=50 Pāli Discussion Forum] * [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ Pāli-English dictionary] * [http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/ Complete Pāli Canon in romanized Pali and Sinhala, mostly also in English translation] * [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/index.html Pāli Canon selection] * [http://accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/learningpali.html A guide to learning the Pāli language] * [http://www.vri.dhamma.org/publications/pali/primer/ "Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (requires installation of special fonts)] * [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/uni/u-palicb/e00.htm "Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (UTF-8 encoded)] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/ele_pali.pdf Free/Public-Domain Elementary Pāli Course--PDF format] * [http://www.orunla.org/tm/pali/htpali/pcourse.html Free/Public-Domain Pāli Course--html format] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/paligram.pdf Free/Public-Domain Pāli Grammar (in PDF file)] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/palidict.pdf Free/Public-Domain Pāli Buddhist Dictionary (in PDF file)] * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Pali Yahoo discussion group on Pāli] * [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=50 E-Sangha Pāli Discussion Forum: for experts and students] * [http://ca.geocities.com/palistudy/ Geocities discussion group on Pāli (homepage)] * [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Pali Comprehensive list of Pāli texts on Wikisource] * [http://www.metta.lk/pali-utils/Pali-Proper-Names/index.html Buddhist Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names], HTML version of the book by G.P. Malalasekera, 1937-8 * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/palireader Pāli Text Reader (software)] *[http://www.jainworld.com/scriptures/ Jain Scriptures] {{Indo-Iranian languages}} [[Category:Buddhism]] [[Category:Theravada Buddhism]] [[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]] [[Category:Languages of India]] [[cs:Páli]] [[da:Pali]] [[de:Pali]] [[es:Pali]] [[eo:Palio]] [[fr:Pâli]] [[gl:Pali]] [[id:Bahasa Pali]] [[it:Lingua Pali]] [[jv:Basa Pali]] [[nl:Pali]] [[ja:パーリ語]] [[pl:Język pali]] [[pt:Pali]] [[ru:Пали]] [[fi:Paalin kieli]] [[sv:Pali]] [[ta:பாளி]] [[th:ภาษาบาลี]] [[zh:巴利语]] 1667 3092 2006-08-11T18:15:21Z Eukesh 59 * [[नेपाल भाषा]] 1668 3093 2006-08-11T18:16:14Z Eukesh 59 <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin: 10px;"> <tr><th colspan="2" bgcolor=tomato><big>नेपाल भाषा</big></th></tr> <tr><td>वार्तालाप स्थान:<td> [[नेपाल]], [[भारत]] <tr><td>क्षेत्र<td>[[दक्षिण एशिया]] <tr><td>वक्ता<td> १० लाख <tr><td valign=top>[[भाषा परिवार]]<br>[[ भाषा वर्गीकरण]] <td>[[चीनी-तिब्बती]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; [[तिब्बती-बर्मेली]]<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[हिमाली]]<br> <br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''नेपाल भाय् ''' <tr><th colspan=2 bgcolor=tomato>भाषा कोड <tr><td>[[ISO 639]]-1<td>new </table> '''नेपाल भाषा''' [[चीनी-तिब्बती परिवार]]स्‍य एका [[भाषा]] अस्‍ति| [[नेपाल]] भाषा [[देवनागरी]],[[रन्जना]], [[प्रचलित]], [[ब्राह्मि]], [[भूजिँगोल]] आदि लिप्या लिख्यते| ==[[नेपाल भाषा साहित्यं]]== === लेखका: === *[[जयन्त वर्मा]] *[[लुन्तभद्र बज्राचार्य]] *[[जय प्रकाश मल्ल]] *[[सिद्धिदास महाजु]] *[[सिद्धिचरण श्रेष्ठ]] *[[शुक्रराज जोशी शास्त्री]] *[[चित्तधर "हृदय"]] *[[धूस्वां सायमी]] *[[बासु पासा]] == बाह्य गवाक्षा: == *http://www.jwajalapa.com *http://www.layalama.com [[Category:भाषा]] [[bh:नेपाल भाषा]] [[br:Newareg]] [[de:Nepal Bhasa]] [[en:Nepal Bhasa]] [[eo:Nepal Bhasa]] [[fr:Néware]] [[hi:नेपाल भाषा]] [[id:Bahasa Nepal]] [[it:Lingua newari]] [[mr:नेपाल भाषा]] [[ms:Bahasa Nepal]] [[nl:Nepalbhasa]] [[ne:नेपाल भाषा]] [[pt:Língua bhasa de Nepal]] [[ru:Непали]] [[simple:Nepal Bhasa]] 1669 3094 2006-08-11T18:24:35Z Eukesh 59 * [[बुद्धो धम्म]] 3226 2006-10-07T05:53:43Z 202.161.131.76 * [[बुद्धो धम्म]] * [[हिन्दू धम्म]] 1670 3095 2006-08-11T18:27:20Z Eukesh 59 '''Buddhism''' (also known as the '''Dharma''' or '''Buddha [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''', meaning approximately: The Law or Law of the Awakened One) is a [[religion]], a practical [[philosophy]], and arguably a [[psychology]], focusing on the teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha Śākyamuni]] (Siddhārtha Gautama), who lived in [[ancient India]] most likely from the mid-[[6th century BC|6th]] to the early [[5th century BC|5th century BCE]]. Buddhism spread throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the [[Timeline of Buddhism#Before Common Era|five centuries]] following the Buddha's passing, and propagated into [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], and [[East Asia]] over the next [[Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era|two millennia]]. Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] (Sanskrit: Sthaviravāda), [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and, with approximately [[Buddhism by country|379 million adherents]], it is considered a [[major world religions|major world religion]]. Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fifth-largest]] religion in the world behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and traditional Chinese religion, respectively. <ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref> When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddha]] is generally considered to be a [[person]] who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]] through years of spiritual cultivation, [[investigation]] of the various religious practices of his time, and [[meditation]]. This transformational discovery is called [[bodhi]] - literally, "Awakening" (more commonly called "Enlightenment"). Any person who has become [[awakened]] from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality is called a Buddha. Śākyamuni is said to have been only the latest of many of these; there were other Buddhas before him and there will be others in the future. According to the Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words "[[Dharma]]" and putting them into practice, by leading a [[virtuous]], [[moral]] life, and purifying his [[mind]]. Concisely put, the aim of Buddhist practice is to put an end to this mass of [[suffering]] we call existence. "I teach one thing and one thing only: suffering and the end of suffering" (The Buddha). To achieve this state ([[Nirvana]]), adherents train and purify the mind by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and the [[Middle Way]], eventually arriving at an understanding of the true nature of all things, thus ending ([[nirodha]]) all ignorance and unhappiness and attaining [[liberation]]: [[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]] (Pāli nibbāna). == Gautama the Buddha== [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|left|A stone image of the Buddha.]] {{main|Gautama Buddha}} According to all Buddhist traditions, the [[Buddha]] of the present age, called '''Siddhārtha''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''Siddhattha''' ([[Pāli]]) of the '''Gautama''' (Pāli: '''Gotama''') [[gotra]] or clan, was born in the grove of [[Lumbini|Lumbinī]] near the town of '''[[Kapilavastu]]''' (Pāli: '''Kapilavatthu'''), the capital of the kingdom ([[Mahajanapadas|mahājanapada]]) of the [[Shakya|Śākyas]] (Pāli: Sakyas). Lumbinī and the Śākya realm were known to have been in the north, adjacent to the kingdom of [[Kosala|Kośala]] and the republic of the [[Koliya]]s along the [[Ganges]], separated from Koliya by the river {{unicode|Rohiṇī}}. The exact location of Lumbinī is fixed in what is now south central [[Nepal]] by a [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillar]] inscription of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] from the 3rd century BCE commemorating the Buddha's birth. Siddhārtha's father was [[Suddhodana|Śuddhodana]] (Pāli: Suddhodana), then the chieftain (rājā) of the Śākyas. He was the ruler of the [[Kapilavastu]] in what is modern day [[Nepal]]. Traditions state that the Buddha's mother died at his birth or a few days later. The [[legend]] says that the seer Asita predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, his father tried to make sure that Siddhārtha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as such dissatisfaction might lead him to follow a spiritual path. As a result, under strict instruction of his father, Siddhārtha was never exposed to suffering or pain and was carefully kept away from sad, sick or dying people. He was raised in a very opulent environment. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These four sights led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privileges, rank, [[caste]], and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problems of birth, old age, pain, sickness, and death. Siddhārtha pursued the path of the [[shramana|{{unicode|śramaṇa}}]] and [[meditation]] with two hermits, and, although he quickly achieved high levels of meditative consciousness ([[dhyana|dhyāna]], Pāli jhāna), he was still not satisfied with the results. Siddhārtha then began his training in the [[ascetic]] life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Siddhārtha proved quite adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind established teachers, he and a small group of close companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death without any profit, Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. He then remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing; he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which he felt a blissful and refreshing feeling and time seemed to stand still. [[Image:TrilogyDetail.JPG|thumb|251px|The [[Buddha]] venerated by [[Indra]] and [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmā]], [[Kanishka casket|Kaniṣka casket]], dated to 127 CE, [[British Museum]].]] After discarding [[asceticism]] and concentrating on [[meditation]], Siddhārtha discovered what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]] – a path of moderation away from the extremes of [[hedonism|self-indulgence]] and [[asceticism|self-mortification]]. To strengthen his body, he accepted a little buttermilk from a passing village girl named [[Sujata]]. Then, sitting under a [[pipal]] tree, now known as the [[Bodhi tree]], he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] and became a [[Buddha]]. He preached his first sermon<ref name="FNTeng">{{ cite book |publisher=Wisdom Publications |pages=1843-1847 |author=Bhikkhu Bodhi |Title="The Collected Discourses of the Buddha: A new translation of the Samyutta Nikaya" |year=2000 |location=Somerville }}</ref> in [[Sarnath]] a place very near [[Varanasi|{{unicode|Vārāṇasī}}]] (Benares) in North India. For the remaining 45 years of his life, Buddha Gautama traveled in the [[Gangetic Plain]] of northeastern India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to all – from nobles and priests to commoners and outcaste street sweepers. He also taught the adherents of many different schools and teachers. The Buddha founded the two [[sangha|{{unicode|saṅghas}}]] (monastic communities) of monks and of nuns, which continued to expound his teaching after his death, traditionally set at age 80. Apparently he died in the town of Kushinagara from a meal of bad mushrooms or pork. His body was cremated and the ashes, and perhaps other sacred relics allegedly taken from it, were given to various temples or buried in [[stupa]]s. These have since become important pilgrimage sites. A tree said to be grown from a cutting of the tree where he received enlightenment is in [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]]. ==Doctrines== [[Image:A_Buddhist_Korean_Temple.png|thumb|right|A Buddhist temple in Korea.]] Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of Gautama Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism. === Dependent Origination === {{main|Pratitya-samutpada}} The enlightenment ([[Bodhi]]) of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] was his liberation from suffering and his insight into [[Reality in Buddhism|the nature of reality]]. The widely accepted doctrine of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] states that any phenomenon ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect. For sentient beings, this amounts to a never-ending cycle of [[Rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]] ('''[[Samsara (Buddhism)|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''') according to the law of '''[[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]''' (Pāli: '''kamma''') and '''[[vipaka|vipāka]]'''. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient ('''[[Impermanence|anitya]]''', Pāli '''anicca'''), they have no real, independent identity ('''[[Anatta|anātman]]''', Pāli '''anatta''') and so do not truly ‘exist’, although to untrained minds they do appear to exist. All phenomena are thus fundamentally insubstantial and empty ('''[[sunyata|śūnya]]''''). Wise human beings, who possess "insight into the knowledge of how things are" ('''{{unicode|yathā-bhūta-ñāṇa-dassana}}''', Sanskrit '''{{unicode|yathābhūtajñanadarśana}}'''), renounce [[upadana|attachment and clinging]] which cause suffering ('''[[dukkha|{{unicode|duḥkha}}]]''', Pāli '''dukkha'''), transform the energy of desire into awareness and understanding, and eventually attain '''[[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]'''. ===The Four Noble Truths=== {{main|The Four Noble Truths}} The Buddha taught that life was inherently suffering, that it is caused by [[tanha|craving]], but that this condition was curable by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Sanskrit: '''{{unicode|Āryo 'ṣṭāṅgo Mārgaḥ }}''', Pāli: '''{{unicode|Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo}}'''). This teaching is called the '''Catvāry Āryasatyāni''' (Pali: '''{{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}'''), the "[[Four Noble Truths]]". # '''[[Dukkha|Suffering]]:''' Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering. # '''The cause of suffering:''' The [[tanha|craving]] which leads to [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|renewed existence]] (rebirth). # '''The cessation of suffering:''' The cessation of [[tanha|craving]]. # '''The way leading to the cessation of suffering:''' The [[Noble Eightfold Path]]; The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment<ref name="FNTeng" />, which was given to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by Buddha, not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common medical prescription of the time. Buddha also said that followers should use his teachings only if they help. He compared worrying about things such as an afterlife while suffering with a person who has been shot with an arrow to worrying about who made the arrow, rather than removing it. As such, there is a strong case for the Buddha's teachings being intended as psychological tools, to ease mental distress, rather than as esoteric teachings for the strongly religious. To attest to this, Buddhist meditation, in particular, is now being scientifically studied in the West, both in laboratory tests, and in real-world, hands-on psychiatry. Many long-term practicing Buddhists, for instance, have been shown to have physically different brain structure, in areas associated with profound joy or spiritual happiness{{Citation needed}}. Likewise, the beginning fusion of Buddhism and psychology can be seen clearly, in publications by psychiatrists and psychotherapists, such as [[Mark Epstein]]'s book, [[Thoughts Without a Thinker]]. ===The Noble Eightfold Path=== {{main|Noble Eightfold Path}} {| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px style="float:right; background-color: transparent; border:1px dotted #000000; margin:2px" width="200" | |According to [[Buddha]] [[Shakyamuni]], if a person does not follow the goal of [[Total Realization]], one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.<ref>The Crystal and the Way of Light. Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu; compiled and ed. by John Shane, 2000, p. 164</ref> |- |} The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of: #Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}''' #Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation '''{{unicode|(samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)}}''' #Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}''' #Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would hurt others '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}''' #Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}}}''' #Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}''' #Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}''' #Right Concentration - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}''' The word '''samyak''' means "turned to one point or against each other, universus or adversus; whole, entire, all; correct, right, true." [http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/] There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorise the Eightfold Path into '''[[Prajna|prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''', wisdom), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli '''sīla''', virtuous behaviour) and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' (concentration). === Bodhi === {{main|Bodhi}} '''Bodhi''' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]]. Lit. ''awakening'') is a title given in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by [[Buddha]]. Bodhi is most commonly translated into English as ''enlightenment'', however, a more accurate translation is ''awakening'' or ''understanding''. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle of '''[[Samsara|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''': birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the [[Paramita|pāramitā]]s (perfections), when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and when all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed ('''lobha'''), hatred ('''{{unicode|doṣa}}''', Pāli '''dosa'''), delusion ('''moha'''), ignorance ('''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidyā]]''', Pāli '''avijjā''')), craving ('''[[Tanha|{{unicode|tṛṣṇā}}]]''', Pāli '''{{unicode|taṇhā}}''') and false belief in self ('''[[Atman (Buddhism)|ātman]]''', Pāli '''attā''') are extinguished. Bodhi thus includes '''[[anatta|anātman]]''' (Pāli '''anatta'''), the absence of ego-centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise [[Three types of Buddha|three types of Bodhi]]. They are [[Shravakabuddha|Śrāvakabodhi]] (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyekabodhi]] (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a [[Bodhisattva]] becomes a fully enlightened [[Buddha]]. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism. <!--the nature of different bodhis is disputed among different Buddhist schools so please be careful.--> === Karma === {{main|Karma in Buddhism}} In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said : :“Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind”. According to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and not on any divine being: :"Owners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring, having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being, making them become depraved and excellent." (kammassakaa maa.nava sattaa, kammadaayadaa, kammayoni, kammabandhu kammapa.tisara.naa kamma.m satte vibhajati yadida.m hinappa.nitataaya. ''Cuulakammavibhaagasutta''.) In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition and its result ( [[Vipaka]]) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional deed (be that deed one of thought, word or physical action). == Middle Way == The primarily guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment ('''[[bodhi]]'''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. It is also another name for the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], which is often divided into '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli: '''paññā''', "wisdom"), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli: '''sīla''', "morality") and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' ("meditative mind"). === Refuge in The Three Jewels === [[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Buddha]] with [[Dharmacakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]] {{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}} Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in The Noble Eightfold Path requires taking [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]], as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's [[Three Jewels]] (also called Three Treasures, Triple Gem, '''Triratna''' or '''Ratna-traya''' ([[Sanskrit]]), '''Tiratana''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]), 三宝, ''Sānbǎo'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]), ''Sanbō'' or ''Sanpō'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]), 삼보, ''Sambo'' ([[Korean language|Korean]]). The '''Three Jewels''' are: * The '''[[Buddha]]''': The ''Awakened One''. This is a title for those who attained enlightenment similar to Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]]. * The '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''': The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). * The '''[[Sangha|{{IAST|Sangha}}]]''': This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna ([[pali]]) - one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). [[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]] presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to have faith ('''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]''', Pāli '''saddhā''') in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], that is, the teaching of Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The [[Sangha|{{unicode|Saṅgha}}]], in this sense meaning the group of Buddhists possessing at least some degree of enlightenment, provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. As Buddhism migrated to the West, a new usage of the word has emerged: the usage of the word "sangha" to describe a meditation group or any sort of spiritual community.{{fact}} Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]], also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of negative karma. === Prajñā (Wisdom) === {{main|Prajñā|Paramita}} '''Prajñā''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''paññā''' ([[Pāli]]) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], [[The Four Noble Truths]] and [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about [[bodhi]]. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]], through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six [[Paramita|pāramitās]]. Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Gautama Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many attaining bodhi upon hearing Buddha's discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight ('''[[Vipassana|vipassanā]]''', [[Sanskrit]] '''vipaśyanā''') meditation to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation. === Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour)=== {{main|Sila|Karma in Buddhism|Paramita}} '''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''sīla''' ([[Pāli]]) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' and the second [[Paramita|pāramitā]]: moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of '''śīla''' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions. In Buddhism, the 'Law of [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]' is used as an ethical principle, rather than a cosmological explanation for the world. Buddhism distinguishes {{unicode|saṃsāric}} happiness (birth in the high realms), from the final state of enlightenment: [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]; so likewise there is saṃsāric good karma, which leads to the high realms (such as the human realm), and then there is liberating karma - which is supremely good. Therefore the major dichotomy is ''{{unicode|saṃsāric karma}}'' and ''liberating karma'', of which the former is typically divided into the three: good, neutral, and bad (in accordance with the degree of samsaric happiness or suffering that will mature as a consequence). Likewise, liberating karma is divided into three, as there are [[three types of Buddha]] into which it may mature. It is important to distinguish between śīla (moral) and [[Vinaya]] (monastic code). Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behaviour while vinaya is a collection of monastic code. For this reason, vinaya is applicable to monks and nuns while śīla is applicable to all Buddhists, both laypeople and [[Sangha|saṅgha]] members. Lay Buddhists generally undertake at least one of the five precepts ('''[[pancasila|pañcaśīla]]''') which are common to all Buddhist schools. The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one can meditate well. # To refrain from taking life. # To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing). # To refrain from sensual misconduct (improper sexual behavior, gluttony etc.) # To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat). # To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness. The content of vinaya differs slightly according to different scriptures. And different schools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya. Serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts. In Vinaya, some of the five precepts are strengthened for monks. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy. In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged ([[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]). === Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) === {{main|Samadhi|Vipassana|Buddhist meditation}} In the language of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], '''samyaksamādhi''' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating '''samādhi''' is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. [[Samatha meditation|'''samatha''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''śamatha''') and [[vipassana|'''vipassanā''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''vipaśyanā'''). Upon development of '''samādhi''', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration ('''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]''', Sanskrit '''dhyāna'''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight. [[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful to an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana. In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''' (Pāli '''ñāṇa''' knowledge) '''[[vijnana|vijñāna]]''' (Pāli '''viññāṇa''' awareness), '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''' pure understanding) and thus can lead to '''[[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]''' (Pāli '''nibbāna'''). == Buddhism after the Buddha == {{main|History of Buddhism|Buddhist councils}} During his lifetime, Buddha specifically refused to answer certain questions known as [[avyakata|avyākṛta]] (Pāli: avyākata, "unexplained"). These are (1) Whether the world is eternal or not; (2) Whether the world is infinite or not; (3) Whether the body and the self are one and the same or not; (4) Whether the [[Tathagata|tathāgata]] exists after death, or not, or both does and does not, or neither does nor does not. In the ''Culla-Māluṅkyovāda-sutta'', the Buddha, using an analogy of being shot by a poisoned arrow and asking about its origin and construction, indicated to Māluṅkyāputta that such speculative questions are ultimately unprofitable. [http://buddhism.about.com/od/keyconcepts/a/Noteach.htm] In another occasion, the Buddha, without giving specific elaboration, stated that minor [[Vinaya]] rules can be amended by the [[Sangha|Saṅgha]]. He further diverged from ancient Brahmin tradition by allowing monks and nuns not just to preach in the language of the area they happened to be in, but to recite the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] in the local language as well. Soon after the [[Parinirvana|parinirvāṇa]] (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses ([[Sutra|'''sūtra'''s]], Pāli '''sutta'''s) of the Buddha. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). === Early Buddhism === {{main|The Second Buddhist Council|Early Buddhist schools}} {{unicode|As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century disputes arose upon subtle points of discipline, e.g., the right to carry salt in a container. A second council (traditionally 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. The result was not a resolution but a schism ('''saṅghabheda'''): on the one side the '''[[Sthaviravada|Sthaviras]]''', or "Elders", whose name implies an elite group, and on the other side the '''[[Mahasanghika|Mahāsāṅghikas]]''', the party "of the Great Saṅgha", implying a majority position. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions; the Sthaviras claimed that the Mahāsāṅghikas were trying to dilute the Vinaya by ignoring certain rules; the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to ''expand'' the Vinaya by illegitimately introducing new rules not sanctioned by the Buddha; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[Arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237-272</ref> The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school.}} This split occurred wholly ''within'' the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school. It was also solely concerned with questions of discipline, and foreshadowed the later splintering of both the Sthavira and {{unicode|Mahāsāṅghika Saṅghas}} into as many as thirty different "schools". Each "school" was characterized by a slightly different Vinaya; doctrinal differences among these schools only developed subsequent to the arising of differences in discipline. {{unicode|The Sthavira-Mahāsāṅghika split has, therefore, nothing at all to do with the contrasts, posited by scholars, between "Northern and Southern Buddhism", or between "Mahāyāna and Theravāda", or even the traditional Mahāyāna contrast between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. Other than as an adumbration of schisms within the Saṅgha in general, it has no relevance for present-day Buddhism. Of the approximately thirty Vinayas that existed in the ancient and medieval Saṅgha, three have survived to the present day: the Vibhajyavāda Vinaya, used by the [[Theravada|Theravādins]]; the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna Buddhists in China, Vietnam, and Korea (Vinaya is not generally observed in Japan); and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists in Tibet. All three of these Vinayas descend directly from the Sthavira Vinaya, not from the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya, which although partially extant, is not actually followed by any living [[Bhikkhu|bhikṣus]].}} {{unicode|Following the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical commentaries on the discourse of the Buddha. It is not known whether such commentaries existed from the time of the Buddha. However, as Buddhism spread and came in contact with different religious orders, it became increasingly necessary to engage and debate the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] and formalize the teachings of the Buddha in a more systematic manner. As each sect developed different collections of Abhidharma, what began as disciplinary differences between the Saṅghas evolved into doctrinal differences as well. These sects of Buddhism are referred to as Nikāya (section) in the modern Theravāda tradition and Hīnayāna (lesser vehicle) sects in the Mahāyāna tradition. Some modern academics also refer it as Abhidhamma Buddhism.}} [[Image: AshokaMap2.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260&ndash;218 BCE).]] Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of Buddhist religious memorials ([[stupa|stūpas]]) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma". particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and possibly even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, centuries later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]s, and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. === Establishment of Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Tradition) === {{main|Theravada}} {{unicode|In addition to the [[Edicts of Asoka|Edicts of Aśoka]], Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan and post-Aśokan period. Among these annals are the [[Dipavamsa|Dīpavaṃsa]], the [[Mahavamsa|Mahāvaṃsa]], and the [[Samantapasadika|Samantapāsādika]] of the south Indian [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha, beside the [[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]] and the [[Avadanasataka|Avadānaśataka]] from the northern [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] ([[Pāli]]: Sabbatthivāda) saṅgha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, [[Ashoka|Aśoka]] convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words. The result, according to the Vibhajjavādins, was the compilation of the version of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] (Pāli: Tipiṭaka) found in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]].}} The council also saw the formation of the {{unicode|saṅgha}} of the Vibhajjavāda ("school of analytical discourse") out of various schools of the [[Sthaviravada|Sthaviravāda]] lineage. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the [[Pāli]] language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of [[Magadha]] spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Aśoka]] and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near [[Girnar]] in Gujarat. According to Theravāda accounts, the Vibhajjavāda version of [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] was introduced to [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Mahinda]] (Sanskrit: Mahendra), one of the sons of [[Ashoka|Aśoka]]. === Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism (Northern Tradition) === [[Image: MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Expansion of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]] {{main|Mahayana}} {{unicode|The precise geographical origins of [[Mahāyāna]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahāyāna developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇa Empire]] (within present-day [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravatī]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajantā]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). On one side, Mahāyāna was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa|stūpa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stūpa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses.<ref>This concept, promoted by Hirakawa Akira, has been disputed by other scholars such as Gregory Schopen.</ref> The Saṅgha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of [[Abhidharma]] and [[Vinaya]] practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Saṅgha. The Mahāyāna movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from [[Early Buddhist schools|various sects]]. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Saṅgha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school (which had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravāda tradition) and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kuṣāṇa Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahāyāna sūtras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sūtras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahāyāna sūtras possible.}} Around 100 CE, the {{unicode|Kuṣāṇa emperor [[Kanishka|Kaniṣka]]}} convened the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravāda line of Buddhism. This council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Sūtra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra|Heart Sūtra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra|Amitābha Sūtra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such goal. The new scriptures were written in [[Sanskrit]]. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahāyāna would flourish and spread in the East from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], and finally to [[Japan]] in 538 CE. === Emergence of the Vajrayāna === [[Image:Wheel life 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Wheel of Life, [[Bhutan]]. In the Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism scriptural language of [[Sanskrit]], the Wheel of Life is called [[Bhavacakra]].]] {{main|Vajrayana}} Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (c.150 - 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with both the [[Early Buddhist schools|Nikāya (Hīnayāna)]] philosophies and the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. He made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-dominant [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school, which argued for the existence of '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]''' (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇas]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|Asaṅga]] and were incorporated into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology. There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nālandā tradition. === Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia === {{see also|Decline of Buddhism in India}} Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and [[Central Asia]], and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as [[Menander I]] and [[Kanishka|Kaniska]]. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] and Iranian [[Achaemenid]] kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushāna Empire]] adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of the [[Shahi|Turk-Shāhīs]]. Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the [[Zoroastrian]] priest-king Kirder who saw the syncretism resulting from the Buddhist influence that led to the rise of a Buddha-Mazda divinity as a heresy.<ref> Alexander Berzin, ''Berzin Archives, Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan, November 2001.''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html] </ref> The [[Hinayana]] traditions first spread among the [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes before combining with the [[Mahayana]] forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. to cover modern-day [[Pakistan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern and coastal [[Iran]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. These were the ancient states of [[Gandhara]], [[Bactria]], [[Parthia]] and [[Sogdia]] from where it spread to [[China]]. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-[[Shahi]] who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BC. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also [[Zoroastrian]]s, [[Hindu]]s, [[Nestorian]] Christians, [[Jews]], [[Manichaeans]], and followers of [[shamanism]], [[Tengrism]], and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief. From the 4th Century CE on, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as the northwest ([[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]) and the lower Gangetic plain ([[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bengal]]), the Indian caste system and other characteristics of Hinduism were found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the [[White Hun]]s and Buddhism suffered as recorded by [[Xuanzang]]. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian [[Sassanid Empire|Sāsānids]] or [[Tibet]]. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of ''butparast'', literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in which [[cult image]]s play a role. Several high officials of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, notably the [[Barmakids]], were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists. When [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad ibn Qāsim]] led the invasion of [[Sindh]] at the mouth of the [[Indus]] river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord, [[Raja Dahir|Rājā Dahir]]. Relations with later Arab rulers such as the [[Saffarid]]s and [[Samanid]]s were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.<ref> Alexander Berzin, Berzin Archives </ref> Western Central Asia was under the control of first Arab and then Persian Muslims from the 8th century CE on. The Central Asian regions at this point became caught up in political squabbles as the [[Shahi]]s, [[Umayyad]]s, [[Tang dynasty]], [[Khitan]]s, [[Tibet]]ans, [[Qarakhanid]]s and other Turkic tribes vied over control of the area. After the disintegration of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central Asia and [[Afghanistan]]. In the 10th century CE, one of them, [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmūd of Ghaznī]], defeated the [[Shahi|Hindō-Shāhīs]] and finally brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the [[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]. He demolished monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western India but left those within his domains and [[Afghanistan]] alone and [[al-Biruni]] recorded Buddha as a prophet "burxan". The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as [[Sufi]]s, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to [[Transoxania]] and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with [[Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[shamanism]] in areas to the east (modern [[Xinjiang]]) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim. In 1215 [[Genghis Khan]] conquered [[Afghanistan]] and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and [[Chagatai]] established the [[Chagatai Khanate]] while [[Hulegu]] established the [[Il Khanate]] where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/chagatai.html]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the [[Il Khanate]], [[Hulegu]] and his successors [[Abaqa]] and [[Arghun]] also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when [[Ghazan]] came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion to [[Islam]] and the climate turned hostile to Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and after [[Ghazan]]'s reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html]. Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in [[Kashmir|Kaśmīr]] and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist [[Pala Empire|Pāla]] kings ruled from the 8th-12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] and the transmission of that form of Buddhism to [[Tibet]] before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu [[Sena dynasty]]. Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful [[Rajput]]s, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] philosophy and [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti devotionalism]]. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as an [[avatar|avatāra]] of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]] – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of [[nirvana|nirvāna]]. In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, [[Muhammad Khilji|Muhammad Khiljī]] destroyed [[Nalanda University|Nālandā]], the great Buddhist university. Khiljī was one of the generals of [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak|Qutbuddīn Aybak]], a subject of the Afghan [[Ghorids|Ghurids]] but soon to become the monarch of a [[Delhi Sultanate|Muslim sultanate at Delhi]]. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries. After the [[Mongol]] invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many [[Sufi]]s also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs of [[Bengal]]. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with [[Hinduism]]'s revival movements such as [[Advaita]] and the rise of the syncretic [[bhakti movement]], all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries. By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of [[Ladakh]]. Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population. The [[Newar]]s of [[Nepal]] also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. ==Main Traditions== [[Image:Dazu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stone [[Dazu Stone Carvings|carvings]] at Dazu near [[Chongqing]], [[China]].]] Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is sometimes named as a third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]] (also found in [[Mongolian (language)|Mongollian]] translation, and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] collections, along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]]. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions. Despite the differences, there are [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|common threads to almost all Buddhist branches]]: *All accept [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]] as their teacher. *All accept the [[Middle Way]], [[Dependent origination]], the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. *All accept that both the members of the laity and of the saṅgha can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]). *All accept [[three types of Buddha]] and consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest {This is disputed by a few scholars of the Theravādin tradition}. ===Theravāda=== {{main|Theravada}} '''[[Theravada|Theravāda]]''' is [[Pāli]] for "the Doctrine of the Elders" (from [[Sanskrit]] '''sthavira''', Pāli '''thera''', "old person"). The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli canon]]. The [[sutra|sutta]] (Sanskrit: sūtra) collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest written Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya branch]] of Buddhism. Nikāya Buddhism and consequently Theravāda are referred, especially in polemical contexts, by some Mahāyāna Buddhists as [[Hīnayāna]] or "inferior vehicle". This non-neutral usage is now considered unacceptable in scholarly writing. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore. The aim of Theravāda Buddhism is to achieve [[Nirvana|nibbāna]] (Sanskrit: nirvāṇa) or liberation from rebirth. ===Mahāyāna=== [[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Kuan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]].]] {{main|Mahayana}} The '''[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Vehicle") branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (''maha-karuna''), or [[bodhicitta]] - the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the [[Bodhisattva]] to attain the "Awakened Mind" ([[bodhicitta]]) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into [[Nirvana]]. Huge emphasis is also often placed on the notion of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]). This concept can be understood either as the lack of a conceptually apprehensible, fixed nature or substance to phenomena and Buddhic Truth, or as the inherent emptiness of all that is worldly, nescient, conditioned, impure and painful (the absence of which negativities characterises blissful Reality). The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and can indeed give expression to a form of mentalist pantheism or panentheism ([[God in Buddhism]]). In addition to the [[Nikaya|Nikāya]] scriptures, which are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures (some of which encourage the greatest possible veneration of those sutras as supreme spiritual treasures) that were first put into writing around 1 CE. These scriptures were written in some form of [[Sanskrit]], except for a few manuscripts in certain [[Prakrit]]s, and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, some Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], from where the attainment of Nirvana is much more swiftly within reach. Generally, the Pure Land is conceived of as a state which is not Awakening itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward Awakening. Some of the particularly venerated Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Prajna-paramita Sutras]], the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], speak of themselves as possessing enormous liberating spiritual power - they are seen as magical spells on a grand scale - and exhort their readers/listeners to pay the greatest obeisance and reverence to those same scriptures, and through such veneration automatically to draw closer to the Buddha and Nirvana/ Awakening. The sutras thus become for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself and resonate with his transformative might. One of the most significant concepts of Mahayana Buddhism, belief in which is strongly encouraged, is that of the [[prajna-paramita]] - the utterly perfected insight into the nature of all things: their essential equality, non-duality and tranquility, their ultimate lack (emptiness) of arising and perishing. This is not merely an intellectual recognition; rather, it is a direct perception. And that perception takes its rise from initial belief or faith in such doctrines. In the ''Prajna-Paramita of 18,000 Lines'', the Buddha confirms to his great student, Subhuti, how the Bodhisattva does not doubt or disbelieve such teachings when he hears them, but has faith in them (see [[Faith in Buddhism]]): "... the Bodhisattva, the great being who, when the deep perfection of wisdom [[= ''prajna-paramita'', perfected spiritual insight]] is being taught, on hearing it will not hesitate, or doubt, or be stupefied, [but will know], 'so it is as the Tathagata has taught', and will listen to it in greater detail ... this son of good family belonging to the Bodhisattva-vehicle will, as one who resolutely believes in this perfection of wisdom as taught by the Tathagata, stand in irreversibility [i.e. will never spiritually regress]. For even merely to hear of the perfection of wisdom achieves much for the Bodhisttvas, the great beings, how much more [will be achieved] by those who resolutely believe in it, who, having believed, will stand in Thusness [ = Reality], and progess to Thusness, and who thereafter will stand firmly in the knowledge of all modes [ i.e. will attain omniscience]." (''The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom'', tr. by Edward Conze, California, 1975, pp. 465-466). Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahāyāna in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Vajrayāna. Some of the sects of the Mahāyāna include the various schools and traditions within [[Zen|Chan/Zen]] and [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], two of the major forms of present-day Mahāyāna. Another way to look at the variation within the Mahāyāna is from the perspective of local cultural interpretations, viz. [[Buddhism in China|Chinese Buddhism]], [[Korean Buddhism]], [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]], and [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Vietnamese Buddhism]]. Mahāyāna Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative and which practices are best suited for the current times, although a number of major Mahayana sutras purporting to issue from the Buddha himself (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) are themselves in no doubt that they are to be regarded as of utmost importance and highest Buddhic authority. Mention has already been made of the "prajna-paramita" doctrine. Another highly important, and complementary, teaching within Mahāyāna Buddhism is the concept of [[Buddha-nature]] (Sanskrit:'''Buddhadhātu''', the essential Buddha Principle existing within and without all sentient beings). In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Buddha, transcending his mere physical form, is viewed as a boundless, beginningless and endless being, present in all times and all places, yet beyond the reach of logic or mundane conceptualisation. He is regarded as the very embodiment of ungraspable and eternal yet realisable Dharma - ultimate Truth or Awakened Mind ('''[[bodhi]]'''). In essence, all perfect Buddhas are seen by Mahāyāna Buddhism as one in nature - all are salvational channels or vessels of Dharma (cosmic Truth). They are the very [[Dharmakaya]] (body/mind of ultimate Reality). The doctrines of the Buddha in certain Mahāyāna sutras purport to provide a set of final, definitive and ultimate ('''nītārtha''') teachings – doctrines indicated by the Buddha not to be provisional in nature, but stated to be of the highest Truth ( a claim rejected, however, by the Theravādins) – on the immanence of a hidden, deep-seated reality within all sentient beings which is linked to the eternality of the Buddha and Nirvāna. This immanent yet transcendent essence is variously called, in the key sutras which expound it, the ''buddhadhātu'' or the '''[[Tathagatagarbha|Tathāgatagarbha]]''' (Sanskrit: "Tathagata Matrix"). This ''buddhadhātu'' is empty of all that is un-knowing, changeful, painful, impermanent and impure. In the [[Nirvana Sutra|Nirvāṇasūtra]], the Buddha calls the ''buddhadhātu'' the "True Self" to distinguish it from the "false" worldly self. It is no less than the uncreated, uncompounded, immaculate, immortal, all-knowing, radiantly shining Principle of blissful Buddhahood: the very [[Dharmakaya|Dharmakāya]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 法身). This ''buddhadhātu'', inherent in all beings, can never be destroyed or harmed, and yet is concealed from view by a mass of obscuring mental and moral taints within the mind-stream of the individual being. Once the ''buddhadhātu'' is finally seen and known by the faithful Buddhist practitioner, it has the power to transform that practitioner into a Buddha. The doctrine of the ''buddhadhātu'' or ''tathāgatagarbha'' is stated by the Buddha of the [[Nirvāna Sūtra]] to be the "absolutely final culmination" of his Mahāyāna Dharma, and scoffing denial of its reality is presented by this and other Tathagatagarbha sutras as potentially unleashing very negative karmic consequences upon those who deny it or disparage it. By contrast, faith in the Tathagatagarbha's reality and a vigorous striving to perceive its inner presence is hailed as of the highest spiritual and soteriological value. ===Vajrayāna=== [[Image:Young_monks_of_Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|274px|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]] {{main|Vajrayana}} The '''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]''' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayāna Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[Shingon Buddhism]]. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]]. Native Vajrayāna is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], [[Siberia]], areas of India, and – in the [[Shingon]] (''Zhènyān'', 真言) and [[Tendai]] schools – in China and Japan. ===Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview=== {{main|History of Buddhist schools}} In his lifetime, Gautama Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Commentators explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]]) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable." (''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111-112). Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]]. Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment to [[intellectualism]], Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. == Buddhist texts == [[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]] {{main|Buddhist texts}} Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the '''[[Tripitaka]]''' and in [[Pāli]] as the '''Tipitaka'''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are: *The '''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Piṭaka]]''', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Saṅghas]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. *The '''[[Sutta Pitaka|Sūtra Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: Sutta Piṭaka), contains the actual discourses of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. *The '''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: ''Abhidhamma Piṭaka'') contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings. Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – [[sutra|sūtras]] (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripiṭaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects. The [[Theravada|Theravāda]] and other [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya schools]] believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the [[naga (mythology)|nāgas]]), or came directly from other [[Buddha]]s or [[bodhisattva]]s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli suttas, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the [[agama (text)|āgamas]]. Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the āgamas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the agamas represent the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma - and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada. For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism - from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for '''all''' future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "'''Great''' Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "'''Great''' Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true". Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture. [[Dwight Goddard]] collected what he felt was a representative sample of Buddhist scriptures- along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the [[Tao Te Ching]]- into his [[Buddhist Bible]] in the 1920's. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ “The Buddha and His Dhamma”]. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions. == Present state of Buddhism == {{sectstub}} [[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]] Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 million and 500 million, with 350 million being the most commonly cited figure. [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] *[[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[India]]. *[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West. *[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding area of [[India]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], [[China]], and the Russian Federation. [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]] and the Russian Federation are the first European countries to recognize Buddhism as an official religion. *The [[Indian Buddhist Movement]] is a revival of Buddhism in India. This movement was initiated by [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in 1956 with a mass conversion ceremony of [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s. Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular Buddhist school of thought. At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see [[Buddhism in the West]]) See also [[Buddhism by country]] == Buddhist Culture and Art == {{main|Buddhist culture and art}} == Comparative Study == {{sectstub}} Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history. '''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies''' *[[Buddhadharma and other Indian Dharmas]] (Buddhism and other dharma-related brief) *[[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching) *[[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism and monotheism) *[[Buddhist-Christian Parallels]] *[[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy) *[[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics) *[[Buddhism and science]] (Buddhism and science) *[[Buddhism and Schism]] [http://nt.med.ncku.edu.tw/biochem/lsn/AccessToInsight/html/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/ch21.html] ==See also== {{portal}} *[[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]] *[[Buddhist terms and concepts]] *[[List of Buddhist topics]] *[[List of Buddhists]] ==References== *{{cite book | author=Gail Omvedt (ed.) | title=Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste | publisher=Sage Publications | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-7829-128-2}} *{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}} *[[Thom Brooks]], 'Better Luck Next Time: A comparative analysis of Socrates and Mahayana Buddhism on reincarnation', ''Journal of Indian Philosophy and Religion'' 10 (2005): 1-25. *{{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What Buddhists Believe|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 9834007127. *{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0192892231}} *{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0861713214}} Also available on-line: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php] *{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1903296919}} *{{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0767903692. *{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0271006013}} *{{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0802130313. *{{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0773459855. *{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}} *{{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0861711335. *{{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 8120821440}} ==Notes== <!--<nowiki> See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below </nowiki>--> {{FootnotesSmall|resize=100%}} # {{note|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}} Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy]: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings''. Published on the Web. # {{note|ChNN_Dream_Yoga_book}} Chögyal Namkhai Norbu ''Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light''. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42 # {{note|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}} Dr. A. Berzin. ''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/tantra/alaya_impure_02.html Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making]'' # {{note|Elas_Capriles_book1}} Elías Capriles. ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/buddhismanddzogchen1.zip Buddhism and Dzogchen]: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook''. Published on the Web. # {{note|Sangha_TripleJewel}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu. ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha]''. Third edition, revised, 2001 ==External links== {{cleanup-spam}} <!--buddhachat, not notable and is advertising; hongakujodo, advertising a single sect, advertising; meditate london, intro to buddhism not needed, they are practically the same; other two are not about buddhism but about sutras.--> *[http://www.ambedkar.org/buddhism/BAHD/45A.Buddha%20and%20His%20Dhamma%20PART%20I.htm '''The Buddha and His Dhamma''' A single, comprehensive document of Buddhist principles by Dr B R Ambedkar, 1956] *[http://www.deerparkgathering.org/introduction.html Introduction to Buddhism ] *[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal] *[http://www.dalailama.com/page.5.htm His Holiness The Dalai Lama teachings on Buddhism] *[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/index.html Access to Insight] Readings in Theravada Buddhism. *[http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet] *[http://buddhism.about.com/ Buddhism.about.com] *[http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk "Nirvana Sutra Buddhism": full text and discussion of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra] *[http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Buddhism: English translations of five major Tathagatagarbha sutras] *[http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide. *[http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet] *[http://www.world-religion.org/buddhism.php Encyclopedia of Religion Buddhism article] *[http://www.buddhaweb.org/ Essentials of Buddhism] *[http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles. [[Category:Buddhism|*]] [[Category:Eastern culture]] [[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]] [[Category:Buddhism in India]] [[Category:Religion in India]] {{Link FA|ar}} {{Link FA|vi}} {{Link FA|zh}} [[af:Boeddhisme]] [[als:Buddhismus]] [[ar:بوذية]] [[bn:বৌদ্ধধর্ম]] [[zh-min-nan:Hu̍t-kàu]] [[br:Boudaegezh]] [[bg:Будизъм]] [[ca:Budisme]] [[cs:Buddhismus]] [[da:Buddhisme]] [[de:Buddhismus]] [[et:Budism]] [[el:Βουδισμός]] [[es:Budismo]] [[eo:Budhismo]] [[eu:Budismo]] [[fa:بوداگرایی]] [[fr:Bouddhisme]] [[ko:불교]] [[hi:बौद्ध धर्म]] [[hr:Budizam]] [[io:Budismo]] [[ilo:Budhismo]] [[ia:Buddhismo]] [[is:Búddismi]] [[it:Buddhismo]] [[he:בודהיזם]] [[jv:Buddha]] [[kw:Bouddhisteth]] [[lo:ພຸດທະສາດສະໜາ]] [[la:Religio Buddhistica]] [[lv:Budisms]] [[lt:Budizmas]] [[li:Boeddhisme]] [[jbo:bu'ojda]] [[hu:Buddhizmus]] [[mt:Buddiżmu]] [[ms:Agama Buddha]] [[mn:Буддизм]] [[nl:Boeddhisme]] [[ja:仏教]] [[no:Buddhisme]] [[nn:Buddhismen]] [[ug:بذددا دعنع]] [[nds:Buddhismus]] [[pl:Buddyzm]] [[pt:Budismo]] [[ro:Budism]] [[ru:Буддизм]] [[sco:Buddhism]] [[simple:Buddhism]] [[sk:Budhizmus]] [[sl:Budizem]] [[sr:Будизам]] [[fi:Buddhalaisuus]] [[sv:Buddhism]] [[tl:Budismo]] [[ta:பௌத்தம்]] [[th:พระพุทธศาสนา]] [[vi:Phật giáo]] [[tpi:Budisim]] [[tr:Budizm]] [[uk:Буддизм]] [[yi:בודהיזם]] [[zh:佛教]] 3595 2006-12-27T17:20:16Z Eukesh 59 [[बुद्धो धम्म]] moved to [[बुद्ध धम्म]] '''Buddhism''' (also known as the '''Dharma''' or '''Buddha [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''', meaning approximately: The Law or Law of the Awakened One) is a [[religion]], a practical [[philosophy]], and arguably a [[psychology]], focusing on the teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha Śākyamuni]] (Siddhārtha Gautama), who lived in [[ancient India]] most likely from the mid-[[6th century BC|6th]] to the early [[5th century BC|5th century BCE]]. Buddhism spread throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the [[Timeline of Buddhism#Before Common Era|five centuries]] following the Buddha's passing, and propagated into [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], and [[East Asia]] over the next [[Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era|two millennia]]. Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] (Sanskrit: Sthaviravāda), [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and, with approximately [[Buddhism by country|379 million adherents]], it is considered a [[major world religions|major world religion]]. Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fifth-largest]] religion in the world behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and traditional Chinese religion, respectively. <ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref> When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddha]] is generally considered to be a [[person]] who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]] through years of spiritual cultivation, [[investigation]] of the various religious practices of his time, and [[meditation]]. This transformational discovery is called [[bodhi]] - literally, "Awakening" (more commonly called "Enlightenment"). Any person who has become [[awakened]] from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality is called a Buddha. Śākyamuni is said to have been only the latest of many of these; there were other Buddhas before him and there will be others in the future. According to the Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words "[[Dharma]]" and putting them into practice, by leading a [[virtuous]], [[moral]] life, and purifying his [[mind]]. Concisely put, the aim of Buddhist practice is to put an end to this mass of [[suffering]] we call existence. "I teach one thing and one thing only: suffering and the end of suffering" (The Buddha). To achieve this state ([[Nirvana]]), adherents train and purify the mind by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and the [[Middle Way]], eventually arriving at an understanding of the true nature of all things, thus ending ([[nirodha]]) all ignorance and unhappiness and attaining [[liberation]]: [[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]] (Pāli nibbāna). == Gautama the Buddha== [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|left|A stone image of the Buddha.]] {{main|Gautama Buddha}} According to all Buddhist traditions, the [[Buddha]] of the present age, called '''Siddhārtha''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''Siddhattha''' ([[Pāli]]) of the '''Gautama''' (Pāli: '''Gotama''') [[gotra]] or clan, was born in the grove of [[Lumbini|Lumbinī]] near the town of '''[[Kapilavastu]]''' (Pāli: '''Kapilavatthu'''), the capital of the kingdom ([[Mahajanapadas|mahājanapada]]) of the [[Shakya|Śākyas]] (Pāli: Sakyas). Lumbinī and the Śākya realm were known to have been in the north, adjacent to the kingdom of [[Kosala|Kośala]] and the republic of the [[Koliya]]s along the [[Ganges]], separated from Koliya by the river {{unicode|Rohiṇī}}. The exact location of Lumbinī is fixed in what is now south central [[Nepal]] by a [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillar]] inscription of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] from the 3rd century BCE commemorating the Buddha's birth. Siddhārtha's father was [[Suddhodana|Śuddhodana]] (Pāli: Suddhodana), then the chieftain (rājā) of the Śākyas. He was the ruler of the [[Kapilavastu]] in what is modern day [[Nepal]]. Traditions state that the Buddha's mother died at his birth or a few days later. The [[legend]] says that the seer Asita predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, his father tried to make sure that Siddhārtha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as such dissatisfaction might lead him to follow a spiritual path. As a result, under strict instruction of his father, Siddhārtha was never exposed to suffering or pain and was carefully kept away from sad, sick or dying people. He was raised in a very opulent environment. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These four sights led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privileges, rank, [[caste]], and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problems of birth, old age, pain, sickness, and death. Siddhārtha pursued the path of the [[shramana|{{unicode|śramaṇa}}]] and [[meditation]] with two hermits, and, although he quickly achieved high levels of meditative consciousness ([[dhyana|dhyāna]], Pāli jhāna), he was still not satisfied with the results. Siddhārtha then began his training in the [[ascetic]] life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Siddhārtha proved quite adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind established teachers, he and a small group of close companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death without any profit, Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. He then remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing; he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which he felt a blissful and refreshing feeling and time seemed to stand still. [[Image:TrilogyDetail.JPG|thumb|251px|The [[Buddha]] venerated by [[Indra]] and [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmā]], [[Kanishka casket|Kaniṣka casket]], dated to 127 CE, [[British Museum]].]] After discarding [[asceticism]] and concentrating on [[meditation]], Siddhārtha discovered what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]] – a path of moderation away from the extremes of [[hedonism|self-indulgence]] and [[asceticism|self-mortification]]. To strengthen his body, he accepted a little buttermilk from a passing village girl named [[Sujata]]. Then, sitting under a [[pipal]] tree, now known as the [[Bodhi tree]], he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] and became a [[Buddha]]. He preached his first sermon<ref name="FNTeng">{{ cite book |publisher=Wisdom Publications |pages=1843-1847 |author=Bhikkhu Bodhi |Title="The Collected Discourses of the Buddha: A new translation of the Samyutta Nikaya" |year=2000 |location=Somerville }}</ref> in [[Sarnath]] a place very near [[Varanasi|{{unicode|Vārāṇasī}}]] (Benares) in North India. For the remaining 45 years of his life, Buddha Gautama traveled in the [[Gangetic Plain]] of northeastern India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to all – from nobles and priests to commoners and outcaste street sweepers. He also taught the adherents of many different schools and teachers. The Buddha founded the two [[sangha|{{unicode|saṅghas}}]] (monastic communities) of monks and of nuns, which continued to expound his teaching after his death, traditionally set at age 80. Apparently he died in the town of Kushinagara from a meal of bad mushrooms or pork. His body was cremated and the ashes, and perhaps other sacred relics allegedly taken from it, were given to various temples or buried in [[stupa]]s. These have since become important pilgrimage sites. A tree said to be grown from a cutting of the tree where he received enlightenment is in [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]]. ==Doctrines== [[Image:A_Buddhist_Korean_Temple.png|thumb|right|A Buddhist temple in Korea.]] Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of Gautama Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism. === Dependent Origination === {{main|Pratitya-samutpada}} The enlightenment ([[Bodhi]]) of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] was his liberation from suffering and his insight into [[Reality in Buddhism|the nature of reality]]. The widely accepted doctrine of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] states that any phenomenon ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect. For sentient beings, this amounts to a never-ending cycle of [[Rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]] ('''[[Samsara (Buddhism)|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''') according to the law of '''[[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]''' (Pāli: '''kamma''') and '''[[vipaka|vipāka]]'''. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient ('''[[Impermanence|anitya]]''', Pāli '''anicca'''), they have no real, independent identity ('''[[Anatta|anātman]]''', Pāli '''anatta''') and so do not truly ‘exist’, although to untrained minds they do appear to exist. All phenomena are thus fundamentally insubstantial and empty ('''[[sunyata|śūnya]]''''). Wise human beings, who possess "insight into the knowledge of how things are" ('''{{unicode|yathā-bhūta-ñāṇa-dassana}}''', Sanskrit '''{{unicode|yathābhūtajñanadarśana}}'''), renounce [[upadana|attachment and clinging]] which cause suffering ('''[[dukkha|{{unicode|duḥkha}}]]''', Pāli '''dukkha'''), transform the energy of desire into awareness and understanding, and eventually attain '''[[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]'''. ===The Four Noble Truths=== {{main|The Four Noble Truths}} The Buddha taught that life was inherently suffering, that it is caused by [[tanha|craving]], but that this condition was curable by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Sanskrit: '''{{unicode|Āryo 'ṣṭāṅgo Mārgaḥ }}''', Pāli: '''{{unicode|Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo}}'''). This teaching is called the '''Catvāry Āryasatyāni''' (Pali: '''{{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}'''), the "[[Four Noble Truths]]". # '''[[Dukkha|Suffering]]:''' Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering. # '''The cause of suffering:''' The [[tanha|craving]] which leads to [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|renewed existence]] (rebirth). # '''The cessation of suffering:''' The cessation of [[tanha|craving]]. # '''The way leading to the cessation of suffering:''' The [[Noble Eightfold Path]]; The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment<ref name="FNTeng" />, which was given to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by Buddha, not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common medical prescription of the time. Buddha also said that followers should use his teachings only if they help. He compared worrying about things such as an afterlife while suffering with a person who has been shot with an arrow to worrying about who made the arrow, rather than removing it. As such, there is a strong case for the Buddha's teachings being intended as psychological tools, to ease mental distress, rather than as esoteric teachings for the strongly religious. To attest to this, Buddhist meditation, in particular, is now being scientifically studied in the West, both in laboratory tests, and in real-world, hands-on psychiatry. Many long-term practicing Buddhists, for instance, have been shown to have physically different brain structure, in areas associated with profound joy or spiritual happiness{{Citation needed}}. Likewise, the beginning fusion of Buddhism and psychology can be seen clearly, in publications by psychiatrists and psychotherapists, such as [[Mark Epstein]]'s book, [[Thoughts Without a Thinker]]. ===The Noble Eightfold Path=== {{main|Noble Eightfold Path}} {| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px style="float:right; background-color: transparent; border:1px dotted #000000; margin:2px" width="200" | |According to [[Buddha]] [[Shakyamuni]], if a person does not follow the goal of [[Total Realization]], one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.<ref>The Crystal and the Way of Light. Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu; compiled and ed. by John Shane, 2000, p. 164</ref> |- |} The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of: #Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}''' #Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation '''{{unicode|(samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)}}''' #Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}''' #Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would hurt others '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}''' #Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}}}''' #Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}''' #Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}''' #Right Concentration - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}''' The word '''samyak''' means "turned to one point or against each other, universus or adversus; whole, entire, all; correct, right, true." [http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/] There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorise the Eightfold Path into '''[[Prajna|prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''', wisdom), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli '''sīla''', virtuous behaviour) and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' (concentration). === Bodhi === {{main|Bodhi}} '''Bodhi''' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]]. Lit. ''awakening'') is a title given in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by [[Buddha]]. Bodhi is most commonly translated into English as ''enlightenment'', however, a more accurate translation is ''awakening'' or ''understanding''. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle of '''[[Samsara|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''': birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the [[Paramita|pāramitā]]s (perfections), when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and when all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed ('''lobha'''), hatred ('''{{unicode|doṣa}}''', Pāli '''dosa'''), delusion ('''moha'''), ignorance ('''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidyā]]''', Pāli '''avijjā''')), craving ('''[[Tanha|{{unicode|tṛṣṇā}}]]''', Pāli '''{{unicode|taṇhā}}''') and false belief in self ('''[[Atman (Buddhism)|ātman]]''', Pāli '''attā''') are extinguished. Bodhi thus includes '''[[anatta|anātman]]''' (Pāli '''anatta'''), the absence of ego-centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise [[Three types of Buddha|three types of Bodhi]]. They are [[Shravakabuddha|Śrāvakabodhi]] (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyekabodhi]] (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a [[Bodhisattva]] becomes a fully enlightened [[Buddha]]. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism. <!--the nature of different bodhis is disputed among different Buddhist schools so please be careful.--> === Karma === {{main|Karma in Buddhism}} In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said : :“Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind”. According to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and not on any divine being: :"Owners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring, having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being, making them become depraved and excellent." (kammassakaa maa.nava sattaa, kammadaayadaa, kammayoni, kammabandhu kammapa.tisara.naa kamma.m satte vibhajati yadida.m hinappa.nitataaya. ''Cuulakammavibhaagasutta''.) In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition and its result ( [[Vipaka]]) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional deed (be that deed one of thought, word or physical action). == Middle Way == The primarily guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment ('''[[bodhi]]'''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. It is also another name for the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], which is often divided into '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli: '''paññā''', "wisdom"), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli: '''sīla''', "morality") and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' ("meditative mind"). === Refuge in The Three Jewels === [[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Buddha]] with [[Dharmacakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]] {{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}} Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in The Noble Eightfold Path requires taking [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]], as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's [[Three Jewels]] (also called Three Treasures, Triple Gem, '''Triratna''' or '''Ratna-traya''' ([[Sanskrit]]), '''Tiratana''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]), 三宝, ''Sānbǎo'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]), ''Sanbō'' or ''Sanpō'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]), 삼보, ''Sambo'' ([[Korean language|Korean]]). The '''Three Jewels''' are: * The '''[[Buddha]]''': The ''Awakened One''. This is a title for those who attained enlightenment similar to Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]]. * The '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''': The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). * The '''[[Sangha|{{IAST|Sangha}}]]''': This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna ([[pali]]) - one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). [[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]] presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to have faith ('''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]''', Pāli '''saddhā''') in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], that is, the teaching of Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The [[Sangha|{{unicode|Saṅgha}}]], in this sense meaning the group of Buddhists possessing at least some degree of enlightenment, provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. As Buddhism migrated to the West, a new usage of the word has emerged: the usage of the word "sangha" to describe a meditation group or any sort of spiritual community.{{fact}} Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]], also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of negative karma. === Prajñā (Wisdom) === {{main|Prajñā|Paramita}} '''Prajñā''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''paññā''' ([[Pāli]]) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], [[The Four Noble Truths]] and [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about [[bodhi]]. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]], through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six [[Paramita|pāramitās]]. Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Gautama Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many attaining bodhi upon hearing Buddha's discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight ('''[[Vipassana|vipassanā]]''', [[Sanskrit]] '''vipaśyanā''') meditation to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation. === Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour)=== {{main|Sila|Karma in Buddhism|Paramita}} '''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''sīla''' ([[Pāli]]) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' and the second [[Paramita|pāramitā]]: moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of '''śīla''' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions. In Buddhism, the 'Law of [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]' is used as an ethical principle, rather than a cosmological explanation for the world. Buddhism distinguishes {{unicode|saṃsāric}} happiness (birth in the high realms), from the final state of enlightenment: [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]; so likewise there is saṃsāric good karma, which leads to the high realms (such as the human realm), and then there is liberating karma - which is supremely good. Therefore the major dichotomy is ''{{unicode|saṃsāric karma}}'' and ''liberating karma'', of which the former is typically divided into the three: good, neutral, and bad (in accordance with the degree of samsaric happiness or suffering that will mature as a consequence). Likewise, liberating karma is divided into three, as there are [[three types of Buddha]] into which it may mature. It is important to distinguish between śīla (moral) and [[Vinaya]] (monastic code). Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behaviour while vinaya is a collection of monastic code. For this reason, vinaya is applicable to monks and nuns while śīla is applicable to all Buddhists, both laypeople and [[Sangha|saṅgha]] members. Lay Buddhists generally undertake at least one of the five precepts ('''[[pancasila|pañcaśīla]]''') which are common to all Buddhist schools. The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one can meditate well. # To refrain from taking life. # To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing). # To refrain from sensual misconduct (improper sexual behavior, gluttony etc.) # To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat). # To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness. The content of vinaya differs slightly according to different scriptures. And different schools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya. Serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts. In Vinaya, some of the five precepts are strengthened for monks. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy. In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged ([[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]). === Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) === {{main|Samadhi|Vipassana|Buddhist meditation}} In the language of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], '''samyaksamādhi''' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating '''samādhi''' is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. [[Samatha meditation|'''samatha''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''śamatha''') and [[vipassana|'''vipassanā''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''vipaśyanā'''). Upon development of '''samādhi''', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration ('''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]''', Sanskrit '''dhyāna'''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight. [[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful to an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana. In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''' (Pāli '''ñāṇa''' knowledge) '''[[vijnana|vijñāna]]''' (Pāli '''viññāṇa''' awareness), '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''' pure understanding) and thus can lead to '''[[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]''' (Pāli '''nibbāna'''). == Buddhism after the Buddha == {{main|History of Buddhism|Buddhist councils}} During his lifetime, Buddha specifically refused to answer certain questions known as [[avyakata|avyākṛta]] (Pāli: avyākata, "unexplained"). These are (1) Whether the world is eternal or not; (2) Whether the world is infinite or not; (3) Whether the body and the self are one and the same or not; (4) Whether the [[Tathagata|tathāgata]] exists after death, or not, or both does and does not, or neither does nor does not. In the ''Culla-Māluṅkyovāda-sutta'', the Buddha, using an analogy of being shot by a poisoned arrow and asking about its origin and construction, indicated to Māluṅkyāputta that such speculative questions are ultimately unprofitable. [http://buddhism.about.com/od/keyconcepts/a/Noteach.htm] In another occasion, the Buddha, without giving specific elaboration, stated that minor [[Vinaya]] rules can be amended by the [[Sangha|Saṅgha]]. He further diverged from ancient Brahmin tradition by allowing monks and nuns not just to preach in the language of the area they happened to be in, but to recite the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] in the local language as well. Soon after the [[Parinirvana|parinirvāṇa]] (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses ([[Sutra|'''sūtra'''s]], Pāli '''sutta'''s) of the Buddha. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). === Early Buddhism === {{main|The Second Buddhist Council|Early Buddhist schools}} {{unicode|As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century disputes arose upon subtle points of discipline, e.g., the right to carry salt in a container. A second council (traditionally 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. The result was not a resolution but a schism ('''saṅghabheda'''): on the one side the '''[[Sthaviravada|Sthaviras]]''', or "Elders", whose name implies an elite group, and on the other side the '''[[Mahasanghika|Mahāsāṅghikas]]''', the party "of the Great Saṅgha", implying a majority position. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions; the Sthaviras claimed that the Mahāsāṅghikas were trying to dilute the Vinaya by ignoring certain rules; the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to ''expand'' the Vinaya by illegitimately introducing new rules not sanctioned by the Buddha; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[Arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237-272</ref> The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school.}} This split occurred wholly ''within'' the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school. It was also solely concerned with questions of discipline, and foreshadowed the later splintering of both the Sthavira and {{unicode|Mahāsāṅghika Saṅghas}} into as many as thirty different "schools". Each "school" was characterized by a slightly different Vinaya; doctrinal differences among these schools only developed subsequent to the arising of differences in discipline. {{unicode|The Sthavira-Mahāsāṅghika split has, therefore, nothing at all to do with the contrasts, posited by scholars, between "Northern and Southern Buddhism", or between "Mahāyāna and Theravāda", or even the traditional Mahāyāna contrast between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. Other than as an adumbration of schisms within the Saṅgha in general, it has no relevance for present-day Buddhism. Of the approximately thirty Vinayas that existed in the ancient and medieval Saṅgha, three have survived to the present day: the Vibhajyavāda Vinaya, used by the [[Theravada|Theravādins]]; the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna Buddhists in China, Vietnam, and Korea (Vinaya is not generally observed in Japan); and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists in Tibet. All three of these Vinayas descend directly from the Sthavira Vinaya, not from the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya, which although partially extant, is not actually followed by any living [[Bhikkhu|bhikṣus]].}} {{unicode|Following the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical commentaries on the discourse of the Buddha. It is not known whether such commentaries existed from the time of the Buddha. However, as Buddhism spread and came in contact with different religious orders, it became increasingly necessary to engage and debate the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] and formalize the teachings of the Buddha in a more systematic manner. As each sect developed different collections of Abhidharma, what began as disciplinary differences between the Saṅghas evolved into doctrinal differences as well. These sects of Buddhism are referred to as Nikāya (section) in the modern Theravāda tradition and Hīnayāna (lesser vehicle) sects in the Mahāyāna tradition. Some modern academics also refer it as Abhidhamma Buddhism.}} [[Image: AshokaMap2.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260&ndash;218 BCE).]] Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of Buddhist religious memorials ([[stupa|stūpas]]) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma". particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and possibly even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, centuries later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]s, and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. === Establishment of Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Tradition) === {{main|Theravada}} {{unicode|In addition to the [[Edicts of Asoka|Edicts of Aśoka]], Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan and post-Aśokan period. Among these annals are the [[Dipavamsa|Dīpavaṃsa]], the [[Mahavamsa|Mahāvaṃsa]], and the [[Samantapasadika|Samantapāsādika]] of the south Indian [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha, beside the [[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]] and the [[Avadanasataka|Avadānaśataka]] from the northern [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] ([[Pāli]]: Sabbatthivāda) saṅgha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, [[Ashoka|Aśoka]] convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words. The result, according to the Vibhajjavādins, was the compilation of the version of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] (Pāli: Tipiṭaka) found in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]].}} The council also saw the formation of the {{unicode|saṅgha}} of the Vibhajjavāda ("school of analytical discourse") out of various schools of the [[Sthaviravada|Sthaviravāda]] lineage. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the [[Pāli]] language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of [[Magadha]] spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Aśoka]] and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near [[Girnar]] in Gujarat. According to Theravāda accounts, the Vibhajjavāda version of [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] was introduced to [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Mahinda]] (Sanskrit: Mahendra), one of the sons of [[Ashoka|Aśoka]]. === Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism (Northern Tradition) === [[Image: MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Expansion of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]] {{main|Mahayana}} {{unicode|The precise geographical origins of [[Mahāyāna]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahāyāna developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇa Empire]] (within present-day [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravatī]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajantā]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). On one side, Mahāyāna was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa|stūpa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stūpa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses.<ref>This concept, promoted by Hirakawa Akira, has been disputed by other scholars such as Gregory Schopen.</ref> The Saṅgha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of [[Abhidharma]] and [[Vinaya]] practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Saṅgha. The Mahāyāna movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from [[Early Buddhist schools|various sects]]. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Saṅgha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school (which had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravāda tradition) and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kuṣāṇa Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahāyāna sūtras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sūtras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahāyāna sūtras possible.}} Around 100 CE, the {{unicode|Kuṣāṇa emperor [[Kanishka|Kaniṣka]]}} convened the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravāda line of Buddhism. This council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Sūtra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra|Heart Sūtra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra|Amitābha Sūtra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such goal. The new scriptures were written in [[Sanskrit]]. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahāyāna would flourish and spread in the East from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], and finally to [[Japan]] in 538 CE. === Emergence of the Vajrayāna === [[Image:Wheel life 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Wheel of Life, [[Bhutan]]. In the Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism scriptural language of [[Sanskrit]], the Wheel of Life is called [[Bhavacakra]].]] {{main|Vajrayana}} Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (c.150 - 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with both the [[Early Buddhist schools|Nikāya (Hīnayāna)]] philosophies and the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. He made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-dominant [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school, which argued for the existence of '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]''' (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇas]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|Asaṅga]] and were incorporated into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology. There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nālandā tradition. === Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia === {{see also|Decline of Buddhism in India}} Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and [[Central Asia]], and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as [[Menander I]] and [[Kanishka|Kaniska]]. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] and Iranian [[Achaemenid]] kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushāna Empire]] adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of the [[Shahi|Turk-Shāhīs]]. Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the [[Zoroastrian]] priest-king Kirder who saw the syncretism resulting from the Buddhist influence that led to the rise of a Buddha-Mazda divinity as a heresy.<ref> Alexander Berzin, ''Berzin Archives, Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan, November 2001.''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html] </ref> The [[Hinayana]] traditions first spread among the [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes before combining with the [[Mahayana]] forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. to cover modern-day [[Pakistan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern and coastal [[Iran]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. These were the ancient states of [[Gandhara]], [[Bactria]], [[Parthia]] and [[Sogdia]] from where it spread to [[China]]. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-[[Shahi]] who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BC. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also [[Zoroastrian]]s, [[Hindu]]s, [[Nestorian]] Christians, [[Jews]], [[Manichaeans]], and followers of [[shamanism]], [[Tengrism]], and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief. From the 4th Century CE on, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as the northwest ([[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]) and the lower Gangetic plain ([[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bengal]]), the Indian caste system and other characteristics of Hinduism were found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the [[White Hun]]s and Buddhism suffered as recorded by [[Xuanzang]]. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian [[Sassanid Empire|Sāsānids]] or [[Tibet]]. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of ''butparast'', literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in which [[cult image]]s play a role. Several high officials of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, notably the [[Barmakids]], were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists. When [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad ibn Qāsim]] led the invasion of [[Sindh]] at the mouth of the [[Indus]] river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord, [[Raja Dahir|Rājā Dahir]]. Relations with later Arab rulers such as the [[Saffarid]]s and [[Samanid]]s were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.<ref> Alexander Berzin, Berzin Archives </ref> Western Central Asia was under the control of first Arab and then Persian Muslims from the 8th century CE on. The Central Asian regions at this point became caught up in political squabbles as the [[Shahi]]s, [[Umayyad]]s, [[Tang dynasty]], [[Khitan]]s, [[Tibet]]ans, [[Qarakhanid]]s and other Turkic tribes vied over control of the area. After the disintegration of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central Asia and [[Afghanistan]]. In the 10th century CE, one of them, [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmūd of Ghaznī]], defeated the [[Shahi|Hindō-Shāhīs]] and finally brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the [[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]. He demolished monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western India but left those within his domains and [[Afghanistan]] alone and [[al-Biruni]] recorded Buddha as a prophet "burxan". The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as [[Sufi]]s, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to [[Transoxania]] and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with [[Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[shamanism]] in areas to the east (modern [[Xinjiang]]) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim. In 1215 [[Genghis Khan]] conquered [[Afghanistan]] and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and [[Chagatai]] established the [[Chagatai Khanate]] while [[Hulegu]] established the [[Il Khanate]] where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/chagatai.html]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the [[Il Khanate]], [[Hulegu]] and his successors [[Abaqa]] and [[Arghun]] also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when [[Ghazan]] came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion to [[Islam]] and the climate turned hostile to Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and after [[Ghazan]]'s reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html]. Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in [[Kashmir|Kaśmīr]] and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist [[Pala Empire|Pāla]] kings ruled from the 8th-12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] and the transmission of that form of Buddhism to [[Tibet]] before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu [[Sena dynasty]]. Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful [[Rajput]]s, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] philosophy and [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti devotionalism]]. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as an [[avatar|avatāra]] of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]] – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of [[nirvana|nirvāna]]. In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, [[Muhammad Khilji|Muhammad Khiljī]] destroyed [[Nalanda University|Nālandā]], the great Buddhist university. Khiljī was one of the generals of [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak|Qutbuddīn Aybak]], a subject of the Afghan [[Ghorids|Ghurids]] but soon to become the monarch of a [[Delhi Sultanate|Muslim sultanate at Delhi]]. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries. After the [[Mongol]] invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many [[Sufi]]s also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs of [[Bengal]]. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with [[Hinduism]]'s revival movements such as [[Advaita]] and the rise of the syncretic [[bhakti movement]], all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries. By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of [[Ladakh]]. Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population. The [[Newar]]s of [[Nepal]] also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. ==Main Traditions== [[Image:Dazu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stone [[Dazu Stone Carvings|carvings]] at Dazu near [[Chongqing]], [[China]].]] Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is sometimes named as a third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]] (also found in [[Mongolian (language)|Mongollian]] translation, and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] collections, along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]]. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions. Despite the differences, there are [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|common threads to almost all Buddhist branches]]: *All accept [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]] as their teacher. *All accept the [[Middle Way]], [[Dependent origination]], the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. *All accept that both the members of the laity and of the saṅgha can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]). *All accept [[three types of Buddha]] and consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest {This is disputed by a few scholars of the Theravādin tradition}. ===Theravāda=== {{main|Theravada}} '''[[Theravada|Theravāda]]''' is [[Pāli]] for "the Doctrine of the Elders" (from [[Sanskrit]] '''sthavira''', Pāli '''thera''', "old person"). The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli canon]]. The [[sutra|sutta]] (Sanskrit: sūtra) collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest written Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya branch]] of Buddhism. Nikāya Buddhism and consequently Theravāda are referred, especially in polemical contexts, by some Mahāyāna Buddhists as [[Hīnayāna]] or "inferior vehicle". This non-neutral usage is now considered unacceptable in scholarly writing. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore. The aim of Theravāda Buddhism is to achieve [[Nirvana|nibbāna]] (Sanskrit: nirvāṇa) or liberation from rebirth. ===Mahāyāna=== [[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Kuan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]].]] {{main|Mahayana}} The '''[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Vehicle") branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (''maha-karuna''), or [[bodhicitta]] - the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the [[Bodhisattva]] to attain the "Awakened Mind" ([[bodhicitta]]) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into [[Nirvana]]. Huge emphasis is also often placed on the notion of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]). This concept can be understood either as the lack of a conceptually apprehensible, fixed nature or substance to phenomena and Buddhic Truth, or as the inherent emptiness of all that is worldly, nescient, conditioned, impure and painful (the absence of which negativities characterises blissful Reality). The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and can indeed give expression to a form of mentalist pantheism or panentheism ([[God in Buddhism]]). In addition to the [[Nikaya|Nikāya]] scriptures, which are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures (some of which encourage the greatest possible veneration of those sutras as supreme spiritual treasures) that were first put into writing around 1 CE. These scriptures were written in some form of [[Sanskrit]], except for a few manuscripts in certain [[Prakrit]]s, and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, some Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], from where the attainment of Nirvana is much more swiftly within reach. Generally, the Pure Land is conceived of as a state which is not Awakening itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward Awakening. Some of the particularly venerated Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Prajna-paramita Sutras]], the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], speak of themselves as possessing enormous liberating spiritual power - they are seen as magical spells on a grand scale - and exhort their readers/listeners to pay the greatest obeisance and reverence to those same scriptures, and through such veneration automatically to draw closer to the Buddha and Nirvana/ Awakening. The sutras thus become for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself and resonate with his transformative might. One of the most significant concepts of Mahayana Buddhism, belief in which is strongly encouraged, is that of the [[prajna-paramita]] - the utterly perfected insight into the nature of all things: their essential equality, non-duality and tranquility, their ultimate lack (emptiness) of arising and perishing. This is not merely an intellectual recognition; rather, it is a direct perception. And that perception takes its rise from initial belief or faith in such doctrines. In the ''Prajna-Paramita of 18,000 Lines'', the Buddha confirms to his great student, Subhuti, how the Bodhisattva does not doubt or disbelieve such teachings when he hears them, but has faith in them (see [[Faith in Buddhism]]): "... the Bodhisattva, the great being who, when the deep perfection of wisdom [[= ''prajna-paramita'', perfected spiritual insight]] is being taught, on hearing it will not hesitate, or doubt, or be stupefied, [but will know], 'so it is as the Tathagata has taught', and will listen to it in greater detail ... this son of good family belonging to the Bodhisattva-vehicle will, as one who resolutely believes in this perfection of wisdom as taught by the Tathagata, stand in irreversibility [i.e. will never spiritually regress]. For even merely to hear of the perfection of wisdom achieves much for the Bodhisttvas, the great beings, how much more [will be achieved] by those who resolutely believe in it, who, having believed, will stand in Thusness [ = Reality], and progess to Thusness, and who thereafter will stand firmly in the knowledge of all modes [ i.e. will attain omniscience]." (''The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom'', tr. by Edward Conze, California, 1975, pp. 465-466). Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahāyāna in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Vajrayāna. Some of the sects of the Mahāyāna include the various schools and traditions within [[Zen|Chan/Zen]] and [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], two of the major forms of present-day Mahāyāna. Another way to look at the variation within the Mahāyāna is from the perspective of local cultural interpretations, viz. [[Buddhism in China|Chinese Buddhism]], [[Korean Buddhism]], [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]], and [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Vietnamese Buddhism]]. Mahāyāna Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative and which practices are best suited for the current times, although a number of major Mahayana sutras purporting to issue from the Buddha himself (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) are themselves in no doubt that they are to be regarded as of utmost importance and highest Buddhic authority. Mention has already been made of the "prajna-paramita" doctrine. Another highly important, and complementary, teaching within Mahāyāna Buddhism is the concept of [[Buddha-nature]] (Sanskrit:'''Buddhadhātu''', the essential Buddha Principle existing within and without all sentient beings). In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Buddha, transcending his mere physical form, is viewed as a boundless, beginningless and endless being, present in all times and all places, yet beyond the reach of logic or mundane conceptualisation. He is regarded as the very embodiment of ungraspable and eternal yet realisable Dharma - ultimate Truth or Awakened Mind ('''[[bodhi]]'''). In essence, all perfect Buddhas are seen by Mahāyāna Buddhism as one in nature - all are salvational channels or vessels of Dharma (cosmic Truth). They are the very [[Dharmakaya]] (body/mind of ultimate Reality). The doctrines of the Buddha in certain Mahāyāna sutras purport to provide a set of final, definitive and ultimate ('''nītārtha''') teachings – doctrines indicated by the Buddha not to be provisional in nature, but stated to be of the highest Truth ( a claim rejected, however, by the Theravādins) – on the immanence of a hidden, deep-seated reality within all sentient beings which is linked to the eternality of the Buddha and Nirvāna. This immanent yet transcendent essence is variously called, in the key sutras which expound it, the ''buddhadhātu'' or the '''[[Tathagatagarbha|Tathāgatagarbha]]''' (Sanskrit: "Tathagata Matrix"). This ''buddhadhātu'' is empty of all that is un-knowing, changeful, painful, impermanent and impure. In the [[Nirvana Sutra|Nirvāṇasūtra]], the Buddha calls the ''buddhadhātu'' the "True Self" to distinguish it from the "false" worldly self. It is no less than the uncreated, uncompounded, immaculate, immortal, all-knowing, radiantly shining Principle of blissful Buddhahood: the very [[Dharmakaya|Dharmakāya]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 法身). This ''buddhadhātu'', inherent in all beings, can never be destroyed or harmed, and yet is concealed from view by a mass of obscuring mental and moral taints within the mind-stream of the individual being. Once the ''buddhadhātu'' is finally seen and known by the faithful Buddhist practitioner, it has the power to transform that practitioner into a Buddha. The doctrine of the ''buddhadhātu'' or ''tathāgatagarbha'' is stated by the Buddha of the [[Nirvāna Sūtra]] to be the "absolutely final culmination" of his Mahāyāna Dharma, and scoffing denial of its reality is presented by this and other Tathagatagarbha sutras as potentially unleashing very negative karmic consequences upon those who deny it or disparage it. By contrast, faith in the Tathagatagarbha's reality and a vigorous striving to perceive its inner presence is hailed as of the highest spiritual and soteriological value. ===Vajrayāna=== [[Image:Young_monks_of_Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|274px|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]] {{main|Vajrayana}} The '''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]''' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayāna Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[Shingon Buddhism]]. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]]. Native Vajrayāna is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], [[Siberia]], areas of India, and – in the [[Shingon]] (''Zhènyān'', 真言) and [[Tendai]] schools – in China and Japan. ===Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview=== {{main|History of Buddhist schools}} In his lifetime, Gautama Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Commentators explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]]) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable." (''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111-112). Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]]. Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment to [[intellectualism]], Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. == Buddhist texts == [[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]] {{main|Buddhist texts}} Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the '''[[Tripitaka]]''' and in [[Pāli]] as the '''Tipitaka'''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are: *The '''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Piṭaka]]''', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Saṅghas]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. *The '''[[Sutta Pitaka|Sūtra Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: Sutta Piṭaka), contains the actual discourses of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. *The '''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: ''Abhidhamma Piṭaka'') contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings. Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – [[sutra|sūtras]] (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripiṭaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects. The [[Theravada|Theravāda]] and other [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya schools]] believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the [[naga (mythology)|nāgas]]), or came directly from other [[Buddha]]s or [[bodhisattva]]s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli suttas, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the [[agama (text)|āgamas]]. Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the āgamas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the agamas represent the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma - and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada. For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism - from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for '''all''' future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "'''Great''' Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "'''Great''' Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true". Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture. [[Dwight Goddard]] collected what he felt was a representative sample of Buddhist scriptures- along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the [[Tao Te Ching]]- into his [[Buddhist Bible]] in the 1920's. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ “The Buddha and His Dhamma”]. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions. == Present state of Buddhism == {{sectstub}} [[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]] Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 million and 500 million, with 350 million being the most commonly cited figure. [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] *[[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[India]]. *[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West. *[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding area of [[India]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], [[China]], and the Russian Federation. [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]] and the Russian Federation are the first European countries to recognize Buddhism as an official religion. *The [[Indian Buddhist Movement]] is a revival of Buddhism in India. This movement was initiated by [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in 1956 with a mass conversion ceremony of [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s. Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular Buddhist school of thought. At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see [[Buddhism in the West]]) See also [[Buddhism by country]] == Buddhist Culture and Art == {{main|Buddhist culture and art}} == Comparative Study == {{sectstub}} Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history. '''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies''' *[[Buddhadharma and other Indian Dharmas]] (Buddhism and other dharma-related brief) *[[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching) *[[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism and monotheism) *[[Buddhist-Christian Parallels]] *[[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy) *[[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics) *[[Buddhism and science]] (Buddhism and science) *[[Buddhism and Schism]] [http://nt.med.ncku.edu.tw/biochem/lsn/AccessToInsight/html/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/ch21.html] ==See also== {{portal}} *[[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]] *[[Buddhist terms and concepts]] *[[List of Buddhist topics]] *[[List of Buddhists]] ==References== *{{cite book | author=Gail Omvedt (ed.) | title=Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste | publisher=Sage Publications | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-7829-128-2}} *{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}} *[[Thom Brooks]], 'Better Luck Next Time: A comparative analysis of Socrates and Mahayana Buddhism on reincarnation', ''Journal of Indian Philosophy and Religion'' 10 (2005): 1-25. *{{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What Buddhists Believe|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 9834007127. *{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0192892231}} *{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0861713214}} Also available on-line: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php] *{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1903296919}} *{{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0767903692. *{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0271006013}} *{{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0802130313. *{{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0773459855. *{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}} *{{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0861711335. *{{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 8120821440}} ==Notes== <!--<nowiki> See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below </nowiki>--> {{FootnotesSmall|resize=100%}} # {{note|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}} Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy]: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings''. Published on the Web. # {{note|ChNN_Dream_Yoga_book}} Chögyal Namkhai Norbu ''Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light''. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42 # {{note|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}} Dr. A. Berzin. ''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/tantra/alaya_impure_02.html Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making]'' # {{note|Elas_Capriles_book1}} Elías Capriles. ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/buddhismanddzogchen1.zip Buddhism and Dzogchen]: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook''. Published on the Web. # {{note|Sangha_TripleJewel}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu. ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha]''. Third edition, revised, 2001 ==External links== {{cleanup-spam}} <!--buddhachat, not notable and is advertising; hongakujodo, advertising a single sect, advertising; meditate london, intro to buddhism not needed, they are practically the same; other two are not about buddhism but about sutras.--> *[http://www.ambedkar.org/buddhism/BAHD/45A.Buddha%20and%20His%20Dhamma%20PART%20I.htm '''The Buddha and His Dhamma''' A single, comprehensive document of Buddhist principles by Dr B R Ambedkar, 1956] *[http://www.deerparkgathering.org/introduction.html Introduction to Buddhism ] *[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal] *[http://www.dalailama.com/page.5.htm His Holiness The Dalai Lama teachings on Buddhism] *[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/index.html Access to Insight] Readings in Theravada Buddhism. *[http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet] *[http://buddhism.about.com/ Buddhism.about.com] *[http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk "Nirvana Sutra Buddhism": full text and discussion of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra] *[http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Buddhism: English translations of five major Tathagatagarbha sutras] *[http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide. *[http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet] *[http://www.world-religion.org/buddhism.php Encyclopedia of Religion Buddhism article] *[http://www.buddhaweb.org/ Essentials of Buddhism] *[http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles. [[Category:Buddhism|*]] [[Category:Eastern culture]] [[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]] [[Category:Buddhism in India]] [[Category:Religion in India]] {{Link FA|ar}} {{Link FA|vi}} {{Link FA|zh}} [[af:Boeddhisme]] [[als:Buddhismus]] [[ar:بوذية]] [[bn:বৌদ্ধধর্ম]] [[zh-min-nan:Hu̍t-kàu]] [[br:Boudaegezh]] [[bg:Будизъм]] [[ca:Budisme]] [[cs:Buddhismus]] [[da:Buddhisme]] [[de:Buddhismus]] [[et:Budism]] [[el:Βουδισμός]] [[es:Budismo]] [[eo:Budhismo]] [[eu:Budismo]] [[fa:بوداگرایی]] [[fr:Bouddhisme]] [[ko:불교]] [[hi:बौद्ध धर्म]] [[hr:Budizam]] [[io:Budismo]] [[ilo:Budhismo]] [[ia:Buddhismo]] [[is:Búddismi]] [[it:Buddhismo]] [[he:בודהיזם]] [[jv:Buddha]] [[kw:Bouddhisteth]] [[lo:ພຸດທະສາດສະໜາ]] [[la:Religio Buddhistica]] [[lv:Budisms]] [[lt:Budizmas]] [[li:Boeddhisme]] [[jbo:bu'ojda]] [[hu:Buddhizmus]] [[mt:Buddiżmu]] [[ms:Agama Buddha]] [[mn:Буддизм]] [[nl:Boeddhisme]] [[ja:仏教]] [[no:Buddhisme]] [[nn:Buddhismen]] [[ug:بذددا دعنع]] [[nds:Buddhismus]] [[pl:Buddyzm]] [[pt:Budismo]] [[ro:Budism]] [[ru:Буддизм]] [[sco:Buddhism]] [[simple:Buddhism]] [[sk:Budhizmus]] [[sl:Budizem]] [[sr:Будизам]] [[fi:Buddhalaisuus]] [[sv:Buddhism]] [[tl:Budismo]] [[ta:பௌத்தம்]] [[th:พระพุทธศาสนา]] [[vi:Phật giáo]] [[tpi:Budisim]] [[tr:Budizm]] [[uk:Буддизм]] [[yi:בודהיזם]] [[zh:佛教]] 3597 2006-12-27T17:41:07Z Eukesh 59 '''बुद्ध धम्म''' एकस्य [[धम्म]], व्यवहारिक [[दर्शन]] व [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]] अस्तु। बुद्ध धम्म शाक्यमुनि [[गौतम बुद्ध]]स्य उपदेशे आधारित भवतु। Buddhism spread throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the [[Timeline of Buddhism#Before Common Era|five centuries]] following the Buddha's passing, and propagated into [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], and [[East Asia]] over the next [[Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era|two millennia]]. Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] (Sanskrit: Sthaviravāda), [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and, with approximately [[Buddhism by country|379 million adherents]], it is considered a [[major world religions|major world religion]]. Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fifth-largest]] religion in the world behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and traditional Chinese religion, respectively. <ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref> When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddha]] is generally considered to be a [[person]] who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]] through years of spiritual cultivation, [[investigation]] of the various religious practices of his time, and [[meditation]]. This transformational discovery is called [[bodhi]] - literally, "Awakening" (more commonly called "Enlightenment"). Any person who has become [[awakened]] from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality is called a Buddha. Śākyamuni is said to have been only the latest of many of these; there were other Buddhas before him and there will be others in the future. According to the Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words "[[Dharma]]" and putting them into practice, by leading a [[virtuous]], [[moral]] life, and purifying his [[mind]]. Concisely put, the aim of Buddhist practice is to put an end to this mass of [[suffering]] we call existence. "I teach one thing and one thing only: suffering and the end of suffering" (The Buddha). To achieve this state ([[Nirvana]]), adherents train and purify the mind by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and the [[Middle Way]], eventually arriving at an understanding of the true nature of all things, thus ending ([[nirodha]]) all ignorance and unhappiness and attaining [[liberation]]: [[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]] (Pāli nibbāna). == गौतम बुद्ध== [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|left|A stone image of the Buddha.]] {{main|Gautama Buddha}} बौद्ध सम्पदाय अनुसारस्य, गौतम बुद्धस्य जन्मस्थान '''[[कपिलवत्थु]]''' भवतु। गौतम बुद्ध [[महाजनपद]]स्य [[शाक्य]] कुलेषु राजकुमार। Lumbinī and the Śākya realm were known to have been in the north, adjacent to the kingdom of [[Kosala|Kośala]] and the republic of the [[Koliya]]s along the [[Ganges]], separated from Koliya by the river {{unicode|Rohiṇī}}. The exact location of Lumbinī is fixed in what is now south central [[Nepal]] by a [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillar]] inscription of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] from the 3rd century BCE commemorating the Buddha's birth. Siddhārtha's father was [[Suddhodana|Śuddhodana]] (Pāli: Suddhodana), then the chieftain (rājā) of the Śākyas. He was the ruler of the [[Kapilavastu]] in what is modern day [[Nepal]]. Traditions state that the Buddha's mother died at his birth or a few days later. The [[legend]] says that the seer Asita predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, his father tried to make sure that Siddhārtha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as such dissatisfaction might lead him to follow a spiritual path. As a result, under strict instruction of his father, Siddhārtha was never exposed to suffering or pain and was carefully kept away from sad, sick or dying people. He was raised in a very opulent environment. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These four sights led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privileges, rank, [[caste]], and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problems of birth, old age, pain, sickness, and death. Siddhārtha pursued the path of the [[shramana|{{unicode|śramaṇa}}]] and [[meditation]] with two hermits, and, although he quickly achieved high levels of meditative consciousness ([[dhyana|dhyāna]], Pāli jhāna), he was still not satisfied with the results. Siddhārtha then began his training in the [[ascetic]] life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Siddhārtha proved quite adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind established teachers, he and a small group of close companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death without any profit, Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. He then remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing; he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which he felt a blissful and refreshing feeling and time seemed to stand still. [[Image:TrilogyDetail.JPG|thumb|251px|The [[Buddha]] venerated by [[Indra]] and [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmā]], [[Kanishka casket|Kaniṣka casket]], dated to 127 CE, [[British Museum]].]] After discarding [[asceticism]] and concentrating on [[meditation]], Siddhārtha discovered what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]] – a path of moderation away from the extremes of [[hedonism|self-indulgence]] and [[asceticism|self-mortification]]. To strengthen his body, he accepted a little buttermilk from a passing village girl named [[Sujata]]. Then, sitting under a [[pipal]] tree, now known as the [[Bodhi tree]], he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] and became a [[Buddha]]. He preached his first sermon<ref name="FNTeng">{{ cite book |publisher=Wisdom Publications |pages=1843-1847 |author=Bhikkhu Bodhi |Title="The Collected Discourses of the Buddha: A new translation of the Samyutta Nikaya" |year=2000 |location=Somerville }}</ref> in [[Sarnath]] a place very near [[Varanasi|{{unicode|Vārāṇasī}}]] (Benares) in North India. For the remaining 45 years of his life, Buddha Gautama traveled in the [[Gangetic Plain]] of northeastern India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to all – from nobles and priests to commoners and outcaste street sweepers. He also taught the adherents of many different schools and teachers. The Buddha founded the two [[sangha|{{unicode|saṅghas}}]] (monastic communities) of monks and of nuns, which continued to expound his teaching after his death, traditionally set at age 80. Apparently he died in the town of Kushinagara from a meal of bad mushrooms or pork. His body was cremated and the ashes, and perhaps other sacred relics allegedly taken from it, were given to various temples or buried in [[stupa]]s. These have since become important pilgrimage sites. A tree said to be grown from a cutting of the tree where he received enlightenment is in [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]]. ==धम्म== [[Image:A_Buddhist_Korean_Temple.png|thumb|right|A Buddhist temple in Korea.]] Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of Gautama Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism. === Dependent Origination === {{main|Pratitya-samutpada}} The enlightenment ([[Bodhi]]) of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] was his liberation from suffering and his insight into [[Reality in Buddhism|the nature of reality]]. The widely accepted doctrine of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] states that any phenomenon ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect. For sentient beings, this amounts to a never-ending cycle of [[Rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]] ('''[[Samsara (Buddhism)|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''') according to the law of '''[[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]''' (Pāli: '''kamma''') and '''[[vipaka|vipāka]]'''. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient ('''[[Impermanence|anitya]]''', Pāli '''anicca'''), they have no real, independent identity ('''[[Anatta|anātman]]''', Pāli '''anatta''') and so do not truly ‘exist’, although to untrained minds they do appear to exist. All phenomena are thus fundamentally insubstantial and empty ('''[[sunyata|śūnya]]''''). Wise human beings, who possess "insight into the knowledge of how things are" ('''{{unicode|yathā-bhūta-ñāṇa-dassana}}''', Sanskrit '''{{unicode|yathābhūtajñanadarśana}}'''), renounce [[upadana|attachment and clinging]] which cause suffering ('''[[dukkha|{{unicode|duḥkha}}]]''', Pāli '''dukkha'''), transform the energy of desire into awareness and understanding, and eventually attain '''[[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]'''. ===The Four Noble Truths=== {{main|The Four Noble Truths}} The Buddha taught that life was inherently suffering, that it is caused by [[tanha|craving]], but that this condition was curable by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Sanskrit: '''{{unicode|Āryo 'ṣṭāṅgo Mārgaḥ }}''', Pāli: '''{{unicode|Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo}}'''). This teaching is called the '''Catvāry Āryasatyāni''' (Pali: '''{{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}'''), the "[[Four Noble Truths]]". # '''[[Dukkha|Suffering]]:''' Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering. # '''The cause of suffering:''' The [[tanha|craving]] which leads to [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|renewed existence]] (rebirth). # '''The cessation of suffering:''' The cessation of [[tanha|craving]]. # '''The way leading to the cessation of suffering:''' The [[Noble Eightfold Path]]; The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment<ref name="FNTeng" />, which was given to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by Buddha, not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common medical prescription of the time. Buddha also said that followers should use his teachings only if they help. He compared worrying about things such as an afterlife while suffering with a person who has been shot with an arrow to worrying about who made the arrow, rather than removing it. As such, there is a strong case for the Buddha's teachings being intended as psychological tools, to ease mental distress, rather than as esoteric teachings for the strongly religious. To attest to this, Buddhist meditation, in particular, is now being scientifically studied in the West, both in laboratory tests, and in real-world, hands-on psychiatry. Many long-term practicing Buddhists, for instance, have been shown to have physically different brain structure, in areas associated with profound joy or spiritual happiness{{Citation needed}}. Likewise, the beginning fusion of Buddhism and psychology can be seen clearly, in publications by psychiatrists and psychotherapists, such as [[Mark Epstein]]'s book, [[Thoughts Without a Thinker]]. ===The Noble Eightfold Path=== {{main|Noble Eightfold Path}} {| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px style="float:right; background-color: transparent; border:1px dotted #000000; margin:2px" width="200" | |According to [[Buddha]] [[Shakyamuni]], if a person does not follow the goal of [[Total Realization]], one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.<ref>The Crystal and the Way of Light. Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu; compiled and ed. by John Shane, 2000, p. 164</ref> |- |} The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of: #Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}''' #Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation '''{{unicode|(samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)}}''' #Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}''' #Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would hurt others '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}''' #Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}}}''' #Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}''' #Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}''' #Right Concentration - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}''' The word '''samyak''' means "turned to one point or against each other, universus or adversus; whole, entire, all; correct, right, true." [http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/] There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorise the Eightfold Path into '''[[Prajna|prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''', wisdom), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli '''sīla''', virtuous behaviour) and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' (concentration). === Bodhi === {{main|Bodhi}} '''Bodhi''' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]]. Lit. ''awakening'') is a title given in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by [[Buddha]]. Bodhi is most commonly translated into English as ''enlightenment'', however, a more accurate translation is ''awakening'' or ''understanding''. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle of '''[[Samsara|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''': birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the [[Paramita|pāramitā]]s (perfections), when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and when all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed ('''lobha'''), hatred ('''{{unicode|doṣa}}''', Pāli '''dosa'''), delusion ('''moha'''), ignorance ('''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidyā]]''', Pāli '''avijjā''')), craving ('''[[Tanha|{{unicode|tṛṣṇā}}]]''', Pāli '''{{unicode|taṇhā}}''') and false belief in self ('''[[Atman (Buddhism)|ātman]]''', Pāli '''attā''') are extinguished. Bodhi thus includes '''[[anatta|anātman]]''' (Pāli '''anatta'''), the absence of ego-centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise [[Three types of Buddha|three types of Bodhi]]. They are [[Shravakabuddha|Śrāvakabodhi]] (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyekabodhi]] (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a [[Bodhisattva]] becomes a fully enlightened [[Buddha]]. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism. <!--the nature of different bodhis is disputed among different Buddhist schools so please be careful.--> === Karma === {{main|Karma in Buddhism}} In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said : :“Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind”. According to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and not on any divine being: :"Owners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring, having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being, making them become depraved and excellent." (kammassakaa maa.nava sattaa, kammadaayadaa, kammayoni, kammabandhu kammapa.tisara.naa kamma.m satte vibhajati yadida.m hinappa.nitataaya. ''Cuulakammavibhaagasutta''.) In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition and its result ( [[Vipaka]]) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional deed (be that deed one of thought, word or physical action). == Middle Way == The primarily guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment ('''[[bodhi]]'''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. It is also another name for the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], which is often divided into '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli: '''paññā''', "wisdom"), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli: '''sīla''', "morality") and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' ("meditative mind"). === Refuge in The Three Jewels === [[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Buddha]] with [[Dharmacakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]] {{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}} Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in The Noble Eightfold Path requires taking [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]], as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's [[Three Jewels]] (also called Three Treasures, Triple Gem, '''Triratna''' or '''Ratna-traya''' ([[Sanskrit]]), '''Tiratana''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]), 三宝, ''Sānbǎo'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]), ''Sanbō'' or ''Sanpō'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]), 삼보, ''Sambo'' ([[Korean language|Korean]]). The '''Three Jewels''' are: * The '''[[Buddha]]''': The ''Awakened One''. This is a title for those who attained enlightenment similar to Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]]. * The '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''': The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). * The '''[[Sangha|{{IAST|Sangha}}]]''': This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna ([[pali]]) - one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). [[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]] presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to have faith ('''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]''', Pāli '''saddhā''') in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], that is, the teaching of Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The [[Sangha|{{unicode|Saṅgha}}]], in this sense meaning the group of Buddhists possessing at least some degree of enlightenment, provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. As Buddhism migrated to the West, a new usage of the word has emerged: the usage of the word "sangha" to describe a meditation group or any sort of spiritual community.{{fact}} Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]], also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of negative karma. === Prajñā (Wisdom) === {{main|Prajñā|Paramita}} '''Prajñā''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''paññā''' ([[Pāli]]) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], [[The Four Noble Truths]] and [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about [[bodhi]]. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]], through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six [[Paramita|pāramitās]]. Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Gautama Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many attaining bodhi upon hearing Buddha's discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight ('''[[Vipassana|vipassanā]]''', [[Sanskrit]] '''vipaśyanā''') meditation to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation. === Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour)=== {{main|Sila|Karma in Buddhism|Paramita}} '''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''sīla''' ([[Pāli]]) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' and the second [[Paramita|pāramitā]]: moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of '''śīla''' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions. In Buddhism, the 'Law of [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]' is used as an ethical principle, rather than a cosmological explanation for the world. Buddhism distinguishes {{unicode|saṃsāric}} happiness (birth in the high realms), from the final state of enlightenment: [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]; so likewise there is saṃsāric good karma, which leads to the high realms (such as the human realm), and then there is liberating karma - which is supremely good. Therefore the major dichotomy is ''{{unicode|saṃsāric karma}}'' and ''liberating karma'', of which the former is typically divided into the three: good, neutral, and bad (in accordance with the degree of samsaric happiness or suffering that will mature as a consequence). Likewise, liberating karma is divided into three, as there are [[three types of Buddha]] into which it may mature. It is important to distinguish between śīla (moral) and [[Vinaya]] (monastic code). Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behaviour while vinaya is a collection of monastic code. For this reason, vinaya is applicable to monks and nuns while śīla is applicable to all Buddhists, both laypeople and [[Sangha|saṅgha]] members. Lay Buddhists generally undertake at least one of the five precepts ('''[[pancasila|pañcaśīla]]''') which are common to all Buddhist schools. The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one can meditate well. # To refrain from taking life. # To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing). # To refrain from sensual misconduct (improper sexual behavior, gluttony etc.) # To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat). # To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness. The content of vinaya differs slightly according to different scriptures. And different schools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya. Serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts. In Vinaya, some of the five precepts are strengthened for monks. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy. In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged ([[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]). === Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) === {{main|Samadhi|Vipassana|Buddhist meditation}} In the language of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], '''samyaksamādhi''' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating '''samādhi''' is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. [[Samatha meditation|'''samatha''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''śamatha''') and [[vipassana|'''vipassanā''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''vipaśyanā'''). Upon development of '''samādhi''', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration ('''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]''', Sanskrit '''dhyāna'''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight. [[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful to an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana. In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''' (Pāli '''ñāṇa''' knowledge) '''[[vijnana|vijñāna]]''' (Pāli '''viññāṇa''' awareness), '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''' pure understanding) and thus can lead to '''[[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]''' (Pāli '''nibbāna'''). == Buddhism after the Buddha == {{main|History of Buddhism|Buddhist councils}} During his lifetime, Buddha specifically refused to answer certain questions known as [[avyakata|avyākṛta]] (Pāli: avyākata, "unexplained"). These are (1) Whether the world is eternal or not; (2) Whether the world is infinite or not; (3) Whether the body and the self are one and the same or not; (4) Whether the [[Tathagata|tathāgata]] exists after death, or not, or both does and does not, or neither does nor does not. In the ''Culla-Māluṅkyovāda-sutta'', the Buddha, using an analogy of being shot by a poisoned arrow and asking about its origin and construction, indicated to Māluṅkyāputta that such speculative questions are ultimately unprofitable. [http://buddhism.about.com/od/keyconcepts/a/Noteach.htm] In another occasion, the Buddha, without giving specific elaboration, stated that minor [[Vinaya]] rules can be amended by the [[Sangha|Saṅgha]]. He further diverged from ancient Brahmin tradition by allowing monks and nuns not just to preach in the language of the area they happened to be in, but to recite the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] in the local language as well. Soon after the [[Parinirvana|parinirvāṇa]] (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses ([[Sutra|'''sūtra'''s]], Pāli '''sutta'''s) of the Buddha. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). === Early Buddhism === {{main|The Second Buddhist Council|Early Buddhist schools}} {{unicode|As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century disputes arose upon subtle points of discipline, e.g., the right to carry salt in a container. A second council (traditionally 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. The result was not a resolution but a schism ('''saṅghabheda'''): on the one side the '''[[Sthaviravada|Sthaviras]]''', or "Elders", whose name implies an elite group, and on the other side the '''[[Mahasanghika|Mahāsāṅghikas]]''', the party "of the Great Saṅgha", implying a majority position. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions; the Sthaviras claimed that the Mahāsāṅghikas were trying to dilute the Vinaya by ignoring certain rules; the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to ''expand'' the Vinaya by illegitimately introducing new rules not sanctioned by the Buddha; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[Arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237-272</ref> The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school.}} This split occurred wholly ''within'' the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school. It was also solely concerned with questions of discipline, and foreshadowed the later splintering of both the Sthavira and {{unicode|Mahāsāṅghika Saṅghas}} into as many as thirty different "schools". Each "school" was characterized by a slightly different Vinaya; doctrinal differences among these schools only developed subsequent to the arising of differences in discipline. {{unicode|The Sthavira-Mahāsāṅghika split has, therefore, nothing at all to do with the contrasts, posited by scholars, between "Northern and Southern Buddhism", or between "Mahāyāna and Theravāda", or even the traditional Mahāyāna contrast between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. Other than as an adumbration of schisms within the Saṅgha in general, it has no relevance for present-day Buddhism. Of the approximately thirty Vinayas that existed in the ancient and medieval Saṅgha, three have survived to the present day: the Vibhajyavāda Vinaya, used by the [[Theravada|Theravādins]]; the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna Buddhists in China, Vietnam, and Korea (Vinaya is not generally observed in Japan); and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists in Tibet. All three of these Vinayas descend directly from the Sthavira Vinaya, not from the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya, which although partially extant, is not actually followed by any living [[Bhikkhu|bhikṣus]].}} {{unicode|Following the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical commentaries on the discourse of the Buddha. It is not known whether such commentaries existed from the time of the Buddha. However, as Buddhism spread and came in contact with different religious orders, it became increasingly necessary to engage and debate the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] and formalize the teachings of the Buddha in a more systematic manner. As each sect developed different collections of Abhidharma, what began as disciplinary differences between the Saṅghas evolved into doctrinal differences as well. These sects of Buddhism are referred to as Nikāya (section) in the modern Theravāda tradition and Hīnayāna (lesser vehicle) sects in the Mahāyāna tradition. Some modern academics also refer it as Abhidhamma Buddhism.}} [[Image: AshokaMap2.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260&ndash;218 BCE).]] Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of Buddhist religious memorials ([[stupa|stūpas]]) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma". particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and possibly even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, centuries later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]s, and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. === Establishment of Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Tradition) === {{main|Theravada}} {{unicode|In addition to the [[Edicts of Asoka|Edicts of Aśoka]], Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan and post-Aśokan period. Among these annals are the [[Dipavamsa|Dīpavaṃsa]], the [[Mahavamsa|Mahāvaṃsa]], and the [[Samantapasadika|Samantapāsādika]] of the south Indian [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha, beside the [[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]] and the [[Avadanasataka|Avadānaśataka]] from the northern [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] ([[Pāli]]: Sabbatthivāda) saṅgha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, [[Ashoka|Aśoka]] convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words. The result, according to the Vibhajjavādins, was the compilation of the version of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] (Pāli: Tipiṭaka) found in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]].}} The council also saw the formation of the {{unicode|saṅgha}} of the Vibhajjavāda ("school of analytical discourse") out of various schools of the [[Sthaviravada|Sthaviravāda]] lineage. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the [[Pāli]] language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of [[Magadha]] spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Aśoka]] and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near [[Girnar]] in Gujarat. According to Theravāda accounts, the Vibhajjavāda version of [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] was introduced to [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Mahinda]] (Sanskrit: Mahendra), one of the sons of [[Ashoka|Aśoka]]. === Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism (Northern Tradition) === [[Image: MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Expansion of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]] {{main|Mahayana}} {{unicode|The precise geographical origins of [[Mahāyāna]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahāyāna developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇa Empire]] (within present-day [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravatī]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajantā]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). On one side, Mahāyāna was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa|stūpa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stūpa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses.<ref>This concept, promoted by Hirakawa Akira, has been disputed by other scholars such as Gregory Schopen.</ref> The Saṅgha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of [[Abhidharma]] and [[Vinaya]] practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Saṅgha. The Mahāyāna movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from [[Early Buddhist schools|various sects]]. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Saṅgha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school (which had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravāda tradition) and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kuṣāṇa Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahāyāna sūtras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sūtras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahāyāna sūtras possible.}} Around 100 CE, the {{unicode|Kuṣāṇa emperor [[Kanishka|Kaniṣka]]}} convened the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravāda line of Buddhism. This council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Sūtra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra|Heart Sūtra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra|Amitābha Sūtra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such goal. The new scriptures were written in [[Sanskrit]]. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahāyāna would flourish and spread in the East from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], and finally to [[Japan]] in 538 CE. === Emergence of the Vajrayāna === [[Image:Wheel life 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Wheel of Life, [[Bhutan]]. In the Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism scriptural language of [[Sanskrit]], the Wheel of Life is called [[Bhavacakra]].]] {{main|Vajrayana}} Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (c.150 - 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with both the [[Early Buddhist schools|Nikāya (Hīnayāna)]] philosophies and the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. He made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-dominant [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school, which argued for the existence of '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]''' (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇas]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|Asaṅga]] and were incorporated into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology. There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nālandā tradition. === Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia === {{see also|Decline of Buddhism in India}} Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and [[Central Asia]], and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as [[Menander I]] and [[Kanishka|Kaniska]]. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] and Iranian [[Achaemenid]] kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushāna Empire]] adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of the [[Shahi|Turk-Shāhīs]]. Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the [[Zoroastrian]] priest-king Kirder who saw the syncretism resulting from the Buddhist influence that led to the rise of a Buddha-Mazda divinity as a heresy.<ref> Alexander Berzin, ''Berzin Archives, Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan, November 2001.''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html] </ref> The [[Hinayana]] traditions first spread among the [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes before combining with the [[Mahayana]] forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. to cover modern-day [[Pakistan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern and coastal [[Iran]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. These were the ancient states of [[Gandhara]], [[Bactria]], [[Parthia]] and [[Sogdia]] from where it spread to [[China]]. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-[[Shahi]] who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BC. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also [[Zoroastrian]]s, [[Hindu]]s, [[Nestorian]] Christians, [[Jews]], [[Manichaeans]], and followers of [[shamanism]], [[Tengrism]], and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief. From the 4th Century CE on, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as the northwest ([[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]) and the lower Gangetic plain ([[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bengal]]), the Indian caste system and other characteristics of Hinduism were found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the [[White Hun]]s and Buddhism suffered as recorded by [[Xuanzang]]. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian [[Sassanid Empire|Sāsānids]] or [[Tibet]]. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of ''butparast'', literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in which [[cult image]]s play a role. Several high officials of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, notably the [[Barmakids]], were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists. When [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad ibn Qāsim]] led the invasion of [[Sindh]] at the mouth of the [[Indus]] river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord, [[Raja Dahir|Rājā Dahir]]. Relations with later Arab rulers such as the [[Saffarid]]s and [[Samanid]]s were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.<ref> Alexander Berzin, Berzin Archives </ref> Western Central Asia was under the control of first Arab and then Persian Muslims from the 8th century CE on. The Central Asian regions at this point became caught up in political squabbles as the [[Shahi]]s, [[Umayyad]]s, [[Tang dynasty]], [[Khitan]]s, [[Tibet]]ans, [[Qarakhanid]]s and other Turkic tribes vied over control of the area. After the disintegration of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central Asia and [[Afghanistan]]. In the 10th century CE, one of them, [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmūd of Ghaznī]], defeated the [[Shahi|Hindō-Shāhīs]] and finally brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the [[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]. He demolished monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western India but left those within his domains and [[Afghanistan]] alone and [[al-Biruni]] recorded Buddha as a prophet "burxan". The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as [[Sufi]]s, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to [[Transoxania]] and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with [[Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[shamanism]] in areas to the east (modern [[Xinjiang]]) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim. In 1215 [[Genghis Khan]] conquered [[Afghanistan]] and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and [[Chagatai]] established the [[Chagatai Khanate]] while [[Hulegu]] established the [[Il Khanate]] where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/chagatai.html]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the [[Il Khanate]], [[Hulegu]] and his successors [[Abaqa]] and [[Arghun]] also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when [[Ghazan]] came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion to [[Islam]] and the climate turned hostile to Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and after [[Ghazan]]'s reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html]. Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in [[Kashmir|Kaśmīr]] and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist [[Pala Empire|Pāla]] kings ruled from the 8th-12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] and the transmission of that form of Buddhism to [[Tibet]] before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu [[Sena dynasty]]. Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful [[Rajput]]s, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] philosophy and [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti devotionalism]]. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as an [[avatar|avatāra]] of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]] – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of [[nirvana|nirvāna]]. In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, [[Muhammad Khilji|Muhammad Khiljī]] destroyed [[Nalanda University|Nālandā]], the great Buddhist university. Khiljī was one of the generals of [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak|Qutbuddīn Aybak]], a subject of the Afghan [[Ghorids|Ghurids]] but soon to become the monarch of a [[Delhi Sultanate|Muslim sultanate at Delhi]]. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries. After the [[Mongol]] invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many [[Sufi]]s also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs of [[Bengal]]. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with [[Hinduism]]'s revival movements such as [[Advaita]] and the rise of the syncretic [[bhakti movement]], all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries. By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of [[Ladakh]]. Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population. The [[Newar]]s of [[Nepal]] also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. ==Main Traditions== [[Image:Dazu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stone [[Dazu Stone Carvings|carvings]] at Dazu near [[Chongqing]], [[China]].]] Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is sometimes named as a third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]] (also found in [[Mongolian (language)|Mongollian]] translation, and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] collections, along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]]. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions. Despite the differences, there are [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|common threads to almost all Buddhist branches]]: *All accept [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]] as their teacher. *All accept the [[Middle Way]], [[Dependent origination]], the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. *All accept that both the members of the laity and of the saṅgha can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]). *All accept [[three types of Buddha]] and consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest {This is disputed by a few scholars of the Theravādin tradition}. ===Theravāda=== {{main|Theravada}} '''[[Theravada|Theravāda]]''' is [[Pāli]] for "the Doctrine of the Elders" (from [[Sanskrit]] '''sthavira''', Pāli '''thera''', "old person"). The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli canon]]. The [[sutra|sutta]] (Sanskrit: sūtra) collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest written Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya branch]] of Buddhism. Nikāya Buddhism and consequently Theravāda are referred, especially in polemical contexts, by some Mahāyāna Buddhists as [[Hīnayāna]] or "inferior vehicle". This non-neutral usage is now considered unacceptable in scholarly writing. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore. The aim of Theravāda Buddhism is to achieve [[Nirvana|nibbāna]] (Sanskrit: nirvāṇa) or liberation from rebirth. ===Mahāyāna=== [[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Kuan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]].]] {{main|Mahayana}} The '''[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Vehicle") branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (''maha-karuna''), or [[bodhicitta]] - the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the [[Bodhisattva]] to attain the "Awakened Mind" ([[bodhicitta]]) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into [[Nirvana]]. Huge emphasis is also often placed on the notion of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]). This concept can be understood either as the lack of a conceptually apprehensible, fixed nature or substance to phenomena and Buddhic Truth, or as the inherent emptiness of all that is worldly, nescient, conditioned, impure and painful (the absence of which negativities characterises blissful Reality). The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and can indeed give expression to a form of mentalist pantheism or panentheism ([[God in Buddhism]]). In addition to the [[Nikaya|Nikāya]] scriptures, which are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures (some of which encourage the greatest possible veneration of those sutras as supreme spiritual treasures) that were first put into writing around 1 CE. These scriptures were written in some form of [[Sanskrit]], except for a few manuscripts in certain [[Prakrit]]s, and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, some Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], from where the attainment of Nirvana is much more swiftly within reach. Generally, the Pure Land is conceived of as a state which is not Awakening itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward Awakening. Some of the particularly venerated Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Prajna-paramita Sutras]], the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], speak of themselves as possessing enormous liberating spiritual power - they are seen as magical spells on a grand scale - and exhort their readers/listeners to pay the greatest obeisance and reverence to those same scriptures, and through such veneration automatically to draw closer to the Buddha and Nirvana/ Awakening. The sutras thus become for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself and resonate with his transformative might. One of the most significant concepts of Mahayana Buddhism, belief in which is strongly encouraged, is that of the [[prajna-paramita]] - the utterly perfected insight into the nature of all things: their essential equality, non-duality and tranquility, their ultimate lack (emptiness) of arising and perishing. This is not merely an intellectual recognition; rather, it is a direct perception. And that perception takes its rise from initial belief or faith in such doctrines. In the ''Prajna-Paramita of 18,000 Lines'', the Buddha confirms to his great student, Subhuti, how the Bodhisattva does not doubt or disbelieve such teachings when he hears them, but has faith in them (see [[Faith in Buddhism]]): "... the Bodhisattva, the great being who, when the deep perfection of wisdom [[= ''prajna-paramita'', perfected spiritual insight]] is being taught, on hearing it will not hesitate, or doubt, or be stupefied, [but will know], 'so it is as the Tathagata has taught', and will listen to it in greater detail ... this son of good family belonging to the Bodhisattva-vehicle will, as one who resolutely believes in this perfection of wisdom as taught by the Tathagata, stand in irreversibility [i.e. will never spiritually regress]. For even merely to hear of the perfection of wisdom achieves much for the Bodhisttvas, the great beings, how much more [will be achieved] by those who resolutely believe in it, who, having believed, will stand in Thusness [ = Reality], and progess to Thusness, and who thereafter will stand firmly in the knowledge of all modes [ i.e. will attain omniscience]." (''The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom'', tr. by Edward Conze, California, 1975, pp. 465-466). Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahāyāna in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Vajrayāna. Some of the sects of the Mahāyāna include the various schools and traditions within [[Zen|Chan/Zen]] and [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], two of the major forms of present-day Mahāyāna. Another way to look at the variation within the Mahāyāna is from the perspective of local cultural interpretations, viz. [[Buddhism in China|Chinese Buddhism]], [[Korean Buddhism]], [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]], and [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Vietnamese Buddhism]]. Mahāyāna Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative and which practices are best suited for the current times, although a number of major Mahayana sutras purporting to issue from the Buddha himself (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) are themselves in no doubt that they are to be regarded as of utmost importance and highest Buddhic authority. Mention has already been made of the "prajna-paramita" doctrine. Another highly important, and complementary, teaching within Mahāyāna Buddhism is the concept of [[Buddha-nature]] (Sanskrit:'''Buddhadhātu''', the essential Buddha Principle existing within and without all sentient beings). In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Buddha, transcending his mere physical form, is viewed as a boundless, beginningless and endless being, present in all times and all places, yet beyond the reach of logic or mundane conceptualisation. He is regarded as the very embodiment of ungraspable and eternal yet realisable Dharma - ultimate Truth or Awakened Mind ('''[[bodhi]]'''). In essence, all perfect Buddhas are seen by Mahāyāna Buddhism as one in nature - all are salvational channels or vessels of Dharma (cosmic Truth). They are the very [[Dharmakaya]] (body/mind of ultimate Reality). The doctrines of the Buddha in certain Mahāyāna sutras purport to provide a set of final, definitive and ultimate ('''nītārtha''') teachings – doctrines indicated by the Buddha not to be provisional in nature, but stated to be of the highest Truth ( a claim rejected, however, by the Theravādins) – on the immanence of a hidden, deep-seated reality within all sentient beings which is linked to the eternality of the Buddha and Nirvāna. This immanent yet transcendent essence is variously called, in the key sutras which expound it, the ''buddhadhātu'' or the '''[[Tathagatagarbha|Tathāgatagarbha]]''' (Sanskrit: "Tathagata Matrix"). This ''buddhadhātu'' is empty of all that is un-knowing, changeful, painful, impermanent and impure. In the [[Nirvana Sutra|Nirvāṇasūtra]], the Buddha calls the ''buddhadhātu'' the "True Self" to distinguish it from the "false" worldly self. It is no less than the uncreated, uncompounded, immaculate, immortal, all-knowing, radiantly shining Principle of blissful Buddhahood: the very [[Dharmakaya|Dharmakāya]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 法身). This ''buddhadhātu'', inherent in all beings, can never be destroyed or harmed, and yet is concealed from view by a mass of obscuring mental and moral taints within the mind-stream of the individual being. Once the ''buddhadhātu'' is finally seen and known by the faithful Buddhist practitioner, it has the power to transform that practitioner into a Buddha. The doctrine of the ''buddhadhātu'' or ''tathāgatagarbha'' is stated by the Buddha of the [[Nirvāna Sūtra]] to be the "absolutely final culmination" of his Mahāyāna Dharma, and scoffing denial of its reality is presented by this and other Tathagatagarbha sutras as potentially unleashing very negative karmic consequences upon those who deny it or disparage it. By contrast, faith in the Tathagatagarbha's reality and a vigorous striving to perceive its inner presence is hailed as of the highest spiritual and soteriological value. ===Vajrayāna=== [[Image:Young_monks_of_Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|274px|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]] {{main|Vajrayana}} The '''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]''' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayāna Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[Shingon Buddhism]]. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]]. Native Vajrayāna is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], [[Siberia]], areas of India, and – in the [[Shingon]] (''Zhènyān'', 真言) and [[Tendai]] schools – in China and Japan. ===Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview=== {{main|History of Buddhist schools}} In his lifetime, Gautama Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Commentators explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]]) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable." (''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111-112). Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]]. Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment to [[intellectualism]], Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. == Buddhist texts == [[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]] {{main|Buddhist texts}} Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the '''[[Tripitaka]]''' and in [[Pāli]] as the '''Tipitaka'''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are: *The '''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Piṭaka]]''', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Saṅghas]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. *The '''[[Sutta Pitaka|Sūtra Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: Sutta Piṭaka), contains the actual discourses of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. *The '''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: ''Abhidhamma Piṭaka'') contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings. Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – [[sutra|sūtras]] (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripiṭaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects. The [[Theravada|Theravāda]] and other [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya schools]] believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the [[naga (mythology)|nāgas]]), or came directly from other [[Buddha]]s or [[bodhisattva]]s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli suttas, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the [[agama (text)|āgamas]]. Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the āgamas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the agamas represent the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma - and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada. For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism - from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for '''all''' future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "'''Great''' Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "'''Great''' Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true". Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture. [[Dwight Goddard]] collected what he felt was a representative sample of Buddhist scriptures- along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the [[Tao Te Ching]]- into his [[Buddhist Bible]] in the 1920's. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ “The Buddha and His Dhamma”]. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions. == Present state of Buddhism == {{sectstub}} [[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]] Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 million and 500 million, with 350 million being the most commonly cited figure. [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] *[[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[India]]. *[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West. *[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding area of [[India]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], [[China]], and the Russian Federation. [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]] and the Russian Federation are the first European countries to recognize Buddhism as an official religion. *The [[Indian Buddhist Movement]] is a revival of Buddhism in India. This movement was initiated by [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in 1956 with a mass conversion ceremony of [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s. Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular Buddhist school of thought. At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see [[Buddhism in the West]]) See also [[Buddhism by country]] == Buddhist Culture and Art == {{main|Buddhist culture and art}} == Comparative Study == {{sectstub}} Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history. '''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies''' *[[Buddhadharma and other Indian Dharmas]] (Buddhism and other dharma-related brief) *[[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching) *[[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism and monotheism) *[[Buddhist-Christian Parallels]] *[[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy) *[[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics) *[[Buddhism and science]] (Buddhism and science) *[[Buddhism and Schism]] [http://nt.med.ncku.edu.tw/biochem/lsn/AccessToInsight/html/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/ch21.html] ==See also== {{portal}} *[[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]] *[[Buddhist terms and concepts]] *[[List of Buddhist topics]] *[[List of Buddhists]] ==References== *{{cite book | author=Gail Omvedt (ed.) | title=Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste | publisher=Sage Publications | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-7829-128-2}} *{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}} *[[Thom Brooks]], 'Better Luck Next Time: A comparative analysis of Socrates and Mahayana Buddhism on reincarnation', ''Journal of Indian Philosophy and Religion'' 10 (2005): 1-25. *{{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What Buddhists Believe|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 9834007127. *{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0192892231}} *{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0861713214}} Also available on-line: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php] *{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1903296919}} *{{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0767903692. *{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0271006013}} *{{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0802130313. *{{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0773459855. *{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}} *{{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0861711335. *{{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 8120821440}} ==Notes== <!--<nowiki> See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below </nowiki>--> {{FootnotesSmall|resize=100%}} # {{note|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}} Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy]: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings''. Published on the Web. # {{note|ChNN_Dream_Yoga_book}} Chögyal Namkhai Norbu ''Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light''. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42 # {{note|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}} Dr. A. Berzin. ''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/tantra/alaya_impure_02.html Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making]'' # {{note|Elas_Capriles_book1}} Elías Capriles. ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/buddhismanddzogchen1.zip Buddhism and Dzogchen]: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook''. Published on the Web. # {{note|Sangha_TripleJewel}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu. ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha]''. Third edition, revised, 2001 ==External links== {{cleanup-spam}} <!--buddhachat, not notable and is advertising; hongakujodo, advertising a single sect, advertising; meditate london, intro to buddhism not needed, they are practically the same; other two are not about buddhism but about sutras.--> *[http://www.ambedkar.org/buddhism/BAHD/45A.Buddha%20and%20His%20Dhamma%20PART%20I.htm '''The Buddha and His Dhamma''' A single, comprehensive document of Buddhist principles by Dr B R Ambedkar, 1956] *[http://www.deerparkgathering.org/introduction.html Introduction to Buddhism ] *[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal] *[http://www.dalailama.com/page.5.htm His Holiness The Dalai Lama teachings on Buddhism] *[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/index.html Access to Insight] Readings in Theravada Buddhism. *[http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet] *[http://buddhism.about.com/ Buddhism.about.com] *[http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk "Nirvana Sutra Buddhism": full text and discussion of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra] *[http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Buddhism: English translations of five major Tathagatagarbha sutras] *[http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide. *[http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet] *[http://www.world-religion.org/buddhism.php Encyclopedia of Religion Buddhism article] *[http://www.buddhaweb.org/ Essentials of Buddhism] *[http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles. [[Category:Buddhism|*]] [[Category:Eastern culture]] [[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]] [[Category:Buddhism in India]] [[Category:Religion in India]] {{Link FA|ar}} {{Link FA|vi}} {{Link FA|zh}} [[af:Boeddhisme]] [[als:Buddhismus]] [[ar:بوذية]] [[bn:বৌদ্ধধর্ম]] [[zh-min-nan:Hu̍t-kàu]] [[br:Boudaegezh]] [[bg:Будизъм]] [[ca:Budisme]] [[cs:Buddhismus]] [[da:Buddhisme]] [[de:Buddhismus]] [[et:Budism]] [[el:Βουδισμός]] [[es:Budismo]] [[eo:Budhismo]] [[eu:Budismo]] [[fa:بوداگرایی]] [[fr:Bouddhisme]] [[ko:불교]] [[hi:बौद्ध धर्म]] [[hr:Budizam]] [[io:Budismo]] [[ilo:Budhismo]] [[ia:Buddhismo]] [[is:Búddismi]] [[it:Buddhismo]] [[he:בודהיזם]] [[jv:Buddha]] [[kw:Bouddhisteth]] [[lo:ພຸດທະສາດສະໜາ]] [[la:Religio Buddhistica]] [[lv:Budisms]] [[lt:Budizmas]] [[li:Boeddhisme]] [[jbo:bu'ojda]] [[hu:Buddhizmus]] [[mt:Buddiżmu]] [[ms:Agama Buddha]] [[mn:Буддизм]] [[nl:Boeddhisme]] [[ja:仏教]] [[no:Buddhisme]] [[nn:Buddhismen]] [[ug:بذددا دعنع]] [[nds:Buddhismus]] [[pl:Buddyzm]] [[pt:Budismo]] [[ro:Budism]] [[ru:Буддизм]] [[sco:Buddhism]] [[simple:Buddhism]] [[sk:Budhizmus]] [[sl:Budizem]] [[sr:Будизам]] [[fi:Buddhalaisuus]] [[sv:Buddhism]] [[tl:Budismo]] [[ta:பௌத்தம்]] [[th:พระพุทธศาสนา]] [[vi:Phật giáo]] [[tpi:Budisim]] [[tr:Budizm]] [[uk:Буддизм]] [[yi:בודהיזם]] [[zh:佛教]] 3598 2006-12-27T18:01:28Z Eukesh 59 /* External links */ '''बुद्ध धम्म''' एकस्य [[धम्म]], व्यवहारिक [[दर्शन]] व [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]] अस्तु। बुद्ध धम्म शाक्यमुनि [[गौतम बुद्ध]]स्य उपदेशे आधारित भवतु। Buddhism spread throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the [[Timeline of Buddhism#Before Common Era|five centuries]] following the Buddha's passing, and propagated into [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], and [[East Asia]] over the next [[Timeline of Buddhism#Common Era|two millennia]]. Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into three traditions: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] (Sanskrit: Sthaviravāda), [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and, with approximately [[Buddhism by country|379 million adherents]], it is considered a [[major world religions|major world religion]]. Buddhism is the [[Major religious groups|fifth-largest]] religion in the world behind [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and traditional Chinese religion, respectively. <ref>Garfinkel, Perry. "Buddha Rising." National Geographic Dec. 2005: 88-109.</ref> When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddha]] is generally considered to be a [[person]] who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]] through years of spiritual cultivation, [[investigation]] of the various religious practices of his time, and [[meditation]]. This transformational discovery is called [[bodhi]] - literally, "Awakening" (more commonly called "Enlightenment"). Any person who has become [[awakened]] from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality is called a Buddha. Śākyamuni is said to have been only the latest of many of these; there were other Buddhas before him and there will be others in the future. According to the Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words "[[Dharma]]" and putting them into practice, by leading a [[virtuous]], [[moral]] life, and purifying his [[mind]]. Concisely put, the aim of Buddhist practice is to put an end to this mass of [[suffering]] we call existence. "I teach one thing and one thing only: suffering and the end of suffering" (The Buddha). To achieve this state ([[Nirvana]]), adherents train and purify the mind by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and the [[Middle Way]], eventually arriving at an understanding of the true nature of all things, thus ending ([[nirodha]]) all ignorance and unhappiness and attaining [[liberation]]: [[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]] (Pāli nibbāna). == गौतम बुद्ध== [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|left|A stone image of the Buddha.]] {{main|Gautama Buddha}} बौद्ध सम्पदाय अनुसारस्य, गौतम बुद्धस्य जन्मस्थान '''[[कपिलवत्थु]]''' भवतु। गौतम बुद्ध [[महाजनपद]]स्य [[शाक्य]] कुलेषु राजकुमार। Lumbinī and the Śākya realm were known to have been in the north, adjacent to the kingdom of [[Kosala|Kośala]] and the republic of the [[Koliya]]s along the [[Ganges]], separated from Koliya by the river {{unicode|Rohiṇī}}. The exact location of Lumbinī is fixed in what is now south central [[Nepal]] by a [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillar]] inscription of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] from the 3rd century BCE commemorating the Buddha's birth. Siddhārtha's father was [[Suddhodana|Śuddhodana]] (Pāli: Suddhodana), then the chieftain (rājā) of the Śākyas. He was the ruler of the [[Kapilavastu]] in what is modern day [[Nepal]]. Traditions state that the Buddha's mother died at his birth or a few days later. The [[legend]] says that the seer Asita predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, his father tried to make sure that Siddhārtha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as such dissatisfaction might lead him to follow a spiritual path. As a result, under strict instruction of his father, Siddhārtha was never exposed to suffering or pain and was carefully kept away from sad, sick or dying people. He was raised in a very opulent environment. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These four sights led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privileges, rank, [[caste]], and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problems of birth, old age, pain, sickness, and death. Siddhārtha pursued the path of the [[shramana|{{unicode|śramaṇa}}]] and [[meditation]] with two hermits, and, although he quickly achieved high levels of meditative consciousness ([[dhyana|dhyāna]], Pāli jhāna), he was still not satisfied with the results. Siddhārtha then began his training in the [[ascetic]] life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Siddhārtha proved quite adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind established teachers, he and a small group of close companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death without any profit, Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. He then remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing; he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which he felt a blissful and refreshing feeling and time seemed to stand still. [[Image:TrilogyDetail.JPG|thumb|251px|The [[Buddha]] venerated by [[Indra]] and [[Brahma (Buddhism)|Brahmā]], [[Kanishka casket|Kaniṣka casket]], dated to 127 CE, [[British Museum]].]] After discarding [[asceticism]] and concentrating on [[meditation]], Siddhārtha discovered what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]] – a path of moderation away from the extremes of [[hedonism|self-indulgence]] and [[asceticism|self-mortification]]. To strengthen his body, he accepted a little buttermilk from a passing village girl named [[Sujata]]. Then, sitting under a [[pipal]] tree, now known as the [[Bodhi tree]], he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] and became a [[Buddha]]. He preached his first sermon<ref name="FNTeng">{{ cite book |publisher=Wisdom Publications |pages=1843-1847 |author=Bhikkhu Bodhi |Title="The Collected Discourses of the Buddha: A new translation of the Samyutta Nikaya" |year=2000 |location=Somerville }}</ref> in [[Sarnath]] a place very near [[Varanasi|{{unicode|Vārāṇasī}}]] (Benares) in North India. For the remaining 45 years of his life, Buddha Gautama traveled in the [[Gangetic Plain]] of northeastern India, teaching his doctrine and discipline to all – from nobles and priests to commoners and outcaste street sweepers. He also taught the adherents of many different schools and teachers. The Buddha founded the two [[sangha|{{unicode|saṅghas}}]] (monastic communities) of monks and of nuns, which continued to expound his teaching after his death, traditionally set at age 80. Apparently he died in the town of Kushinagara from a meal of bad mushrooms or pork. His body was cremated and the ashes, and perhaps other sacred relics allegedly taken from it, were given to various temples or buried in [[stupa]]s. These have since become important pilgrimage sites. A tree said to be grown from a cutting of the tree where he received enlightenment is in [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]]. ==धम्म== [[Image:A_Buddhist_Korean_Temple.png|thumb|right|A Buddhist temple in Korea.]] Numerous distinct groups have developed since the passing of Gautama Buddha, with diverse teachings that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture. However, there are certain doctrines which are common to the majority of schools and traditions in Buddhism. === Dependent Origination === {{main|Pratitya-samutpada}} The enlightenment ([[Bodhi]]) of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] was his liberation from suffering and his insight into [[Reality in Buddhism|the nature of reality]]. The widely accepted doctrine of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] states that any phenomenon ‘exists’ only because of the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in a complex web of cause and effect. For sentient beings, this amounts to a never-ending cycle of [[Rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]] ('''[[Samsara (Buddhism)|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''') according to the law of '''[[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]''' (Pāli: '''kamma''') and '''[[vipaka|vipāka]]'''. Because all things are thus conditioned and transient ('''[[Impermanence|anitya]]''', Pāli '''anicca'''), they have no real, independent identity ('''[[Anatta|anātman]]''', Pāli '''anatta''') and so do not truly ‘exist’, although to untrained minds they do appear to exist. All phenomena are thus fundamentally insubstantial and empty ('''[[sunyata|śūnya]]''''). Wise human beings, who possess "insight into the knowledge of how things are" ('''{{unicode|yathā-bhūta-ñāṇa-dassana}}''', Sanskrit '''{{unicode|yathābhūtajñanadarśana}}'''), renounce [[upadana|attachment and clinging]] which cause suffering ('''[[dukkha|{{unicode|duḥkha}}]]''', Pāli '''dukkha'''), transform the energy of desire into awareness and understanding, and eventually attain '''[[Nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]'''. ===The Four Noble Truths=== {{main|The Four Noble Truths}} The Buddha taught that life was inherently suffering, that it is caused by [[tanha|craving]], but that this condition was curable by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] (Sanskrit: '''{{unicode|Āryo 'ṣṭāṅgo Mārgaḥ }}''', Pāli: '''{{unicode|Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo}}'''). This teaching is called the '''Catvāry Āryasatyāni''' (Pali: '''{{unicode|Cattāri Ariyasaccāni}}'''), the "[[Four Noble Truths]]". # '''[[Dukkha|Suffering]]:''' Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering. # '''The cause of suffering:''' The [[tanha|craving]] which leads to [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|renewed existence]] (rebirth). # '''The cessation of suffering:''' The cessation of [[tanha|craving]]. # '''The way leading to the cessation of suffering:''' The [[Noble Eightfold Path]]; The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment<ref name="FNTeng" />, which was given to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by Buddha, not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the form of a common medical prescription of the time. Buddha also said that followers should use his teachings only if they help. He compared worrying about things such as an afterlife while suffering with a person who has been shot with an arrow to worrying about who made the arrow, rather than removing it. As such, there is a strong case for the Buddha's teachings being intended as psychological tools, to ease mental distress, rather than as esoteric teachings for the strongly religious. To attest to this, Buddhist meditation, in particular, is now being scientifically studied in the West, both in laboratory tests, and in real-world, hands-on psychiatry. Many long-term practicing Buddhists, for instance, have been shown to have physically different brain structure, in areas associated with profound joy or spiritual happiness{{Citation needed}}. Likewise, the beginning fusion of Buddhism and psychology can be seen clearly, in publications by psychiatrists and psychotherapists, such as [[Mark Epstein]]'s book, [[Thoughts Without a Thinker]]. ===The Noble Eightfold Path=== {{main|Noble Eightfold Path}} {| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px style="float:right; background-color: transparent; border:1px dotted #000000; margin:2px" width="200" | |According to [[Buddha]] [[Shakyamuni]], if a person does not follow the goal of [[Total Realization]], one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.<ref>The Crystal and the Way of Light. Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu; compiled and ed. by John Shane, 2000, p. 164</ref> |- |} The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain path be followed which consists of: #Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths '''{{unicode|(samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)}}''' #Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation '''{{unicode|(samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)}}''' #Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way '''{{unicode|(samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)}}''' #Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would hurt others '''{{unicode|(samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)}}''' #Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (weapon maker, drug dealer, etc.) '''{{unicode|(samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}}}''' #Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve '''{{unicode|(samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)}}''' #Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness '''{{unicode|(samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)}}''' #Right Concentration - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared '''{{unicode|(samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)}}''' The word '''samyak''' means "turned to one point or against each other, universus or adversus; whole, entire, all; correct, right, true." [http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/] There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorise the Eightfold Path into '''[[Prajna|prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''', wisdom), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli '''sīla''', virtuous behaviour) and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' (concentration). === Bodhi === {{main|Bodhi}} '''Bodhi''' ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]]. Lit. ''awakening'') is a title given in Buddhism to the specific awakening experience attained by [[Buddha]]. Bodhi is most commonly translated into English as ''enlightenment'', however, a more accurate translation is ''awakening'' or ''understanding''. After attainment of Bodhi, it is believed one is freed from the cycle of '''[[Samsara|{{unicode|saṃsāra}}]]''': birth, suffering, death and rebirth. Bodhi is attained only by the accomplishment of the [[Paramita|pāramitā]]s (perfections), when the [[Four Noble Truths]] are fully grasped, and when all [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]] has reached cessation. At this moment, all greed ('''lobha'''), hatred ('''{{unicode|doṣa}}''', Pāli '''dosa'''), delusion ('''moha'''), ignorance ('''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidyā]]''', Pāli '''avijjā''')), craving ('''[[Tanha|{{unicode|tṛṣṇā}}]]''', Pāli '''{{unicode|taṇhā}}''') and false belief in self ('''[[Atman (Buddhism)|ātman]]''', Pāli '''attā''') are extinguished. Bodhi thus includes '''[[anatta|anātman]]''' (Pāli '''anatta'''), the absence of ego-centeredness. All schools of Buddhism recognise [[Three types of Buddha|three types of Bodhi]]. They are [[Shravakabuddha|Śrāvakabodhi]] (Pāli: Sāvakabodhi), [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyekabodhi]] (Pāli: Paccekabodhi) and Samyaksambodhi (Pāli: Sammāsambodhi), the perfect enlightenment by which a [[Bodhisattva]] becomes a fully enlightened [[Buddha]]. The aspiration to attain the state of samyaksambodhi, known as the Bodhisattva ideal, is considered as the highest ideal of Buddhism. <!--the nature of different bodhis is disputed among different Buddhist schools so please be careful.--> === Karma === {{main|Karma in Buddhism}} In a discourse (A.N. VI.63 Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said : :“Intention, monks, is karma I say. Having willed, one acts through body, speech and mind”. According to the Buddha the moral order rests on each individual and not on any divine being: :"Owners of their own Karma, O young man, are living beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they spring, having Karma as their refuge. Karma marks of living being, making them become depraved and excellent." (kammassakaa maa.nava sattaa, kammadaayadaa, kammayoni, kammabandhu kammapa.tisara.naa kamma.m satte vibhajati yadida.m hinappa.nitataaya. ''Cuulakammavibhaagasutta''.) In Buddhism, Karma has a specific meaning quite different from other teachings. Karma means action derived from mental intent or volition and its result ( [[Vipaka]]) or its effect upon the doer of that volitional deed (be that deed one of thought, word or physical action). == Middle Way == The primarily guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the [[Middle Way]] which was discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment ('''[[bodhi]]'''). The ''Middle Way'' or ''Middle Path'' is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification. It is also another name for the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], which is often divided into '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli: '''paññā''', "wisdom"), '''[[Sila|śīla]]''' (Pāli: '''sīla''', "morality") and '''[[Samadhi|samādhi]]''' ("meditative mind"). === Refuge in The Three Jewels === [[Image:Buddha-Footprint.jpeg|thumb|170px|Footprint of [[Buddha]] with [[Dharmacakra]] and [[Three Jewels|triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]].]] {{main|Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels}} Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in The Noble Eightfold Path requires taking [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]], as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's [[Three Jewels]] (also called Three Treasures, Triple Gem, '''Triratna''' or '''Ratna-traya''' ([[Sanskrit]]), '''Tiratana''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]), 三宝, ''Sānbǎo'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]), ''Sanbō'' or ''Sanpō'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]), 삼보, ''Sambo'' ([[Korean language|Korean]]). The '''Three Jewels''' are: * The '''[[Buddha]]''': The ''Awakened One''. This is a title for those who attained enlightenment similar to Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the [[Tathagata|Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]]. * The '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]''': The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). * The '''[[Sangha|{{IAST|Sangha}}]]''': This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna ([[pali]]) - one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). [[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]] presented himself as a model and beseeched his followers to have faith ('''[[Saddha|śraddhā]]''', Pāli '''saddhā''') in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], that is, the teaching of Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The [[Sangha|{{unicode|Saṅgha}}]], in this sense meaning the group of Buddhists possessing at least some degree of enlightenment, provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. As Buddhism migrated to the West, a new usage of the word has emerged: the usage of the word "sangha" to describe a meditation group or any sort of spiritual community.{{fact}} Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]], also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wipe out great swathes of negative karma. === Prajñā (Wisdom) === {{main|Prajñā|Paramita}} '''Prajñā''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''paññā''' ([[Pāli]]) means wisdom that is based on a realization of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]], [[The Four Noble Truths]] and [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about [[bodhi]]. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]], through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six [[Paramita|pāramitās]]. Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Gautama Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon, many attaining bodhi upon hearing Buddha's discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight ('''[[Vipassana|vipassanā]]''', [[Sanskrit]] '''vipaśyanā''') meditation to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain bodhi at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation. === Śīla (Virtuous Behaviour)=== {{main|Sila|Karma in Buddhism|Paramita}} '''[[Sila|Śīla]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]) or '''sīla''' ([[Pāli]]) is usually rendered into English as "behavioral discipline", "morality", or ethics. It is often translated as "precept". It is an action that is an intentional effort. It is one of the ''three practices'' and the second [[Paramita|pāramitā]]: moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of '''śīla''' are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions. In Buddhism, the 'Law of [[Karma in Buddhism|karma]]' is used as an ethical principle, rather than a cosmological explanation for the world. Buddhism distinguishes {{unicode|saṃsāric}} happiness (birth in the high realms), from the final state of enlightenment: [[nirvana|{{unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]; so likewise there is saṃsāric good karma, which leads to the high realms (such as the human realm), and then there is liberating karma - which is supremely good. Therefore the major dichotomy is ''{{unicode|saṃsāric karma}}'' and ''liberating karma'', of which the former is typically divided into the three: good, neutral, and bad (in accordance with the degree of samsaric happiness or suffering that will mature as a consequence). Likewise, liberating karma is divided into three, as there are [[three types of Buddha]] into which it may mature. It is important to distinguish between śīla (moral) and [[Vinaya]] (monastic code). Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behaviour while vinaya is a collection of monastic code. For this reason, vinaya is applicable to monks and nuns while śīla is applicable to all Buddhists, both laypeople and [[Sangha|saṅgha]] members. Lay Buddhists generally undertake at least one of the five precepts ('''[[pancasila|pañcaśīla]]''') which are common to all Buddhist schools. The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one can meditate well. # To refrain from taking life. # To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing). # To refrain from sensual misconduct (improper sexual behavior, gluttony etc.) # To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat). # To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness. The content of vinaya differs slightly according to different scriptures. And different schools set different standards for the degree of adherence to vinaya. Serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts. In Vinaya, some of the five precepts are strengthened for monks. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy. In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged ([[vegetarianism in Buddhism]]). === Bhāvana (Meditative Cultivation) === {{main|Samadhi|Vipassana|Buddhist meditation}} In the language of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], '''samyaksamādhi''' is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating '''samādhi''' is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. [[Samatha meditation|'''samatha''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''śamatha''') and [[vipassana|'''vipassanā''' meditation]] (Sanskrit: '''vipaśyanā'''). Upon development of '''samādhi''', one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration ('''[[Dhyana|jhāna]]''', Sanskrit '''dhyāna'''), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight ([[vipassana|vipassanā]]) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of [[mindfulness]] is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight. [[Samatha Meditation]] starts from being mindful to an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana. In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to '''[[jnana|jñāna]]''' (Pāli '''ñāṇa''' knowledge) '''[[vijnana|vijñāna]]''' (Pāli '''viññāṇa''' awareness), '''[[prajñā]]''' (Pāli '''paññā''' pure understanding) and thus can lead to '''[[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]''' (Pāli '''nibbāna'''). == Buddhism after the Buddha == {{main|History of Buddhism|Buddhist councils}} During his lifetime, Buddha specifically refused to answer certain questions known as [[avyakata|avyākṛta]] (Pāli: avyākata, "unexplained"). These are (1) Whether the world is eternal or not; (2) Whether the world is infinite or not; (3) Whether the body and the self are one and the same or not; (4) Whether the [[Tathagata|tathāgata]] exists after death, or not, or both does and does not, or neither does nor does not. In the ''Culla-Māluṅkyovāda-sutta'', the Buddha, using an analogy of being shot by a poisoned arrow and asking about its origin and construction, indicated to Māluṅkyāputta that such speculative questions are ultimately unprofitable. [http://buddhism.about.com/od/keyconcepts/a/Noteach.htm] In another occasion, the Buddha, without giving specific elaboration, stated that minor [[Vinaya]] rules can be amended by the [[Sangha|Saṅgha]]. He further diverged from ancient Brahmin tradition by allowing monks and nuns not just to preach in the language of the area they happened to be in, but to recite the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] in the local language as well. Soon after the [[Parinirvana|parinirvāṇa]] (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission. In the first council, [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant was called upon to recite the discourses ([[Sutra|'''sūtra'''s]], Pāli '''sutta'''s) of the Buddha. [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). === Early Buddhism === {{main|The Second Buddhist Council|Early Buddhist schools}} {{unicode|As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century disputes arose upon subtle points of discipline, e.g., the right to carry salt in a container. A second council (traditionally 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points at dispute. The result was not a resolution but a schism ('''saṅghabheda'''): on the one side the '''[[Sthaviravada|Sthaviras]]''', or "Elders", whose name implies an elite group, and on the other side the '''[[Mahasanghika|Mahāsāṅghikas]]''', the party "of the Great Saṅgha", implying a majority position. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions; the Sthaviras claimed that the Mahāsāṅghikas were trying to dilute the Vinaya by ignoring certain rules; the Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to ''expand'' the Vinaya by illegitimately introducing new rules not sanctioned by the Buddha; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[Arhat]]ship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.<ref>Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. ''Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism'' in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237-272</ref> The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school.}} This split occurred wholly ''within'' the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school. It was also solely concerned with questions of discipline, and foreshadowed the later splintering of both the Sthavira and {{unicode|Mahāsāṅghika Saṅghas}} into as many as thirty different "schools". Each "school" was characterized by a slightly different Vinaya; doctrinal differences among these schools only developed subsequent to the arising of differences in discipline. {{unicode|The Sthavira-Mahāsāṅghika split has, therefore, nothing at all to do with the contrasts, posited by scholars, between "Northern and Southern Buddhism", or between "Mahāyāna and Theravāda", or even the traditional Mahāyāna contrast between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. Other than as an adumbration of schisms within the Saṅgha in general, it has no relevance for present-day Buddhism. Of the approximately thirty Vinayas that existed in the ancient and medieval Saṅgha, three have survived to the present day: the Vibhajyavāda Vinaya, used by the [[Theravada|Theravādins]]; the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna Buddhists in China, Vietnam, and Korea (Vinaya is not generally observed in Japan); and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, used by Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhists in Tibet. All three of these Vinayas descend directly from the Sthavira Vinaya, not from the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya, which although partially extant, is not actually followed by any living [[Bhikkhu|bhikṣus]].}} {{unicode|Following the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an [[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma]], a collection of philosophical commentaries on the discourse of the Buddha. It is not known whether such commentaries existed from the time of the Buddha. However, as Buddhism spread and came in contact with different religious orders, it became increasingly necessary to engage and debate the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] and formalize the teachings of the Buddha in a more systematic manner. As each sect developed different collections of Abhidharma, what began as disciplinary differences between the Saṅghas evolved into doctrinal differences as well. These sects of Buddhism are referred to as Nikāya (section) in the modern Theravāda tradition and Hīnayāna (lesser vehicle) sects in the Mahāyāna tradition. Some modern academics also refer it as Abhidhamma Buddhism.}} [[Image: AshokaMap2.gif|thumb|250px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]] (260&ndash;218 BCE).]] Buddhism spread slowly in India until the time of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka|Aśoka the Great]], who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of Buddhist religious memorials ([[stupa|stūpas]]) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the [[Edicts of Ashoka|edicts of Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma". particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring [[Seleucid Empire]], and possibly even farther to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, centuries later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]s, and to the development of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]]. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. === Establishment of Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Tradition) === {{main|Theravada}} {{unicode|In addition to the [[Edicts of Asoka|Edicts of Aśoka]], Buddhist annals compiled at a later date offer a history of the Aśokan and post-Aśokan period. Among these annals are the [[Dipavamsa|Dīpavaṃsa]], the [[Mahavamsa|Mahāvaṃsa]], and the [[Samantapasadika|Samantapāsādika]] of the south Indian [[Vibhajjavada|Vibhajjavāda]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Vibhajyavāda) saṅgha, beside the [[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]] and the [[Avadanasataka|Avadānaśataka]] from the northern [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] ([[Pāli]]: Sabbatthivāda) saṅgha. According to the accounts of the Vibhajjavāda, [[Ashoka|Aśoka]] convened a third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE), whose purpose was to produce a definitive text of the Buddha's words. The result, according to the Vibhajjavādins, was the compilation of the version of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] (Pāli: Tipiṭaka) found in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]].}} The council also saw the formation of the {{unicode|saṅgha}} of the Vibhajjavāda ("school of analytical discourse") out of various schools of the [[Sthaviravada|Sthaviravāda]] lineage. Vibhajjavādins claim that the first step to insight has to be achieved by the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. The Theravāda school claims that the Sarvāstivada and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] schools were rejected by the council, although according to other sources the Dharmaguptaka school is classified as one of the Vibhajyavādin schools. However, these schools became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia and, since their teaching is found among the scriptures preserved by the Mahāyāna schools, they may have had some formative influence on the Mahāyāna. The Sarvāstivadins have not preserved an independent tradition about the Third Council. It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the [[Pāli]] language is equivalent to Māgadhī, the eastern dialect of the kingdom of [[Magadha]] spoken by the Buddha. However, linguistic comparisons of the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Aśoka]] and the language of the Pāli canon show strong differences between the Māgadhī of the Edicts (characterized by such changes as r → l, masculine nominative singular of a-stems in -e, etc.) and Pāli. The greatest similarity to Pāli is found in a dialectal variant of the Edicts written on a rock near [[Girnar]] in Gujarat. According to Theravāda accounts, the Vibhajjavāda version of [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] was introduced to [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Mahinda]] (Sanskrit: Mahendra), one of the sons of [[Ashoka|Aśoka]]. === Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism (Northern Tradition) === [[Image: MahayanaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Expansion of [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.]] {{main|Mahayana}} {{unicode|The precise geographical origins of [[Mahāyāna]] are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahāyāna developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇa Empire]] (within present-day [[Pakistan]]), and in areas within the [[Shatavahana]] Empire, including [[Amaravatī]] to the south-east (in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]), to the west around the port of [[Bharukaccha]] (present-day [[Bharuch]], a town near [[Bombay]]), and around the various cave complexes, such as [[Ajantā]] and [[Karli]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]). On one side, Mahāyāna was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around [[stupa|stūpa]] devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stūpa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses.<ref>This concept, promoted by Hirakawa Akira, has been disputed by other scholars such as Gregory Schopen.</ref> The Saṅgha, at the same time, became increasingly fragmented both in terms of [[Abhidharma]] and [[Vinaya]] practice. This led to a widening distance between the laity and Saṅgha. The Mahāyāna movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a wide range of influence from [[Early Buddhist schools|various sects]]. Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Saṅgha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school (which had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravāda tradition) and the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school, both of which were widespread in the Kuṣāṇa Empire, seem to have had major influence. Moreover, those who believe that Mahāyāna sūtras were composed during this period speculate that the process of reshuffling of sūtras according to various Abhidharma eventually led to editing which made the composition of new Mahāyāna sūtras possible.}} Around 100 CE, the {{unicode|Kuṣāṇa emperor [[Kanishka|Kaniṣka]]}} convened the fourth Buddhist council and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This council is not recognised by Theravāda line of Buddhism. This council did not simply rely on the original [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] in the third council. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the [[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Sūtra]], an early version of the [[Heart Sutra|Heart Sūtra]] and the [[Amitabha Sutra|Amitābha Sūtra]] were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for the masses (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattva who embody transcendent [[Buddha-nature]] who strive to achieve such goal. The new scriptures were written in [[Sanskrit]]. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahāyāna would flourish and spread in the East from India to [[Southeast Asia]], and towards the north to [[Central Asia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], and finally to [[Japan]] in 538 CE. === Emergence of the Vajrayāna === [[Image:Wheel life 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Wheel of Life, [[Bhutan]]. In the Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism scriptural language of [[Sanskrit]], the Wheel of Life is called [[Bhavacakra]].]] {{main|Vajrayana}} Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] (c.150 - 250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. From studying his writings, it is clear that Nāgārjuna was conversant with both the [[Early Buddhist schools|Nikāya (Hīnayāna)]] philosophies and the emerging Mahāyāna tradition. He made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]] sūtras. Completely repudiating the then-dominant [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] school, which argued for the existence of '''[[Dharma (Buddhism)#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]''' (factors of existence) in past, present, and future, Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be [[shunyata|śūnya]] (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] (no-self) and [[pratitya-samutpada|pratītyasamutpāda]] (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the [[Madhyamaka]]. After the end of the [[Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇas]], Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the [[Gupta]]s (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the [[Nalanda University|Nālandā University]] in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna was reformulated by scholars such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga|Asaṅga]] and were incorporated into the [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]] (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology. There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its [[tantra|tantric practice]] started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be [[Tibetan Buddhism]] (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th-12th century) Nālandā tradition. === Decline of Buddhism in India and Central Asia === {{see also|Decline of Buddhism in India}} Buddhism was established in the northern regions of India and [[Central Asia]], and kingdoms with Buddhist rulers such as [[Menander I]] and [[Kanishka|Kaniska]]. Under the rule of tolerant or even sympathetic [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] and Iranian [[Achaemenid]] kings, Buddhism flourished. The rulers of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushāna Empire]] adopted Buddhism, and it continued to thrive in the region under the rule of the [[Shahi|Turk-Shāhīs]]. Buddhists were briefly persecuted under the [[Zoroastrian]] priest-king Kirder who saw the syncretism resulting from the Buddhist influence that led to the rise of a Buddha-Mazda divinity as a heresy.<ref> Alexander Berzin, ''Berzin Archives, Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan, November 2001.''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/islam/history_afghanistan_buddhism.html] </ref> The [[Hinayana]] traditions first spread among the [[Turkic people|Turkic]] tribes before combining with the [[Mahayana]] forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. to cover modern-day [[Pakistan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern and coastal [[Iran]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. These were the ancient states of [[Gandhara]], [[Bactria]], [[Parthia]] and [[Sogdia]] from where it spread to [[China]]. Among the first of these Turkic tribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-[[Shahi]] who adopted Buddhism as early as the 3rd century BC. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. There were also [[Zoroastrian]]s, [[Hindu]]s, [[Nestorian]] Christians, [[Jews]], [[Manichaeans]], and followers of [[shamanism]], [[Tengrism]], and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief. From the 4th Century CE on, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] dynasties had achieved preeminence elsewhere in India. Even in regions of Buddhist predominance, such as the northwest ([[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]) and the lower Gangetic plain ([[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bengal]]), the Indian caste system and other characteristics of Hinduism were found. In political contests between Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms, Buddhist rulers were gradually replaced by Hindu ones. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even though it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. The Buddhist states of Central Asia were weakened in the 6th century following the invasion of the [[White Hun]]s and Buddhism suffered as recorded by [[Xuanzang]]. Later Buddhist regions in Central Asia came either under the sway of the Persian [[Sassanid Empire|Sāsānids]] or [[Tibet]]. When the Muslim Arabs overthrew the Sāssānids they encountered Buddhists in the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. They called them by the Persian name of ''butparast'', literally meaning "buddha-worshipper", although the term has come to be used generally for any religion in which [[cult image]]s play a role. Several high officials of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, notably the [[Barmakids]], were descended from these East Iranian Buddhists. When [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad ibn Qāsim]] led the invasion of [[Sindh]] at the mouth of the [[Indus]] river, he was aided by some Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord, [[Raja Dahir|Rājā Dahir]]. Relations with later Arab rulers such as the [[Saffarid]]s and [[Samanid]]s were more difficult; Buddhist monasteries and stūpas were not exempt from looting under Arab rule.<ref> Alexander Berzin, Berzin Archives </ref> Western Central Asia was under the control of first Arab and then Persian Muslims from the 8th century CE on. The Central Asian regions at this point became caught up in political squabbles as the [[Shahi]]s, [[Umayyad]]s, [[Tang dynasty]], [[Khitan]]s, [[Tibet]]ans, [[Qarakhanid]]s and other Turkic tribes vied over control of the area. After the disintegration of the [[Abbasid|Abbāsid]] Caliphate, the Muslim Turks rose to prominence among the Persian emirates that emerged in Central Asia and [[Afghanistan]]. In the 10th century CE, one of them, [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmūd of Ghaznī]], defeated the [[Shahi|Hindō-Shāhīs]] and finally brought the region firmly under Muslim rule through Afghanistan and the [[Punjab region|Pañjāb]]. He demolished monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western India but left those within his domains and [[Afghanistan]] alone and [[al-Biruni]] recorded Buddha as a prophet "burxan". The originally pagan Turkic tribes who lived in western Central Asia converted to Islām as they came to be increasingly influenced by Persian culture. As the Turkic tribes of Central Asia battled for control of land, similarly an ideological battle waged within them as [[Sufi]]s, faced with an increasing hostile environment in Arabia, moved to [[Transoxania]] and found fertile ground here for converts among the Buddhist and non-Buddhist Turkic tribes alike. Buddhism persisted, together with [[Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[shamanism]] in areas to the east (modern [[Xinjiang]]) for several centuries, which did not become overwhelmingly Muslim until the 15th century CE; however, under the two-pronged onslaught Buddhism waned and over time Central Asia gradually became predominantly Muslim. In 1215 [[Genghis Khan]] conquered [[Afghanistan]] and his horde devastated the local population indiscriminately; in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and [[Chagatai]] established the [[Chagatai Khanate]] while [[Hulegu]] established the [[Il Khanate]] where Buddhism was the state religion across Muslim lands. In the Chagatai Khanate the Buddhist Turkic tribes slowly converted to Islam, including the occasional Khan [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/chagatai.html]. When Tarmashirin came to power he made Islam the official religion of the region in 1326. In the [[Il Khanate]], [[Hulegu]] and his successors [[Abaqa]] and [[Arghun]] also established Buddhism as the state religion but were hostile to the Muslims. Many mosques were destroyed and numerous stupas built; however, when [[Ghazan]] came to power in 1295 and converted he reverted the state religion to [[Islam]] and the climate turned hostile to Buddhism. Today no stupas built by the earlier Mongol Khans survive, and after [[Ghazan]]'s reign little mention of Buddhism can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html]. Buddhists retained power in parts of northern India, in [[Kashmir|Kaśmīr]] and especially in Bengal, where the Buddhist [[Pala Empire|Pāla]] kings ruled from the 8th-12th centuries CE. These last Buddhist strongholds played an important role in the evolution of the [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] and the transmission of that form of Buddhism to [[Tibet]] before they collapsed under assault from the Hindu [[Sena dynasty]]. Elsewhere in India, Buddhism suffered from pressure by Hindu dynasties, such as the increasingly powerful [[Rajput]]s, as well as competition from a Hinduism that had gained ideological coherence and emotional vigor from such movements as [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] philosophy and [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti devotionalism]]. One symptom of increased Hindu confidence with regard to Buddhism was the identification of the Buddha as an [[avatar|avatāra]] of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]] – an identification which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of [[nirvana|nirvāna]]. In 1193, only a few decades after the fall of the Pāla kingdom, [[Muhammad Khilji|Muhammad Khiljī]] destroyed [[Nalanda University|Nālandā]], the great Buddhist university. Khiljī was one of the generals of [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak|Qutbuddīn Aybak]], a subject of the Afghan [[Ghorids|Ghurids]] but soon to become the monarch of a [[Delhi Sultanate|Muslim sultanate at Delhi]]. Khiljī's march across northern India caused a precipitous decline in the fortunes of Indian Buddhism, as he destroyed Buddhist walled monasteries fortified by the Sena kings (which he thought were cities), killed the monks and burned their libraries. After the [[Mongol]] invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many [[Sufi]]s also found themselves fleeing towards the newly established Islamic lands in India around the environs of [[Bengal]]. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with Buddhism, lack of Buddhist political power or social structure along with [[Hinduism]]'s revival movements such as [[Advaita]] and the rise of the syncretic [[bhakti movement]], all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries. By the 13th century CE, Buddhism had become a marginal religion in central India; without a monastic infrastructure, Buddhism could not easily maintain its identity, and many Buddhists, especially in Bengal, were converted to Islām, Hinduism or left for the Himalayan foothills. In Kaśmīr Buddhism remained a significant religion down to the early 15th century, when it was displaced by Islām and Hinduism, except among the Tibetan peoples of [[Ladakh]]. Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other Himalayan regions with a primarily Tibetan population. The [[Newar]]s of [[Nepal]] also retain a form of Buddhism that differs from the Buddhism of Tibet. ==Main Traditions== [[Image:Dazu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stone [[Dazu Stone Carvings|carvings]] at Dazu near [[Chongqing]], [[China]].]] Buddhist schools are usually divided into two main branches: [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is sometimes named as a third, but is more commonly considered a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Another way of categorizing Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan (language)|Tibetan]] (also found in [[Mongolian (language)|Mongollian]] translation, and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] collections, along with some texts that still exist in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]]. This is a useful division for practical purposes, but does not necessarily correspond to philosophical or doctrinal divisions. Despite the differences, there are [[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana|common threads to almost all Buddhist branches]]: *All accept [[Gautama Buddha|Śākyamuni Buddha]] as their teacher. *All accept the [[Middle Way]], [[Dependent origination]], the [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. *All accept that both the members of the laity and of the saṅgha can pursue the path toward enlightenment ([[bodhi]]). *All accept [[three types of Buddha]] and consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest {This is disputed by a few scholars of the Theravādin tradition}. ===Theravāda=== {{main|Theravada}} '''[[Theravada|Theravāda]]''' is [[Pāli]] for "the Doctrine of the Elders" (from [[Sanskrit]] '''sthavira''', Pāli '''thera''', "old person"). The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon|Pāli canon]]. The [[sutra|sutta]] (Sanskrit: sūtra) collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the Pāli canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]]), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest written Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya branch]] of Buddhism. Nikāya Buddhism and consequently Theravāda are referred, especially in polemical contexts, by some Mahāyāna Buddhists as [[Hīnayāna]] or "inferior vehicle". This non-neutral usage is now considered unacceptable in scholarly writing. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Singapore. The aim of Theravāda Buddhism is to achieve [[Nirvana|nibbāna]] (Sanskrit: nirvāṇa) or liberation from rebirth. ===Mahāyāna=== [[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Kuan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]].]] {{main|Mahayana}} The '''[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Vehicle") branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (''maha-karuna''), or [[bodhicitta]] - the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the [[Bodhisattva]] to attain the "Awakened Mind" ([[bodhicitta]]) of Buddhahood so as to have the fullest possible knowledge of how most effectively to lead all sentient beings into [[Nirvana]]. Huge emphasis is also often placed on the notion of Emptiness ([[shunyata]]). This concept can be understood either as the lack of a conceptually apprehensible, fixed nature or substance to phenomena and Buddhic Truth, or as the inherent emptiness of all that is worldly, nescient, conditioned, impure and painful (the absence of which negativities characterises blissful Reality). The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and can indeed give expression to a form of mentalist pantheism or panentheism ([[God in Buddhism]]). In addition to the [[Nikaya|Nikāya]] scriptures, which are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures (some of which encourage the greatest possible veneration of those sutras as supreme spiritual treasures) that were first put into writing around 1 CE. These scriptures were written in some form of [[Sanskrit]], except for a few manuscripts in certain [[Prakrit]]s, and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, some Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], from where the attainment of Nirvana is much more swiftly within reach. Generally, the Pure Land is conceived of as a state which is not Awakening itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward Awakening. Some of the particularly venerated Mahayana sutras, such as the [[Prajna-paramita Sutras]], the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], speak of themselves as possessing enormous liberating spiritual power - they are seen as magical spells on a grand scale - and exhort their readers/listeners to pay the greatest obeisance and reverence to those same scriptures, and through such veneration automatically to draw closer to the Buddha and Nirvana/ Awakening. The sutras thus become for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself and resonate with his transformative might. One of the most significant concepts of Mahayana Buddhism, belief in which is strongly encouraged, is that of the [[prajna-paramita]] - the utterly perfected insight into the nature of all things: their essential equality, non-duality and tranquility, their ultimate lack (emptiness) of arising and perishing. This is not merely an intellectual recognition; rather, it is a direct perception. And that perception takes its rise from initial belief or faith in such doctrines. In the ''Prajna-Paramita of 18,000 Lines'', the Buddha confirms to his great student, Subhuti, how the Bodhisattva does not doubt or disbelieve such teachings when he hears them, but has faith in them (see [[Faith in Buddhism]]): "... the Bodhisattva, the great being who, when the deep perfection of wisdom [[= ''prajna-paramita'', perfected spiritual insight]] is being taught, on hearing it will not hesitate, or doubt, or be stupefied, [but will know], 'so it is as the Tathagata has taught', and will listen to it in greater detail ... this son of good family belonging to the Bodhisattva-vehicle will, as one who resolutely believes in this perfection of wisdom as taught by the Tathagata, stand in irreversibility [i.e. will never spiritually regress]. For even merely to hear of the perfection of wisdom achieves much for the Bodhisttvas, the great beings, how much more [will be achieved] by those who resolutely believe in it, who, having believed, will stand in Thusness [ = Reality], and progess to Thusness, and who thereafter will stand firmly in the knowledge of all modes [ i.e. will attain omniscience]." (''The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom'', tr. by Edward Conze, California, 1975, pp. 465-466). Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahāyāna in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Vajrayāna. Some of the sects of the Mahāyāna include the various schools and traditions within [[Zen|Chan/Zen]] and [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], two of the major forms of present-day Mahāyāna. Another way to look at the variation within the Mahāyāna is from the perspective of local cultural interpretations, viz. [[Buddhism in China|Chinese Buddhism]], [[Korean Buddhism]], [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]], and [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Vietnamese Buddhism]]. Mahāyāna Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative and which practices are best suited for the current times, although a number of major Mahayana sutras purporting to issue from the Buddha himself (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) are themselves in no doubt that they are to be regarded as of utmost importance and highest Buddhic authority. Mention has already been made of the "prajna-paramita" doctrine. Another highly important, and complementary, teaching within Mahāyāna Buddhism is the concept of [[Buddha-nature]] (Sanskrit:'''Buddhadhātu''', the essential Buddha Principle existing within and without all sentient beings). In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Buddha, transcending his mere physical form, is viewed as a boundless, beginningless and endless being, present in all times and all places, yet beyond the reach of logic or mundane conceptualisation. He is regarded as the very embodiment of ungraspable and eternal yet realisable Dharma - ultimate Truth or Awakened Mind ('''[[bodhi]]'''). In essence, all perfect Buddhas are seen by Mahāyāna Buddhism as one in nature - all are salvational channels or vessels of Dharma (cosmic Truth). They are the very [[Dharmakaya]] (body/mind of ultimate Reality). The doctrines of the Buddha in certain Mahāyāna sutras purport to provide a set of final, definitive and ultimate ('''nītārtha''') teachings – doctrines indicated by the Buddha not to be provisional in nature, but stated to be of the highest Truth ( a claim rejected, however, by the Theravādins) – on the immanence of a hidden, deep-seated reality within all sentient beings which is linked to the eternality of the Buddha and Nirvāna. This immanent yet transcendent essence is variously called, in the key sutras which expound it, the ''buddhadhātu'' or the '''[[Tathagatagarbha|Tathāgatagarbha]]''' (Sanskrit: "Tathagata Matrix"). This ''buddhadhātu'' is empty of all that is un-knowing, changeful, painful, impermanent and impure. In the [[Nirvana Sutra|Nirvāṇasūtra]], the Buddha calls the ''buddhadhātu'' the "True Self" to distinguish it from the "false" worldly self. It is no less than the uncreated, uncompounded, immaculate, immortal, all-knowing, radiantly shining Principle of blissful Buddhahood: the very [[Dharmakaya|Dharmakāya]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 法身). This ''buddhadhātu'', inherent in all beings, can never be destroyed or harmed, and yet is concealed from view by a mass of obscuring mental and moral taints within the mind-stream of the individual being. Once the ''buddhadhātu'' is finally seen and known by the faithful Buddhist practitioner, it has the power to transform that practitioner into a Buddha. The doctrine of the ''buddhadhātu'' or ''tathāgatagarbha'' is stated by the Buddha of the [[Nirvāna Sūtra]] to be the "absolutely final culmination" of his Mahāyāna Dharma, and scoffing denial of its reality is presented by this and other Tathagatagarbha sutras as potentially unleashing very negative karmic consequences upon those who deny it or disparage it. By contrast, faith in the Tathagatagarbha's reality and a vigorous striving to perceive its inner presence is hailed as of the highest spiritual and soteriological value. ===Vajrayāna=== [[Image:Young_monks_of_Drepung.jpg|thumb|right|274px|Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of Drepung]] {{main|Vajrayana}} The '''[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]]''' or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism, or [[esotericism|esoteric]] Buddhism) shares the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Vajrayāna Buddhism exists today in the form of two major sub-schools: [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[Shingon Buddhism]]. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the [[Buddhist texts#Vajrayana Texts|Buddhist Tantras]]. Native Vajrayāna is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], [[Siberia]], areas of India, and – in the [[Shingon]] (''Zhènyān'', 真言) and [[Tendai]] schools – in China and Japan. ===Intellectualism and Buddhist worldview=== {{main|History of Buddhist schools}} In his lifetime, Gautama Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]], complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Commentators explain that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. In numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) and the Buddha himself in their ultimate modus cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: both Buddha and Reality (ultimately One) transcend all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" ([[Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra]]) also emphasises how Buddhic Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity [i.e. the Awakened Mind of Buddha] ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ... It dwells in the self-perfected bliss which is deedless and self-perfected ... I am the best path of liberation. It is a path, subtle and difficult to understand, which is non-speculative and beyond thinking ... It cannot be captured in words ... It is firm, difficult to comprehend, and totally inexplicable." (''The Sovereign All-Creating Mind'' tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111-112). Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist [[yogi]] and teacher [[mahasiddha]] [[Tilopa]] discouraged any intellectual activity in his [[Tilopa#6 words of advice|6 words of advice]]. Buddhist missionaries, however, often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. For those, who have attachment to [[intellectualism]], Buddhist scholars produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and worldview concepts. See e.g. [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]. == Buddhist texts == [[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpeg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]] {{main|Buddhist texts}} Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the '''[[Tripitaka]]''' and in [[Pāli]] as the '''Tipitaka'''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are: *The '''[[Vinaya|Vinaya Piṭaka]]''', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Saṅghas]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification. *The '''[[Sutta Pitaka|Sūtra Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: Sutta Piṭaka), contains the actual discourses of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. *The '''[[Abhidhamma|Abhidharma Piṭaka]]''' (Pāli: ''Abhidhamma Piṭaka'') contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings. Soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named [[Mahakasyapa|Mahākāśyapa]] (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings – [[sutra|sūtras]] (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pāli) – and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). [[Ananda|Ānanda]], the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and [[Upali|Upāli]], another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripiṭaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects. The [[Theravada|Theravāda]] and other [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikāya schools]] believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon, also known as the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna sūtras]], are also considered to be the word of the Buddha, but were transmitted either in secret, via lineages of mythical beings (such as the [[naga (mythology)|nāgas]]), or came directly from other [[Buddha]]s or [[bodhisattva]]s. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] translations. The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli suttas, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the [[agama (text)|āgamas]]. Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the āgamas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the agamas represent the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma - and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Nikayas or their scholastic commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada. For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path. That path is built upon the motivation to achieve not only personal liberation, but Buddhahood itself in order to know how best to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name ''Mahāyāna'' (lit., ''the Great Vehicle''), which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The "Great" of "Maha-yana" is indeed typical of much of this version of Buddhism - from the physical bigness (lengthiness) of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow (to strive for '''all''' future time to help free other persons and creatures from pain), to the numbers of beings who are sought to be saved (infinitudes), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "'''Great''' Self" (''mahatman'') in the sphere of "'''Great''' Nirvana" (''mahanirvana''). For the Theravadins, however, this alleged "greatness" proclaimed by some Mahayana sutras does not necessarily equate to "true". Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer [[Babasaheb Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the [[Theravada]] tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying scripture. [[Dwight Goddard]] collected what he felt was a representative sample of Buddhist scriptures- along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the [[Tao Te Ching]]- into his [[Buddhist Bible]] in the 1920's. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ “The Buddha and His Dhamma”]. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions. == Present state of Buddhism == {{sectstub}} [[Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical interior of a temple in [[Korean Buddhism|Korea]]]] Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 million and 500 million, with 350 million being the most commonly cited figure. [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] *[[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism, using [[Pāli]] as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[India]]. *[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] as well as the Chinese communities around the world, especially within Indochina and Southeast Asia as well as in the West. *[[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in [[Tibet]] and the surrounding area of [[India]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], [[China]], and the Russian Federation. [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]] and the Russian Federation are the first European countries to recognize Buddhism as an official religion. *The [[Indian Buddhist Movement]] is a revival of Buddhism in India. This movement was initiated by [[B. R. Ambedkar]] in 1956 with a mass conversion ceremony of [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]]s. Their practice is general and they do not follow any particular Buddhist school of thought. At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see [[Buddhism in the West]]) See also [[Buddhism by country]] == Buddhist Culture and Art == {{main|Buddhist culture and art}} == Comparative Study == {{sectstub}} Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent origination]] is Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history. '''List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies''' *[[Buddhadharma and other Indian Dharmas]] (Buddhism and other dharma-related brief) *[[Buddhism and Eastern teaching]] (Buddhism and East Asian teaching) *[[God in Buddhism]] (Buddhism and monotheism) *[[Buddhist-Christian Parallels]] *[[Buddhist philosophy]] (Buddhism and Western philosophy) *[[Buddhist Ethics]] (Buddhism and ethics) *[[Buddhism and science]] (Buddhism and science) *[[Buddhism and Schism]] [http://nt.med.ncku.edu.tw/biochem/lsn/AccessToInsight/html/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/ch21.html] ==See also== {{portal}} *[[Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana]] *[[Buddhist terms and concepts]] *[[List of Buddhist topics]] *[[List of Buddhists]] ==References== *{{cite book | author=Gail Omvedt (ed.) | title=Buddhism in India : Challenging Brahmanism and Caste | publisher=Sage Publications | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-7829-128-2}} *{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}} *[[Thom Brooks]], 'Better Luck Next Time: A comparative analysis of Socrates and Mahayana Buddhism on reincarnation', ''Journal of Indian Philosophy and Religion'' 10 (2005): 1-25. *{{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What Buddhists Believe|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}} ISBN 9834007127. *{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0192892231}} *{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0861713214}} Also available on-line: [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/mfneng/mind0.htm] [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma4/mpe.html] [http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english.php] *{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1903296919}} *{{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}} ISBN 0767903692. *{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0271006013}} *{{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}} ISBN 0802130313. *{{cite|ref=White_74|author=[[Kenneth White]]|title=The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo|publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press|date=2005}} ISBN 0773459855. *{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}} *{{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}} ISBN 0861711335. *{{cite book | author=Sinha, H.P. | title=Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy) | publisher=Motilal Banarasidas Publ. | year=1993 | id=ISBN 8120821440}} ==Notes== <!--<nowiki> See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below </nowiki>--> {{FootnotesSmall|resize=100%}} # {{note|Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajnanalokalamkarasutra}} Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy]: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings''. Published on the Web. # {{note|ChNN_Dream_Yoga_book}} Chögyal Namkhai Norbu ''Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light''. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42 # {{note|Dr.A.Berzin_on_appearances}} Dr. A. Berzin. ''[http://www.berzinarchives.com/tantra/alaya_impure_02.html Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making]'' # {{note|Elas_Capriles_book1}} Elías Capriles. ''[http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/buddhismanddzogchen1.zip Buddhism and Dzogchen]: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook''. Published on the Web. # {{note|Sangha_TripleJewel}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu. ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/refuge.html#goi Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha]''. Third edition, revised, 2001 ==External links== {{cleanup-spam}} <!--buddhachat, not notable and is advertising; hongakujodo, advertising a single sect, advertising; meditate london, intro to buddhism not needed, they are practically the same; other two are not about buddhism but about sutras.--> *[http://www.ambedkar.org/buddhism/BAHD/45A.Buddha%20and%20His%20Dhamma%20PART%20I.htm '''The Buddha and His Dhamma''' A single, comprehensive document of Buddhist principles by Dr B R Ambedkar, 1956] *[http://www.deerparkgathering.org/introduction.html Introduction to Buddhism ] *[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal] *[http://www.dalailama.com/page.5.htm His Holiness The Dalai Lama teachings on Buddhism] *[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/index.html Access to Insight] Readings in Theravada Buddhism. *[http://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet] *[http://buddhism.about.com/ Buddhism.about.com] *[http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk "Nirvana Sutra Buddhism": full text and discussion of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra] *[http://www.webspawner.com/users/bodhisattva/index.html Tathagatagarbha Buddhism: English translations of five major Tathagatagarbha sutras] *[http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide. *[http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet] *[http://www.world-religion.org/buddhism.php Encyclopedia of Religion Buddhism article] *[http://www.buddhaweb.org/ Essentials of Buddhism] *[http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles. [[Category:धम्म]] [[Category:बौद्ध धम्म]] {{Link FA|ar}} {{Link FA|vi}} {{Link FA|zh}} [[af:Boeddhisme]] [[als:Buddhismus]] [[ar:بوذية]] [[bn:বৌদ্ধধর্ম]] [[zh-min-nan:Hu̍t-kàu]] [[br:Boudaegezh]] [[bg:Будизъм]] [[ca:Budisme]] [[cs:Buddhismus]] [[da:Buddhisme]] [[de:Buddhismus]] [[et:Budism]] [[el:Βουδισμός]] [[es:Budismo]] [[eo:Budhismo]] [[eu:Budismo]] [[fa:بوداگرایی]] [[fr:Bouddhisme]] [[ko:불교]] [[hi:बौद्ध धर्म]] [[hr:Budizam]] [[io:Budismo]] [[ilo:Budhismo]] [[ia:Buddhismo]] [[is:Búddismi]] [[it:Buddhismo]] [[he:בודהיזם]] [[jv:Buddha]] [[kw:Bouddhisteth]] [[lo:ພຸດທະສາດສະໜາ]] [[la:Religio Buddhistica]] [[lv:Budisms]] [[lt:Budizmas]] [[li:Boeddhisme]] [[jbo:bu'ojda]] [[hu:Buddhizmus]] [[mt:Buddiżmu]] [[ms:Agama Buddha]] [[mn:Буддизм]] [[nl:Boeddhisme]] [[ja:仏教]] [[no:Buddhisme]] [[nn:Buddhismen]] [[ug:بذددا دعنع]] [[nds:Buddhismus]] [[pl:Buddyzm]] [[pt:Budismo]] [[ro:Budism]] [[ru:Буддизм]] [[sco:Buddhism]] [[simple:Buddhism]] [[sk:Budhizmus]] [[sl:Budizem]] [[sr:Будизам]] [[fi:Buddhalaisuus]] [[sv:Buddhism]] [[tl:Budismo]] [[ta:பௌத்தம்]] [[th:พระพุทธศาสนา]] [[vi:Phật giáo]] [[tpi:Budisim]] [[tr:Budizm]] [[uk:Буддизм]] [[yi:בודהיזם]] [[zh:佛教]] 1671 3098 2006-08-11T18:47:55Z Eukesh 59 *[[महादेशा]] *[[देशा]] 1672 3099 2006-08-11T18:49:57Z Eukesh 59 ==अ== [[अब्खाजिया]] - [[अफगानस्थान]] - [[अल्बानिया]] - [[अल्जीरिया]] - [[अंडोरा]] - [[अंगोला]] - [[अंटीग्वा]] - [[अर्जन्टीना]] - [[अजर्बैजान]] ==आ== [[आर्मीनिया]] - [[आस्ट्रिया]] - [[आस्ट्रेलिया]] - [[आयर्लैंड]] - [[आइसलैंड]] ==इ== [[इन्दोनेशिया]] - [[इस्रैल]] - [[इटली]] ==ई== [[ईराक]] - [[ईरान]] - [[ईजिप्ट]]- [[ईथ्योपिया]] ==उ== [[उरुग्वाय]] - [[उजबेकिस्थान]] ==ए== [[एक्वाडोर]] - [[एल-साल्वाडोर]] - [[एस्टोनिया]] - [[एरिट्रिया]] ==ऐ== [[कोट ऐवरी (ऐवरी कोस्ट)]] ==ओ== [[ओमान]] ==क== [[कम्बोदिया]] - [[केनडा]] - [[केमेरून]] - [[केप वर्डी]] - [[कोलोम्बिया]] - [[कोमोरोस]] - [[कौंगो]] - [[कोस्टा रीका]] - [[क्रोएशिया]] - [[क्यूबा]] - [[केन्द्रीय अफ्रीका गणराज्य]] - [[कजाकस्थान]] - [[किरिबाटी]] - [[किरगिस्थान]] - [[कतार]] - [[केन्या]] - [[कोरिया]] - [[कुवैत]] ख ==ग== [[ग्रीस (यूनान)]] - [[गाबोन]] - [[गाम्बिया]] - [[ग्रेनाडा]] - [[ग्वाटेमाला]] - [[गिनी]] - [[गिनी-बिसो]] - [[गयाना]] ==घ== [[घाना]] ==च== [[चाड]] - [[चिले]] - [[चीन]] - [[चेक रिपब्लिक]] ==छ == ==ज== [[जार्जिया-देश:|जार्जिया]] - [[जर्मनी]] - [[जिबूटी]] - [[जमैका]] - [[जापान]] - [[जार्डन]] - [[जाम्बिया]] - [[जिम्बाबवे]] ==ट== [[टोगो]] - [[टोंगा]] - [[ट्रिनिडाड]] - [[टंजानिया]]- [[टिमोर]] - [[टुनिशिया]] - [[टुवालु]] ==ड== [[डेनमार्क]] - [[डोमोनिका]] - [[डोमोनिकन रिपब्लिक]] ==त== [[तुर्किये]] - [[तैवान]] - [[ताजिकिस्थान]] - [[तुर्कमिनिस्थान]] ==थ== [[थाइलैंड]] ==द== [[दक्षिण कोरिया]] ==ध== ==न== [[नमीबिया]] - [[नौरु]] - [[नेपाल]] - [[नेदरलैंड्स]] - [[न्यू-जीलैंड]] - [[निकारगुवा]] - [[नीजे]] - [[नैजीरिया]] - [[नार्वे]] ==प== [[पाकिस्तान]] - [[पलाऊ]] - [[पानामा]] - [[पपुवा न्यू गिनी]] - [[पेरेग्वाय]] - [[पोलैंड]] - [[पेरु]] - [[पुर्तगाल]] ==फ== [[फिजी]] - [[फिन्लैंड]] - [[फ्रांस]] - [[फिलिपीन्स]] - [[फिलिस्तीन]] ==ब== [[बहामास]] - [[बहरैन]] - [[बंगलादेश]] - [[बार्बाडोस]] - [[बेलारूस]] - [[बेलीज]] - [[बेनिन]] - [[बेल्जियम]] - [[बोलिविया]] - [[बास्निया]] - [[बोत्सवाना]] - [[ब्रासील]] - [[ब्रूनै]] - [[बुल्गारिया]] - [[बुर्कीना-फासो]] - [[बुरुंडी]] - बर्मा अद्य [[म्‍यन्मार]] - [[ब्रिटेन]] ==भ== [[भारत]] - [[भूटान]] ==म== [[मडगास्कर]] - [[मलावी]] - [[मलयेशिया]] - [[मालदीव]] - [[माली]] - [[माल्टा]] - [[मारिटेनिया]] - [[मारिशस]] - - [[मेसेडोनिया]] - [[मार्शल द्वीप]] - [[मेक्सिको]] - [[मैक्रोनीशिया]] - [[मोल्दोवा]] - [[मोनाको]] - [[मंगोलिया]] - [[मोराको]] - [[मोजम्बीक]] - [[मयन्मार]] ==य== [[यमन]] ==र== [[रोमानिया]] - [[रूस]] - [[रवाण्डा]] ==ल== [[लाओस]] - [[लाट्विया]] - [[लेबनान]] - [[लेसोथो]] - [[लायबीरिया]] - [[लिबिया]] - [[लिक्टनस्टैन]] - [[लिथ्वानिया]] - [[लक्सम्बर्ग]] ==व== [[वनुवाटु]] - [[वेनेज्वेला]] - [[वैटिकन]] - [[वियेतनाम]] ==श== [[श्रीलङ्का]] ==स== [[सायप्रस]] - [[सेंट किट्]] - [[सेंट लूसिया]] - [[सेंट विन्सेंट]] - [[समोआ]] - [[सान मरीनो]] - [[सऊदी अरब]] - [[सर्बिया]] - [[सेनेगल]] - [[सेशेल]] - [[सियारा-लियोन]] - [[सिंगापोर]] - [[सोलोमन-द्वीप]] - [[स्लोवाकिया]] - [[स्लोवीनिया]] - [[सोमालिया]] - [[सोमालिलैंड]] - साउथ-अफ्रीका [[दक्षिण-अफ्रीका]] - [[स्पेन]] - [[सूडान]] - [[स्वाजीलैंड]] - [[स्विटजरलैंड]] - [[सिरिया]] - [[सुरिनाम]] - [[स्वीडन]] - [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]] ==ह== [[हेटी]] - [[हांडूरस]] - [[हंगरी]] ==सम्बद्घ: विषय:== *[[भूगोल]] *[[पृथिवी]] *[[महादेशा]] 1673 3100 2006-08-11T18:57:01Z Eukesh 59 {{Infobox Country| native_name = नेपाल अधिराज्य <br />''Nēpāl Adhirājya'' | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Nepal | common_name = Nepal | image_flag = Flag of Nepal.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Nepal.png | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = जननी जन्मभूमिष्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी <br /> ([[Sanskrit]]: Motherland is even dearer than the heavens) | image_map = LocationNepal.png | national_anthem = [[Rastriya Gaan]] | official_languages = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] | capital = [[Kathmandu]] | latd = 27|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=85|longm=19|longEW=E | government_type = [[Transitional government]] | leader_title1 = [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]| leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]] | largest_city = [[Kathmandu]] | area = 147,181 sq.km | areami²=56,827 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->| area_rank = 94th | area_magnitude = 1 E10 | percent_water = 2.8 | population_estimate = 27,133,000 | population_estimate_year = July 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 42nd | population_census = 23,151,423| population_census_year = 2002| population_density = 196 | population_densitymi² = 508<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 56th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $42.17 billion<!-- cia.gov --> | GDP_PPP_rank = 81st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,675| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 152nd | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.526 | HDI_rank = 136th | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Unification of Nepal|Unification]] | sovereignty_note = [[1768-12-21]] | currency = [[Nepalese Rupee|Rupee]] | currency_code = NPR | time_zone = [[Nepal Time|NPT]] | utc_offset = +5:45 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +5:45| cctld = [[.np]] | calling_code = 977| footnotes = }} '''Nepal''' ({{IPAudio|Nepal.ogg|[nəˈpɑːl]}}), officially '''Kingdom of Nepal''', is a [[landlocked]] [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] [[country]] in [[South Asia]], bordered by the [[People's Republic of China]] to the north and [[India]] to the south, east and west. == Overview == More than 80% of its people follow [[Hinduism]]. For a small country, the Nepali landscape is uncommonly diverse, ranging from the humid [[Terai]] in the south to the lofty [[Himalaya]]s in the north. It is notable that within a very small width the elevation of Nepal increases from the plain terrain to the tallest Himalayas leading to great vegetation. Nepal boasts eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including [[Mount Everest]] on the border with China. [[Kathmandu]] is the capital and largest city. The other main cities include Biratnagar, Birgunj, Janakpur, Pokhara, [[Nepalgunj]], Mahendranagar etc. The origin of the name ''Nepal'' is uncertain, but the most popular understanding is that it derived from ''Ne'' (holy) and ''pal'' (cave). After a long and rich history, during which the region splintered and coalesced under a variety of absolute rulers, Nepal became a [[constitutional monarchy]] in 1990. However, the monarchy retained many important and ill-defined powers. This arrangement was marked by increasing instability, both in the parliament and, since 1996, in large swathes of the country that have been fought over by [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)|Maoist]] insurgents. The Maoists, alienated from mainstream political parties, went underground and started a guerilla war against both monarchy and mainstream political parties. They have sought to overthrow feudal institutions, including the monarchy, and establish a republic. This has led to the ongoing [[Nepalese Civil War]] in which more than 13,000 people have died. On the pretext of quashing the insurgents, who now control about 70% of the country, the king closed down the parliament and sacked the elected prime minister in 2002 and started ruling through prime ministers appointed by him. He then unilaterally declared a "[[state of emergency]]" early in 2005, and assumed all executive powers. Following the [[Loktantra Andolan]], the king agreed to relinquish the sovereign power back to the people and reinstated the dissolved House of Representatives on [[April 24]], [[2006]]. Using its newly acquired sovereign authority, in [[May 19]] [[2006]], the newly resumed House of Representatives unanimously passed a motion to curtail the power of the king and declared Nepal a [[separation of church and state|Secular state]]. A complete rewrite of the realm's [[constitution]] is expected to happen in the near future. ==History== [[Neolithic]] tools found in the [[Kathmandu Valley]] indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of [[Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity lived in Nepal 2,500 years ago. {{inote|Library of Congress|History}} [[Indo-Aryan]] tribes entered the valley around 1500 BCE. Around 1000 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose. One of the princes of the [[Shakya]] confederation was [[Siddharta Gautama]] (563&ndash;483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the ''[[Buddha]]'' ("the one who has awakened"). By 250 BCE, the region came under the influence of the [[Mauryan empire]] of northern India, and later became a puppet state under the [[Gupta Dynasty]] in the 4th century CE. From the late 5th century CE, rulers called ''the [[Licchavi]]s'' governed the area. The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by a [[Newari]] era, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. By late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the influence of the [[Chalukya|Chalukaya Empire]] of [[South India|southern India]]. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised [[Hinduism]] instead of the prevailing Buddhism. [[Image:Patan temples.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Hindu temples in Patan, the capital one of the three medieval kingdoms]] [[Image:RaniOfNepal1920.jpg|250px|thumb|Nepalese royalty in the 1920s]] By the early 12th century, leaders were emerging whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix ''malla'' ("wrestler"). Initially their reign was marked by upheaval, but the kings consolidated their power over the next 200 years. By late 14th century much of the country began to come under a unified rule. This unity was short-lived: in 1482 the kingdom was carved into three -- [[Kathmandu]], [[Patan]], and [[Bhadgaon]] -- which had petty rivalry for centuries. In 1765 the [[Gorkha]] ruler [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] set out to unify the kingdoms, after first seeking arms and aid from India and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify Nepal three years later. This marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal. A dispute and subsequent war with [[Tibet]] over control of mountain passes forced Nepal to retreat and pay heavy repatriations. Rivalry with the [[British East India Company]] over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the brief but bloody [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1815&ndash;16), in which Nepal defended its present day borders but lost its territories west of the Kali River, including present day [[Uttaranchal]] state and several Punjab Hill States of present day [[Himachal Pradesh]]. The [[Treaty of Sugauli]] also ceded parts of the Terai and [[Sikkim]] to the Company in exchange for Nepalese [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]]. Factionalism among the [[royal family]] led to instability after the war. In 1846, a discovered plot to overthrow [[Jang Bahadur]], a fast-rising military leader by the reigning queen, led to the [[Kot Massacre]]. Armed clashes between [[military]] personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bahadur won and founded the [[Rana]] lineage. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British, and assisted the British during the [[Sepoy Rebellion]] in 1857, and later in both [[World War]]s. In 1923 the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal's independence was recognised by the UK. In the late 1940s, emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, China annexed Tibet in 1950, making India keen on stability in Nepal, to avoid an expansive military campaign. Thus India sponsored [[Tribhuvan]] as Nepal's new king in 1951, and a new government, mostly comprising the [[Nepali Congress Party]]. After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, the democratic experiment was dissolved in 1959, and a "partyless" [[panchayat]] system was made to govern Nepal. In 1989, the "Jan Andolan" (People's) Movement forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and establish a multiparty parliament in May 1991. Nepali Congress Party wins first democratic elections. Girija Prasad Koirala becomes prime minister. ===Recent events=== [[Image:Nepal map.png|thumb|350px|Map of Nepal]] On [[June 1]], [[2001]], the Heir Apparent [[Dipendra of Nepal|Dipendra]] reportedly went on a killing spree in the royal palace, in response to his parents' rejection of his choice of wife. His parents were killed and he died 3 days later. Following the carnage, the throne was inherited by Birendra's brother [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Gyanendra]]. In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy waned. {{fact}} On [[February 1, 2005]] Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers in the name of combating Maoist movement. {{inote|Timeline: Nepal|BBC News}} In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire but which was not reciprocated by the royal government which adamantly vowed to defeat the rebels by force. A few weeks later, the government stated that parliamentary elections would be held by 2007 even after the flopped municipal elections.{{inote|Nepal to hold polls in two years|Times of India}} By then with the support from the Maoists the seven parliamentary parties (SPA) had arranged a mass uprising against the tyrannical rule of King Gyanendra. However the royal government used various false reasons to quell the uprising. By then frustrated by lack of security, jobs and good governance, thousands of people ushered onto the streets demanding the king to renounce power outright but the royal government turned even more ferocious and continued its atrocities including daytime curfews amid Maoist blockade. Food shortages hit people so that they prepared to march into the city centre and encircle royal palace. The security forces turned brutal and the king seemed to think nothing had happened so far. Thousands were injured and 21 people died in the uprising, which was meant to be peaceful but turned violent by the government and its vigilantes. Foreign pressure continued to increase on King Gyanendra to surrender power so that on [[April 21]] [[2006]] Gyanendra announced that he was giving up absolute power and that "Power was being returned to the People". He called on the seven party coalitions to name a possible Prime Minister and that elections would be held as soon as possible. Many Nepalese protesters however, still carried out rallies in numerous cities and vowed to continue the stir until they would achieve complete abolishment of the monarchy. Finally after 19 days of protests, on [[April 24]] midnight, the king called for the country's parliament to reassemble on April 28. Parliament has since reassembled and already stripped the king of his power over the military, abolished his title as the descendent of a Hindu God, and required royalty to pay taxes. Furthermore, several royal officials have been indicted, and the Nepalese government is no longer referred to as "His Majesty's Government" which has been changed to "Government of Nepal". An election of the constituent assembly to rewrite the constitution has been declared unanimously to be held in the near future, with the possible abolition of the monarchy as part of constitutional change.{{fact}}. Following Gyanendra's relinquishing of absolute power, the Nepalese government and Maoist rebels agreed on a ceasefire. In August 2006, both parties came to an agreement on the issue of arms accountability, agreeing to ask the [[United Nations]] to oversee and keep track of the weapons cache of both sides. The government and the Maoists failed to come to an agreement on the future of the monarchy. ==Geography== [[Image:Nepal_topo_en.jpg|thumb|250px|Topographic map of Nepal]] [[Image:KaliGandaki.jpg|thumb|250px|The arid and barren Himalayan landscape]] Nepal is of roughly rectangular shape, 650&nbsp;km wide and 200&nbsp;km broad, with an area of 147,181&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]. Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: the Mountain, [[Hill Region|Hill]], and [[Terai Region]]s. These ecological belts run east-west and are bisected by Nepal's major river systems. The Terai Plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]]. They were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the [[Kosi]], the [[Narayani]] (India's [[Gandak]] River), and the [[Karnali]]. This region has a hot, humid climate. The Hill Region (''Pahar'' in Nepali) abuts the mountains and varies from 1,000 to 4,000 m in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the [[Mahabharat Lekh]] and [[Siwalik Hills|Shiwalik Range]] (also called the Churia Range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanised area. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural centre of Nepal. Unlike the valleys, elevations above 2,500 m are sparsely populated. The Mountain Region contains the highest region in the world. The world's highest mountain, [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmatha'' in Nepali) at 8,850 m is located on the border with [[Tibet]]. Eight of the world's [[Eight-thousander|ten highest mountains]] are located in Nepal. [[Kanchenjunga]], the world's third highest peak, is also located on its eastern border with [[Sikkim]]. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems. Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to altitude. The [[tropical]] and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 m, the [[temperate]] zone 1,200 to 2,400 m, the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 m, the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 m, and the arctic zone above 4,400 m. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalaya blocks cold winds from [[Central Asia]] in winter, and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns. Although Nepal shares no boundary with [[Bangladesh]], the two countries are separated by a narrow strip of land about 21 km wide, called the [[Chicken's Neck]]. Efforts are underway to make this area a free-trade zone. ==Economy== [[Image:Nepal One Rupee obverse.jpg|thumb|250px|A one-rupee banknote]] Nepal is one of the poorest and least developed nations in the world; up to half of its population lives below the [[poverty line]]. The capital crunch has affected development. The [[capital market]] is in its initial stage. The stock exchange is traditional. Only recently, the Opal Securities Investment Pvt. Ltd., the stock broker No. 4, has started posting real time data on the web, [[http://www.nepsestock.com]] at the initiative of [[Nabaraj Pokhrel]], [[http://www.nepsestock.com/contactus.php]]. Agriculture sustains 76% of the population and accounts for about 38% of the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]; services comprise 41%, and industry 21%. Hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. There are just over 4,000 km of paved roads, and one 59 km railway line in the south. Aviation is in a better state, with 46 airports, nine of them with paved runways. There is less than one telephone per 46 people; landline services are poor, although mobile telephony is in a reasonable state in some parts of the country. There are around 100,000 Internet connections, but after the imposition of the "state of emergency", intermittent losses of service have been reported.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} A lack of natural resources, its landlocked location, technological backwardness and the long-running civil war have also prevented Nepal from fully developing its economy. The country receives foreign aid from [[India]], [[PRC|China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]] and the [[European Union]]. The government's budget is about US$665 million, with expenditures of $1.1bn. The [[inflation]] rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation during the 1990s. The [[Nepalese Rupee]] has been tied to the [[Indian Rupee]] at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappeared. A long-standing economic agreement underpins a close relationship with India. The distribution of wealth among people is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. [[Image:Nepal landscape 1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Terraced farming on the foothills of the Himalayas]] Nepal's workforce of about 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labour. Agriculture employs 81% of the workforce, services 16% and manufacturing/craft-based industry 3%. Agricultural produce——mostly grown in the Terrai region bordering India——includes rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industry mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce, including [[jute]], sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. The spectacular landscape and deep, exotic culture of Nepal represents considerable potential for tourism, but growth in this export industry has been stifled by recent political events. The [[unemployment rate|rate of unemployment and underemployment]] approaches half of the working-age population. Thus many Nepalese move to India in search of work, the Gulf countries and Malaysia being new sources of work. Poverty is acute and many of Nepal's women are sold to Indian brothels, 7,000 each year albeit this insulting practise is heavily penalised and mass propaganda against it conducted .<ref>[http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm Nepal]</ref> Nepal receives US$50 million a year through the [[Gurkha]] soldiers who serve in the [[Indian Army|Indian]] and [[British Army|British]] armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. The total remittance value is worth around 1 billion USD, including money sent from Arab and Malaysia, who combinedly employ around 200,000 Nepalese. Nepal's GDP for the year 2005 is estimated at just over US$37 billion (adjusted to [[Purchasing Power Parity]]), making it the 83rd-largest economy in the world. Per-capita income is around US$1,402, ranked 163rd. Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, leather goods, [[jute]] goods and grain total $568 million. Import commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products and fertiliser total US$1.419 bn. India (48.8%), the US (22.3%), and [[Germany]] (8.5%) are its main export partners. Nepal's import partners include India (43%), the [[United Arab Emirates]] (10%), China (10%), [[Saudi Arabia]] (4.4%), and [[Singapore]] (4%).{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} ==Government and politics== Until 1990, Nepal was an [[absolute monarchy]] running under the executive control of the king. Faced with a people's movement against the absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a [[parliamentary monarchy]] with the king as the [[head of state]] and a prime minister as the [[head of the government]]. Nepal's legislature was [[bicameral]] consisting of a [[House of Representatives]] and a [[National Council]]. The House of Representatives consist of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members, 10 nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term, but was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepalese citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote. The executive comprised the King and the [[Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]]). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal have tended to be highly unstable; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991, either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch. The judiciary is made of the ''[[Sarbochha Adalat]]''&mdash;the [[Supreme Court]], appellate courts and various district courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges were appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. The Nepalese political landscape consists of more than two dozen political parties. Based on the parliamentary seats occupied by various parties since 1991, [[Nepali Congress Party]] (NCP), [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)]] (CPN-UML), [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party|National Democratic Party]] (NDP), [[Nepal Sadbhawana Party]] (NGP), [[People’s Front Nepal]] (PFN) and [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Party]] (NWPP) are significant ones. [[United People's Front of Nepal]] (UPFN), which had won third largest number of seats in 1991 parliamentary election, began to splinter in 1993. Its one faction later merged with [[Nepal Communist Party (Masal)]] to form [[PFN]]. However, the other faction established [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] in 1995, which staged an armed rebellion in 1996 and gradually emerged as a major political force - holding a balance of power in Nepal. All these political realignments have made the political scene of Nepal one of the most confusing in the world. Breakup of the parties had become a norm rather than an exception in Nepal. Parties never agreed on most issues of National significance. However, the situation began to change after King Gyanendra took an absolute power in 2005. In [[November 22]], [[2005]], the seven parliamentary parties of the [[Seven Party Alliance]] (SPA) and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] agreed on a historic and unprecedented 12-point [[memorandum of understanding]] (MOU) in [[November 22]], [[2005]] for peace and democracy. Nepalese from various walks of life and the international community regarded the MOU as an appropriate political response to the crisis that was developing in Nepal. In the backdrop of the historical sufferings of the Nepalese people and the enormous human cost of the last ten years of violent conflict, the MOU, which proposes a peaceful transition through an elected constituent assembly, created an acceptable formula for a united movement for democracy. As per the 12-point MOU, the [[Seven Party Alliance]] called for a protest movement and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] supported it. This led to a countrywide uprising that started in April 2006. All political forces including civil society and professional organizations actively galvanized the people. This resulted into massive and spontaneous demonstrations and rallies held across Nepal against the King Gyanendra's autocratic rule. The people's participation was so broad, momentous and pervasive that the king feared of being overrun. On April 21, 2006, King Gyanendra declared that the "power would be returned to the people". This had little effect on the people, who continued to occupy the streets of Kathmandu and other towns, openly defying the daytime curfew. Finally King Gyanendra announced the reinstatement the House of Representatives, so conceding one of the major demands of the SPA, at midnight of [[April 24]], [[2006]]. With this the coalition of political forces decided to call off the protests. Twenty-one people died and thousands were injured during the 19 days of protests. On [[May 19]], [[2006]], the parliament assumed total legislative power and gave executive power to the Government of Nepal (previously known as His Majesty's Government). Names of many institutions (including the army) were stripped of the "royal" adjective and the Raj Parishad (a council of the King's advisors) was abolished, with his duties assigned to the Parliament itself. The activities of the King became subject to parliamentary scrutiny and the King's properties were subjected to taxation. Moreover, Nepal was declared a secular state abrogating the previous status of a Hindu Kingdom, albeit the fear shown by midline Hindu communities over their concern over the abolishment of long founded tradition of Vedic systems. On July 19, 2006, the prime minister, G. P. Koirala, sent a letter to the United Nations announcing the intentions of the Nepalese Government to hold elections to a constituent assembly by April 2007. ==Military and foreign affairs== [[Image:NamcheBazar1.jpg|thumb|250px|The famous outpost of [[Namche Bazaar]] in the Khumbu region close to Mount Everest. The town is built on terraces in what resembles a giant Greek amphitheatre.]] Nepal's military consists of the Nepalese Army which includes the Nepalese Army Air Service, (the [[air force]] unit under it), and the [[Nepalese Police Force]]. On May 19, 2006 The House unanimously passed the proposal to rename Royal Nepal Army (RNA) as the “Nepali Army”. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military&mdash;1.5% of its GDP. Nepali Army having 90,000 soldiers of the country, which is currently engaged in the civil war against the [[Maoist]] [[insurgent]]s. Most of the equipment and arms are supplied by [[India]].<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html Asia Times Online]</ref> Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance with a long standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese citizens may travel to each others' countries without a [[passport]] or [[visa (document)|visa]]. Nepalese citizens may work in India without legal restriction. Although Nepal and India typically have close ties, from time to time Nepal becomes caught up in the problematic Sino-Indian relationship. India considers Nepal as part of its realm of influence, and views Chinese aid with concern. Some Indians consider Nepal to be part of a greater pan-Indian state, an attitude that has caused Nepalese antagonism towards India. In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India, the US, and the UK have worsened. These three foreign countries have been vociferous opponents to the crackdown on civil liberties in Nepal. China mainly seeks cooperation with Nepal on the issues of Tibet. Outside of Asia, Nepal has especially friendly relations with [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]][http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?land_id=120&type_id=14] and has historical military links with the [[United Kingdom]]. In July 2006, British authorities will be granting full British citizenship to all Nepalese and its dependants serving the British army during its occupation in the territory, and entitling them a full privilege to stay and work in the United Kingdom, this as a gesture of serving their colonial master. According to the press secretary approximately there are 100,000 eligible for application. Application can be obtained on the immigration website. [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/] ==Administrative Subdivisions== Nepal is divided into 14 [[Zones of Nepal|zones]] and 75 [[Districts of Nepal|districts]] grouped into five development zones or divisions. Each district is headed by a chief district officer responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries. ==Demographics== [[Image:Shiva_temple_in_Pashupatinath.jpg|thumb|250px|Famous [[Shiva]] [[Hindu]] [[temple]] in [[Pashupatinath]].]] Nepal has a total population of 27,676,547 as of July 2005, with a growth rate of 2.2%. 39% of the population is up to 14 years old, 57.3% are aged between 15 and 64, and 3.7% above 65. The median age is 20.07 (19.91 for males and 20.24 for females). There are 1,060 males for every 1,000 females. Life expectancy is 59.8 years (60.9 for males and 59.5 for females). Total [[Literacy|literacy rate]] is 53.74% (68.51% for males and 42.49% for females). According to the 2001 census, [[Hindus]] constitute 80.6% of the population. [[Buddhists]] make up 10.7%, [[Islam|Muslims]] 4.2%, [[Kirant]] 3.6%, other religions 0.9%. The largest ethnic group is the [[Chhettri]] (15.5%). Other groups are the [[Brahman-Hill]] 12.5%, [[Magar]] 7%, [[Tharu]] 6.6%, [[Tamang]] 5.5%, [[Newar]] 5.4%, [[Kami]] 3.9%, [[Yadav]] 3.9%, other 32.7%, unspecified 2.8%. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the national language with 47.8% of the population speaking it as their first language. Other languages include [[Maithili]] 12.1%, [[Bhojpuri]] 7.4%, [[Tharu]] (Dagaura/Rana) 5.8%, [[Tamang]] 5.1%, [[Nepal Bhasa]] 3.6%, [[Magar]] 3.3%, [[Awadhi]] 2.4%, other 10%, unspecified 2.5%. Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been in general very subtle and academic in nature due to the intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Both share common temples and worship common deities and many of Nepal's Hindus could also be regarded as Buddhists and [[vice versa]]. {{inote|Library of Congress|Religion and Society}}Buddhists are mostly concentrated in the eastern regions and the central Terrai. Buddhism was relatively more common among the Newar and Tibeto-Nepalese groups. Among the Tibeto-Nepalese, those most influenced by Hinduism were the [[Magar]], [[Sunwar]], [[Limbu]] and [[Rai]] peoples. Hindu influence is less prominent among the [[Gurung]], [[Bhutia]], and [[Thakali]] groups, who employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} {{inote|Library of Congress}} The northern mountains are sparsely populated. A majority of the population live in the central highlands despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the fertile Terrai belt in recent years. Kathmandu, with a population of 800,000, is the largest city in the country. ==Culture== Nepali culture is influenced by the cultures of Tibet, which borders to the north, and India, which borders to the south. There are similarities in clothing, language and food. A typical Nepali meal is ''dal-bhat'', boiled lentils served with rice and vegetables, and some spicy relish. This is consumed twice daily, once in the morning and again after sunset. Between these main meals, snacks such as ''chiura'' (beaten rice) and tea are consumed. Meat, eggs, and fish are also eaten, particularly in the mountainous regions, where the diet tends to be richer in protein. Millet-based alcoholic drinks are popular, including ''[[chhaang]]'' and the distilled ''[[rakshi]]''. Folklore is an integral part of Nepali society. Traditional stories are rooted in the reality of day-to-day life—tales of love, affection, battles, and demons and ghosts; they reflect and explain local lifestyles, cultures and belief systems. Many Nepali folktales are enacted in dance and music. The Newar people are well known for masked [[dances|dance]] that tell stories of the gods and heroes. Music is [[percussion instrument|percussion]]-based, sometimes with flutes or [[shawm]] accompanying the intense, nasal vocal lines. Musical styles are a variety of [[pop music|pop]], [[religious music|religious]] and [[folk music]], among other styles. [[Musical genre]]s from Tibet and India have had a strong influence on traditional Nepali music. Women, even of the musician castes, are less likely than men to play music, except in specific situations such as traditional all-female wedding parties. [[Image:Nepal house.jpg|thumb|250px|Houses in rural parts of Nepal are made up of stones and clay.]]The [[sarangi]], a four-stringed, hand-carved [[musical instrument|instrument]] is usually played by wandering minstrels. Since the sixties, [[Nepali rock]] or [[rock music]], sung to Nepali lyrics, has become popular among youth. Also catching on fast is Nepali rap and reggae, derived from African American artists and genres, which has blossomed with the advent of the music video industry. [[football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport, followed by [[cricket]] and [[kabaddi]]. The [[Martyrs Memorial Football League]] is the national football championship. There four television services viz. Nepal Television - the national television channel, NTV 2 Metro - a metro channel owned by the government and two private channels - Kantipur Television and Image Channel. Also many other networks, particularly those that originate in India, are available with the installation of increasingly popular satellite dishes. Lack of electrification makes this difficult. Radio is listened to throughout the kingdom; as of 2000, there were 12 radio stations. The Nepali year begins in mid-April and is divided into 12 months. Saturday is the official weekly day of rest. Main holidays include the National Day (birthday of the late king Tribhuvan) [[December 28]], Prithvi Jayanti, ([[January 11]]), and Martyr's Day ([[February 18]]) and a mix of Hindu and Buddhist festivals such as ''[[Dashai]]'' in autumn, and ''[[Tihar]]'' late autumn. Most marriages are arranged, and divorce is rare. [[Polygamy]] is banned by law; relatively isolated tribes in the north, such as the [[Dolpo]], practise [[polyandry]]. Nepal has a rich tradition of ceremonies, such as ''[[nwaran]]'' (the christening of a child), and the ''[[Pasni]]'', the day a child is first fed rice, and ''[[bratabandha]]'' (the penance ceremony) and ''[[gupha]]'' for prepubescent boys and girls, respectively. In ''[[bel bibaha]]'', preadolescent girls are "married" to the bel fruit tree, ensuring that the girl becomes and remains fertile. Most houses in rural Nepal are made up of a tight bamboo framework with mud and cow-dung walls. These dwellings remain cool in summers and retain warmth in winters. Dwellings at higher altitudes are mostly timber-based. The urban areas are filled with concrete structures up to 8 stories tall. ==See also== {{Nepal}} {{sisterlinks|Nepal}} ==External links== *[http://welcomenepal.com/new/index.asp Nepal Tourism Board] *[http://www.nepalhmg.gov.np Government of Nepal] *[http://www.britannica.com/nations/Nepal Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Nepal'' Country Page] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5283.htm United States Department of State Profile of Nepal] *[http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html Library of Congress &ndash; Nepal] *[http://www.myhimalayas.com/travelogues/nepal.htm MyHimalayas - Travelogues and Pictures from various areas in Nepal] *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Nepal/ Open Directory Project -- Nepal] *{{wikitravel|Nepal}} *[http://planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/WebHome Planet Nepal Wiki] ==References== {{portal}} {{explain-inote}} *{{cite web | title= ....a window to newar culture: Jwajalapa.com | url=http://www.jwajalapa.com | accessdate=May 16 | accessyear=2006 }} *{{cite web | title= A Country Study: Nepal | work=Federal Research Division, [[Library of Congress]] | url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal | work=[[CIA World Factbook]] | url=https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/np.html | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal | work=MSN Encarta | url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562648_3/Nepal.html | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= India Nepal Open Border | work=Nepal Democracy | url=http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/treaties_agreements/nep_india_open_border.htm | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Football at the heart of the Himalaya | work=[[FIFA]] | url=http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/magazine/index/0,1569,102162,00.html?articleid=102162 | accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Etymology of the word "Nepal" | work=Infoclub.com.np | url=http://www.infoclub.com.np/nepal/history/history_ancient.htm| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | author= Siddharth Srivastava | title=India hits Nepal where it hurts | work=Asia Times Online | url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title=rudraksha | url=http://www.rudrakshanepal.com}} *{{cite web | title=Nepal: A state under siege | work=The South Asian: Featured Articles | url=http://www.thesouthasian.org/archives/000155.html| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal: Basic Fact Sheet | work=Nepal homepage | url=http://www.nepalhomepage.com/general/glance.html| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Jailed ex-PM in Nepal court plea | work=[[BBC News]] | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4194160.stm| accessdate=September 29 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Timeline: Nepal | work=[[BBC News]] | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1166516.stm| accessdate=September 29 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal to hold polls in two years| work=[[Times of India]] | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1239136.cms| accessdate=September 29 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | title= Nepal | work=Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation | url=http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm| accessdate=September 23 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite book | author=Barbara Crossette| title=So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas | location= New York | publisher=Vintage | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0679743634}} * {{cite book | author=Bista, Dor Bahadur| title=People of Nepal | publisher= Dept. of Publicity, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of Nepal | year=1967 | id=ISBN 9993304182}} *Michael Hutt, ed., ''Himalayan 'people's war' : Nepal's Maoist rebellion'', London : C. Hurst, 2004 * {{cite book | author=Peter Matthiessen| title=The Snow Leopard | publisher= Penguin | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-00-272025-6}} * {{cite book | author=Joe Simpson| title=Storms of Silence | publisher= Mountaineers Books | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0898865123}} * {{cite book | author=Samrat Upadhyay| title=Arresting God in Kathmandu | publisher= Mariner Books | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0618043713}} * {{cite book | author=Joseph R. Pietri| title=The King of Nepal | publisher=Joseph R. Pietri | year=2001 | id=ISBN 061511928X}} * {{cite book | author=Maurice Herzog| title=[[Annapurna]] | publisher=The Lyons Press | year=1951 | id=ISBN 1558215492}} * {{cite book | author=Dervla Murphy| title=The Waiting Land: A Spell in Nepal | publisher= Transatlantic Arts | year=1968 | id=ISBN 0719517451}} * {{cite book | author=Rishikesh Shaha| title=Modern Nepal: A Political History| publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors | year=2001 | id=ISBN 8173044031}} {{Southern Asia}} {{Asia}} [[Category:Nepal| ]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:SAARC members]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Asia]] [[Category:Constitutional monarchies]] [[ar:نيبال]] [[an:Nepal]] [[az:Nepal]] [[bn:নেপাল]] [[zh-min-nan:Nepal]] [[be:Непал]] [[bg:Непал]] [[ca:Nepal]] [[cv:Непал]] [[cs:Nepál]] [[da:Nepal]] [[de:Nepal]] [[dv:ނޭޕާލް]] [[et:Nepal]] [[el:Νεπάλ]] [[es:Nepal]] [[eo:Nepalo]] [[eu:Nepal]] [[fa:نپال]] [[fo:Nepal]] [[fr:Népal]] [[fy:Nepal]] [[gl:Nepal - नेपाल अधिराज्य]] [[gu:નેપાળ]] [[ko:네팔]] [[hi:नेपाल]] [[hr:Nepal]] [[io:Nepal]] [[id:Nepal]] [[os:Непал]] [[is:Nepal]] [[it:Nepal]] [[he:נפאל]] [[ka:ნეპალი]] [[ks:नेपाल]] [[kw:Nepal]] [[ht:Nepal]] [[ku:Nepal]] [[la:Nepalia]] [[lv:Nepāla]] [[lt:Nepalas]] [[li:Nepal]] [[hu:Nepál]] [[ms:Nepal]] [[nl:Nepal]] [[ne:नेपाल]] [[ja:ネパール]] [[no:Nepal]] [[nn:Nepal]] [[oc:Nepal]] [[ug:نېپلا]] [[pam:Nepal]] [[nds:Nepal]] [[pl:Nepal]] [[pt:Nepal]] [[ro:Nepal]] [[ru:Непал]] [[sa:नेपाल]] [[sq:Nepali]] [[scn:Nepal]] [[simple:Nepal]] [[sk:Nepál]] [[sl:Nepal]] [[sr:Непал]] [[sh:Nepal]] [[fi:Nepal]] [[sv:Nepal]] [[tl:Nepal]] [[ta:நேபாளம்]] [[th:ประเทศเนปาล]] [[vi:Nepal]] [[tr:Nepal]] [[uk:Непал]] [[zh:尼泊尔]] 3101 2006-08-11T19:00:25Z Eukesh 59 /* References */ {{Infobox Country| native_name = नेपाल अधिराज्य <br />''Nēpāl Adhirājya'' | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Nepal | common_name = Nepal | image_flag = Flag of Nepal.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Nepal.png | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = जननी जन्मभूमिष्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी <br /> ([[Sanskrit]]: Motherland is even dearer than the heavens) | image_map = LocationNepal.png | national_anthem = [[Rastriya Gaan]] | official_languages = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] | capital = [[Kathmandu]] | latd = 27|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=85|longm=19|longEW=E | government_type = [[Transitional government]] | leader_title1 = [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]| leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]] | largest_city = [[Kathmandu]] | area = 147,181 sq.km | areami²=56,827 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->| area_rank = 94th | area_magnitude = 1 E10 | percent_water = 2.8 | population_estimate = 27,133,000 | population_estimate_year = July 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 42nd | population_census = 23,151,423| population_census_year = 2002| population_density = 196 | population_densitymi² = 508<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 56th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $42.17 billion<!-- cia.gov --> | GDP_PPP_rank = 81st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,675| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 152nd | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.526 | HDI_rank = 136th | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Unification of Nepal|Unification]] | sovereignty_note = [[1768-12-21]] | currency = [[Nepalese Rupee|Rupee]] | currency_code = NPR | time_zone = [[Nepal Time|NPT]] | utc_offset = +5:45 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +5:45| cctld = [[.np]] | calling_code = 977| footnotes = }} '''Nepal''' ({{IPAudio|Nepal.ogg|[nəˈpɑːl]}}), officially '''Kingdom of Nepal''', is a [[landlocked]] [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] [[country]] in [[South Asia]], bordered by the [[People's Republic of China]] to the north and [[India]] to the south, east and west. == Overview == More than 80% of its people follow [[Hinduism]]. For a small country, the Nepali landscape is uncommonly diverse, ranging from the humid [[Terai]] in the south to the lofty [[Himalaya]]s in the north. It is notable that within a very small width the elevation of Nepal increases from the plain terrain to the tallest Himalayas leading to great vegetation. Nepal boasts eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including [[Mount Everest]] on the border with China. [[Kathmandu]] is the capital and largest city. The other main cities include Biratnagar, Birgunj, Janakpur, Pokhara, [[Nepalgunj]], Mahendranagar etc. The origin of the name ''Nepal'' is uncertain, but the most popular understanding is that it derived from ''Ne'' (holy) and ''pal'' (cave). After a long and rich history, during which the region splintered and coalesced under a variety of absolute rulers, Nepal became a [[constitutional monarchy]] in 1990. However, the monarchy retained many important and ill-defined powers. This arrangement was marked by increasing instability, both in the parliament and, since 1996, in large swathes of the country that have been fought over by [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)|Maoist]] insurgents. The Maoists, alienated from mainstream political parties, went underground and started a guerilla war against both monarchy and mainstream political parties. They have sought to overthrow feudal institutions, including the monarchy, and establish a republic. This has led to the ongoing [[Nepalese Civil War]] in which more than 13,000 people have died. On the pretext of quashing the insurgents, who now control about 70% of the country, the king closed down the parliament and sacked the elected prime minister in 2002 and started ruling through prime ministers appointed by him. He then unilaterally declared a "[[state of emergency]]" early in 2005, and assumed all executive powers. Following the [[Loktantra Andolan]], the king agreed to relinquish the sovereign power back to the people and reinstated the dissolved House of Representatives on [[April 24]], [[2006]]. Using its newly acquired sovereign authority, in [[May 19]] [[2006]], the newly resumed House of Representatives unanimously passed a motion to curtail the power of the king and declared Nepal a [[separation of church and state|Secular state]]. A complete rewrite of the realm's [[constitution]] is expected to happen in the near future. ==History== [[Neolithic]] tools found in the [[Kathmandu Valley]] indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of [[Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity lived in Nepal 2,500 years ago. {{inote|Library of Congress|History}} [[Indo-Aryan]] tribes entered the valley around 1500 BCE. Around 1000 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose. One of the princes of the [[Shakya]] confederation was [[Siddharta Gautama]] (563&ndash;483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the ''[[Buddha]]'' ("the one who has awakened"). By 250 BCE, the region came under the influence of the [[Mauryan empire]] of northern India, and later became a puppet state under the [[Gupta Dynasty]] in the 4th century CE. From the late 5th century CE, rulers called ''the [[Licchavi]]s'' governed the area. The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by a [[Newari]] era, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. By late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the influence of the [[Chalukya|Chalukaya Empire]] of [[South India|southern India]]. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised [[Hinduism]] instead of the prevailing Buddhism. [[Image:Patan temples.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Hindu temples in Patan, the capital one of the three medieval kingdoms]] [[Image:RaniOfNepal1920.jpg|250px|thumb|Nepalese royalty in the 1920s]] By the early 12th century, leaders were emerging whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix ''malla'' ("wrestler"). Initially their reign was marked by upheaval, but the kings consolidated their power over the next 200 years. By late 14th century much of the country began to come under a unified rule. This unity was short-lived: in 1482 the kingdom was carved into three -- [[Kathmandu]], [[Patan]], and [[Bhadgaon]] -- which had petty rivalry for centuries. In 1765 the [[Gorkha]] ruler [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] set out to unify the kingdoms, after first seeking arms and aid from India and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify Nepal three years later. This marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal. A dispute and subsequent war with [[Tibet]] over control of mountain passes forced Nepal to retreat and pay heavy repatriations. Rivalry with the [[British East India Company]] over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the brief but bloody [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1815&ndash;16), in which Nepal defended its present day borders but lost its territories west of the Kali River, including present day [[Uttaranchal]] state and several Punjab Hill States of present day [[Himachal Pradesh]]. The [[Treaty of Sugauli]] also ceded parts of the Terai and [[Sikkim]] to the Company in exchange for Nepalese [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]]. Factionalism among the [[royal family]] led to instability after the war. In 1846, a discovered plot to overthrow [[Jang Bahadur]], a fast-rising military leader by the reigning queen, led to the [[Kot Massacre]]. Armed clashes between [[military]] personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bahadur won and founded the [[Rana]] lineage. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British, and assisted the British during the [[Sepoy Rebellion]] in 1857, and later in both [[World War]]s. In 1923 the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal's independence was recognised by the UK. In the late 1940s, emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, China annexed Tibet in 1950, making India keen on stability in Nepal, to avoid an expansive military campaign. Thus India sponsored [[Tribhuvan]] as Nepal's new king in 1951, and a new government, mostly comprising the [[Nepali Congress Party]]. After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, the democratic experiment was dissolved in 1959, and a "partyless" [[panchayat]] system was made to govern Nepal. In 1989, the "Jan Andolan" (People's) Movement forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and establish a multiparty parliament in May 1991. Nepali Congress Party wins first democratic elections. Girija Prasad Koirala becomes prime minister. ===Recent events=== [[Image:Nepal map.png|thumb|350px|Map of Nepal]] On [[June 1]], [[2001]], the Heir Apparent [[Dipendra of Nepal|Dipendra]] reportedly went on a killing spree in the royal palace, in response to his parents' rejection of his choice of wife. His parents were killed and he died 3 days later. Following the carnage, the throne was inherited by Birendra's brother [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Gyanendra]]. In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy waned. {{fact}} On [[February 1, 2005]] Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers in the name of combating Maoist movement. {{inote|Timeline: Nepal|BBC News}} In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire but which was not reciprocated by the royal government which adamantly vowed to defeat the rebels by force. A few weeks later, the government stated that parliamentary elections would be held by 2007 even after the flopped municipal elections.{{inote|Nepal to hold polls in two years|Times of India}} By then with the support from the Maoists the seven parliamentary parties (SPA) had arranged a mass uprising against the tyrannical rule of King Gyanendra. However the royal government used various false reasons to quell the uprising. By then frustrated by lack of security, jobs and good governance, thousands of people ushered onto the streets demanding the king to renounce power outright but the royal government turned even more ferocious and continued its atrocities including daytime curfews amid Maoist blockade. Food shortages hit people so that they prepared to march into the city centre and encircle royal palace. The security forces turned brutal and the king seemed to think nothing had happened so far. Thousands were injured and 21 people died in the uprising, which was meant to be peaceful but turned violent by the government and its vigilantes. Foreign pressure continued to increase on King Gyanendra to surrender power so that on [[April 21]] [[2006]] Gyanendra announced that he was giving up absolute power and that "Power was being returned to the People". He called on the seven party coalitions to name a possible Prime Minister and that elections would be held as soon as possible. Many Nepalese protesters however, still carried out rallies in numerous cities and vowed to continue the stir until they would achieve complete abolishment of the monarchy. Finally after 19 days of protests, on [[April 24]] midnight, the king called for the country's parliament to reassemble on April 28. Parliament has since reassembled and already stripped the king of his power over the military, abolished his title as the descendent of a Hindu God, and required royalty to pay taxes. Furthermore, several royal officials have been indicted, and the Nepalese government is no longer referred to as "His Majesty's Government" which has been changed to "Government of Nepal". An election of the constituent assembly to rewrite the constitution has been declared unanimously to be held in the near future, with the possible abolition of the monarchy as part of constitutional change.{{fact}}. Following Gyanendra's relinquishing of absolute power, the Nepalese government and Maoist rebels agreed on a ceasefire. In August 2006, both parties came to an agreement on the issue of arms accountability, agreeing to ask the [[United Nations]] to oversee and keep track of the weapons cache of both sides. The government and the Maoists failed to come to an agreement on the future of the monarchy. ==Geography== [[Image:Nepal_topo_en.jpg|thumb|250px|Topographic map of Nepal]] [[Image:KaliGandaki.jpg|thumb|250px|The arid and barren Himalayan landscape]] Nepal is of roughly rectangular shape, 650&nbsp;km wide and 200&nbsp;km broad, with an area of 147,181&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]. Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: the Mountain, [[Hill Region|Hill]], and [[Terai Region]]s. These ecological belts run east-west and are bisected by Nepal's major river systems. The Terai Plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]]. They were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the [[Kosi]], the [[Narayani]] (India's [[Gandak]] River), and the [[Karnali]]. This region has a hot, humid climate. The Hill Region (''Pahar'' in Nepali) abuts the mountains and varies from 1,000 to 4,000 m in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the [[Mahabharat Lekh]] and [[Siwalik Hills|Shiwalik Range]] (also called the Churia Range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanised area. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural centre of Nepal. Unlike the valleys, elevations above 2,500 m are sparsely populated. The Mountain Region contains the highest region in the world. The world's highest mountain, [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmatha'' in Nepali) at 8,850 m is located on the border with [[Tibet]]. Eight of the world's [[Eight-thousander|ten highest mountains]] are located in Nepal. [[Kanchenjunga]], the world's third highest peak, is also located on its eastern border with [[Sikkim]]. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems. Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to altitude. The [[tropical]] and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 m, the [[temperate]] zone 1,200 to 2,400 m, the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 m, the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 m, and the arctic zone above 4,400 m. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalaya blocks cold winds from [[Central Asia]] in winter, and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns. Although Nepal shares no boundary with [[Bangladesh]], the two countries are separated by a narrow strip of land about 21 km wide, called the [[Chicken's Neck]]. Efforts are underway to make this area a free-trade zone. ==Economy== [[Image:Nepal One Rupee obverse.jpg|thumb|250px|A one-rupee banknote]] Nepal is one of the poorest and least developed nations in the world; up to half of its population lives below the [[poverty line]]. The capital crunch has affected development. The [[capital market]] is in its initial stage. The stock exchange is traditional. Only recently, the Opal Securities Investment Pvt. Ltd., the stock broker No. 4, has started posting real time data on the web, [[http://www.nepsestock.com]] at the initiative of [[Nabaraj Pokhrel]], [[http://www.nepsestock.com/contactus.php]]. Agriculture sustains 76% of the population and accounts for about 38% of the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]; services comprise 41%, and industry 21%. Hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. There are just over 4,000 km of paved roads, and one 59 km railway line in the south. Aviation is in a better state, with 46 airports, nine of them with paved runways. There is less than one telephone per 46 people; landline services are poor, although mobile telephony is in a reasonable state in some parts of the country. There are around 100,000 Internet connections, but after the imposition of the "state of emergency", intermittent losses of service have been reported.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} A lack of natural resources, its landlocked location, technological backwardness and the long-running civil war have also prevented Nepal from fully developing its economy. The country receives foreign aid from [[India]], [[PRC|China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]] and the [[European Union]]. The government's budget is about US$665 million, with expenditures of $1.1bn. The [[inflation]] rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation during the 1990s. The [[Nepalese Rupee]] has been tied to the [[Indian Rupee]] at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappeared. A long-standing economic agreement underpins a close relationship with India. The distribution of wealth among people is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. [[Image:Nepal landscape 1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Terraced farming on the foothills of the Himalayas]] Nepal's workforce of about 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labour. Agriculture employs 81% of the workforce, services 16% and manufacturing/craft-based industry 3%. Agricultural produce——mostly grown in the Terrai region bordering India——includes rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industry mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce, including [[jute]], sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. The spectacular landscape and deep, exotic culture of Nepal represents considerable potential for tourism, but growth in this export industry has been stifled by recent political events. The [[unemployment rate|rate of unemployment and underemployment]] approaches half of the working-age population. Thus many Nepalese move to India in search of work, the Gulf countries and Malaysia being new sources of work. Poverty is acute and many of Nepal's women are sold to Indian brothels, 7,000 each year albeit this insulting practise is heavily penalised and mass propaganda against it conducted .<ref>[http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm Nepal]</ref> Nepal receives US$50 million a year through the [[Gurkha]] soldiers who serve in the [[Indian Army|Indian]] and [[British Army|British]] armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. The total remittance value is worth around 1 billion USD, including money sent from Arab and Malaysia, who combinedly employ around 200,000 Nepalese. Nepal's GDP for the year 2005 is estimated at just over US$37 billion (adjusted to [[Purchasing Power Parity]]), making it the 83rd-largest economy in the world. Per-capita income is around US$1,402, ranked 163rd. Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, leather goods, [[jute]] goods and grain total $568 million. Import commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products and fertiliser total US$1.419 bn. India (48.8%), the US (22.3%), and [[Germany]] (8.5%) are its main export partners. Nepal's import partners include India (43%), the [[United Arab Emirates]] (10%), China (10%), [[Saudi Arabia]] (4.4%), and [[Singapore]] (4%).{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} ==Government and politics== Until 1990, Nepal was an [[absolute monarchy]] running under the executive control of the king. Faced with a people's movement against the absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a [[parliamentary monarchy]] with the king as the [[head of state]] and a prime minister as the [[head of the government]]. Nepal's legislature was [[bicameral]] consisting of a [[House of Representatives]] and a [[National Council]]. The House of Representatives consist of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members, 10 nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term, but was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepalese citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote. The executive comprised the King and the [[Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]]). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal have tended to be highly unstable; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991, either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch. The judiciary is made of the ''[[Sarbochha Adalat]]''&mdash;the [[Supreme Court]], appellate courts and various district courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges were appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. The Nepalese political landscape consists of more than two dozen political parties. Based on the parliamentary seats occupied by various parties since 1991, [[Nepali Congress Party]] (NCP), [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)]] (CPN-UML), [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party|National Democratic Party]] (NDP), [[Nepal Sadbhawana Party]] (NGP), [[People’s Front Nepal]] (PFN) and [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Party]] (NWPP) are significant ones. [[United People's Front of Nepal]] (UPFN), which had won third largest number of seats in 1991 parliamentary election, began to splinter in 1993. Its one faction later merged with [[Nepal Communist Party (Masal)]] to form [[PFN]]. However, the other faction established [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] in 1995, which staged an armed rebellion in 1996 and gradually emerged as a major political force - holding a balance of power in Nepal. All these political realignments have made the political scene of Nepal one of the most confusing in the world. Breakup of the parties had become a norm rather than an exception in Nepal. Parties never agreed on most issues of National significance. However, the situation began to change after King Gyanendra took an absolute power in 2005. In [[November 22]], [[2005]], the seven parliamentary parties of the [[Seven Party Alliance]] (SPA) and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] agreed on a historic and unprecedented 12-point [[memorandum of understanding]] (MOU) in [[November 22]], [[2005]] for peace and democracy. Nepalese from various walks of life and the international community regarded the MOU as an appropriate political response to the crisis that was developing in Nepal. In the backdrop of the historical sufferings of the Nepalese people and the enormous human cost of the last ten years of violent conflict, the MOU, which proposes a peaceful transition through an elected constituent assembly, created an acceptable formula for a united movement for democracy. As per the 12-point MOU, the [[Seven Party Alliance]] called for a protest movement and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] supported it. This led to a countrywide uprising that started in April 2006. All political forces including civil society and professional organizations actively galvanized the people. This resulted into massive and spontaneous demonstrations and rallies held across Nepal against the King Gyanendra's autocratic rule. The people's participation was so broad, momentous and pervasive that the king feared of being overrun. On April 21, 2006, King Gyanendra declared that the "power would be returned to the people". This had little effect on the people, who continued to occupy the streets of Kathmandu and other towns, openly defying the daytime curfew. Finally King Gyanendra announced the reinstatement the House of Representatives, so conceding one of the major demands of the SPA, at midnight of [[April 24]], [[2006]]. With this the coalition of political forces decided to call off the protests. Twenty-one people died and thousands were injured during the 19 days of protests. On [[May 19]], [[2006]], the parliament assumed total legislative power and gave executive power to the Government of Nepal (previously known as His Majesty's Government). Names of many institutions (including the army) were stripped of the "royal" adjective and the Raj Parishad (a council of the King's advisors) was abolished, with his duties assigned to the Parliament itself. The activities of the King became subject to parliamentary scrutiny and the King's properties were subjected to taxation. Moreover, Nepal was declared a secular state abrogating the previous status of a Hindu Kingdom, albeit the fear shown by midline Hindu communities over their concern over the abolishment of long founded tradition of Vedic systems. On July 19, 2006, the prime minister, G. P. Koirala, sent a letter to the United Nations announcing the intentions of the Nepalese Government to hold elections to a constituent assembly by April 2007. ==Military and foreign affairs== [[Image:NamcheBazar1.jpg|thumb|250px|The famous outpost of [[Namche Bazaar]] in the Khumbu region close to Mount Everest. The town is built on terraces in what resembles a giant Greek amphitheatre.]] Nepal's military consists of the Nepalese Army which includes the Nepalese Army Air Service, (the [[air force]] unit under it), and the [[Nepalese Police Force]]. On May 19, 2006 The House unanimously passed the proposal to rename Royal Nepal Army (RNA) as the “Nepali Army”. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military&mdash;1.5% of its GDP. Nepali Army having 90,000 soldiers of the country, which is currently engaged in the civil war against the [[Maoist]] [[insurgent]]s. Most of the equipment and arms are supplied by [[India]].<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html Asia Times Online]</ref> Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance with a long standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese citizens may travel to each others' countries without a [[passport]] or [[visa (document)|visa]]. Nepalese citizens may work in India without legal restriction. Although Nepal and India typically have close ties, from time to time Nepal becomes caught up in the problematic Sino-Indian relationship. India considers Nepal as part of its realm of influence, and views Chinese aid with concern. Some Indians consider Nepal to be part of a greater pan-Indian state, an attitude that has caused Nepalese antagonism towards India. In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India, the US, and the UK have worsened. These three foreign countries have been vociferous opponents to the crackdown on civil liberties in Nepal. China mainly seeks cooperation with Nepal on the issues of Tibet. Outside of Asia, Nepal has especially friendly relations with [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]][http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?land_id=120&type_id=14] and has historical military links with the [[United Kingdom]]. In July 2006, British authorities will be granting full British citizenship to all Nepalese and its dependants serving the British army during its occupation in the territory, and entitling them a full privilege to stay and work in the United Kingdom, this as a gesture of serving their colonial master. According to the press secretary approximately there are 100,000 eligible for application. Application can be obtained on the immigration website. [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/] ==Administrative Subdivisions== Nepal is divided into 14 [[Zones of Nepal|zones]] and 75 [[Districts of Nepal|districts]] grouped into five development zones or divisions. Each district is headed by a chief district officer responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries. ==Demographics== [[Image:Shiva_temple_in_Pashupatinath.jpg|thumb|250px|Famous [[Shiva]] [[Hindu]] [[temple]] in [[Pashupatinath]].]] Nepal has a total population of 27,676,547 as of July 2005, with a growth rate of 2.2%. 39% of the population is up to 14 years old, 57.3% are aged between 15 and 64, and 3.7% above 65. The median age is 20.07 (19.91 for males and 20.24 for females). There are 1,060 males for every 1,000 females. Life expectancy is 59.8 years (60.9 for males and 59.5 for females). Total [[Literacy|literacy rate]] is 53.74% (68.51% for males and 42.49% for females). According to the 2001 census, [[Hindus]] constitute 80.6% of the population. [[Buddhists]] make up 10.7%, [[Islam|Muslims]] 4.2%, [[Kirant]] 3.6%, other religions 0.9%. The largest ethnic group is the [[Chhettri]] (15.5%). Other groups are the [[Brahman-Hill]] 12.5%, [[Magar]] 7%, [[Tharu]] 6.6%, [[Tamang]] 5.5%, [[Newar]] 5.4%, [[Kami]] 3.9%, [[Yadav]] 3.9%, other 32.7%, unspecified 2.8%. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the national language with 47.8% of the population speaking it as their first language. Other languages include [[Maithili]] 12.1%, [[Bhojpuri]] 7.4%, [[Tharu]] (Dagaura/Rana) 5.8%, [[Tamang]] 5.1%, [[Nepal Bhasa]] 3.6%, [[Magar]] 3.3%, [[Awadhi]] 2.4%, other 10%, unspecified 2.5%. Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been in general very subtle and academic in nature due to the intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Both share common temples and worship common deities and many of Nepal's Hindus could also be regarded as Buddhists and [[vice versa]]. {{inote|Library of Congress|Religion and Society}}Buddhists are mostly concentrated in the eastern regions and the central Terrai. Buddhism was relatively more common among the Newar and Tibeto-Nepalese groups. Among the Tibeto-Nepalese, those most influenced by Hinduism were the [[Magar]], [[Sunwar]], [[Limbu]] and [[Rai]] peoples. Hindu influence is less prominent among the [[Gurung]], [[Bhutia]], and [[Thakali]] groups, who employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} {{inote|Library of Congress}} The northern mountains are sparsely populated. A majority of the population live in the central highlands despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the fertile Terrai belt in recent years. Kathmandu, with a population of 800,000, is the largest city in the country. ==Culture== Nepali culture is influenced by the cultures of Tibet, which borders to the north, and India, which borders to the south. There are similarities in clothing, language and food. A typical Nepali meal is ''dal-bhat'', boiled lentils served with rice and vegetables, and some spicy relish. This is consumed twice daily, once in the morning and again after sunset. Between these main meals, snacks such as ''chiura'' (beaten rice) and tea are consumed. Meat, eggs, and fish are also eaten, particularly in the mountainous regions, where the diet tends to be richer in protein. Millet-based alcoholic drinks are popular, including ''[[chhaang]]'' and the distilled ''[[rakshi]]''. Folklore is an integral part of Nepali society. Traditional stories are rooted in the reality of day-to-day life—tales of love, affection, battles, and demons and ghosts; they reflect and explain local lifestyles, cultures and belief systems. Many Nepali folktales are enacted in dance and music. The Newar people are well known for masked [[dances|dance]] that tell stories of the gods and heroes. Music is [[percussion instrument|percussion]]-based, sometimes with flutes or [[shawm]] accompanying the intense, nasal vocal lines. Musical styles are a variety of [[pop music|pop]], [[religious music|religious]] and [[folk music]], among other styles. [[Musical genre]]s from Tibet and India have had a strong influence on traditional Nepali music. Women, even of the musician castes, are less likely than men to play music, except in specific situations such as traditional all-female wedding parties. [[Image:Nepal house.jpg|thumb|250px|Houses in rural parts of Nepal are made up of stones and clay.]]The [[sarangi]], a four-stringed, hand-carved [[musical instrument|instrument]] is usually played by wandering minstrels. Since the sixties, [[Nepali rock]] or [[rock music]], sung to Nepali lyrics, has become popular among youth. Also catching on fast is Nepali rap and reggae, derived from African American artists and genres, which has blossomed with the advent of the music video industry. [[football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport, followed by [[cricket]] and [[kabaddi]]. The [[Martyrs Memorial Football League]] is the national football championship. There four television services viz. Nepal Television - the national television channel, NTV 2 Metro - a metro channel owned by the government and two private channels - Kantipur Television and Image Channel. Also many other networks, particularly those that originate in India, are available with the installation of increasingly popular satellite dishes. Lack of electrification makes this difficult. Radio is listened to throughout the kingdom; as of 2000, there were 12 radio stations. The Nepali year begins in mid-April and is divided into 12 months. Saturday is the official weekly day of rest. Main holidays include the National Day (birthday of the late king Tribhuvan) [[December 28]], Prithvi Jayanti, ([[January 11]]), and Martyr's Day ([[February 18]]) and a mix of Hindu and Buddhist festivals such as ''[[Dashai]]'' in autumn, and ''[[Tihar]]'' late autumn. Most marriages are arranged, and divorce is rare. [[Polygamy]] is banned by law; relatively isolated tribes in the north, such as the [[Dolpo]], practise [[polyandry]]. Nepal has a rich tradition of ceremonies, such as ''[[nwaran]]'' (the christening of a child), and the ''[[Pasni]]'', the day a child is first fed rice, and ''[[bratabandha]]'' (the penance ceremony) and ''[[gupha]]'' for prepubescent boys and girls, respectively. In ''[[bel bibaha]]'', preadolescent girls are "married" to the bel fruit tree, ensuring that the girl becomes and remains fertile. Most houses in rural Nepal are made up of a tight bamboo framework with mud and cow-dung walls. These dwellings remain cool in summers and retain warmth in winters. Dwellings at higher altitudes are mostly timber-based. The urban areas are filled with concrete structures up to 8 stories tall. ==See also== {{Nepal}} {{sisterlinks|Nepal}} ==External links== *[http://welcomenepal.com/new/index.asp Nepal Tourism Board] *[http://www.nepalhmg.gov.np Government of Nepal] *[http://www.britannica.com/nations/Nepal Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Nepal'' Country Page] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5283.htm United States Department of State Profile of Nepal] *[http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html Library of Congress &ndash; Nepal] *[http://www.myhimalayas.com/travelogues/nepal.htm MyHimalayas - Travelogues and Pictures from various areas in Nepal] *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Nepal/ Open Directory Project -- Nepal] *{{wikitravel|Nepal}} *[http://planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/WebHome Planet Nepal Wiki] ==श्रोत== * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal आंगलभाषा विकिपिडिया] [[Category:Nepal]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:SAARC members]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Asia]] [[Category:Constitutional monarchies]] [[ar:نيبال]] [[an:Nepal]] [[az:Nepal]] [[bn:নেপাল]] [[zh-min-nan:Nepal]] [[be:Непал]] [[bg:Непал]] [[ca:Nepal]] [[cv:Непал]] [[cs:Nepál]] [[da:Nepal]] [[de:Nepal]] [[dv:ނޭޕާލް]] [[et:Nepal]] [[el:Νεπάλ]] [[es:Nepal]] [[eo:Nepalo]] [[eu:Nepal]] [[fa:نپال]] [[fo:Nepal]] [[fr:Népal]] [[fy:Nepal]] [[gl:Nepal - नेपाल अधिराज्य]] [[gu:નેપાળ]] [[ko:네팔]] [[hi:नेपाल]] [[hr:Nepal]] [[io:Nepal]] [[id:Nepal]] [[os:Непал]] [[is:Nepal]] [[it:Nepal]] [[he:נפאל]] [[ka:ნეპალი]] [[ks:नेपाल]] [[kw:Nepal]] [[ht:Nepal]] [[ku:Nepal]] [[la:Nepalia]] [[lv:Nepāla]] [[lt:Nepalas]] [[li:Nepal]] [[hu:Nepál]] [[ms:Nepal]] [[nl:Nepal]] [[ne:नेपाल]] [[ja:ネパール]] [[no:Nepal]] [[nn:Nepal]] [[oc:Nepal]] [[ug:نېپلا]] [[pam:Nepal]] [[nds:Nepal]] [[pl:Nepal]] [[pt:Nepal]] [[ro:Nepal]] [[ru:Непал]] [[sa:नेपाल]] [[sq:Nepali]] [[scn:Nepal]] [[simple:Nepal]] [[sk:Nepál]] [[sl:Nepal]] [[sr:Непал]] [[sh:Nepal]] [[fi:Nepal]] [[sv:Nepal]] [[tl:Nepal]] [[ta:நேபாளம்]] [[th:ประเทศเนปาล]] [[vi:Nepal]] [[tr:Nepal]] [[uk:Непал]] [[zh:尼泊尔]] 3102 2006-08-11T19:01:55Z Eukesh 59 /* See also */ {{Infobox Country| native_name = नेपाल अधिराज्य <br />''Nēpāl Adhirājya'' | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Nepal | common_name = Nepal | image_flag = Flag of Nepal.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Nepal.png | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = जननी जन्मभूमिष्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी <br /> ([[Sanskrit]]: Motherland is even dearer than the heavens) | image_map = LocationNepal.png | national_anthem = [[Rastriya Gaan]] | official_languages = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] | capital = [[Kathmandu]] | latd = 27|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=85|longm=19|longEW=E | government_type = [[Transitional government]] | leader_title1 = [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]| leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]] | largest_city = [[Kathmandu]] | area = 147,181 sq.km | areami²=56,827 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->| area_rank = 94th | area_magnitude = 1 E10 | percent_water = 2.8 | population_estimate = 27,133,000 | population_estimate_year = July 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 42nd | population_census = 23,151,423| population_census_year = 2002| population_density = 196 | population_densitymi² = 508<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 56th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $42.17 billion<!-- cia.gov --> | GDP_PPP_rank = 81st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,675| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 152nd | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.526 | HDI_rank = 136th | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Unification of Nepal|Unification]] | sovereignty_note = [[1768-12-21]] | currency = [[Nepalese Rupee|Rupee]] | currency_code = NPR | time_zone = [[Nepal Time|NPT]] | utc_offset = +5:45 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +5:45| cctld = [[.np]] | calling_code = 977| footnotes = }} '''Nepal''' ({{IPAudio|Nepal.ogg|[nəˈpɑːl]}}), officially '''Kingdom of Nepal''', is a [[landlocked]] [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] [[country]] in [[South Asia]], bordered by the [[People's Republic of China]] to the north and [[India]] to the south, east and west. == Overview == More than 80% of its people follow [[Hinduism]]. For a small country, the Nepali landscape is uncommonly diverse, ranging from the humid [[Terai]] in the south to the lofty [[Himalaya]]s in the north. It is notable that within a very small width the elevation of Nepal increases from the plain terrain to the tallest Himalayas leading to great vegetation. Nepal boasts eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including [[Mount Everest]] on the border with China. [[Kathmandu]] is the capital and largest city. The other main cities include Biratnagar, Birgunj, Janakpur, Pokhara, [[Nepalgunj]], Mahendranagar etc. The origin of the name ''Nepal'' is uncertain, but the most popular understanding is that it derived from ''Ne'' (holy) and ''pal'' (cave). After a long and rich history, during which the region splintered and coalesced under a variety of absolute rulers, Nepal became a [[constitutional monarchy]] in 1990. However, the monarchy retained many important and ill-defined powers. This arrangement was marked by increasing instability, both in the parliament and, since 1996, in large swathes of the country that have been fought over by [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)|Maoist]] insurgents. The Maoists, alienated from mainstream political parties, went underground and started a guerilla war against both monarchy and mainstream political parties. They have sought to overthrow feudal institutions, including the monarchy, and establish a republic. This has led to the ongoing [[Nepalese Civil War]] in which more than 13,000 people have died. On the pretext of quashing the insurgents, who now control about 70% of the country, the king closed down the parliament and sacked the elected prime minister in 2002 and started ruling through prime ministers appointed by him. He then unilaterally declared a "[[state of emergency]]" early in 2005, and assumed all executive powers. Following the [[Loktantra Andolan]], the king agreed to relinquish the sovereign power back to the people and reinstated the dissolved House of Representatives on [[April 24]], [[2006]]. Using its newly acquired sovereign authority, in [[May 19]] [[2006]], the newly resumed House of Representatives unanimously passed a motion to curtail the power of the king and declared Nepal a [[separation of church and state|Secular state]]. A complete rewrite of the realm's [[constitution]] is expected to happen in the near future. ==History== [[Neolithic]] tools found in the [[Kathmandu Valley]] indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of [[Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity lived in Nepal 2,500 years ago. {{inote|Library of Congress|History}} [[Indo-Aryan]] tribes entered the valley around 1500 BCE. Around 1000 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose. One of the princes of the [[Shakya]] confederation was [[Siddharta Gautama]] (563&ndash;483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the ''[[Buddha]]'' ("the one who has awakened"). By 250 BCE, the region came under the influence of the [[Mauryan empire]] of northern India, and later became a puppet state under the [[Gupta Dynasty]] in the 4th century CE. From the late 5th century CE, rulers called ''the [[Licchavi]]s'' governed the area. The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by a [[Newari]] era, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. By late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the influence of the [[Chalukya|Chalukaya Empire]] of [[South India|southern India]]. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised [[Hinduism]] instead of the prevailing Buddhism. [[Image:Patan temples.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Hindu temples in Patan, the capital one of the three medieval kingdoms]] [[Image:RaniOfNepal1920.jpg|250px|thumb|Nepalese royalty in the 1920s]] By the early 12th century, leaders were emerging whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix ''malla'' ("wrestler"). Initially their reign was marked by upheaval, but the kings consolidated their power over the next 200 years. By late 14th century much of the country began to come under a unified rule. This unity was short-lived: in 1482 the kingdom was carved into three -- [[Kathmandu]], [[Patan]], and [[Bhadgaon]] -- which had petty rivalry for centuries. In 1765 the [[Gorkha]] ruler [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] set out to unify the kingdoms, after first seeking arms and aid from India and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify Nepal three years later. This marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal. A dispute and subsequent war with [[Tibet]] over control of mountain passes forced Nepal to retreat and pay heavy repatriations. Rivalry with the [[British East India Company]] over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the brief but bloody [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1815&ndash;16), in which Nepal defended its present day borders but lost its territories west of the Kali River, including present day [[Uttaranchal]] state and several Punjab Hill States of present day [[Himachal Pradesh]]. The [[Treaty of Sugauli]] also ceded parts of the Terai and [[Sikkim]] to the Company in exchange for Nepalese [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]]. Factionalism among the [[royal family]] led to instability after the war. In 1846, a discovered plot to overthrow [[Jang Bahadur]], a fast-rising military leader by the reigning queen, led to the [[Kot Massacre]]. Armed clashes between [[military]] personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bahadur won and founded the [[Rana]] lineage. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British, and assisted the British during the [[Sepoy Rebellion]] in 1857, and later in both [[World War]]s. In 1923 the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal's independence was recognised by the UK. In the late 1940s, emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, China annexed Tibet in 1950, making India keen on stability in Nepal, to avoid an expansive military campaign. Thus India sponsored [[Tribhuvan]] as Nepal's new king in 1951, and a new government, mostly comprising the [[Nepali Congress Party]]. After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, the democratic experiment was dissolved in 1959, and a "partyless" [[panchayat]] system was made to govern Nepal. In 1989, the "Jan Andolan" (People's) Movement forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and establish a multiparty parliament in May 1991. Nepali Congress Party wins first democratic elections. Girija Prasad Koirala becomes prime minister. ===Recent events=== [[Image:Nepal map.png|thumb|350px|Map of Nepal]] On [[June 1]], [[2001]], the Heir Apparent [[Dipendra of Nepal|Dipendra]] reportedly went on a killing spree in the royal palace, in response to his parents' rejection of his choice of wife. His parents were killed and he died 3 days later. Following the carnage, the throne was inherited by Birendra's brother [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Gyanendra]]. In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy waned. {{fact}} On [[February 1, 2005]] Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers in the name of combating Maoist movement. {{inote|Timeline: Nepal|BBC News}} In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire but which was not reciprocated by the royal government which adamantly vowed to defeat the rebels by force. A few weeks later, the government stated that parliamentary elections would be held by 2007 even after the flopped municipal elections.{{inote|Nepal to hold polls in two years|Times of India}} By then with the support from the Maoists the seven parliamentary parties (SPA) had arranged a mass uprising against the tyrannical rule of King Gyanendra. However the royal government used various false reasons to quell the uprising. By then frustrated by lack of security, jobs and good governance, thousands of people ushered onto the streets demanding the king to renounce power outright but the royal government turned even more ferocious and continued its atrocities including daytime curfews amid Maoist blockade. Food shortages hit people so that they prepared to march into the city centre and encircle royal palace. The security forces turned brutal and the king seemed to think nothing had happened so far. Thousands were injured and 21 people died in the uprising, which was meant to be peaceful but turned violent by the government and its vigilantes. Foreign pressure continued to increase on King Gyanendra to surrender power so that on [[April 21]] [[2006]] Gyanendra announced that he was giving up absolute power and that "Power was being returned to the People". He called on the seven party coalitions to name a possible Prime Minister and that elections would be held as soon as possible. Many Nepalese protesters however, still carried out rallies in numerous cities and vowed to continue the stir until they would achieve complete abolishment of the monarchy. Finally after 19 days of protests, on [[April 24]] midnight, the king called for the country's parliament to reassemble on April 28. Parliament has since reassembled and already stripped the king of his power over the military, abolished his title as the descendent of a Hindu God, and required royalty to pay taxes. Furthermore, several royal officials have been indicted, and the Nepalese government is no longer referred to as "His Majesty's Government" which has been changed to "Government of Nepal". An election of the constituent assembly to rewrite the constitution has been declared unanimously to be held in the near future, with the possible abolition of the monarchy as part of constitutional change.{{fact}}. Following Gyanendra's relinquishing of absolute power, the Nepalese government and Maoist rebels agreed on a ceasefire. In August 2006, both parties came to an agreement on the issue of arms accountability, agreeing to ask the [[United Nations]] to oversee and keep track of the weapons cache of both sides. The government and the Maoists failed to come to an agreement on the future of the monarchy. ==Geography== [[Image:Nepal_topo_en.jpg|thumb|250px|Topographic map of Nepal]] [[Image:KaliGandaki.jpg|thumb|250px|The arid and barren Himalayan landscape]] Nepal is of roughly rectangular shape, 650&nbsp;km wide and 200&nbsp;km broad, with an area of 147,181&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]. Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: the Mountain, [[Hill Region|Hill]], and [[Terai Region]]s. These ecological belts run east-west and are bisected by Nepal's major river systems. The Terai Plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]]. They were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the [[Kosi]], the [[Narayani]] (India's [[Gandak]] River), and the [[Karnali]]. This region has a hot, humid climate. The Hill Region (''Pahar'' in Nepali) abuts the mountains and varies from 1,000 to 4,000 m in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the [[Mahabharat Lekh]] and [[Siwalik Hills|Shiwalik Range]] (also called the Churia Range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanised area. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural centre of Nepal. Unlike the valleys, elevations above 2,500 m are sparsely populated. The Mountain Region contains the highest region in the world. The world's highest mountain, [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmatha'' in Nepali) at 8,850 m is located on the border with [[Tibet]]. Eight of the world's [[Eight-thousander|ten highest mountains]] are located in Nepal. [[Kanchenjunga]], the world's third highest peak, is also located on its eastern border with [[Sikkim]]. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems. Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to altitude. The [[tropical]] and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 m, the [[temperate]] zone 1,200 to 2,400 m, the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 m, the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 m, and the arctic zone above 4,400 m. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalaya blocks cold winds from [[Central Asia]] in winter, and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns. Although Nepal shares no boundary with [[Bangladesh]], the two countries are separated by a narrow strip of land about 21 km wide, called the [[Chicken's Neck]]. Efforts are underway to make this area a free-trade zone. ==Economy== [[Image:Nepal One Rupee obverse.jpg|thumb|250px|A one-rupee banknote]] Nepal is one of the poorest and least developed nations in the world; up to half of its population lives below the [[poverty line]]. The capital crunch has affected development. The [[capital market]] is in its initial stage. The stock exchange is traditional. Only recently, the Opal Securities Investment Pvt. Ltd., the stock broker No. 4, has started posting real time data on the web, [[http://www.nepsestock.com]] at the initiative of [[Nabaraj Pokhrel]], [[http://www.nepsestock.com/contactus.php]]. Agriculture sustains 76% of the population and accounts for about 38% of the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]; services comprise 41%, and industry 21%. Hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. There are just over 4,000 km of paved roads, and one 59 km railway line in the south. Aviation is in a better state, with 46 airports, nine of them with paved runways. There is less than one telephone per 46 people; landline services are poor, although mobile telephony is in a reasonable state in some parts of the country. There are around 100,000 Internet connections, but after the imposition of the "state of emergency", intermittent losses of service have been reported.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} A lack of natural resources, its landlocked location, technological backwardness and the long-running civil war have also prevented Nepal from fully developing its economy. The country receives foreign aid from [[India]], [[PRC|China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]] and the [[European Union]]. The government's budget is about US$665 million, with expenditures of $1.1bn. The [[inflation]] rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation during the 1990s. The [[Nepalese Rupee]] has been tied to the [[Indian Rupee]] at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappeared. A long-standing economic agreement underpins a close relationship with India. The distribution of wealth among people is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. [[Image:Nepal landscape 1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Terraced farming on the foothills of the Himalayas]] Nepal's workforce of about 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labour. Agriculture employs 81% of the workforce, services 16% and manufacturing/craft-based industry 3%. Agricultural produce——mostly grown in the Terrai region bordering India——includes rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industry mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce, including [[jute]], sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. The spectacular landscape and deep, exotic culture of Nepal represents considerable potential for tourism, but growth in this export industry has been stifled by recent political events. The [[unemployment rate|rate of unemployment and underemployment]] approaches half of the working-age population. Thus many Nepalese move to India in search of work, the Gulf countries and Malaysia being new sources of work. Poverty is acute and many of Nepal's women are sold to Indian brothels, 7,000 each year albeit this insulting practise is heavily penalised and mass propaganda against it conducted .<ref>[http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm Nepal]</ref> Nepal receives US$50 million a year through the [[Gurkha]] soldiers who serve in the [[Indian Army|Indian]] and [[British Army|British]] armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. The total remittance value is worth around 1 billion USD, including money sent from Arab and Malaysia, who combinedly employ around 200,000 Nepalese. Nepal's GDP for the year 2005 is estimated at just over US$37 billion (adjusted to [[Purchasing Power Parity]]), making it the 83rd-largest economy in the world. Per-capita income is around US$1,402, ranked 163rd. Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, leather goods, [[jute]] goods and grain total $568 million. Import commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products and fertiliser total US$1.419 bn. India (48.8%), the US (22.3%), and [[Germany]] (8.5%) are its main export partners. Nepal's import partners include India (43%), the [[United Arab Emirates]] (10%), China (10%), [[Saudi Arabia]] (4.4%), and [[Singapore]] (4%).{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} ==Government and politics== Until 1990, Nepal was an [[absolute monarchy]] running under the executive control of the king. Faced with a people's movement against the absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a [[parliamentary monarchy]] with the king as the [[head of state]] and a prime minister as the [[head of the government]]. Nepal's legislature was [[bicameral]] consisting of a [[House of Representatives]] and a [[National Council]]. The House of Representatives consist of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members, 10 nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term, but was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepalese citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote. The executive comprised the King and the [[Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]]). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal have tended to be highly unstable; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991, either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch. The judiciary is made of the ''[[Sarbochha Adalat]]''&mdash;the [[Supreme Court]], appellate courts and various district courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges were appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. The Nepalese political landscape consists of more than two dozen political parties. Based on the parliamentary seats occupied by various parties since 1991, [[Nepali Congress Party]] (NCP), [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)]] (CPN-UML), [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party|National Democratic Party]] (NDP), [[Nepal Sadbhawana Party]] (NGP), [[People’s Front Nepal]] (PFN) and [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Party]] (NWPP) are significant ones. [[United People's Front of Nepal]] (UPFN), which had won third largest number of seats in 1991 parliamentary election, began to splinter in 1993. Its one faction later merged with [[Nepal Communist Party (Masal)]] to form [[PFN]]. However, the other faction established [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] in 1995, which staged an armed rebellion in 1996 and gradually emerged as a major political force - holding a balance of power in Nepal. All these political realignments have made the political scene of Nepal one of the most confusing in the world. Breakup of the parties had become a norm rather than an exception in Nepal. Parties never agreed on most issues of National significance. However, the situation began to change after King Gyanendra took an absolute power in 2005. In [[November 22]], [[2005]], the seven parliamentary parties of the [[Seven Party Alliance]] (SPA) and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] agreed on a historic and unprecedented 12-point [[memorandum of understanding]] (MOU) in [[November 22]], [[2005]] for peace and democracy. Nepalese from various walks of life and the international community regarded the MOU as an appropriate political response to the crisis that was developing in Nepal. In the backdrop of the historical sufferings of the Nepalese people and the enormous human cost of the last ten years of violent conflict, the MOU, which proposes a peaceful transition through an elected constituent assembly, created an acceptable formula for a united movement for democracy. As per the 12-point MOU, the [[Seven Party Alliance]] called for a protest movement and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] supported it. This led to a countrywide uprising that started in April 2006. All political forces including civil society and professional organizations actively galvanized the people. This resulted into massive and spontaneous demonstrations and rallies held across Nepal against the King Gyanendra's autocratic rule. The people's participation was so broad, momentous and pervasive that the king feared of being overrun. On April 21, 2006, King Gyanendra declared that the "power would be returned to the people". This had little effect on the people, who continued to occupy the streets of Kathmandu and other towns, openly defying the daytime curfew. Finally King Gyanendra announced the reinstatement the House of Representatives, so conceding one of the major demands of the SPA, at midnight of [[April 24]], [[2006]]. With this the coalition of political forces decided to call off the protests. Twenty-one people died and thousands were injured during the 19 days of protests. On [[May 19]], [[2006]], the parliament assumed total legislative power and gave executive power to the Government of Nepal (previously known as His Majesty's Government). Names of many institutions (including the army) were stripped of the "royal" adjective and the Raj Parishad (a council of the King's advisors) was abolished, with his duties assigned to the Parliament itself. The activities of the King became subject to parliamentary scrutiny and the King's properties were subjected to taxation. Moreover, Nepal was declared a secular state abrogating the previous status of a Hindu Kingdom, albeit the fear shown by midline Hindu communities over their concern over the abolishment of long founded tradition of Vedic systems. On July 19, 2006, the prime minister, G. P. Koirala, sent a letter to the United Nations announcing the intentions of the Nepalese Government to hold elections to a constituent assembly by April 2007. ==Military and foreign affairs== [[Image:NamcheBazar1.jpg|thumb|250px|The famous outpost of [[Namche Bazaar]] in the Khumbu region close to Mount Everest. The town is built on terraces in what resembles a giant Greek amphitheatre.]] Nepal's military consists of the Nepalese Army which includes the Nepalese Army Air Service, (the [[air force]] unit under it), and the [[Nepalese Police Force]]. On May 19, 2006 The House unanimously passed the proposal to rename Royal Nepal Army (RNA) as the “Nepali Army”. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military&mdash;1.5% of its GDP. Nepali Army having 90,000 soldiers of the country, which is currently engaged in the civil war against the [[Maoist]] [[insurgent]]s. Most of the equipment and arms are supplied by [[India]].<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html Asia Times Online]</ref> Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance with a long standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese citizens may travel to each others' countries without a [[passport]] or [[visa (document)|visa]]. Nepalese citizens may work in India without legal restriction. Although Nepal and India typically have close ties, from time to time Nepal becomes caught up in the problematic Sino-Indian relationship. India considers Nepal as part of its realm of influence, and views Chinese aid with concern. Some Indians consider Nepal to be part of a greater pan-Indian state, an attitude that has caused Nepalese antagonism towards India. In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India, the US, and the UK have worsened. These three foreign countries have been vociferous opponents to the crackdown on civil liberties in Nepal. China mainly seeks cooperation with Nepal on the issues of Tibet. Outside of Asia, Nepal has especially friendly relations with [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]][http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?land_id=120&type_id=14] and has historical military links with the [[United Kingdom]]. In July 2006, British authorities will be granting full British citizenship to all Nepalese and its dependants serving the British army during its occupation in the territory, and entitling them a full privilege to stay and work in the United Kingdom, this as a gesture of serving their colonial master. According to the press secretary approximately there are 100,000 eligible for application. Application can be obtained on the immigration website. [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/] ==Administrative Subdivisions== Nepal is divided into 14 [[Zones of Nepal|zones]] and 75 [[Districts of Nepal|districts]] grouped into five development zones or divisions. Each district is headed by a chief district officer responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries. ==Demographics== [[Image:Shiva_temple_in_Pashupatinath.jpg|thumb|250px|Famous [[Shiva]] [[Hindu]] [[temple]] in [[Pashupatinath]].]] Nepal has a total population of 27,676,547 as of July 2005, with a growth rate of 2.2%. 39% of the population is up to 14 years old, 57.3% are aged between 15 and 64, and 3.7% above 65. The median age is 20.07 (19.91 for males and 20.24 for females). There are 1,060 males for every 1,000 females. Life expectancy is 59.8 years (60.9 for males and 59.5 for females). Total [[Literacy|literacy rate]] is 53.74% (68.51% for males and 42.49% for females). According to the 2001 census, [[Hindus]] constitute 80.6% of the population. [[Buddhists]] make up 10.7%, [[Islam|Muslims]] 4.2%, [[Kirant]] 3.6%, other religions 0.9%. The largest ethnic group is the [[Chhettri]] (15.5%). Other groups are the [[Brahman-Hill]] 12.5%, [[Magar]] 7%, [[Tharu]] 6.6%, [[Tamang]] 5.5%, [[Newar]] 5.4%, [[Kami]] 3.9%, [[Yadav]] 3.9%, other 32.7%, unspecified 2.8%. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the national language with 47.8% of the population speaking it as their first language. Other languages include [[Maithili]] 12.1%, [[Bhojpuri]] 7.4%, [[Tharu]] (Dagaura/Rana) 5.8%, [[Tamang]] 5.1%, [[Nepal Bhasa]] 3.6%, [[Magar]] 3.3%, [[Awadhi]] 2.4%, other 10%, unspecified 2.5%. Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been in general very subtle and academic in nature due to the intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Both share common temples and worship common deities and many of Nepal's Hindus could also be regarded as Buddhists and [[vice versa]]. {{inote|Library of Congress|Religion and Society}}Buddhists are mostly concentrated in the eastern regions and the central Terrai. Buddhism was relatively more common among the Newar and Tibeto-Nepalese groups. Among the Tibeto-Nepalese, those most influenced by Hinduism were the [[Magar]], [[Sunwar]], [[Limbu]] and [[Rai]] peoples. Hindu influence is less prominent among the [[Gurung]], [[Bhutia]], and [[Thakali]] groups, who employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} {{inote|Library of Congress}} The northern mountains are sparsely populated. A majority of the population live in the central highlands despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the fertile Terrai belt in recent years. Kathmandu, with a population of 800,000, is the largest city in the country. ==Culture== Nepali culture is influenced by the cultures of Tibet, which borders to the north, and India, which borders to the south. There are similarities in clothing, language and food. A typical Nepali meal is ''dal-bhat'', boiled lentils served with rice and vegetables, and some spicy relish. This is consumed twice daily, once in the morning and again after sunset. Between these main meals, snacks such as ''chiura'' (beaten rice) and tea are consumed. Meat, eggs, and fish are also eaten, particularly in the mountainous regions, where the diet tends to be richer in protein. Millet-based alcoholic drinks are popular, including ''[[chhaang]]'' and the distilled ''[[rakshi]]''. Folklore is an integral part of Nepali society. Traditional stories are rooted in the reality of day-to-day life—tales of love, affection, battles, and demons and ghosts; they reflect and explain local lifestyles, cultures and belief systems. Many Nepali folktales are enacted in dance and music. The Newar people are well known for masked [[dances|dance]] that tell stories of the gods and heroes. Music is [[percussion instrument|percussion]]-based, sometimes with flutes or [[shawm]] accompanying the intense, nasal vocal lines. Musical styles are a variety of [[pop music|pop]], [[religious music|religious]] and [[folk music]], among other styles. [[Musical genre]]s from Tibet and India have had a strong influence on traditional Nepali music. Women, even of the musician castes, are less likely than men to play music, except in specific situations such as traditional all-female wedding parties. [[Image:Nepal house.jpg|thumb|250px|Houses in rural parts of Nepal are made up of stones and clay.]]The [[sarangi]], a four-stringed, hand-carved [[musical instrument|instrument]] is usually played by wandering minstrels. Since the sixties, [[Nepali rock]] or [[rock music]], sung to Nepali lyrics, has become popular among youth. Also catching on fast is Nepali rap and reggae, derived from African American artists and genres, which has blossomed with the advent of the music video industry. [[football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport, followed by [[cricket]] and [[kabaddi]]. The [[Martyrs Memorial Football League]] is the national football championship. There four television services viz. Nepal Television - the national television channel, NTV 2 Metro - a metro channel owned by the government and two private channels - Kantipur Television and Image Channel. Also many other networks, particularly those that originate in India, are available with the installation of increasingly popular satellite dishes. Lack of electrification makes this difficult. Radio is listened to throughout the kingdom; as of 2000, there were 12 radio stations. The Nepali year begins in mid-April and is divided into 12 months. Saturday is the official weekly day of rest. Main holidays include the National Day (birthday of the late king Tribhuvan) [[December 28]], Prithvi Jayanti, ([[January 11]]), and Martyr's Day ([[February 18]]) and a mix of Hindu and Buddhist festivals such as ''[[Dashai]]'' in autumn, and ''[[Tihar]]'' late autumn. Most marriages are arranged, and divorce is rare. [[Polygamy]] is banned by law; relatively isolated tribes in the north, such as the [[Dolpo]], practise [[polyandry]]. Nepal has a rich tradition of ceremonies, such as ''[[nwaran]]'' (the christening of a child), and the ''[[Pasni]]'', the day a child is first fed rice, and ''[[bratabandha]]'' (the penance ceremony) and ''[[gupha]]'' for prepubescent boys and girls, respectively. In ''[[bel bibaha]]'', preadolescent girls are "married" to the bel fruit tree, ensuring that the girl becomes and remains fertile. Most houses in rural Nepal are made up of a tight bamboo framework with mud and cow-dung walls. These dwellings remain cool in summers and retain warmth in winters. Dwellings at higher altitudes are mostly timber-based. The urban areas are filled with concrete structures up to 8 stories tall. ==See also== * [[नेपाल भाषा]] ==External links== *[http://welcomenepal.com/new/index.asp Nepal Tourism Board] *[http://www.nepalhmg.gov.np Government of Nepal] *[http://www.britannica.com/nations/Nepal Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Nepal'' Country Page] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5283.htm United States Department of State Profile of Nepal] *[http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html Library of Congress &ndash; Nepal] *[http://www.myhimalayas.com/travelogues/nepal.htm MyHimalayas - Travelogues and Pictures from various areas in Nepal] *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Nepal/ Open Directory Project -- Nepal] *{{wikitravel|Nepal}} *[http://planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/WebHome Planet Nepal Wiki] ==श्रोत== * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal आंगलभाषा विकिपिडिया] [[Category:Nepal]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:SAARC members]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Asia]] [[Category:Constitutional monarchies]] [[ar:نيبال]] [[an:Nepal]] [[az:Nepal]] [[bn:নেপাল]] [[zh-min-nan:Nepal]] [[be:Непал]] [[bg:Непал]] [[ca:Nepal]] [[cv:Непал]] [[cs:Nepál]] [[da:Nepal]] [[de:Nepal]] [[dv:ނޭޕާލް]] [[et:Nepal]] [[el:Νεπάλ]] [[es:Nepal]] [[eo:Nepalo]] [[eu:Nepal]] [[fa:نپال]] [[fo:Nepal]] [[fr:Népal]] [[fy:Nepal]] [[gl:Nepal - नेपाल अधिराज्य]] [[gu:નેપાળ]] [[ko:네팔]] [[hi:नेपाल]] [[hr:Nepal]] [[io:Nepal]] [[id:Nepal]] [[os:Непал]] [[is:Nepal]] [[it:Nepal]] [[he:נפאל]] [[ka:ნეპალი]] [[ks:नेपाल]] [[kw:Nepal]] [[ht:Nepal]] [[ku:Nepal]] [[la:Nepalia]] [[lv:Nepāla]] [[lt:Nepalas]] [[li:Nepal]] [[hu:Nepál]] [[ms:Nepal]] [[nl:Nepal]] [[ne:नेपाल]] [[ja:ネパール]] [[no:Nepal]] [[nn:Nepal]] [[oc:Nepal]] [[ug:نېپلا]] [[pam:Nepal]] [[nds:Nepal]] [[pl:Nepal]] [[pt:Nepal]] [[ro:Nepal]] [[ru:Непал]] [[sa:नेपाल]] [[sq:Nepali]] [[scn:Nepal]] [[simple:Nepal]] [[sk:Nepál]] [[sl:Nepal]] [[sr:Непал]] [[sh:Nepal]] [[fi:Nepal]] [[sv:Nepal]] [[tl:Nepal]] [[ta:நேபாளம்]] [[th:ประเทศเนปาล]] [[vi:Nepal]] [[tr:Nepal]] [[uk:Непал]] [[zh:尼泊尔]] 3103 2006-08-11T19:02:59Z Eukesh 59 /* Overview */ {{Infobox Country| native_name = नेपाल अधिराज्य <br />''Nēpāl Adhirājya'' | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Nepal | common_name = Nepal | image_flag = Flag of Nepal.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Nepal.png | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = जननी जन्मभूमिष्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी <br /> ([[Sanskrit]]: Motherland is even dearer than the heavens) | image_map = LocationNepal.png | national_anthem = [[Rastriya Gaan]] | official_languages = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] | capital = [[Kathmandu]] | latd = 27|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=85|longm=19|longEW=E | government_type = [[Transitional government]] | leader_title1 = [[Girija Prasad Koirala]]| leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]] | largest_city = [[Kathmandu]] | area = 147,181 sq.km | areami²=56,827 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->| area_rank = 94th | area_magnitude = 1 E10 | percent_water = 2.8 | population_estimate = 27,133,000 | population_estimate_year = July 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 42nd | population_census = 23,151,423| population_census_year = 2002| population_density = 196 | population_densitymi² = 508<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 56th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $42.17 billion<!-- cia.gov --> | GDP_PPP_rank = 81st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,675| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 152nd | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.526 | HDI_rank = 136th | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Unification of Nepal|Unification]] | sovereignty_note = [[1768-12-21]] | currency = [[Nepalese Rupee|Rupee]] | currency_code = NPR | time_zone = [[Nepal Time|NPT]] | utc_offset = +5:45 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +5:45| cctld = [[.np]] | calling_code = 977| footnotes = }} '''Nepal''' ({{IPAudio|Nepal.ogg|[nəˈpɑːl]}}), officially '''Kingdom of Nepal''', is a [[landlocked]] [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] [[country]] in [[South Asia]], bordered by the [[People's Republic of China]] to the north and [[India]] to the south, east and west. == संक्षिप्त == More than 80% of its people follow [[Hinduism]]. For a small country, the Nepali landscape is uncommonly diverse, ranging from the humid [[Terai]] in the south to the lofty [[Himalaya]]s in the north. It is notable that within a very small width the elevation of Nepal increases from the plain terrain to the tallest Himalayas leading to great vegetation. Nepal boasts eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including [[Mount Everest]] on the border with China. [[Kathmandu]] is the capital and largest city. The other main cities include Biratnagar, Birgunj, Janakpur, Pokhara, [[Nepalgunj]], Mahendranagar etc. The origin of the name ''Nepal'' is uncertain, but the most popular understanding is that it derived from ''Ne'' (holy) and ''pal'' (cave). After a long and rich history, during which the region splintered and coalesced under a variety of absolute rulers, Nepal became a [[constitutional monarchy]] in 1990. However, the monarchy retained many important and ill-defined powers. This arrangement was marked by increasing instability, both in the parliament and, since 1996, in large swathes of the country that have been fought over by [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)|Maoist]] insurgents. The Maoists, alienated from mainstream political parties, went underground and started a guerilla war against both monarchy and mainstream political parties. They have sought to overthrow feudal institutions, including the monarchy, and establish a republic. This has led to the ongoing [[Nepalese Civil War]] in which more than 13,000 people have died. On the pretext of quashing the insurgents, who now control about 70% of the country, the king closed down the parliament and sacked the elected prime minister in 2002 and started ruling through prime ministers appointed by him. He then unilaterally declared a "[[state of emergency]]" early in 2005, and assumed all executive powers. Following the [[Loktantra Andolan]], the king agreed to relinquish the sovereign power back to the people and reinstated the dissolved House of Representatives on [[April 24]], [[2006]]. Using its newly acquired sovereign authority, in [[May 19]] [[2006]], the newly resumed House of Representatives unanimously passed a motion to curtail the power of the king and declared Nepal a [[separation of church and state|Secular state]]. A complete rewrite of the realm's [[constitution]] is expected to happen in the near future. ==History== [[Neolithic]] tools found in the [[Kathmandu Valley]] indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of [[Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity lived in Nepal 2,500 years ago. {{inote|Library of Congress|History}} [[Indo-Aryan]] tribes entered the valley around 1500 BCE. Around 1000 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose. One of the princes of the [[Shakya]] confederation was [[Siddharta Gautama]] (563&ndash;483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the ''[[Buddha]]'' ("the one who has awakened"). By 250 BCE, the region came under the influence of the [[Mauryan empire]] of northern India, and later became a puppet state under the [[Gupta Dynasty]] in the 4th century CE. From the late 5th century CE, rulers called ''the [[Licchavi]]s'' governed the area. The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by a [[Newari]] era, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. By late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the influence of the [[Chalukya|Chalukaya Empire]] of [[South India|southern India]]. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised [[Hinduism]] instead of the prevailing Buddhism. [[Image:Patan temples.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Hindu temples in Patan, the capital one of the three medieval kingdoms]] [[Image:RaniOfNepal1920.jpg|250px|thumb|Nepalese royalty in the 1920s]] By the early 12th century, leaders were emerging whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix ''malla'' ("wrestler"). Initially their reign was marked by upheaval, but the kings consolidated their power over the next 200 years. By late 14th century much of the country began to come under a unified rule. This unity was short-lived: in 1482 the kingdom was carved into three -- [[Kathmandu]], [[Patan]], and [[Bhadgaon]] -- which had petty rivalry for centuries. In 1765 the [[Gorkha]] ruler [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] set out to unify the kingdoms, after first seeking arms and aid from India and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify Nepal three years later. This marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal. A dispute and subsequent war with [[Tibet]] over control of mountain passes forced Nepal to retreat and pay heavy repatriations. Rivalry with the [[British East India Company]] over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the brief but bloody [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1815&ndash;16), in which Nepal defended its present day borders but lost its territories west of the Kali River, including present day [[Uttaranchal]] state and several Punjab Hill States of present day [[Himachal Pradesh]]. The [[Treaty of Sugauli]] also ceded parts of the Terai and [[Sikkim]] to the Company in exchange for Nepalese [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]]. Factionalism among the [[royal family]] led to instability after the war. In 1846, a discovered plot to overthrow [[Jang Bahadur]], a fast-rising military leader by the reigning queen, led to the [[Kot Massacre]]. Armed clashes between [[military]] personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bahadur won and founded the [[Rana]] lineage. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British, and assisted the British during the [[Sepoy Rebellion]] in 1857, and later in both [[World War]]s. In 1923 the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal's independence was recognised by the UK. In the late 1940s, emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, China annexed Tibet in 1950, making India keen on stability in Nepal, to avoid an expansive military campaign. Thus India sponsored [[Tribhuvan]] as Nepal's new king in 1951, and a new government, mostly comprising the [[Nepali Congress Party]]. After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, the democratic experiment was dissolved in 1959, and a "partyless" [[panchayat]] system was made to govern Nepal. In 1989, the "Jan Andolan" (People's) Movement forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and establish a multiparty parliament in May 1991. Nepali Congress Party wins first democratic elections. Girija Prasad Koirala becomes prime minister. ===Recent events=== [[Image:Nepal map.png|thumb|350px|Map of Nepal]] On [[June 1]], [[2001]], the Heir Apparent [[Dipendra of Nepal|Dipendra]] reportedly went on a killing spree in the royal palace, in response to his parents' rejection of his choice of wife. His parents were killed and he died 3 days later. Following the carnage, the throne was inherited by Birendra's brother [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Gyanendra]]. In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy waned. {{fact}} On [[February 1, 2005]] Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers in the name of combating Maoist movement. {{inote|Timeline: Nepal|BBC News}} In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire but which was not reciprocated by the royal government which adamantly vowed to defeat the rebels by force. A few weeks later, the government stated that parliamentary elections would be held by 2007 even after the flopped municipal elections.{{inote|Nepal to hold polls in two years|Times of India}} By then with the support from the Maoists the seven parliamentary parties (SPA) had arranged a mass uprising against the tyrannical rule of King Gyanendra. However the royal government used various false reasons to quell the uprising. By then frustrated by lack of security, jobs and good governance, thousands of people ushered onto the streets demanding the king to renounce power outright but the royal government turned even more ferocious and continued its atrocities including daytime curfews amid Maoist blockade. Food shortages hit people so that they prepared to march into the city centre and encircle royal palace. The security forces turned brutal and the king seemed to think nothing had happened so far. Thousands were injured and 21 people died in the uprising, which was meant to be peaceful but turned violent by the government and its vigilantes. Foreign pressure continued to increase on King Gyanendra to surrender power so that on [[April 21]] [[2006]] Gyanendra announced that he was giving up absolute power and that "Power was being returned to the People". He called on the seven party coalitions to name a possible Prime Minister and that elections would be held as soon as possible. Many Nepalese protesters however, still carried out rallies in numerous cities and vowed to continue the stir until they would achieve complete abolishment of the monarchy. Finally after 19 days of protests, on [[April 24]] midnight, the king called for the country's parliament to reassemble on April 28. Parliament has since reassembled and already stripped the king of his power over the military, abolished his title as the descendent of a Hindu God, and required royalty to pay taxes. Furthermore, several royal officials have been indicted, and the Nepalese government is no longer referred to as "His Majesty's Government" which has been changed to "Government of Nepal". An election of the constituent assembly to rewrite the constitution has been declared unanimously to be held in the near future, with the possible abolition of the monarchy as part of constitutional change.{{fact}}. Following Gyanendra's relinquishing of absolute power, the Nepalese government and Maoist rebels agreed on a ceasefire. In August 2006, both parties came to an agreement on the issue of arms accountability, agreeing to ask the [[United Nations]] to oversee and keep track of the weapons cache of both sides. The government and the Maoists failed to come to an agreement on the future of the monarchy. ==Geography== [[Image:Nepal_topo_en.jpg|thumb|250px|Topographic map of Nepal]] [[Image:KaliGandaki.jpg|thumb|250px|The arid and barren Himalayan landscape]] Nepal is of roughly rectangular shape, 650&nbsp;km wide and 200&nbsp;km broad, with an area of 147,181&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]. Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: the Mountain, [[Hill Region|Hill]], and [[Terai Region]]s. These ecological belts run east-west and are bisected by Nepal's major river systems. The Terai Plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]]. They were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the [[Kosi]], the [[Narayani]] (India's [[Gandak]] River), and the [[Karnali]]. This region has a hot, humid climate. The Hill Region (''Pahar'' in Nepali) abuts the mountains and varies from 1,000 to 4,000 m in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the [[Mahabharat Lekh]] and [[Siwalik Hills|Shiwalik Range]] (also called the Churia Range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanised area. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural centre of Nepal. Unlike the valleys, elevations above 2,500 m are sparsely populated. The Mountain Region contains the highest region in the world. The world's highest mountain, [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmatha'' in Nepali) at 8,850 m is located on the border with [[Tibet]]. Eight of the world's [[Eight-thousander|ten highest mountains]] are located in Nepal. [[Kanchenjunga]], the world's third highest peak, is also located on its eastern border with [[Sikkim]]. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems. Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to altitude. The [[tropical]] and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 m, the [[temperate]] zone 1,200 to 2,400 m, the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 m, the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 m, and the arctic zone above 4,400 m. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalaya blocks cold winds from [[Central Asia]] in winter, and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns. Although Nepal shares no boundary with [[Bangladesh]], the two countries are separated by a narrow strip of land about 21 km wide, called the [[Chicken's Neck]]. Efforts are underway to make this area a free-trade zone. ==Economy== [[Image:Nepal One Rupee obverse.jpg|thumb|250px|A one-rupee banknote]] Nepal is one of the poorest and least developed nations in the world; up to half of its population lives below the [[poverty line]]. The capital crunch has affected development. The [[capital market]] is in its initial stage. The stock exchange is traditional. Only recently, the Opal Securities Investment Pvt. Ltd., the stock broker No. 4, has started posting real time data on the web, [[http://www.nepsestock.com]] at the initiative of [[Nabaraj Pokhrel]], [[http://www.nepsestock.com/contactus.php]]. Agriculture sustains 76% of the population and accounts for about 38% of the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]; services comprise 41%, and industry 21%. Hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. There are just over 4,000 km of paved roads, and one 59 km railway line in the south. Aviation is in a better state, with 46 airports, nine of them with paved runways. There is less than one telephone per 46 people; landline services are poor, although mobile telephony is in a reasonable state in some parts of the country. There are around 100,000 Internet connections, but after the imposition of the "state of emergency", intermittent losses of service have been reported.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} A lack of natural resources, its landlocked location, technological backwardness and the long-running civil war have also prevented Nepal from fully developing its economy. The country receives foreign aid from [[India]], [[PRC|China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]] and the [[European Union]]. The government's budget is about US$665 million, with expenditures of $1.1bn. The [[inflation]] rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation during the 1990s. The [[Nepalese Rupee]] has been tied to the [[Indian Rupee]] at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappeared. A long-standing economic agreement underpins a close relationship with India. The distribution of wealth among people is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. [[Image:Nepal landscape 1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Terraced farming on the foothills of the Himalayas]] Nepal's workforce of about 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labour. Agriculture employs 81% of the workforce, services 16% and manufacturing/craft-based industry 3%. Agricultural produce——mostly grown in the Terrai region bordering India——includes rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industry mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce, including [[jute]], sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. The spectacular landscape and deep, exotic culture of Nepal represents considerable potential for tourism, but growth in this export industry has been stifled by recent political events. The [[unemployment rate|rate of unemployment and underemployment]] approaches half of the working-age population. Thus many Nepalese move to India in search of work, the Gulf countries and Malaysia being new sources of work. Poverty is acute and many of Nepal's women are sold to Indian brothels, 7,000 each year albeit this insulting practise is heavily penalised and mass propaganda against it conducted .<ref>[http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm Nepal]</ref> Nepal receives US$50 million a year through the [[Gurkha]] soldiers who serve in the [[Indian Army|Indian]] and [[British Army|British]] armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. The total remittance value is worth around 1 billion USD, including money sent from Arab and Malaysia, who combinedly employ around 200,000 Nepalese. Nepal's GDP for the year 2005 is estimated at just over US$37 billion (adjusted to [[Purchasing Power Parity]]), making it the 83rd-largest economy in the world. Per-capita income is around US$1,402, ranked 163rd. Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, leather goods, [[jute]] goods and grain total $568 million. Import commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products and fertiliser total US$1.419 bn. India (48.8%), the US (22.3%), and [[Germany]] (8.5%) are its main export partners. Nepal's import partners include India (43%), the [[United Arab Emirates]] (10%), China (10%), [[Saudi Arabia]] (4.4%), and [[Singapore]] (4%).{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} ==Government and politics== Until 1990, Nepal was an [[absolute monarchy]] running under the executive control of the king. Faced with a people's movement against the absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a [[parliamentary monarchy]] with the king as the [[head of state]] and a prime minister as the [[head of the government]]. Nepal's legislature was [[bicameral]] consisting of a [[House of Representatives]] and a [[National Council]]. The House of Representatives consist of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members, 10 nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term, but was dissolvable by the king before its term could end. All Nepalese citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote. The executive comprised the King and the [[Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]]). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal have tended to be highly unstable; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991, either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch. The judiciary is made of the ''[[Sarbochha Adalat]]''&mdash;the [[Supreme Court]], appellate courts and various district courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges were appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. The Nepalese political landscape consists of more than two dozen political parties. Based on the parliamentary seats occupied by various parties since 1991, [[Nepali Congress Party]] (NCP), [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)]] (CPN-UML), [[Rashtriya Prajatantra Party|National Democratic Party]] (NDP), [[Nepal Sadbhawana Party]] (NGP), [[People’s Front Nepal]] (PFN) and [[Nepal Workers and Peasants Party]] (NWPP) are significant ones. [[United People's Front of Nepal]] (UPFN), which had won third largest number of seats in 1991 parliamentary election, began to splinter in 1993. Its one faction later merged with [[Nepal Communist Party (Masal)]] to form [[PFN]]. However, the other faction established [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] in 1995, which staged an armed rebellion in 1996 and gradually emerged as a major political force - holding a balance of power in Nepal. All these political realignments have made the political scene of Nepal one of the most confusing in the world. Breakup of the parties had become a norm rather than an exception in Nepal. Parties never agreed on most issues of National significance. However, the situation began to change after King Gyanendra took an absolute power in 2005. In [[November 22]], [[2005]], the seven parliamentary parties of the [[Seven Party Alliance]] (SPA) and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] agreed on a historic and unprecedented 12-point [[memorandum of understanding]] (MOU) in [[November 22]], [[2005]] for peace and democracy. Nepalese from various walks of life and the international community regarded the MOU as an appropriate political response to the crisis that was developing in Nepal. In the backdrop of the historical sufferings of the Nepalese people and the enormous human cost of the last ten years of violent conflict, the MOU, which proposes a peaceful transition through an elected constituent assembly, created an acceptable formula for a united movement for democracy. As per the 12-point MOU, the [[Seven Party Alliance]] called for a protest movement and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] supported it. This led to a countrywide uprising that started in April 2006. All political forces including civil society and professional organizations actively galvanized the people. This resulted into massive and spontaneous demonstrations and rallies held across Nepal against the King Gyanendra's autocratic rule. The people's participation was so broad, momentous and pervasive that the king feared of being overrun. On April 21, 2006, King Gyanendra declared that the "power would be returned to the people". This had little effect on the people, who continued to occupy the streets of Kathmandu and other towns, openly defying the daytime curfew. Finally King Gyanendra announced the reinstatement the House of Representatives, so conceding one of the major demands of the SPA, at midnight of [[April 24]], [[2006]]. With this the coalition of political forces decided to call off the protests. Twenty-one people died and thousands were injured during the 19 days of protests. On [[May 19]], [[2006]], the parliament assumed total legislative power and gave executive power to the Government of Nepal (previously known as His Majesty's Government). Names of many institutions (including the army) were stripped of the "royal" adjective and the Raj Parishad (a council of the King's advisors) was abolished, with his duties assigned to the Parliament itself. The activities of the King became subject to parliamentary scrutiny and the King's properties were subjected to taxation. Moreover, Nepal was declared a secular state abrogating the previous status of a Hindu Kingdom, albeit the fear shown by midline Hindu communities over their concern over the abolishment of long founded tradition of Vedic systems. On July 19, 2006, the prime minister, G. P. Koirala, sent a letter to the United Nations announcing the intentions of the Nepalese Government to hold elections to a constituent assembly by April 2007. ==Military and foreign affairs== [[Image:NamcheBazar1.jpg|thumb|250px|The famous outpost of [[Namche Bazaar]] in the Khumbu region close to Mount Everest. The town is built on terraces in what resembles a giant Greek amphitheatre.]] Nepal's military consists of the Nepalese Army which includes the Nepalese Army Air Service, (the [[air force]] unit under it), and the [[Nepalese Police Force]]. On May 19, 2006 The House unanimously passed the proposal to rename Royal Nepal Army (RNA) as the “Nepali Army”. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military&mdash;1.5% of its GDP. Nepali Army having 90,000 soldiers of the country, which is currently engaged in the civil war against the [[Maoist]] [[insurgent]]s. Most of the equipment and arms are supplied by [[India]].<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html Asia Times Online]</ref> Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance with a long standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese citizens may travel to each others' countries without a [[passport]] or [[visa (document)|visa]]. Nepalese citizens may work in India without legal restriction. Although Nepal and India typically have close ties, from time to time Nepal becomes caught up in the problematic Sino-Indian relationship. India considers Nepal as part of its realm of influence, and views Chinese aid with concern. Some Indians consider Nepal to be part of a greater pan-Indian state, an attitude that has caused Nepalese antagonism towards India. In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India, the US, and the UK have worsened. These three foreign countries have been vociferous opponents to the crackdown on civil liberties in Nepal. China mainly seeks cooperation with Nepal on the issues of Tibet. Outside of Asia, Nepal has especially friendly relations with [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]][http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?land_id=120&type_id=14] and has historical military links with the [[United Kingdom]]. In July 2006, British authorities will be granting full British citizenship to all Nepalese and its dependants serving the British army during its occupation in the territory, and entitling them a full privilege to stay and work in the United Kingdom, this as a gesture of serving their colonial master. According to the press secretary approximately there are 100,000 eligible for application. Application can be obtained on the immigration website. [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/] ==Administrative Subdivisions== Nepal is divided into 14 [[Zones of Nepal|zones]] and 75 [[Districts of Nepal|districts]] grouped into five development zones or divisions. Each district is headed by a chief district officer responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries. ==Demographics== [[Image:Shiva_temple_in_Pashupatinath.jpg|thumb|250px|Famous [[Shiva]] [[Hindu]] [[temple]] in [[Pashupatinath]].]] Nepal has a total population of 27,676,547 as of July 2005, with a growth rate of 2.2%. 39% of the population is up to 14 years old, 57.3% are aged between 15 and 64, and 3.7% above 65. The median age is 20.07 (19.91 for males and 20.24 for females). There are 1,060 males for every 1,000 females. Life expectancy is 59.8 years (60.9 for males and 59.5 for females). Total [[Literacy|literacy rate]] is 53.74% (68.51% for males and 42.49% for females). According to the 2001 census, [[Hindus]] constitute 80.6% of the population. [[Buddhists]] make up 10.7%, [[Islam|Muslims]] 4.2%, [[Kirant]] 3.6%, other religions 0.9%. The largest ethnic group is the [[Chhettri]] (15.5%). Other groups are the [[Brahman-Hill]] 12.5%, [[Magar]] 7%, [[Tharu]] 6.6%, [[Tamang]] 5.5%, [[Newar]] 5.4%, [[Kami]] 3.9%, [[Yadav]] 3.9%, other 32.7%, unspecified 2.8%. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the national language with 47.8% of the population speaking it as their first language. Other languages include [[Maithili]] 12.1%, [[Bhojpuri]] 7.4%, [[Tharu]] (Dagaura/Rana) 5.8%, [[Tamang]] 5.1%, [[Nepal Bhasa]] 3.6%, [[Magar]] 3.3%, [[Awadhi]] 2.4%, other 10%, unspecified 2.5%. Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been in general very subtle and academic in nature due to the intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Both share common temples and worship common deities and many of Nepal's Hindus could also be regarded as Buddhists and [[vice versa]]. {{inote|Library of Congress|Religion and Society}}Buddhists are mostly concentrated in the eastern regions and the central Terrai. Buddhism was relatively more common among the Newar and Tibeto-Nepalese groups. Among the Tibeto-Nepalese, those most influenced by Hinduism were the [[Magar]], [[Sunwar]], [[Limbu]] and [[Rai]] peoples. Hindu influence is less prominent among the [[Gurung]], [[Bhutia]], and [[Thakali]] groups, who employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.{{inote|CIA World Factbook}} {{inote|Library of Congress}} The northern mountains are sparsely populated. A majority of the population live in the central highlands despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the fertile Terrai belt in recent years. Kathmandu, with a population of 800,000, is the largest city in the country. ==Culture== Nepali culture is influenced by the cultures of Tibet, which borders to the north, and India, which borders to the south. There are similarities in clothing, language and food. A typical Nepali meal is ''dal-bhat'', boiled lentils served with rice and vegetables, and some spicy relish. This is consumed twice daily, once in the morning and again after sunset. Between these main meals, snacks such as ''chiura'' (beaten rice) and tea are consumed. Meat, eggs, and fish are also eaten, particularly in the mountainous regions, where the diet tends to be richer in protein. Millet-based alcoholic drinks are popular, including ''[[chhaang]]'' and the distilled ''[[rakshi]]''. Folklore is an integral part of Nepali society. Traditional stories are rooted in the reality of day-to-day life—tales of love, affection, battles, and demons and ghosts; they reflect and explain local lifestyles, cultures and belief systems. Many Nepali folktales are enacted in dance and music. The Newar people are well known for masked [[dances|dance]] that tell stories of the gods and heroes. Music is [[percussion instrument|percussion]]-based, sometimes with flutes or [[shawm]] accompanying the intense, nasal vocal lines. Musical styles are a variety of [[pop music|pop]], [[religious music|religious]] and [[folk music]], among other styles. [[Musical genre]]s from Tibet and India have had a strong influence on traditional Nepali music. Women, even of the musician castes, are less likely than men to play music, except in specific situations such as traditional all-female wedding parties. [[Image:Nepal house.jpg|thumb|250px|Houses in rural parts of Nepal are made up of stones and clay.]]The [[sarangi]], a four-stringed, hand-carved [[musical instrument|instrument]] is usually played by wandering minstrels. Since the sixties, [[Nepali rock]] or [[rock music]], sung to Nepali lyrics, has become popular among youth. Also catching on fast is Nepali rap and reggae, derived from African American artists and genres, which has blossomed with the advent of the music video industry. [[football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport, followed by [[cricket]] and [[kabaddi]]. The [[Martyrs Memorial Football League]] is the national football championship. There four television services viz. Nepal Television - the national television channel, NTV 2 Metro - a metro channel owned by the government and two private channels - Kantipur Television and Image Channel. Also many other networks, particularly those that originate in India, are available with the installation of increasingly popular satellite dishes. Lack of electrification makes this difficult. Radio is listened to throughout the kingdom; as of 2000, there were 12 radio stations. The Nepali year begins in mid-April and is divided into 12 months. Saturday is the official weekly day of rest. Main holidays include the National Day (birthday of the late king Tribhuvan) [[December 28]], Prithvi Jayanti, ([[January 11]]), and Martyr's Day ([[February 18]]) and a mix of Hindu and Buddhist festivals such as ''[[Dashai]]'' in autumn, and ''[[Tihar]]'' late autumn. Most marriages are arranged, and divorce is rare. [[Polygamy]] is banned by law; relatively isolated tribes in the north, such as the [[Dolpo]], practise [[polyandry]]. Nepal has a rich tradition of ceremonies, such as ''[[nwaran]]'' (the christening of a child), and the ''[[Pasni]]'', the day a child is first fed rice, and ''[[bratabandha]]'' (the penance ceremony) and ''[[gupha]]'' for prepubescent boys and girls, respectively. In ''[[bel bibaha]]'', preadolescent girls are "married" to the bel fruit tree, ensuring that the girl becomes and remains fertile. Most houses in rural Nepal are made up of a tight bamboo framework with mud and cow-dung walls. These dwellings remain cool in summers and retain warmth in winters. Dwellings at higher altitudes are mostly timber-based. The urban areas are filled with concrete structures up to 8 stories tall. ==See also== * [[नेपाल भाषा]] ==External links== *[http://welcomenepal.com/new/index.asp Nepal Tourism Board] *[http://www.nepalhmg.gov.np Government of Nepal] *[http://www.britannica.com/nations/Nepal Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Nepal'' Country Page] *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5283.htm United States Department of State Profile of Nepal] *[http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html Library of Congress &ndash; Nepal] *[http://www.myhimalayas.com/travelogues/nepal.htm MyHimalayas - Travelogues and Pictures from various areas in Nepal] *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Nepal/ Open Directory Project -- Nepal] *{{wikitravel|Nepal}} *[http://planetnepal.org/cgi-bin/view/Main/WebHome Planet Nepal Wiki] ==श्रोत== * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal आंगलभाषा विकिपिडिया] [[Category:Nepal]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:SAARC members]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Asia]] [[Category:Constitutional monarchies]] [[ar:نيبال]] [[an:Nepal]] [[az:Nepal]] [[bn:নেপাল]] [[zh-min-nan:Nepal]] [[be:Непал]] [[bg:Непал]] [[ca:Nepal]] [[cv:Непал]] [[cs:Nepál]] [[da:Nepal]] [[de:Nepal]] [[dv:ނޭޕާލް]] [[et:Nepal]] [[el:Νεπάλ]] [[es:Nepal]] [[eo:Nepalo]] [[eu:Nepal]] [[fa:نپال]] [[fo:Nepal]] [[fr:Népal]] [[fy:Nepal]] [[gl:Nepal - नेपाल अधिराज्य]] [[gu:નેપાળ]] [[ko:네팔]] [[hi:नेपाल]] [[hr:Nepal]] [[io:Nepal]] [[id:Nepal]] [[os:Непал]] [[is:Nepal]] [[it:Nepal]] [[he:נפאל]] [[ka:ნეპალი]] [[ks:नेपाल]] [[kw:Nepal]] [[ht:Nepal]] [[ku:Nepal]] [[la:Nepalia]] [[lv:Nepāla]] [[lt:Nepalas]] [[li:Nepal]] [[hu:Nepál]] [[ms:Nepal]] [[nl:Nepal]] [[ne:नेपाल]] [[ja:ネパール]] [[no:Nepal]] [[nn:Nepal]] [[oc:Nepal]] [[ug:نېپلا]] [[pam:Nepal]] [[nds:Nepal]] [[pl:Nepal]] [[pt:Nepal]] [[ro:Nepal]] [[ru:Непал]] [[sa:नेपाल]] [[sq:Nepali]] [[scn:Nepal]] [[simple:Nepal]] [[sk:Nepál]] [[sl:Nepal]] [[sr:Непал]] [[sh:Nepal]] [[fi:Nepal]] [[sv:Nepal]] [[tl:Nepal]] [[ta:நேபாளம்]] [[th:ประเทศเนปาล]] [[vi:Nepal]] [[tr:Nepal]] [[uk:Непал]] [[zh:尼泊尔]] 1675 3104 2006-08-11T19:28:32Z Eukesh 59 '''Television''' is a [[telecommunication]] system for [[broadcasting]] and receiving [[Film|moving picture]]s and [[sound]] over a distance. The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television from the [[television set]] to the [[television program|programming]] and [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]]. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far seeing" (Greek "tele," meaning far, and Latin "visus," meaning seeing). == ईतिहास == The origins of what would become today's television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873, and the invention of a scanning disk by [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television, relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image. While electromechanical techniques were developed prior to World War II, most notably by [[Charles Francis Jenkins]] and [[John Logie Baird]], completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of [[Philo Taylor Farnsworth]], [[Vladimir Zworykin]] and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Commercial broadcast programming, following years of experimental broadcasts seen only in a few specially-equipped homes, occurred in both the United States and the United Kingdom before World War II. The first television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (more than 240 lines) were made in England in 1936. So-called "System A" used 405 lines. Television did not become common in United States homes until the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (i.e., cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the owner of each television must pay a [[Television licence|license fee]] annually which is used to support the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]. == Adoption == Although Britain was the first country in the world to start large-scale public transmissions, the public uptake was initially very slow. Television sets were very expensive at first, and prices did not drop to an affordable level until technology developed during the [[Second World War]] for [[radar]] was introduced. As well as making televisions cheaper, it also made them safer and much smaller. These smaller, cheaper sets were more acceptable to the public. A major driver for television uptake in Britain was the [[Coronation]] of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953. This event was viewed by over 20 million people, and was for many their first exposure to television. People gathered for [[Coronation parties]], and many people bought television receivers specially in time for the event. During the year after the Coronation, television licence subscription increased by 50%. ==प्रविधि== ===Elements of a television system=== The elements of a simple television system are: * An image source - this may be a [[Professional video camera|camera]] for live pick-up of images or a [[flying spot scanner]] for transmission of [[motion picture|films]] * A sound source. * A [[transmitter]], which modulates one or more [[television signal]]s with both picture and sound information for transmission. * A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast. * A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light and audible sound. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous [[Satellite television|satellite]]s. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission [[bandwidth]], special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. <!-- Elements of a television system - block diagram here --> <!-- Image source, camera, film, magnetic tape, exceptionally computer-generated images--> <!-- Sound source --> <!-- Transmitter, over the air, bandwidth required, antenna, satellite system, cable system, digital encoding, scrambling --> <!-- Receiver, antenna, cable connection, satellite down-converter, digital decode, descramble--> <!-- Display, cathode ray tube, color tube, now LCD, historically mechanical scanned lamp--> <!-- Recorder, analog magnetic tape, now digital --> ===Display technology=== Thanks to advances in display technology, there are now several kinds of video displays used in modern TV sets: *'''CRT''': The most common displays are direct-view [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s for up to 40&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;cm) (in 4:3) and 46&nbsp;in (115&nbsp;cm) (in 16:9) [[diagonal]]ly. These are still the least expensive, and are a refined technology that can still provide the best overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed [[native resolution]], in some cases they are also capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The [[frame rate]] or refresh rate of a typical [[NTSC]] format CRT TV is 60&nbsp;Hz, and for the [[PAL]] format, it is 50&nbsp;Hz. A typical [[NTSC]] broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480&nbsp;pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the [[Vertical blanking interval|Vertical Blanking Interval]], or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast. *'''Rear projection''': Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100&nbsp;inch (254&nbsp;cm)) use [[projection]] technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]-based, and [[DLP]] (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. A variation is a [[video projector]], using similar technology, which projects onto a [[Projection screen|screen]]. *'''Flat panel LCD''' or '''plasma''': Modern advances have brought [[Flat panel display|flat panel]]s to TV that use [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|active matrix]] [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] or [[plasma display]] technology. Flat panel LCDs and [[plasma display]]s are as little as 1&nbsp;inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a [[pedestal]]. Some models can also be used as [[Computer display|computer monitor]]s.<br>{{seealso|Liquid crystal display television}} It is important to think about the living environment of your television before deciding on a single display technology. Each has its pros and cons, Flat panel LCD display can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural [[daylight]] or well lit rooms and so are best suited to dark viewing areas. A complete run down of the pros and cons of each display should be sought before purchasing a single television technology. ===Terminology for televisions=== Pixel [[Display resolution|resolution]] is the amount of individual points known as [[pixels]] on a given screen. A typical resolution of 800x600 means that the television display has 800 pixels across and 600&nbsp;pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast [[ratio]] is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and [[shadow]] detail. The [[brightness]] of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colours are. Measured in cd/m2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the [[image]]. ===Signal connections=== The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: [[Image:High Definition Multimedia Interface Plug.jpg|70px|right]] *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface|HDMI]] - a 19 or 29-pin industry-supported digital interface which supports standard, enhanced, or [[High-definition television|high-definition video]], plus multi-channel digital audio on a single cable. The video signal is [[Backward compatibility|backward-compatible]] with [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]. Increasingly common on displays, DVD players, and high-end PC [[graphics card]]s. [[Copy protection]] is implemented using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. HDMI 1.3 is required to enable high-definition content on [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] and [[HD DVD]] disks. [[Image:DVI Connector.JPG|70px|right]] *[[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] - a 17 to 29-pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry [[High-definition television|HDTV]] but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. [[Image:Component_video_RCA.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Component video]] - three separate [[RCA connector|RCA jack]]s (colored red, green and blue) carry three [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one brightness ([[Luminance (video)|luminance]]) and two colors ([[Chrominance|chromas]]), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" ([[interlace]]d) or "Y Pr Pb" ([[Progressive scan|progressive]]), or [[YUV]]. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to [[S-Video]] and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; it is less common in [[Europe]] but is starting to become more widely available. [[Image:SCART 20050724 003.jpg|70px|right]] *[[SCART]] - a large 21 pin connector that may carry [[Analog signal|analog]] signals consisting of: one video signal [[composite video]]; or two video signals [[S-Video]]; or for picture quality similar to [[component video]], three signals of separate red, green and blue or [[RGB color model|RGB]]; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and [[Synchronization|sync]] or RGBS; plus right and left [[line-level]] audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect-ratio]] flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in [[Europe]] since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest [[PAL]] DVD players and satellite receivers. [[Japan]] uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. The SCART connector is not used in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Image:SVideoConnector.jpg|70px|right]] *[[S-Video]] - small round connector with two separate [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for [[S-VHS]], [[8 mm video format|Hi-8]], and early [[NTSC]] DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. This will sometimes, completely incorrectly, be referred to as an [[S-VHS]] connector. Audio is not carried on this cable. [[Image:Composite.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Composite video]] - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the [[Analog signal|analog]] video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow [[RCA connector|RCA jack]] or occasionally a [[BNC connector]]. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left [[line-level]] audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables. *[[coaxial cable|Coaxial]] RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one [[coaxial cable]] and [[modulate]]d on a [[radio frequency]]. Most TVs manufactured since the 1970s provide a coaxial connection, and this is the type of cable typically used for [[cable television]]. Although still found on [[VHS]] tape-players, most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer supply an RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a [[modulation|modulator]] device. [[NTSC]] sets use a 75&nbsp;[[ohm]] F-connector; most [[PAL]] sets use a 50&nbsp;ohm Belling Lee. Most set-top TV antennas have a 300&nbsp;ohm [[Electrical impedance|impedance]], so to connect them to a coaxial input requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation. *300&nbsp;ohm [[twin-lead]] - The predecessor to [[coaxial cable]], generally a flat insulated cable with a pair of wires separated by 0.5&nbsp;inch, found on NTSC television sets from 1940 to about 1985, and originally used to connect the receiver to either an outdoor [[antenna]] or [[Dipole antenna|rabbit ears]], though twinlead line losses make an inefficient application for the former. Connection to the set was by connecting the wire to a pair of screws on the back of the television set. Nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] was 300&nbsp;ohms; connecting an older set to cable or VCRs requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation due to [[impedance mismatch]]. Twin-lead wiring is sensitive to nearby metal objects. Long runs must be properly supported away from metal objects and should be mounted with a loose twist in the cable - see [[unshielded twisted pair]] cables which operate by the same principle as properly installed twin-lead. *[[Optical fiber|Fiber optic]] - The latest in connections and only on extremely new and high quality TVs, fiber optics use a [[laser]] to transmit data along a glass fiber. Used for sound and/or video, can be found on newer TVs, high end video editing systems, as well as in high end computer systems. Can be referred to as [[S/PDIF]] digital-audio format. ===Aspect ratios=== '''[[Aspect ratio (image)|Aspect ratio]]''' refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 which was chosen to match the [[Academy ratio|Academy Ratio]] used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round [[cathode ray tube|cathode-ray tube]]s (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the [[manufacturing]] [[technology]] of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The [[BBC]]'s television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to [http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/Test-Cards/Test-Card-Technical.html#Aspect-Ratio 3 April 1950], when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed. In the 1950s, [[movie studio]]s moved towards [[widescreen]] aspect ratios such as [[CinemaScope]] in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a [[gimmick]], widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of [[panorama|panoramic]], others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to [[digital television]] systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen [[film|movie]]s, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called [[full screen anamorphic|anamorphic widescreen]] format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European [[PALPlus]] television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" [[DVD]]s; the [[ATSC]] [[High-definition television|HDTV]] system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both [[desktop computer|desktop]] and [[laptop]] computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or [[subtitle]]s, as opposed to viewing content full-screen. =====Aspect ratio incompatibility===== The television industry's changing of [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]s is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown: *in "[[letterbox]]" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom *with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "[[pan and scan]]", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown: *in "[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right *with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in "tilt and scan", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as [[Super 35 mm film|Super 35]] (championed by [[James Cameron]]) has been used to film a number of major movies such as [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[Austin Powers]]'', and ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (see also: [[List of top-grossing films shot in Super 35]]). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "[[full screen]]" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "[[Letterbox|letterboxing]]" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "[[pan-and-scan]]" cropping. === Sound === {{further|[[NICAM]]}} === Television add-ons === Today there are many television add-ons including [[Computer and video games|Video Game]] Consoles, [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]]s, [[Set-top box]]es for [[Cable television|Cable]] and [[Satellite television|Satellite]] reception, [[DVD]] players, or [[Digital video recorder|Digital Video Recorders]] (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. === New developments === *[[Ambilight]]™ *[[Broadcast flag]] *[[CableCARD]]™ *[[DLP|Digital Light Processing]] (DLP) *[[Digital Rights Management]] (DRM) *[[Digital television]] (DTV) *[[Digital Video Recorder]]s *[[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] TV (DBS) *[[DVD]] *[[Flicker-free]] (100&nbsp;Hz or 120&nbsp;Hz, depending on country) *[[High Definition TV]] (HDTV) *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface]] (HDMI) *[[IPTV]] *[[Internet television]] *[[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]] and [[Plasma display]] [[Flat panel display|Flat screen]] TV *[[Surface-conduction Electron-emitter Display|SED]] display technology *[[Organic light-emitting diode|OLED]] display technology *[[P2PTV]] *[[Pay-per-view]] *[[Picture-in-picture]] (PiP) *[[Pixelplus]] *[[Video on-demand]] (VOD) *[[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) *[[Web TV]] ==Geographical usage== *[[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]] {{main|Geographical usage of television}} ==Content== ===Advertising=== Since their inception in the USA in 1940, [[television commercial|TV commercial]]s have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by [[Nielsen Ratings]]. ===Programming=== Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #'''Original Run''' or '''First Run''' - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #'''[[Television syndication|Syndication]]''' - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, [[TV stations]] or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on [[Free-to-air|free-to-air (FTA)]] television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, [[Affiliate]]s rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't centered around local events. == Social aspects == ===Alleged dangers=== Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, [[scientist]]s and [[parent]]s are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government imposed a total ban on advertising to [[children]] under twelve in 1991 (see [[advertising]]). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 [[hour]]s of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the [[education]]al and maturational process. Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development (Norma Pecora, John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella, Children and Television: 50 Years of Research, published by Erlbaum Press, June, 2006) demonstrate that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence. In a recent study (February, 2006) published in the journal Media Psychology, volume 8, number 1, pages 25-37, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala-the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the Posterior Cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. A [[23 February]] [[2002]] article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other [[addiction]], a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching. A longitudinal study in [[New Zealand]] involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [[university]]. The changes in TV equipment and programming has been noted as one of the largest changes known to people because it was vital to people in the past as well as in the present. In [[Iceland]], television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Television's biggest social aspect is the fact that it allows users to instantly view content that may be occurring far away from where they are. Television has been a major contributor in the process of globalization. The Earth's residents can be linked by the programming they watch; but like the internet, television has been taken advantage of as a perfect medium for advertising and the spreading of thoughts and ideas. ===Technology trends=== In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their [[TV listings|schedules]] so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term ''appointment television'' was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment. The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the [[Videocassette recorder]] and the [[Digital video recorder]]. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer ''video on demand,'' a set of programs which could be watched at any time. Both [[mobile phone]] networks and the [[internet]] are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs. Mobile phone TV is planned to eventually become mainstream, after worldwide over-the-air digital TV takes over analogue and some technical difficulties can be overcome - especially the ones related to battery life. ===Suitability for audience=== Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, [[offensive]] or [[decency|indecent]]. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchasing of products. [[George Gerbner]] has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the [[Mean World Syndrome]], the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and been pitched at a low intellectual level. ==Further reading== *[[Erik Barnouw]], ''Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television'', Oxford University Press, 1992. *[[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''On Television'', The New Press, 2001. *Brooks, Tim and March, Earle, ''The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows'', Ballantine, Eighth Edition, 2002. *[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle'', Zone Books, 1995. *[[Jacques Derrida]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Echographies of Television'', Polity Press, 2002. *[[Jerry Mander]], ''Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television'', Perennial, 1978. * [[Neil Postman]], ''[[Amusing Ourselves to Death]]: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business''. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541 *Dr. Aric Sigman, ''Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives — And What We Can Do About It'', Vermilion, 2005. *Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, ''Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television'', Rutgers University Press, 2002. ==References== *David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, ''Tube: the Invention of Television'', Counterpoint, Washington D.C. USA, (1996) ISBN 1-887178-17-1 *Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, Jefferson, NC, USA, and London (2003) ISBN 0-7864-1220-8 ==See also== * [[Golden Age of Television]] * [[Archive of American Television]] * [[Composite monitor]] * [[European Broadcasting Union]] ([[EBU]]) * [[Electronic field production]] * [[Electronic news gathering]] * [[History of television]] * [[List of television topics]] * [[List of 'years in television']] * [[Lists of television channels]] * [[List of television programs|List of television programs/series]] * [[List of television personalities]] * [[Live television]] * [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [[PC card]] * [[S-video monitor]] * [[Teletext]] * [[TV/VCR combo]] * [[TV/FM DX|Long distance television reception (TV DX)]] * [[BARB]] * [[TV listings]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Television}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/ BBC Television] * [http://www.gooya.co.uk/worldtv.html A directory of world television channels] * [http://www.tvhistory.tv/ Television History — The First 75 Years] * [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/index.html The Encyclopedia of Television] at the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television] Some of the rarest sets in America * [http://www.the-best-of-television.com/ The #1 Online Television Resource] * [http://www.cherishedtelevision.co.uk/home.html Cherished Television] [[Category:Scottish inventions]] [[Category:Television| ]] [[af:Televisie]] [[ang:Feorrsīen]] [[ar:تلفزيون]] [[bs:Televizija]] [[bg:Телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió]] [[cs:Televize]] [[cy:Teledu]] [[da:Tv]] [[pdc:Guckbax]] [[de:Fernsehen]] [[et:Televisioon]] [[el:Τηλεόραση]] [[es:Televisión]] [[eo:Televido]] [[eu:Telebista]] [[fa:تلویزیون]] [[fr:Télévision]] [[ga:Teilifís]] [[ko:텔레비전]] [[hr:Televizija]] [[io:Televiziono]] [[id:Televisi]] [[it:Televisione]] [[he:טלוויזיה]] [[ku:Televîzyon]] [[la:Televisio]] [[lb:Televisioun]] [[lt:Televizija]] [[hu:Televízió]] [[ms:Televisyen]] [[nl:Televisie]] [[ja:テレビ]] [[no:TV]] [[ug:تېلېۋىزور]] [[nds:Kiekschapp]] [[pl:Telewizja]] [[pt:Televisão]] [[ro:Televiziune]] [[ru:Телевидение]] [[sco:Televeesion]] [[sq:Televizioni]] [[simple:Television]] [[sk:Televízia]] [[sl:Televizija]] [[sr:Телевизија]] [[fi:Televisio]] [[sv:TV]] [[tl:Telebisyon]] [[ta:தொலைக்காட்சி]] [[th:โทรทัศน์]] [[vi:Tivi]] [[tr:Televizyon]] [[uk:Телебачення]] [[fiu-vro:Televis'uun]] [[zh:电视]] 3105 2006-08-11T19:37:15Z Eukesh 59 '''टेलिभिजन''' एकस्य [[दूरसंचार]] यन्त्र [[चलचित्र]] व [[ध्वनि]] [[प्रसारण]] व संकलनेषु प्रयोजने| The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television from the [[television set]] to the [[television program|programming]] and [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]]. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far seeing" (Greek "tele," meaning far, and Latin "visus," meaning seeing). == ईतिहास == The origins of what would become today's television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873, and the invention of a scanning disk by [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television, relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image. While electromechanical techniques were developed prior to World War II, most notably by [[Charles Francis Jenkins]] and [[John Logie Baird]], completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of [[Philo Taylor Farnsworth]], [[Vladimir Zworykin]] and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Commercial broadcast programming, following years of experimental broadcasts seen only in a few specially-equipped homes, occurred in both the United States and the United Kingdom before World War II. The first television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (more than 240 lines) were made in England in 1936. So-called "System A" used 405 lines. Television did not become common in United States homes until the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (i.e., cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the owner of each television must pay a [[Television licence|license fee]] annually which is used to support the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]. == Adoption == Although Britain was the first country in the world to start large-scale public transmissions, the public uptake was initially very slow. Television sets were very expensive at first, and prices did not drop to an affordable level until technology developed during the [[Second World War]] for [[radar]] was introduced. As well as making televisions cheaper, it also made them safer and much smaller. These smaller, cheaper sets were more acceptable to the public. A major driver for television uptake in Britain was the [[Coronation]] of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953. This event was viewed by over 20 million people, and was for many their first exposure to television. People gathered for [[Coronation parties]], and many people bought television receivers specially in time for the event. During the year after the Coronation, television licence subscription increased by 50%. ==प्रविधि== ===Elements of a television system=== The elements of a simple television system are: * An image source - this may be a [[Professional video camera|camera]] for live pick-up of images or a [[flying spot scanner]] for transmission of [[motion picture|films]] * A sound source. * A [[transmitter]], which modulates one or more [[television signal]]s with both picture and sound information for transmission. * A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast. * A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light and audible sound. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous [[Satellite television|satellite]]s. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission [[bandwidth]], special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. <!-- Elements of a television system - block diagram here --> <!-- Image source, camera, film, magnetic tape, exceptionally computer-generated images--> <!-- Sound source --> <!-- Transmitter, over the air, bandwidth required, antenna, satellite system, cable system, digital encoding, scrambling --> <!-- Receiver, antenna, cable connection, satellite down-converter, digital decode, descramble--> <!-- Display, cathode ray tube, color tube, now LCD, historically mechanical scanned lamp--> <!-- Recorder, analog magnetic tape, now digital --> ===Display technology=== Thanks to advances in display technology, there are now several kinds of video displays used in modern TV sets: *'''CRT''': The most common displays are direct-view [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s for up to 40&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;cm) (in 4:3) and 46&nbsp;in (115&nbsp;cm) (in 16:9) [[diagonal]]ly. These are still the least expensive, and are a refined technology that can still provide the best overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed [[native resolution]], in some cases they are also capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The [[frame rate]] or refresh rate of a typical [[NTSC]] format CRT TV is 60&nbsp;Hz, and for the [[PAL]] format, it is 50&nbsp;Hz. A typical [[NTSC]] broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480&nbsp;pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the [[Vertical blanking interval|Vertical Blanking Interval]], or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast. *'''Rear projection''': Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100&nbsp;inch (254&nbsp;cm)) use [[projection]] technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]-based, and [[DLP]] (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. A variation is a [[video projector]], using similar technology, which projects onto a [[Projection screen|screen]]. *'''Flat panel LCD''' or '''plasma''': Modern advances have brought [[Flat panel display|flat panel]]s to TV that use [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|active matrix]] [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] or [[plasma display]] technology. Flat panel LCDs and [[plasma display]]s are as little as 1&nbsp;inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a [[pedestal]]. Some models can also be used as [[Computer display|computer monitor]]s.<br>{{seealso|Liquid crystal display television}} It is important to think about the living environment of your television before deciding on a single display technology. Each has its pros and cons, Flat panel LCD display can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural [[daylight]] or well lit rooms and so are best suited to dark viewing areas. A complete run down of the pros and cons of each display should be sought before purchasing a single television technology. ===Terminology for televisions=== Pixel [[Display resolution|resolution]] is the amount of individual points known as [[pixels]] on a given screen. A typical resolution of 800x600 means that the television display has 800 pixels across and 600&nbsp;pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast [[ratio]] is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and [[shadow]] detail. The [[brightness]] of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colours are. Measured in cd/m2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the [[image]]. ===Signal connections=== The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: [[Image:High Definition Multimedia Interface Plug.jpg|70px|right]] *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface|HDMI]] - a 19 or 29-pin industry-supported digital interface which supports standard, enhanced, or [[High-definition television|high-definition video]], plus multi-channel digital audio on a single cable. The video signal is [[Backward compatibility|backward-compatible]] with [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]. Increasingly common on displays, DVD players, and high-end PC [[graphics card]]s. [[Copy protection]] is implemented using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. HDMI 1.3 is required to enable high-definition content on [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] and [[HD DVD]] disks. [[Image:DVI Connector.JPG|70px|right]] *[[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] - a 17 to 29-pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry [[High-definition television|HDTV]] but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. [[Image:Component_video_RCA.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Component video]] - three separate [[RCA connector|RCA jack]]s (colored red, green and blue) carry three [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one brightness ([[Luminance (video)|luminance]]) and two colors ([[Chrominance|chromas]]), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" ([[interlace]]d) or "Y Pr Pb" ([[Progressive scan|progressive]]), or [[YUV]]. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to [[S-Video]] and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; it is less common in [[Europe]] but is starting to become more widely available. [[Image:SCART 20050724 003.jpg|70px|right]] *[[SCART]] - a large 21 pin connector that may carry [[Analog signal|analog]] signals consisting of: one video signal [[composite video]]; or two video signals [[S-Video]]; or for picture quality similar to [[component video]], three signals of separate red, green and blue or [[RGB color model|RGB]]; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and [[Synchronization|sync]] or RGBS; plus right and left [[line-level]] audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect-ratio]] flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in [[Europe]] since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest [[PAL]] DVD players and satellite receivers. [[Japan]] uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. The SCART connector is not used in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Image:SVideoConnector.jpg|70px|right]] *[[S-Video]] - small round connector with two separate [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for [[S-VHS]], [[8 mm video format|Hi-8]], and early [[NTSC]] DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. This will sometimes, completely incorrectly, be referred to as an [[S-VHS]] connector. Audio is not carried on this cable. [[Image:Composite.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Composite video]] - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the [[Analog signal|analog]] video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow [[RCA connector|RCA jack]] or occasionally a [[BNC connector]]. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left [[line-level]] audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables. *[[coaxial cable|Coaxial]] RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one [[coaxial cable]] and [[modulate]]d on a [[radio frequency]]. Most TVs manufactured since the 1970s provide a coaxial connection, and this is the type of cable typically used for [[cable television]]. Although still found on [[VHS]] tape-players, most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer supply an RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a [[modulation|modulator]] device. [[NTSC]] sets use a 75&nbsp;[[ohm]] F-connector; most [[PAL]] sets use a 50&nbsp;ohm Belling Lee. Most set-top TV antennas have a 300&nbsp;ohm [[Electrical impedance|impedance]], so to connect them to a coaxial input requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation. *300&nbsp;ohm [[twin-lead]] - The predecessor to [[coaxial cable]], generally a flat insulated cable with a pair of wires separated by 0.5&nbsp;inch, found on NTSC television sets from 1940 to about 1985, and originally used to connect the receiver to either an outdoor [[antenna]] or [[Dipole antenna|rabbit ears]], though twinlead line losses make an inefficient application for the former. Connection to the set was by connecting the wire to a pair of screws on the back of the television set. Nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] was 300&nbsp;ohms; connecting an older set to cable or VCRs requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation due to [[impedance mismatch]]. Twin-lead wiring is sensitive to nearby metal objects. Long runs must be properly supported away from metal objects and should be mounted with a loose twist in the cable - see [[unshielded twisted pair]] cables which operate by the same principle as properly installed twin-lead. *[[Optical fiber|Fiber optic]] - The latest in connections and only on extremely new and high quality TVs, fiber optics use a [[laser]] to transmit data along a glass fiber. Used for sound and/or video, can be found on newer TVs, high end video editing systems, as well as in high end computer systems. Can be referred to as [[S/PDIF]] digital-audio format. ===Aspect ratios=== '''[[Aspect ratio (image)|Aspect ratio]]''' refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 which was chosen to match the [[Academy ratio|Academy Ratio]] used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round [[cathode ray tube|cathode-ray tube]]s (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the [[manufacturing]] [[technology]] of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The [[BBC]]'s television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to [http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/Test-Cards/Test-Card-Technical.html#Aspect-Ratio 3 April 1950], when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed. In the 1950s, [[movie studio]]s moved towards [[widescreen]] aspect ratios such as [[CinemaScope]] in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a [[gimmick]], widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of [[panorama|panoramic]], others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to [[digital television]] systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen [[film|movie]]s, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called [[full screen anamorphic|anamorphic widescreen]] format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European [[PALPlus]] television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" [[DVD]]s; the [[ATSC]] [[High-definition television|HDTV]] system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both [[desktop computer|desktop]] and [[laptop]] computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or [[subtitle]]s, as opposed to viewing content full-screen. =====Aspect ratio incompatibility===== The television industry's changing of [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]s is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown: *in "[[letterbox]]" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom *with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "[[pan and scan]]", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown: *in "[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right *with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in "tilt and scan", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as [[Super 35 mm film|Super 35]] (championed by [[James Cameron]]) has been used to film a number of major movies such as [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[Austin Powers]]'', and ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (see also: [[List of top-grossing films shot in Super 35]]). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "[[full screen]]" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "[[Letterbox|letterboxing]]" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "[[pan-and-scan]]" cropping. === Sound === {{further|[[NICAM]]}} === Television add-ons === Today there are many television add-ons including [[Computer and video games|Video Game]] Consoles, [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]]s, [[Set-top box]]es for [[Cable television|Cable]] and [[Satellite television|Satellite]] reception, [[DVD]] players, or [[Digital video recorder|Digital Video Recorders]] (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. === New developments === *[[Ambilight]]™ *[[Broadcast flag]] *[[CableCARD]]™ *[[DLP|Digital Light Processing]] (DLP) *[[Digital Rights Management]] (DRM) *[[Digital television]] (DTV) *[[Digital Video Recorder]]s *[[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] TV (DBS) *[[DVD]] *[[Flicker-free]] (100&nbsp;Hz or 120&nbsp;Hz, depending on country) *[[High Definition TV]] (HDTV) *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface]] (HDMI) *[[IPTV]] *[[Internet television]] *[[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]] and [[Plasma display]] [[Flat panel display|Flat screen]] TV *[[Surface-conduction Electron-emitter Display|SED]] display technology *[[Organic light-emitting diode|OLED]] display technology *[[P2PTV]] *[[Pay-per-view]] *[[Picture-in-picture]] (PiP) *[[Pixelplus]] *[[Video on-demand]] (VOD) *[[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) *[[Web TV]] ==Geographical usage== *[[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]] {{main|Geographical usage of television}} ==Content== ===Advertising=== Since their inception in the USA in 1940, [[television commercial|TV commercial]]s have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by [[Nielsen Ratings]]. ===Programming=== Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #'''Original Run''' or '''First Run''' - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #'''[[Television syndication|Syndication]]''' - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, [[TV stations]] or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on [[Free-to-air|free-to-air (FTA)]] television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, [[Affiliate]]s rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't centered around local events. == Social aspects == ===Alleged dangers=== Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, [[scientist]]s and [[parent]]s are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government imposed a total ban on advertising to [[children]] under twelve in 1991 (see [[advertising]]). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 [[hour]]s of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the [[education]]al and maturational process. Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development (Norma Pecora, John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella, Children and Television: 50 Years of Research, published by Erlbaum Press, June, 2006) demonstrate that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence. In a recent study (February, 2006) published in the journal Media Psychology, volume 8, number 1, pages 25-37, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala-the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the Posterior Cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. A [[23 February]] [[2002]] article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other [[addiction]], a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching. A longitudinal study in [[New Zealand]] involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [[university]]. The changes in TV equipment and programming has been noted as one of the largest changes known to people because it was vital to people in the past as well as in the present. In [[Iceland]], television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Television's biggest social aspect is the fact that it allows users to instantly view content that may be occurring far away from where they are. Television has been a major contributor in the process of globalization. The Earth's residents can be linked by the programming they watch; but like the internet, television has been taken advantage of as a perfect medium for advertising and the spreading of thoughts and ideas. ===Technology trends=== In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their [[TV listings|schedules]] so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term ''appointment television'' was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment. The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the [[Videocassette recorder]] and the [[Digital video recorder]]. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer ''video on demand,'' a set of programs which could be watched at any time. Both [[mobile phone]] networks and the [[internet]] are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs. Mobile phone TV is planned to eventually become mainstream, after worldwide over-the-air digital TV takes over analogue and some technical difficulties can be overcome - especially the ones related to battery life. ===Suitability for audience=== Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, [[offensive]] or [[decency|indecent]]. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchasing of products. [[George Gerbner]] has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the [[Mean World Syndrome]], the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and been pitched at a low intellectual level. ==Further reading== *[[Erik Barnouw]], ''Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television'', Oxford University Press, 1992. *[[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''On Television'', The New Press, 2001. *Brooks, Tim and March, Earle, ''The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows'', Ballantine, Eighth Edition, 2002. *[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle'', Zone Books, 1995. *[[Jacques Derrida]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Echographies of Television'', Polity Press, 2002. *[[Jerry Mander]], ''Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television'', Perennial, 1978. * [[Neil Postman]], ''[[Amusing Ourselves to Death]]: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business''. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541 *Dr. Aric Sigman, ''Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives — And What We Can Do About It'', Vermilion, 2005. *Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, ''Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television'', Rutgers University Press, 2002. ==References== *David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, ''Tube: the Invention of Television'', Counterpoint, Washington D.C. USA, (1996) ISBN 1-887178-17-1 *Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, Jefferson, NC, USA, and London (2003) ISBN 0-7864-1220-8 ==See also== * [[Golden Age of Television]] * [[Archive of American Television]] * [[Composite monitor]] * [[European Broadcasting Union]] ([[EBU]]) * [[Electronic field production]] * [[Electronic news gathering]] * [[History of television]] * [[List of television topics]] * [[List of 'years in television']] * [[Lists of television channels]] * [[List of television programs|List of television programs/series]] * [[List of television personalities]] * [[Live television]] * [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [[PC card]] * [[S-video monitor]] * [[Teletext]] * [[TV/VCR combo]] * [[TV/FM DX|Long distance television reception (TV DX)]] * [[BARB]] * [[TV listings]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Television}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/ BBC Television] * [http://www.gooya.co.uk/worldtv.html A directory of world television channels] * [http://www.tvhistory.tv/ Television History — The First 75 Years] * [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/index.html The Encyclopedia of Television] at the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television] Some of the rarest sets in America * [http://www.the-best-of-television.com/ The #1 Online Television Resource] * [http://www.cherishedtelevision.co.uk/home.html Cherished Television] [[Category:Scottish inventions]] [[Category:Television| ]] [[af:Televisie]] [[ang:Feorrsīen]] [[ar:تلفزيون]] [[bs:Televizija]] [[bg:Телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió]] [[cs:Televize]] [[cy:Teledu]] [[da:Tv]] [[pdc:Guckbax]] [[de:Fernsehen]] [[et:Televisioon]] [[el:Τηλεόραση]] [[es:Televisión]] [[eo:Televido]] [[eu:Telebista]] [[fa:تلویزیون]] [[fr:Télévision]] [[ga:Teilifís]] [[ko:텔레비전]] [[hr:Televizija]] [[io:Televiziono]] [[id:Televisi]] [[it:Televisione]] [[he:טלוויזיה]] [[ku:Televîzyon]] [[la:Televisio]] [[lb:Televisioun]] [[lt:Televizija]] [[hu:Televízió]] [[ms:Televisyen]] [[nl:Televisie]] [[ja:テレビ]] [[no:TV]] [[ug:تېلېۋىزور]] [[nds:Kiekschapp]] [[pl:Telewizja]] [[pt:Televisão]] [[ro:Televiziune]] [[ru:Телевидение]] [[sco:Televeesion]] [[sq:Televizioni]] [[simple:Television]] [[sk:Televízia]] [[sl:Televizija]] [[sr:Телевизија]] [[fi:Televisio]] [[sv:TV]] [[tl:Telebisyon]] [[ta:தொலைக்காட்சி]] [[th:โทรทัศน์]] [[vi:Tivi]] [[tr:Televizyon]] [[uk:Телебачення]] [[fiu-vro:Televis'uun]] [[zh:电视]] 3106 2006-08-11T19:43:26Z Eukesh 59 /* Display technology */ '''टेलिभिजन''' एकस्य [[दूरसंचार]] यन्त्र [[चलचित्र]] व [[ध्वनि]] [[प्रसारण]] व संकलनेषु प्रयोजने| The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television from the [[television set]] to the [[television program|programming]] and [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]]. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far seeing" (Greek "tele," meaning far, and Latin "visus," meaning seeing). == ईतिहास == The origins of what would become today's television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873, and the invention of a scanning disk by [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television, relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image. While electromechanical techniques were developed prior to World War II, most notably by [[Charles Francis Jenkins]] and [[John Logie Baird]], completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of [[Philo Taylor Farnsworth]], [[Vladimir Zworykin]] and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Commercial broadcast programming, following years of experimental broadcasts seen only in a few specially-equipped homes, occurred in both the United States and the United Kingdom before World War II. The first television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (more than 240 lines) were made in England in 1936. So-called "System A" used 405 lines. Television did not become common in United States homes until the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (i.e., cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the owner of each television must pay a [[Television licence|license fee]] annually which is used to support the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]. == Adoption == Although Britain was the first country in the world to start large-scale public transmissions, the public uptake was initially very slow. Television sets were very expensive at first, and prices did not drop to an affordable level until technology developed during the [[Second World War]] for [[radar]] was introduced. As well as making televisions cheaper, it also made them safer and much smaller. These smaller, cheaper sets were more acceptable to the public. A major driver for television uptake in Britain was the [[Coronation]] of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953. This event was viewed by over 20 million people, and was for many their first exposure to television. People gathered for [[Coronation parties]], and many people bought television receivers specially in time for the event. During the year after the Coronation, television licence subscription increased by 50%. ==प्रविधि== ===Elements of a television system=== The elements of a simple television system are: * An image source - this may be a [[Professional video camera|camera]] for live pick-up of images or a [[flying spot scanner]] for transmission of [[motion picture|films]] * A sound source. * A [[transmitter]], which modulates one or more [[television signal]]s with both picture and sound information for transmission. * A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast. * A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light and audible sound. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous [[Satellite television|satellite]]s. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission [[bandwidth]], special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. <!-- Elements of a television system - block diagram here --> <!-- Image source, camera, film, magnetic tape, exceptionally computer-generated images--> <!-- Sound source --> <!-- Transmitter, over the air, bandwidth required, antenna, satellite system, cable system, digital encoding, scrambling --> <!-- Receiver, antenna, cable connection, satellite down-converter, digital decode, descramble--> <!-- Display, cathode ray tube, color tube, now LCD, historically mechanical scanned lamp--> <!-- Recorder, analog magnetic tape, now digital --> ===दृस्टि प्रविधि=== दृस्टि प्रविधि विकाशेनु विभिन्न प्रकारेन आधुनिक टिभी निर्मानम्: *'''CRT''': The most common displays are direct-view [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s for up to 40&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;cm) (in 4:3) and 46&nbsp;in (115&nbsp;cm) (in 16:9) [[diagonal]]ly. These are still the least expensive, and are a refined technology that can still provide the best overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed [[native resolution]], in some cases they are also capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The [[frame rate]] or refresh rate of a typical [[NTSC]] format CRT TV is 60&nbsp;Hz, and for the [[PAL]] format, it is 50&nbsp;Hz. A typical [[NTSC]] broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480&nbsp;pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the [[Vertical blanking interval|Vertical Blanking Interval]], or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast. *'''Rear projection''': Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100&nbsp;inch (254&nbsp;cm)) use [[projection]] technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]-based, and [[DLP]] (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. A variation is a [[video projector]], using similar technology, which projects onto a [[Projection screen|screen]]. *'''Flat panel LCD''' or '''plasma''': Modern advances have brought [[Flat panel display|flat panel]]s to TV that use [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|active matrix]] [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] or [[plasma display]] technology. Flat panel LCDs and [[plasma display]]s are as little as 1&nbsp;inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a [[pedestal]]. Some models can also be used as [[Computer display|computer monitor]]s.<br>{{seealso|Liquid crystal display television}} It is important to think about the living environment of your television before deciding on a single display technology. Each has its pros and cons, Flat panel LCD display can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural [[daylight]] or well lit rooms and so are best suited to dark viewing areas. A complete run down of the pros and cons of each display should be sought before purchasing a single television technology. ===Terminology for televisions=== Pixel [[Display resolution|resolution]] is the amount of individual points known as [[pixels]] on a given screen. A typical resolution of 800x600 means that the television display has 800 pixels across and 600&nbsp;pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast [[ratio]] is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and [[shadow]] detail. The [[brightness]] of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colours are. Measured in cd/m2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the [[image]]. ===Signal connections=== The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: [[Image:High Definition Multimedia Interface Plug.jpg|70px|right]] *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface|HDMI]] - a 19 or 29-pin industry-supported digital interface which supports standard, enhanced, or [[High-definition television|high-definition video]], plus multi-channel digital audio on a single cable. The video signal is [[Backward compatibility|backward-compatible]] with [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]. Increasingly common on displays, DVD players, and high-end PC [[graphics card]]s. [[Copy protection]] is implemented using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. HDMI 1.3 is required to enable high-definition content on [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] and [[HD DVD]] disks. [[Image:DVI Connector.JPG|70px|right]] *[[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] - a 17 to 29-pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry [[High-definition television|HDTV]] but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. [[Image:Component_video_RCA.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Component video]] - three separate [[RCA connector|RCA jack]]s (colored red, green and blue) carry three [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one brightness ([[Luminance (video)|luminance]]) and two colors ([[Chrominance|chromas]]), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" ([[interlace]]d) or "Y Pr Pb" ([[Progressive scan|progressive]]), or [[YUV]]. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to [[S-Video]] and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; it is less common in [[Europe]] but is starting to become more widely available. [[Image:SCART 20050724 003.jpg|70px|right]] *[[SCART]] - a large 21 pin connector that may carry [[Analog signal|analog]] signals consisting of: one video signal [[composite video]]; or two video signals [[S-Video]]; or for picture quality similar to [[component video]], three signals of separate red, green and blue or [[RGB color model|RGB]]; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and [[Synchronization|sync]] or RGBS; plus right and left [[line-level]] audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect-ratio]] flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in [[Europe]] since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest [[PAL]] DVD players and satellite receivers. [[Japan]] uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. The SCART connector is not used in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Image:SVideoConnector.jpg|70px|right]] *[[S-Video]] - small round connector with two separate [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for [[S-VHS]], [[8 mm video format|Hi-8]], and early [[NTSC]] DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. This will sometimes, completely incorrectly, be referred to as an [[S-VHS]] connector. Audio is not carried on this cable. [[Image:Composite.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Composite video]] - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the [[Analog signal|analog]] video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow [[RCA connector|RCA jack]] or occasionally a [[BNC connector]]. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left [[line-level]] audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables. *[[coaxial cable|Coaxial]] RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one [[coaxial cable]] and [[modulate]]d on a [[radio frequency]]. Most TVs manufactured since the 1970s provide a coaxial connection, and this is the type of cable typically used for [[cable television]]. Although still found on [[VHS]] tape-players, most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer supply an RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a [[modulation|modulator]] device. [[NTSC]] sets use a 75&nbsp;[[ohm]] F-connector; most [[PAL]] sets use a 50&nbsp;ohm Belling Lee. Most set-top TV antennas have a 300&nbsp;ohm [[Electrical impedance|impedance]], so to connect them to a coaxial input requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation. *300&nbsp;ohm [[twin-lead]] - The predecessor to [[coaxial cable]], generally a flat insulated cable with a pair of wires separated by 0.5&nbsp;inch, found on NTSC television sets from 1940 to about 1985, and originally used to connect the receiver to either an outdoor [[antenna]] or [[Dipole antenna|rabbit ears]], though twinlead line losses make an inefficient application for the former. Connection to the set was by connecting the wire to a pair of screws on the back of the television set. Nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] was 300&nbsp;ohms; connecting an older set to cable or VCRs requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation due to [[impedance mismatch]]. Twin-lead wiring is sensitive to nearby metal objects. Long runs must be properly supported away from metal objects and should be mounted with a loose twist in the cable - see [[unshielded twisted pair]] cables which operate by the same principle as properly installed twin-lead. *[[Optical fiber|Fiber optic]] - The latest in connections and only on extremely new and high quality TVs, fiber optics use a [[laser]] to transmit data along a glass fiber. Used for sound and/or video, can be found on newer TVs, high end video editing systems, as well as in high end computer systems. Can be referred to as [[S/PDIF]] digital-audio format. ===Aspect ratios=== '''[[Aspect ratio (image)|Aspect ratio]]''' refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 which was chosen to match the [[Academy ratio|Academy Ratio]] used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round [[cathode ray tube|cathode-ray tube]]s (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the [[manufacturing]] [[technology]] of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The [[BBC]]'s television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to [http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/Test-Cards/Test-Card-Technical.html#Aspect-Ratio 3 April 1950], when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed. In the 1950s, [[movie studio]]s moved towards [[widescreen]] aspect ratios such as [[CinemaScope]] in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a [[gimmick]], widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of [[panorama|panoramic]], others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to [[digital television]] systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen [[film|movie]]s, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called [[full screen anamorphic|anamorphic widescreen]] format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European [[PALPlus]] television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" [[DVD]]s; the [[ATSC]] [[High-definition television|HDTV]] system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both [[desktop computer|desktop]] and [[laptop]] computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or [[subtitle]]s, as opposed to viewing content full-screen. =====Aspect ratio incompatibility===== The television industry's changing of [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]s is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown: *in "[[letterbox]]" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom *with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "[[pan and scan]]", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown: *in "[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right *with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in "tilt and scan", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as [[Super 35 mm film|Super 35]] (championed by [[James Cameron]]) has been used to film a number of major movies such as [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[Austin Powers]]'', and ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (see also: [[List of top-grossing films shot in Super 35]]). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "[[full screen]]" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "[[Letterbox|letterboxing]]" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "[[pan-and-scan]]" cropping. === Sound === {{further|[[NICAM]]}} === Television add-ons === Today there are many television add-ons including [[Computer and video games|Video Game]] Consoles, [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]]s, [[Set-top box]]es for [[Cable television|Cable]] and [[Satellite television|Satellite]] reception, [[DVD]] players, or [[Digital video recorder|Digital Video Recorders]] (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. === New developments === *[[Ambilight]]™ *[[Broadcast flag]] *[[CableCARD]]™ *[[DLP|Digital Light Processing]] (DLP) *[[Digital Rights Management]] (DRM) *[[Digital television]] (DTV) *[[Digital Video Recorder]]s *[[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] TV (DBS) *[[DVD]] *[[Flicker-free]] (100&nbsp;Hz or 120&nbsp;Hz, depending on country) *[[High Definition TV]] (HDTV) *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface]] (HDMI) *[[IPTV]] *[[Internet television]] *[[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]] and [[Plasma display]] [[Flat panel display|Flat screen]] TV *[[Surface-conduction Electron-emitter Display|SED]] display technology *[[Organic light-emitting diode|OLED]] display technology *[[P2PTV]] *[[Pay-per-view]] *[[Picture-in-picture]] (PiP) *[[Pixelplus]] *[[Video on-demand]] (VOD) *[[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) *[[Web TV]] ==Geographical usage== *[[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]] {{main|Geographical usage of television}} ==Content== ===Advertising=== Since their inception in the USA in 1940, [[television commercial|TV commercial]]s have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by [[Nielsen Ratings]]. ===Programming=== Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #'''Original Run''' or '''First Run''' - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #'''[[Television syndication|Syndication]]''' - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, [[TV stations]] or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on [[Free-to-air|free-to-air (FTA)]] television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, [[Affiliate]]s rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't centered around local events. == Social aspects == ===Alleged dangers=== Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, [[scientist]]s and [[parent]]s are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government imposed a total ban on advertising to [[children]] under twelve in 1991 (see [[advertising]]). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 [[hour]]s of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the [[education]]al and maturational process. Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development (Norma Pecora, John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella, Children and Television: 50 Years of Research, published by Erlbaum Press, June, 2006) demonstrate that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence. In a recent study (February, 2006) published in the journal Media Psychology, volume 8, number 1, pages 25-37, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala-the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the Posterior Cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. A [[23 February]] [[2002]] article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other [[addiction]], a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching. A longitudinal study in [[New Zealand]] involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [[university]]. The changes in TV equipment and programming has been noted as one of the largest changes known to people because it was vital to people in the past as well as in the present. In [[Iceland]], television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Television's biggest social aspect is the fact that it allows users to instantly view content that may be occurring far away from where they are. Television has been a major contributor in the process of globalization. The Earth's residents can be linked by the programming they watch; but like the internet, television has been taken advantage of as a perfect medium for advertising and the spreading of thoughts and ideas. ===Technology trends=== In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their [[TV listings|schedules]] so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term ''appointment television'' was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment. The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the [[Videocassette recorder]] and the [[Digital video recorder]]. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer ''video on demand,'' a set of programs which could be watched at any time. Both [[mobile phone]] networks and the [[internet]] are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs. Mobile phone TV is planned to eventually become mainstream, after worldwide over-the-air digital TV takes over analogue and some technical difficulties can be overcome - especially the ones related to battery life. ===Suitability for audience=== Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, [[offensive]] or [[decency|indecent]]. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchasing of products. [[George Gerbner]] has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the [[Mean World Syndrome]], the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and been pitched at a low intellectual level. ==Further reading== *[[Erik Barnouw]], ''Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television'', Oxford University Press, 1992. *[[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''On Television'', The New Press, 2001. *Brooks, Tim and March, Earle, ''The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows'', Ballantine, Eighth Edition, 2002. *[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle'', Zone Books, 1995. *[[Jacques Derrida]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Echographies of Television'', Polity Press, 2002. *[[Jerry Mander]], ''Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television'', Perennial, 1978. * [[Neil Postman]], ''[[Amusing Ourselves to Death]]: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business''. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541 *Dr. Aric Sigman, ''Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives — And What We Can Do About It'', Vermilion, 2005. *Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, ''Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television'', Rutgers University Press, 2002. ==References== *David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, ''Tube: the Invention of Television'', Counterpoint, Washington D.C. USA, (1996) ISBN 1-887178-17-1 *Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, Jefferson, NC, USA, and London (2003) ISBN 0-7864-1220-8 ==See also== * [[Golden Age of Television]] * [[Archive of American Television]] * [[Composite monitor]] * [[European Broadcasting Union]] ([[EBU]]) * [[Electronic field production]] * [[Electronic news gathering]] * [[History of television]] * [[List of television topics]] * [[List of 'years in television']] * [[Lists of television channels]] * [[List of television programs|List of television programs/series]] * [[List of television personalities]] * [[Live television]] * [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [[PC card]] * [[S-video monitor]] * [[Teletext]] * [[TV/VCR combo]] * [[TV/FM DX|Long distance television reception (TV DX)]] * [[BARB]] * [[TV listings]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Television}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/ BBC Television] * [http://www.gooya.co.uk/worldtv.html A directory of world television channels] * [http://www.tvhistory.tv/ Television History — The First 75 Years] * [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/index.html The Encyclopedia of Television] at the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television] Some of the rarest sets in America * [http://www.the-best-of-television.com/ The #1 Online Television Resource] * [http://www.cherishedtelevision.co.uk/home.html Cherished Television] [[Category:Scottish inventions]] [[Category:Television| ]] [[af:Televisie]] [[ang:Feorrsīen]] [[ar:تلفزيون]] [[bs:Televizija]] [[bg:Телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió]] [[cs:Televize]] [[cy:Teledu]] [[da:Tv]] [[pdc:Guckbax]] [[de:Fernsehen]] [[et:Televisioon]] [[el:Τηλεόραση]] [[es:Televisión]] [[eo:Televido]] [[eu:Telebista]] [[fa:تلویزیون]] [[fr:Télévision]] [[ga:Teilifís]] [[ko:텔레비전]] [[hr:Televizija]] [[io:Televiziono]] [[id:Televisi]] [[it:Televisione]] [[he:טלוויזיה]] [[ku:Televîzyon]] [[la:Televisio]] [[lb:Televisioun]] [[lt:Televizija]] [[hu:Televízió]] [[ms:Televisyen]] [[nl:Televisie]] [[ja:テレビ]] [[no:TV]] [[ug:تېلېۋىزور]] [[nds:Kiekschapp]] [[pl:Telewizja]] [[pt:Televisão]] [[ro:Televiziune]] [[ru:Телевидение]] [[sco:Televeesion]] [[sq:Televizioni]] [[simple:Television]] [[sk:Televízia]] [[sl:Televizija]] [[sr:Телевизија]] [[fi:Televisio]] [[sv:TV]] [[tl:Telebisyon]] [[ta:தொலைக்காட்சி]] [[th:โทรทัศน์]] [[vi:Tivi]] [[tr:Televizyon]] [[uk:Телебачення]] [[fiu-vro:Televis'uun]] [[zh:电视]] 3114 2006-08-11T20:46:30Z Eukesh 59 [[टेलिभिजन]] moved to [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]]: more precise paali word '''टेलिभिजन''' एकस्य [[दूरसंचार]] यन्त्र [[चलचित्र]] व [[ध्वनि]] [[प्रसारण]] व संकलनेषु प्रयोजने| The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television from the [[television set]] to the [[television program|programming]] and [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]]. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far seeing" (Greek "tele," meaning far, and Latin "visus," meaning seeing). == ईतिहास == The origins of what would become today's television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873, and the invention of a scanning disk by [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television, relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image. While electromechanical techniques were developed prior to World War II, most notably by [[Charles Francis Jenkins]] and [[John Logie Baird]], completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of [[Philo Taylor Farnsworth]], [[Vladimir Zworykin]] and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Commercial broadcast programming, following years of experimental broadcasts seen only in a few specially-equipped homes, occurred in both the United States and the United Kingdom before World War II. The first television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (more than 240 lines) were made in England in 1936. So-called "System A" used 405 lines. Television did not become common in United States homes until the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (i.e., cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the owner of each television must pay a [[Television licence|license fee]] annually which is used to support the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]. == Adoption == Although Britain was the first country in the world to start large-scale public transmissions, the public uptake was initially very slow. Television sets were very expensive at first, and prices did not drop to an affordable level until technology developed during the [[Second World War]] for [[radar]] was introduced. As well as making televisions cheaper, it also made them safer and much smaller. These smaller, cheaper sets were more acceptable to the public. A major driver for television uptake in Britain was the [[Coronation]] of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953. This event was viewed by over 20 million people, and was for many their first exposure to television. People gathered for [[Coronation parties]], and many people bought television receivers specially in time for the event. During the year after the Coronation, television licence subscription increased by 50%. ==प्रविधि== ===Elements of a television system=== The elements of a simple television system are: * An image source - this may be a [[Professional video camera|camera]] for live pick-up of images or a [[flying spot scanner]] for transmission of [[motion picture|films]] * A sound source. * A [[transmitter]], which modulates one or more [[television signal]]s with both picture and sound information for transmission. * A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast. * A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light and audible sound. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous [[Satellite television|satellite]]s. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission [[bandwidth]], special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. <!-- Elements of a television system - block diagram here --> <!-- Image source, camera, film, magnetic tape, exceptionally computer-generated images--> <!-- Sound source --> <!-- Transmitter, over the air, bandwidth required, antenna, satellite system, cable system, digital encoding, scrambling --> <!-- Receiver, antenna, cable connection, satellite down-converter, digital decode, descramble--> <!-- Display, cathode ray tube, color tube, now LCD, historically mechanical scanned lamp--> <!-- Recorder, analog magnetic tape, now digital --> ===दृस्टि प्रविधि=== दृस्टि प्रविधि विकाशेनु विभिन्न प्रकारेन आधुनिक टिभी निर्मानम्: *'''CRT''': The most common displays are direct-view [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s for up to 40&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;cm) (in 4:3) and 46&nbsp;in (115&nbsp;cm) (in 16:9) [[diagonal]]ly. These are still the least expensive, and are a refined technology that can still provide the best overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed [[native resolution]], in some cases they are also capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The [[frame rate]] or refresh rate of a typical [[NTSC]] format CRT TV is 60&nbsp;Hz, and for the [[PAL]] format, it is 50&nbsp;Hz. A typical [[NTSC]] broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480&nbsp;pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the [[Vertical blanking interval|Vertical Blanking Interval]], or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast. *'''Rear projection''': Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100&nbsp;inch (254&nbsp;cm)) use [[projection]] technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]-based, and [[DLP]] (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. A variation is a [[video projector]], using similar technology, which projects onto a [[Projection screen|screen]]. *'''Flat panel LCD''' or '''plasma''': Modern advances have brought [[Flat panel display|flat panel]]s to TV that use [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|active matrix]] [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] or [[plasma display]] technology. Flat panel LCDs and [[plasma display]]s are as little as 1&nbsp;inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a [[pedestal]]. Some models can also be used as [[Computer display|computer monitor]]s.<br>{{seealso|Liquid crystal display television}} It is important to think about the living environment of your television before deciding on a single display technology. Each has its pros and cons, Flat panel LCD display can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural [[daylight]] or well lit rooms and so are best suited to dark viewing areas. A complete run down of the pros and cons of each display should be sought before purchasing a single television technology. ===Terminology for televisions=== Pixel [[Display resolution|resolution]] is the amount of individual points known as [[pixels]] on a given screen. A typical resolution of 800x600 means that the television display has 800 pixels across and 600&nbsp;pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast [[ratio]] is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and [[shadow]] detail. The [[brightness]] of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colours are. Measured in cd/m2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the [[image]]. ===Signal connections=== The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: [[Image:High Definition Multimedia Interface Plug.jpg|70px|right]] *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface|HDMI]] - a 19 or 29-pin industry-supported digital interface which supports standard, enhanced, or [[High-definition television|high-definition video]], plus multi-channel digital audio on a single cable. The video signal is [[Backward compatibility|backward-compatible]] with [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]. Increasingly common on displays, DVD players, and high-end PC [[graphics card]]s. [[Copy protection]] is implemented using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. HDMI 1.3 is required to enable high-definition content on [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] and [[HD DVD]] disks. [[Image:DVI Connector.JPG|70px|right]] *[[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] - a 17 to 29-pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry [[High-definition television|HDTV]] but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. [[Image:Component_video_RCA.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Component video]] - three separate [[RCA connector|RCA jack]]s (colored red, green and blue) carry three [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one brightness ([[Luminance (video)|luminance]]) and two colors ([[Chrominance|chromas]]), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" ([[interlace]]d) or "Y Pr Pb" ([[Progressive scan|progressive]]), or [[YUV]]. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to [[S-Video]] and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; it is less common in [[Europe]] but is starting to become more widely available. [[Image:SCART 20050724 003.jpg|70px|right]] *[[SCART]] - a large 21 pin connector that may carry [[Analog signal|analog]] signals consisting of: one video signal [[composite video]]; or two video signals [[S-Video]]; or for picture quality similar to [[component video]], three signals of separate red, green and blue or [[RGB color model|RGB]]; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and [[Synchronization|sync]] or RGBS; plus right and left [[line-level]] audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect-ratio]] flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in [[Europe]] since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest [[PAL]] DVD players and satellite receivers. [[Japan]] uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. The SCART connector is not used in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Image:SVideoConnector.jpg|70px|right]] *[[S-Video]] - small round connector with two separate [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for [[S-VHS]], [[8 mm video format|Hi-8]], and early [[NTSC]] DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. This will sometimes, completely incorrectly, be referred to as an [[S-VHS]] connector. Audio is not carried on this cable. [[Image:Composite.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Composite video]] - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the [[Analog signal|analog]] video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow [[RCA connector|RCA jack]] or occasionally a [[BNC connector]]. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left [[line-level]] audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables. *[[coaxial cable|Coaxial]] RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one [[coaxial cable]] and [[modulate]]d on a [[radio frequency]]. Most TVs manufactured since the 1970s provide a coaxial connection, and this is the type of cable typically used for [[cable television]]. Although still found on [[VHS]] tape-players, most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer supply an RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a [[modulation|modulator]] device. [[NTSC]] sets use a 75&nbsp;[[ohm]] F-connector; most [[PAL]] sets use a 50&nbsp;ohm Belling Lee. Most set-top TV antennas have a 300&nbsp;ohm [[Electrical impedance|impedance]], so to connect them to a coaxial input requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation. *300&nbsp;ohm [[twin-lead]] - The predecessor to [[coaxial cable]], generally a flat insulated cable with a pair of wires separated by 0.5&nbsp;inch, found on NTSC television sets from 1940 to about 1985, and originally used to connect the receiver to either an outdoor [[antenna]] or [[Dipole antenna|rabbit ears]], though twinlead line losses make an inefficient application for the former. Connection to the set was by connecting the wire to a pair of screws on the back of the television set. Nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] was 300&nbsp;ohms; connecting an older set to cable or VCRs requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation due to [[impedance mismatch]]. Twin-lead wiring is sensitive to nearby metal objects. Long runs must be properly supported away from metal objects and should be mounted with a loose twist in the cable - see [[unshielded twisted pair]] cables which operate by the same principle as properly installed twin-lead. *[[Optical fiber|Fiber optic]] - The latest in connections and only on extremely new and high quality TVs, fiber optics use a [[laser]] to transmit data along a glass fiber. Used for sound and/or video, can be found on newer TVs, high end video editing systems, as well as in high end computer systems. Can be referred to as [[S/PDIF]] digital-audio format. ===Aspect ratios=== '''[[Aspect ratio (image)|Aspect ratio]]''' refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 which was chosen to match the [[Academy ratio|Academy Ratio]] used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round [[cathode ray tube|cathode-ray tube]]s (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the [[manufacturing]] [[technology]] of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The [[BBC]]'s television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to [http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/Test-Cards/Test-Card-Technical.html#Aspect-Ratio 3 April 1950], when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed. In the 1950s, [[movie studio]]s moved towards [[widescreen]] aspect ratios such as [[CinemaScope]] in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a [[gimmick]], widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of [[panorama|panoramic]], others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to [[digital television]] systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen [[film|movie]]s, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called [[full screen anamorphic|anamorphic widescreen]] format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European [[PALPlus]] television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" [[DVD]]s; the [[ATSC]] [[High-definition television|HDTV]] system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both [[desktop computer|desktop]] and [[laptop]] computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or [[subtitle]]s, as opposed to viewing content full-screen. =====Aspect ratio incompatibility===== The television industry's changing of [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]s is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown: *in "[[letterbox]]" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom *with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "[[pan and scan]]", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown: *in "[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right *with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in "tilt and scan", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as [[Super 35 mm film|Super 35]] (championed by [[James Cameron]]) has been used to film a number of major movies such as [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[Austin Powers]]'', and ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (see also: [[List of top-grossing films shot in Super 35]]). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "[[full screen]]" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "[[Letterbox|letterboxing]]" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "[[pan-and-scan]]" cropping. === Sound === {{further|[[NICAM]]}} === Television add-ons === Today there are many television add-ons including [[Computer and video games|Video Game]] Consoles, [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]]s, [[Set-top box]]es for [[Cable television|Cable]] and [[Satellite television|Satellite]] reception, [[DVD]] players, or [[Digital video recorder|Digital Video Recorders]] (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. === New developments === *[[Ambilight]]™ *[[Broadcast flag]] *[[CableCARD]]™ *[[DLP|Digital Light Processing]] (DLP) *[[Digital Rights Management]] (DRM) *[[Digital television]] (DTV) *[[Digital Video Recorder]]s *[[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] TV (DBS) *[[DVD]] *[[Flicker-free]] (100&nbsp;Hz or 120&nbsp;Hz, depending on country) *[[High Definition TV]] (HDTV) *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface]] (HDMI) *[[IPTV]] *[[Internet television]] *[[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]] and [[Plasma display]] [[Flat panel display|Flat screen]] TV *[[Surface-conduction Electron-emitter Display|SED]] display technology *[[Organic light-emitting diode|OLED]] display technology *[[P2PTV]] *[[Pay-per-view]] *[[Picture-in-picture]] (PiP) *[[Pixelplus]] *[[Video on-demand]] (VOD) *[[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) *[[Web TV]] ==Geographical usage== *[[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]] {{main|Geographical usage of television}} ==Content== ===Advertising=== Since their inception in the USA in 1940, [[television commercial|TV commercial]]s have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by [[Nielsen Ratings]]. ===Programming=== Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #'''Original Run''' or '''First Run''' - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #'''[[Television syndication|Syndication]]''' - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, [[TV stations]] or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on [[Free-to-air|free-to-air (FTA)]] television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, [[Affiliate]]s rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't centered around local events. == Social aspects == ===Alleged dangers=== Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, [[scientist]]s and [[parent]]s are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government imposed a total ban on advertising to [[children]] under twelve in 1991 (see [[advertising]]). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 [[hour]]s of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the [[education]]al and maturational process. Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development (Norma Pecora, John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella, Children and Television: 50 Years of Research, published by Erlbaum Press, June, 2006) demonstrate that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence. In a recent study (February, 2006) published in the journal Media Psychology, volume 8, number 1, pages 25-37, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala-the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the Posterior Cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. A [[23 February]] [[2002]] article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other [[addiction]], a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching. A longitudinal study in [[New Zealand]] involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [[university]]. The changes in TV equipment and programming has been noted as one of the largest changes known to people because it was vital to people in the past as well as in the present. In [[Iceland]], television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Television's biggest social aspect is the fact that it allows users to instantly view content that may be occurring far away from where they are. Television has been a major contributor in the process of globalization. The Earth's residents can be linked by the programming they watch; but like the internet, television has been taken advantage of as a perfect medium for advertising and the spreading of thoughts and ideas. ===Technology trends=== In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their [[TV listings|schedules]] so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term ''appointment television'' was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment. The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the [[Videocassette recorder]] and the [[Digital video recorder]]. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer ''video on demand,'' a set of programs which could be watched at any time. Both [[mobile phone]] networks and the [[internet]] are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs. Mobile phone TV is planned to eventually become mainstream, after worldwide over-the-air digital TV takes over analogue and some technical difficulties can be overcome - especially the ones related to battery life. ===Suitability for audience=== Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, [[offensive]] or [[decency|indecent]]. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchasing of products. [[George Gerbner]] has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the [[Mean World Syndrome]], the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and been pitched at a low intellectual level. ==Further reading== *[[Erik Barnouw]], ''Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television'', Oxford University Press, 1992. *[[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''On Television'', The New Press, 2001. *Brooks, Tim and March, Earle, ''The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows'', Ballantine, Eighth Edition, 2002. *[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle'', Zone Books, 1995. *[[Jacques Derrida]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Echographies of Television'', Polity Press, 2002. *[[Jerry Mander]], ''Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television'', Perennial, 1978. * [[Neil Postman]], ''[[Amusing Ourselves to Death]]: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business''. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541 *Dr. Aric Sigman, ''Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives — And What We Can Do About It'', Vermilion, 2005. *Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, ''Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television'', Rutgers University Press, 2002. ==References== *David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, ''Tube: the Invention of Television'', Counterpoint, Washington D.C. USA, (1996) ISBN 1-887178-17-1 *Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, Jefferson, NC, USA, and London (2003) ISBN 0-7864-1220-8 ==See also== * [[Golden Age of Television]] * [[Archive of American Television]] * [[Composite monitor]] * [[European Broadcasting Union]] ([[EBU]]) * [[Electronic field production]] * [[Electronic news gathering]] * [[History of television]] * [[List of television topics]] * [[List of 'years in television']] * [[Lists of television channels]] * [[List of television programs|List of television programs/series]] * [[List of television personalities]] * [[Live television]] * [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [[PC card]] * [[S-video monitor]] * [[Teletext]] * [[TV/VCR combo]] * [[TV/FM DX|Long distance television reception (TV DX)]] * [[BARB]] * [[TV listings]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Television}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/ BBC Television] * [http://www.gooya.co.uk/worldtv.html A directory of world television channels] * [http://www.tvhistory.tv/ Television History — The First 75 Years] * [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/index.html The Encyclopedia of Television] at the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television] Some of the rarest sets in America * [http://www.the-best-of-television.com/ The #1 Online Television Resource] * [http://www.cherishedtelevision.co.uk/home.html Cherished Television] [[Category:Scottish inventions]] [[Category:Television| ]] [[af:Televisie]] [[ang:Feorrsīen]] [[ar:تلفزيون]] [[bs:Televizija]] [[bg:Телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió]] [[cs:Televize]] [[cy:Teledu]] [[da:Tv]] [[pdc:Guckbax]] [[de:Fernsehen]] [[et:Televisioon]] [[el:Τηλεόραση]] [[es:Televisión]] [[eo:Televido]] [[eu:Telebista]] [[fa:تلویزیون]] [[fr:Télévision]] [[ga:Teilifís]] [[ko:텔레비전]] [[hr:Televizija]] [[io:Televiziono]] [[id:Televisi]] [[it:Televisione]] [[he:טלוויזיה]] [[ku:Televîzyon]] [[la:Televisio]] [[lb:Televisioun]] [[lt:Televizija]] [[hu:Televízió]] [[ms:Televisyen]] [[nl:Televisie]] [[ja:テレビ]] [[no:TV]] [[ug:تېلېۋىزور]] [[nds:Kiekschapp]] [[pl:Telewizja]] [[pt:Televisão]] [[ro:Televiziune]] [[ru:Телевидение]] [[sco:Televeesion]] [[sq:Televizioni]] [[simple:Television]] [[sk:Televízia]] [[sl:Televizija]] [[sr:Телевизија]] [[fi:Televisio]] [[sv:TV]] [[tl:Telebisyon]] [[ta:தொலைக்காட்சி]] [[th:โทรทัศน์]] [[vi:Tivi]] [[tr:Televizyon]] [[uk:Телебачення]] [[fiu-vro:Televis'uun]] [[zh:电视]] 3118 2006-08-11T21:24:48Z Eukesh 59 [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]] moved to [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]]: wrong word used '''टेलिभिजन''' एकस्य [[दूरसंचार]] यन्त्र [[चलचित्र]] व [[ध्वनि]] [[प्रसारण]] व संकलनेषु प्रयोजने| The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television from the [[television set]] to the [[television program|programming]] and [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]]. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far seeing" (Greek "tele," meaning far, and Latin "visus," meaning seeing). == ईतिहास == The origins of what would become today's television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873, and the invention of a scanning disk by [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television, relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image. While electromechanical techniques were developed prior to World War II, most notably by [[Charles Francis Jenkins]] and [[John Logie Baird]], completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of [[Philo Taylor Farnsworth]], [[Vladimir Zworykin]] and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Commercial broadcast programming, following years of experimental broadcasts seen only in a few specially-equipped homes, occurred in both the United States and the United Kingdom before World War II. The first television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (more than 240 lines) were made in England in 1936. So-called "System A" used 405 lines. Television did not become common in United States homes until the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (i.e., cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the owner of each television must pay a [[Television licence|license fee]] annually which is used to support the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]. == Adoption == Although Britain was the first country in the world to start large-scale public transmissions, the public uptake was initially very slow. Television sets were very expensive at first, and prices did not drop to an affordable level until technology developed during the [[Second World War]] for [[radar]] was introduced. As well as making televisions cheaper, it also made them safer and much smaller. These smaller, cheaper sets were more acceptable to the public. A major driver for television uptake in Britain was the [[Coronation]] of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953. This event was viewed by over 20 million people, and was for many their first exposure to television. People gathered for [[Coronation parties]], and many people bought television receivers specially in time for the event. During the year after the Coronation, television licence subscription increased by 50%. ==प्रविधि== ===Elements of a television system=== The elements of a simple television system are: * An image source - this may be a [[Professional video camera|camera]] for live pick-up of images or a [[flying spot scanner]] for transmission of [[motion picture|films]] * A sound source. * A [[transmitter]], which modulates one or more [[television signal]]s with both picture and sound information for transmission. * A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast. * A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light and audible sound. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous [[Satellite television|satellite]]s. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission [[bandwidth]], special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. <!-- Elements of a television system - block diagram here --> <!-- Image source, camera, film, magnetic tape, exceptionally computer-generated images--> <!-- Sound source --> <!-- Transmitter, over the air, bandwidth required, antenna, satellite system, cable system, digital encoding, scrambling --> <!-- Receiver, antenna, cable connection, satellite down-converter, digital decode, descramble--> <!-- Display, cathode ray tube, color tube, now LCD, historically mechanical scanned lamp--> <!-- Recorder, analog magnetic tape, now digital --> ===दृस्टि प्रविधि=== दृस्टि प्रविधि विकाशेनु विभिन्न प्रकारेन आधुनिक टिभी निर्मानम्: *'''CRT''': The most common displays are direct-view [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s for up to 40&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;cm) (in 4:3) and 46&nbsp;in (115&nbsp;cm) (in 16:9) [[diagonal]]ly. These are still the least expensive, and are a refined technology that can still provide the best overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed [[native resolution]], in some cases they are also capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The [[frame rate]] or refresh rate of a typical [[NTSC]] format CRT TV is 60&nbsp;Hz, and for the [[PAL]] format, it is 50&nbsp;Hz. A typical [[NTSC]] broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480&nbsp;pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the [[Vertical blanking interval|Vertical Blanking Interval]], or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast. *'''Rear projection''': Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100&nbsp;inch (254&nbsp;cm)) use [[projection]] technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]-based, and [[DLP]] (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. A variation is a [[video projector]], using similar technology, which projects onto a [[Projection screen|screen]]. *'''Flat panel LCD''' or '''plasma''': Modern advances have brought [[Flat panel display|flat panel]]s to TV that use [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|active matrix]] [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] or [[plasma display]] technology. Flat panel LCDs and [[plasma display]]s are as little as 1&nbsp;inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a [[pedestal]]. Some models can also be used as [[Computer display|computer monitor]]s.<br>{{seealso|Liquid crystal display television}} It is important to think about the living environment of your television before deciding on a single display technology. Each has its pros and cons, Flat panel LCD display can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural [[daylight]] or well lit rooms and so are best suited to dark viewing areas. A complete run down of the pros and cons of each display should be sought before purchasing a single television technology. ===Terminology for televisions=== Pixel [[Display resolution|resolution]] is the amount of individual points known as [[pixels]] on a given screen. A typical resolution of 800x600 means that the television display has 800 pixels across and 600&nbsp;pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast [[ratio]] is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and [[shadow]] detail. The [[brightness]] of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colours are. Measured in cd/m2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the [[image]]. ===Signal connections=== The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: [[Image:High Definition Multimedia Interface Plug.jpg|70px|right]] *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface|HDMI]] - a 19 or 29-pin industry-supported digital interface which supports standard, enhanced, or [[High-definition television|high-definition video]], plus multi-channel digital audio on a single cable. The video signal is [[Backward compatibility|backward-compatible]] with [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]. Increasingly common on displays, DVD players, and high-end PC [[graphics card]]s. [[Copy protection]] is implemented using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. HDMI 1.3 is required to enable high-definition content on [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] and [[HD DVD]] disks. [[Image:DVI Connector.JPG|70px|right]] *[[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] - a 17 to 29-pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry [[High-definition television|HDTV]] but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. [[Image:Component_video_RCA.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Component video]] - three separate [[RCA connector|RCA jack]]s (colored red, green and blue) carry three [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one brightness ([[Luminance (video)|luminance]]) and two colors ([[Chrominance|chromas]]), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" ([[interlace]]d) or "Y Pr Pb" ([[Progressive scan|progressive]]), or [[YUV]]. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to [[S-Video]] and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; it is less common in [[Europe]] but is starting to become more widely available. [[Image:SCART 20050724 003.jpg|70px|right]] *[[SCART]] - a large 21 pin connector that may carry [[Analog signal|analog]] signals consisting of: one video signal [[composite video]]; or two video signals [[S-Video]]; or for picture quality similar to [[component video]], three signals of separate red, green and blue or [[RGB color model|RGB]]; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and [[Synchronization|sync]] or RGBS; plus right and left [[line-level]] audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect-ratio]] flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in [[Europe]] since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest [[PAL]] DVD players and satellite receivers. [[Japan]] uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. The SCART connector is not used in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Image:SVideoConnector.jpg|70px|right]] *[[S-Video]] - small round connector with two separate [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for [[S-VHS]], [[8 mm video format|Hi-8]], and early [[NTSC]] DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. This will sometimes, completely incorrectly, be referred to as an [[S-VHS]] connector. Audio is not carried on this cable. [[Image:Composite.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Composite video]] - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the [[Analog signal|analog]] video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow [[RCA connector|RCA jack]] or occasionally a [[BNC connector]]. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left [[line-level]] audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables. *[[coaxial cable|Coaxial]] RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one [[coaxial cable]] and [[modulate]]d on a [[radio frequency]]. Most TVs manufactured since the 1970s provide a coaxial connection, and this is the type of cable typically used for [[cable television]]. Although still found on [[VHS]] tape-players, most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer supply an RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a [[modulation|modulator]] device. [[NTSC]] sets use a 75&nbsp;[[ohm]] F-connector; most [[PAL]] sets use a 50&nbsp;ohm Belling Lee. Most set-top TV antennas have a 300&nbsp;ohm [[Electrical impedance|impedance]], so to connect them to a coaxial input requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation. *300&nbsp;ohm [[twin-lead]] - The predecessor to [[coaxial cable]], generally a flat insulated cable with a pair of wires separated by 0.5&nbsp;inch, found on NTSC television sets from 1940 to about 1985, and originally used to connect the receiver to either an outdoor [[antenna]] or [[Dipole antenna|rabbit ears]], though twinlead line losses make an inefficient application for the former. Connection to the set was by connecting the wire to a pair of screws on the back of the television set. Nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] was 300&nbsp;ohms; connecting an older set to cable or VCRs requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation due to [[impedance mismatch]]. Twin-lead wiring is sensitive to nearby metal objects. Long runs must be properly supported away from metal objects and should be mounted with a loose twist in the cable - see [[unshielded twisted pair]] cables which operate by the same principle as properly installed twin-lead. *[[Optical fiber|Fiber optic]] - The latest in connections and only on extremely new and high quality TVs, fiber optics use a [[laser]] to transmit data along a glass fiber. Used for sound and/or video, can be found on newer TVs, high end video editing systems, as well as in high end computer systems. Can be referred to as [[S/PDIF]] digital-audio format. ===Aspect ratios=== '''[[Aspect ratio (image)|Aspect ratio]]''' refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 which was chosen to match the [[Academy ratio|Academy Ratio]] used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round [[cathode ray tube|cathode-ray tube]]s (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the [[manufacturing]] [[technology]] of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The [[BBC]]'s television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to [http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/Test-Cards/Test-Card-Technical.html#Aspect-Ratio 3 April 1950], when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed. In the 1950s, [[movie studio]]s moved towards [[widescreen]] aspect ratios such as [[CinemaScope]] in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a [[gimmick]], widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of [[panorama|panoramic]], others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to [[digital television]] systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen [[film|movie]]s, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called [[full screen anamorphic|anamorphic widescreen]] format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European [[PALPlus]] television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" [[DVD]]s; the [[ATSC]] [[High-definition television|HDTV]] system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both [[desktop computer|desktop]] and [[laptop]] computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or [[subtitle]]s, as opposed to viewing content full-screen. =====Aspect ratio incompatibility===== The television industry's changing of [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]s is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown: *in "[[letterbox]]" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom *with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "[[pan and scan]]", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown: *in "[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right *with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in "tilt and scan", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as [[Super 35 mm film|Super 35]] (championed by [[James Cameron]]) has been used to film a number of major movies such as [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[Austin Powers]]'', and ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (see also: [[List of top-grossing films shot in Super 35]]). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "[[full screen]]" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "[[Letterbox|letterboxing]]" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "[[pan-and-scan]]" cropping. === Sound === {{further|[[NICAM]]}} === Television add-ons === Today there are many television add-ons including [[Computer and video games|Video Game]] Consoles, [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]]s, [[Set-top box]]es for [[Cable television|Cable]] and [[Satellite television|Satellite]] reception, [[DVD]] players, or [[Digital video recorder|Digital Video Recorders]] (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. === New developments === *[[Ambilight]]™ *[[Broadcast flag]] *[[CableCARD]]™ *[[DLP|Digital Light Processing]] (DLP) *[[Digital Rights Management]] (DRM) *[[Digital television]] (DTV) *[[Digital Video Recorder]]s *[[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] TV (DBS) *[[DVD]] *[[Flicker-free]] (100&nbsp;Hz or 120&nbsp;Hz, depending on country) *[[High Definition TV]] (HDTV) *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface]] (HDMI) *[[IPTV]] *[[Internet television]] *[[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]] and [[Plasma display]] [[Flat panel display|Flat screen]] TV *[[Surface-conduction Electron-emitter Display|SED]] display technology *[[Organic light-emitting diode|OLED]] display technology *[[P2PTV]] *[[Pay-per-view]] *[[Picture-in-picture]] (PiP) *[[Pixelplus]] *[[Video on-demand]] (VOD) *[[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) *[[Web TV]] ==Geographical usage== *[[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]] {{main|Geographical usage of television}} ==Content== ===Advertising=== Since their inception in the USA in 1940, [[television commercial|TV commercial]]s have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by [[Nielsen Ratings]]. ===Programming=== Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #'''Original Run''' or '''First Run''' - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #'''[[Television syndication|Syndication]]''' - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, [[TV stations]] or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on [[Free-to-air|free-to-air (FTA)]] television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, [[Affiliate]]s rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't centered around local events. == Social aspects == ===Alleged dangers=== Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, [[scientist]]s and [[parent]]s are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government imposed a total ban on advertising to [[children]] under twelve in 1991 (see [[advertising]]). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 [[hour]]s of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the [[education]]al and maturational process. Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development (Norma Pecora, John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella, Children and Television: 50 Years of Research, published by Erlbaum Press, June, 2006) demonstrate that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence. In a recent study (February, 2006) published in the journal Media Psychology, volume 8, number 1, pages 25-37, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala-the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the Posterior Cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. A [[23 February]] [[2002]] article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other [[addiction]], a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching. A longitudinal study in [[New Zealand]] involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [[university]]. The changes in TV equipment and programming has been noted as one of the largest changes known to people because it was vital to people in the past as well as in the present. In [[Iceland]], television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Television's biggest social aspect is the fact that it allows users to instantly view content that may be occurring far away from where they are. Television has been a major contributor in the process of globalization. The Earth's residents can be linked by the programming they watch; but like the internet, television has been taken advantage of as a perfect medium for advertising and the spreading of thoughts and ideas. ===Technology trends=== In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their [[TV listings|schedules]] so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term ''appointment television'' was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment. The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the [[Videocassette recorder]] and the [[Digital video recorder]]. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer ''video on demand,'' a set of programs which could be watched at any time. Both [[mobile phone]] networks and the [[internet]] are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs. Mobile phone TV is planned to eventually become mainstream, after worldwide over-the-air digital TV takes over analogue and some technical difficulties can be overcome - especially the ones related to battery life. ===Suitability for audience=== Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, [[offensive]] or [[decency|indecent]]. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchasing of products. [[George Gerbner]] has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the [[Mean World Syndrome]], the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and been pitched at a low intellectual level. ==Further reading== *[[Erik Barnouw]], ''Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television'', Oxford University Press, 1992. *[[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''On Television'', The New Press, 2001. *Brooks, Tim and March, Earle, ''The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows'', Ballantine, Eighth Edition, 2002. *[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle'', Zone Books, 1995. *[[Jacques Derrida]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Echographies of Television'', Polity Press, 2002. *[[Jerry Mander]], ''Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television'', Perennial, 1978. * [[Neil Postman]], ''[[Amusing Ourselves to Death]]: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business''. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541 *Dr. Aric Sigman, ''Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives — And What We Can Do About It'', Vermilion, 2005. *Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, ''Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television'', Rutgers University Press, 2002. ==References== *David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, ''Tube: the Invention of Television'', Counterpoint, Washington D.C. USA, (1996) ISBN 1-887178-17-1 *Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, Jefferson, NC, USA, and London (2003) ISBN 0-7864-1220-8 ==See also== * [[Golden Age of Television]] * [[Archive of American Television]] * [[Composite monitor]] * [[European Broadcasting Union]] ([[EBU]]) * [[Electronic field production]] * [[Electronic news gathering]] * [[History of television]] * [[List of television topics]] * [[List of 'years in television']] * [[Lists of television channels]] * [[List of television programs|List of television programs/series]] * [[List of television personalities]] * [[Live television]] * [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [[PC card]] * [[S-video monitor]] * [[Teletext]] * [[TV/VCR combo]] * [[TV/FM DX|Long distance television reception (TV DX)]] * [[BARB]] * [[TV listings]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Television}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/ BBC Television] * [http://www.gooya.co.uk/worldtv.html A directory of world television channels] * [http://www.tvhistory.tv/ Television History — The First 75 Years] * [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/index.html The Encyclopedia of Television] at the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television] Some of the rarest sets in America * [http://www.the-best-of-television.com/ The #1 Online Television Resource] * [http://www.cherishedtelevision.co.uk/home.html Cherished Television] [[Category:Scottish inventions]] [[Category:Television| ]] [[af:Televisie]] [[ang:Feorrsīen]] [[ar:تلفزيون]] [[bs:Televizija]] [[bg:Телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió]] [[cs:Televize]] [[cy:Teledu]] [[da:Tv]] [[pdc:Guckbax]] [[de:Fernsehen]] [[et:Televisioon]] [[el:Τηλεόραση]] [[es:Televisión]] [[eo:Televido]] [[eu:Telebista]] [[fa:تلویزیون]] [[fr:Télévision]] [[ga:Teilifís]] [[ko:텔레비전]] [[hr:Televizija]] [[io:Televiziono]] [[id:Televisi]] [[it:Televisione]] [[he:טלוויזיה]] [[ku:Televîzyon]] [[la:Televisio]] [[lb:Televisioun]] [[lt:Televizija]] [[hu:Televízió]] [[ms:Televisyen]] [[nl:Televisie]] [[ja:テレビ]] [[no:TV]] [[ug:تېلېۋىزور]] [[nds:Kiekschapp]] [[pl:Telewizja]] [[pt:Televisão]] [[ro:Televiziune]] [[ru:Телевидение]] [[sco:Televeesion]] [[sq:Televizioni]] [[simple:Television]] [[sk:Televízia]] [[sl:Televizija]] [[sr:Телевизија]] [[fi:Televisio]] [[sv:TV]] [[tl:Telebisyon]] [[ta:தொலைக்காட்சி]] [[th:โทรทัศน์]] [[vi:Tivi]] [[tr:Televizyon]] [[uk:Телебачення]] [[fiu-vro:Televis'uun]] [[zh:电视]] 3588 2006-12-22T07:51:36Z 210.23.5.11 /* External links */ '''टेलिभिजन''' एकस्य [[दूरसंचार]] यन्त्र [[चलचित्र]] व [[ध्वनि]] [[प्रसारण]] व संकलनेषु प्रयोजने| The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television from the [[television set]] to the [[television program|programming]] and [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]]. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far seeing" (Greek "tele," meaning far, and Latin "visus," meaning seeing). == ईतिहास == The origins of what would become today's television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873, and the invention of a scanning disk by [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television, relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image. While electromechanical techniques were developed prior to World War II, most notably by [[Charles Francis Jenkins]] and [[John Logie Baird]], completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of [[Philo Taylor Farnsworth]], [[Vladimir Zworykin]] and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Commercial broadcast programming, following years of experimental broadcasts seen only in a few specially-equipped homes, occurred in both the United States and the United Kingdom before World War II. The first television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (more than 240 lines) were made in England in 1936. So-called "System A" used 405 lines. Television did not become common in United States homes until the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (i.e., cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the owner of each television must pay a [[Television licence|license fee]] annually which is used to support the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]. == Adoption == Although Britain was the first country in the world to start large-scale public transmissions, the public uptake was initially very slow. Television sets were very expensive at first, and prices did not drop to an affordable level until technology developed during the [[Second World War]] for [[radar]] was introduced. As well as making televisions cheaper, it also made them safer and much smaller. These smaller, cheaper sets were more acceptable to the public. A major driver for television uptake in Britain was the [[Coronation]] of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953. This event was viewed by over 20 million people, and was for many their first exposure to television. People gathered for [[Coronation parties]], and many people bought television receivers specially in time for the event. During the year after the Coronation, television licence subscription increased by 50%. ==प्रविधि== ===Elements of a television system=== The elements of a simple television system are: * An image source - this may be a [[Professional video camera|camera]] for live pick-up of images or a [[flying spot scanner]] for transmission of [[motion picture|films]] * A sound source. * A [[transmitter]], which modulates one or more [[television signal]]s with both picture and sound information for transmission. * A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast. * A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light and audible sound. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous [[Satellite television|satellite]]s. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission [[bandwidth]], special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. <!-- Elements of a television system - block diagram here --> <!-- Image source, camera, film, magnetic tape, exceptionally computer-generated images--> <!-- Sound source --> <!-- Transmitter, over the air, bandwidth required, antenna, satellite system, cable system, digital encoding, scrambling --> <!-- Receiver, antenna, cable connection, satellite down-converter, digital decode, descramble--> <!-- Display, cathode ray tube, color tube, now LCD, historically mechanical scanned lamp--> <!-- Recorder, analog magnetic tape, now digital --> ===दृस्टि प्रविधि=== दृस्टि प्रविधि विकाशेनु विभिन्न प्रकारेन आधुनिक टिभी निर्मानम्: *'''CRT''': The most common displays are direct-view [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s for up to 40&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;cm) (in 4:3) and 46&nbsp;in (115&nbsp;cm) (in 16:9) [[diagonal]]ly. These are still the least expensive, and are a refined technology that can still provide the best overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed [[native resolution]], in some cases they are also capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The [[frame rate]] or refresh rate of a typical [[NTSC]] format CRT TV is 60&nbsp;Hz, and for the [[PAL]] format, it is 50&nbsp;Hz. A typical [[NTSC]] broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480&nbsp;pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the [[Vertical blanking interval|Vertical Blanking Interval]], or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast. *'''Rear projection''': Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100&nbsp;inch (254&nbsp;cm)) use [[projection]] technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]-based, and [[DLP]] (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. A variation is a [[video projector]], using similar technology, which projects onto a [[Projection screen|screen]]. *'''Flat panel LCD''' or '''plasma''': Modern advances have brought [[Flat panel display|flat panel]]s to TV that use [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|active matrix]] [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] or [[plasma display]] technology. Flat panel LCDs and [[plasma display]]s are as little as 1&nbsp;inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a [[pedestal]]. Some models can also be used as [[Computer display|computer monitor]]s.<br>{{seealso|Liquid crystal display television}} It is important to think about the living environment of your television before deciding on a single display technology. Each has its pros and cons, Flat panel LCD display can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural [[daylight]] or well lit rooms and so are best suited to dark viewing areas. A complete run down of the pros and cons of each display should be sought before purchasing a single television technology. ===Terminology for televisions=== Pixel [[Display resolution|resolution]] is the amount of individual points known as [[pixels]] on a given screen. A typical resolution of 800x600 means that the television display has 800 pixels across and 600&nbsp;pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast [[ratio]] is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and [[shadow]] detail. The [[brightness]] of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colours are. Measured in cd/m2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the [[image]]. ===Signal connections=== The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: [[Image:High Definition Multimedia Interface Plug.jpg|70px|right]] *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface|HDMI]] - a 19 or 29-pin industry-supported digital interface which supports standard, enhanced, or [[High-definition television|high-definition video]], plus multi-channel digital audio on a single cable. The video signal is [[Backward compatibility|backward-compatible]] with [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]. Increasingly common on displays, DVD players, and high-end PC [[graphics card]]s. [[Copy protection]] is implemented using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. HDMI 1.3 is required to enable high-definition content on [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] and [[HD DVD]] disks. [[Image:DVI Connector.JPG|70px|right]] *[[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] - a 17 to 29-pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry [[High-definition television|HDTV]] but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. [[Image:Component_video_RCA.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Component video]] - three separate [[RCA connector|RCA jack]]s (colored red, green and blue) carry three [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one brightness ([[Luminance (video)|luminance]]) and two colors ([[Chrominance|chromas]]), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" ([[interlace]]d) or "Y Pr Pb" ([[Progressive scan|progressive]]), or [[YUV]]. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to [[S-Video]] and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; it is less common in [[Europe]] but is starting to become more widely available. [[Image:SCART 20050724 003.jpg|70px|right]] *[[SCART]] - a large 21 pin connector that may carry [[Analog signal|analog]] signals consisting of: one video signal [[composite video]]; or two video signals [[S-Video]]; or for picture quality similar to [[component video]], three signals of separate red, green and blue or [[RGB color model|RGB]]; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and [[Synchronization|sync]] or RGBS; plus right and left [[line-level]] audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect-ratio]] flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in [[Europe]] since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest [[PAL]] DVD players and satellite receivers. [[Japan]] uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. The SCART connector is not used in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Image:SVideoConnector.jpg|70px|right]] *[[S-Video]] - small round connector with two separate [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for [[S-VHS]], [[8 mm video format|Hi-8]], and early [[NTSC]] DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. This will sometimes, completely incorrectly, be referred to as an [[S-VHS]] connector. Audio is not carried on this cable. [[Image:Composite.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Composite video]] - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the [[Analog signal|analog]] video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow [[RCA connector|RCA jack]] or occasionally a [[BNC connector]]. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left [[line-level]] audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables. *[[coaxial cable|Coaxial]] RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one [[coaxial cable]] and [[modulate]]d on a [[radio frequency]]. Most TVs manufactured since the 1970s provide a coaxial connection, and this is the type of cable typically used for [[cable television]]. Although still found on [[VHS]] tape-players, most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer supply an RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a [[modulation|modulator]] device. [[NTSC]] sets use a 75&nbsp;[[ohm]] F-connector; most [[PAL]] sets use a 50&nbsp;ohm Belling Lee. Most set-top TV antennas have a 300&nbsp;ohm [[Electrical impedance|impedance]], so to connect them to a coaxial input requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation. *300&nbsp;ohm [[twin-lead]] - The predecessor to [[coaxial cable]], generally a flat insulated cable with a pair of wires separated by 0.5&nbsp;inch, found on NTSC television sets from 1940 to about 1985, and originally used to connect the receiver to either an outdoor [[antenna]] or [[Dipole antenna|rabbit ears]], though twinlead line losses make an inefficient application for the former. Connection to the set was by connecting the wire to a pair of screws on the back of the television set. Nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] was 300&nbsp;ohms; connecting an older set to cable or VCRs requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation due to [[impedance mismatch]]. Twin-lead wiring is sensitive to nearby metal objects. Long runs must be properly supported away from metal objects and should be mounted with a loose twist in the cable - see [[unshielded twisted pair]] cables which operate by the same principle as properly installed twin-lead. *[[Optical fiber|Fiber optic]] - The latest in connections and only on extremely new and high quality TVs, fiber optics use a [[laser]] to transmit data along a glass fiber. Used for sound and/or video, can be found on newer TVs, high end video editing systems, as well as in high end computer systems. Can be referred to as [[S/PDIF]] digital-audio format. ===Aspect ratios=== '''[[Aspect ratio (image)|Aspect ratio]]''' refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 which was chosen to match the [[Academy ratio|Academy Ratio]] used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round [[cathode ray tube|cathode-ray tube]]s (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the [[manufacturing]] [[technology]] of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The [[BBC]]'s television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to [http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/Test-Cards/Test-Card-Technical.html#Aspect-Ratio 3 April 1950], when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed. In the 1950s, [[movie studio]]s moved towards [[widescreen]] aspect ratios such as [[CinemaScope]] in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a [[gimmick]], widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of [[panorama|panoramic]], others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to [[digital television]] systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen [[film|movie]]s, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called [[full screen anamorphic|anamorphic widescreen]] format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European [[PALPlus]] television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" [[DVD]]s; the [[ATSC]] [[High-definition television|HDTV]] system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both [[desktop computer|desktop]] and [[laptop]] computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or [[subtitle]]s, as opposed to viewing content full-screen. =====Aspect ratio incompatibility===== The television industry's changing of [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]s is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown: *in "[[letterbox]]" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom *with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "[[pan and scan]]", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown: *in "[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right *with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in "tilt and scan", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as [[Super 35 mm film|Super 35]] (championed by [[James Cameron]]) has been used to film a number of major movies such as [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[Austin Powers]]'', and ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (see also: [[List of top-grossing films shot in Super 35]]). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "[[full screen]]" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "[[Letterbox|letterboxing]]" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "[[pan-and-scan]]" cropping. === Sound === {{further|[[NICAM]]}} === Television add-ons === Today there are many television add-ons including [[Computer and video games|Video Game]] Consoles, [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]]s, [[Set-top box]]es for [[Cable television|Cable]] and [[Satellite television|Satellite]] reception, [[DVD]] players, or [[Digital video recorder|Digital Video Recorders]] (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. === New developments === *[[Ambilight]]™ *[[Broadcast flag]] *[[CableCARD]]™ *[[DLP|Digital Light Processing]] (DLP) *[[Digital Rights Management]] (DRM) *[[Digital television]] (DTV) *[[Digital Video Recorder]]s *[[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] TV (DBS) *[[DVD]] *[[Flicker-free]] (100&nbsp;Hz or 120&nbsp;Hz, depending on country) *[[High Definition TV]] (HDTV) *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface]] (HDMI) *[[IPTV]] *[[Internet television]] *[[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]] and [[Plasma display]] [[Flat panel display|Flat screen]] TV *[[Surface-conduction Electron-emitter Display|SED]] display technology *[[Organic light-emitting diode|OLED]] display technology *[[P2PTV]] *[[Pay-per-view]] *[[Picture-in-picture]] (PiP) *[[Pixelplus]] *[[Video on-demand]] (VOD) *[[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) *[[Web TV]] ==Geographical usage== *[[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]] {{main|Geographical usage of television}} ==Content== ===Advertising=== Since their inception in the USA in 1940, [[television commercial|TV commercial]]s have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by [[Nielsen Ratings]]. ===Programming=== Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #'''Original Run''' or '''First Run''' - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #'''[[Television syndication|Syndication]]''' - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, [[TV stations]] or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on [[Free-to-air|free-to-air (FTA)]] television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, [[Affiliate]]s rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't centered around local events. == Social aspects == ===Alleged dangers=== Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, [[scientist]]s and [[parent]]s are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government imposed a total ban on advertising to [[children]] under twelve in 1991 (see [[advertising]]). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 [[hour]]s of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the [[education]]al and maturational process. Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development (Norma Pecora, John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella, Children and Television: 50 Years of Research, published by Erlbaum Press, June, 2006) demonstrate that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence. In a recent study (February, 2006) published in the journal Media Psychology, volume 8, number 1, pages 25-37, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala-the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the Posterior Cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. A [[23 February]] [[2002]] article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other [[addiction]], a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching. A longitudinal study in [[New Zealand]] involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [[university]]. The changes in TV equipment and programming has been noted as one of the largest changes known to people because it was vital to people in the past as well as in the present. In [[Iceland]], television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Television's biggest social aspect is the fact that it allows users to instantly view content that may be occurring far away from where they are. Television has been a major contributor in the process of globalization. The Earth's residents can be linked by the programming they watch; but like the internet, television has been taken advantage of as a perfect medium for advertising and the spreading of thoughts and ideas. ===Technology trends=== In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their [[TV listings|schedules]] so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term ''appointment television'' was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment. The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the [[Videocassette recorder]] and the [[Digital video recorder]]. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer ''video on demand,'' a set of programs which could be watched at any time. Both [[mobile phone]] networks and the [[internet]] are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs. Mobile phone TV is planned to eventually become mainstream, after worldwide over-the-air digital TV takes over analogue and some technical difficulties can be overcome - especially the ones related to battery life. ===Suitability for audience=== Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, [[offensive]] or [[decency|indecent]]. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchasing of products. [[George Gerbner]] has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the [[Mean World Syndrome]], the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and been pitched at a low intellectual level. ==Further reading== *[[Erik Barnouw]], ''Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television'', Oxford University Press, 1992. *[[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''On Television'', The New Press, 2001. *Brooks, Tim and March, Earle, ''The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows'', Ballantine, Eighth Edition, 2002. *[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle'', Zone Books, 1995. *[[Jacques Derrida]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Echographies of Television'', Polity Press, 2002. *[[Jerry Mander]], ''Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television'', Perennial, 1978. * [[Neil Postman]], ''[[Amusing Ourselves to Death]]: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business''. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541 *Dr. Aric Sigman, ''Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives — And What We Can Do About It'', Vermilion, 2005. *Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, ''Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television'', Rutgers University Press, 2002. ==References== *David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, ''Tube: the Invention of Television'', Counterpoint, Washington D.C. USA, (1996) ISBN 1-887178-17-1 *Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, Jefferson, NC, USA, and London (2003) ISBN 0-7864-1220-8 ==See also== * [[Golden Age of Television]] * [[Archive of American Television]] * [[Composite monitor]] * [[European Broadcasting Union]] ([[EBU]]) * [[Electronic field production]] * [[Electronic news gathering]] * [[History of television]] * [[List of television topics]] * [[List of 'years in television']] * [[Lists of television channels]] * [[List of television programs|List of television programs/series]] * [[List of television personalities]] * [[Live television]] * [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [[PC card]] * [[S-video monitor]] * [[Teletext]] * [[TV/VCR combo]] * [[TV/FM DX|Long distance television reception (TV DX)]] * [[BARB]] * [[TV listings]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Television}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/ BBC Television] *[http://yourglobaltv.com online tv] free * [http://www.gooya.co.uk/worldtv.html A directory of world television channels] * [http://www.tvhistory.tv/ Television History — The First 75 Years] * [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/index.html The Encyclopedia of Television] at the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television] Some of the rarest sets in America * [http://www.the-best-of-television.com/ The #1 Online Television Resource] * [http://www.cherishedtelevision.co.uk/home.html Cherished Television] [[Category:Scottish inventions]] [[Category:Television| ]] [[af:Televisie]] [[ang:Feorrsīen]] [[ar:تلفزيون]] [[bs:Televizija]] [[bg:Телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió]] [[cs:Televize]] [[cy:Teledu]] [[da:Tv]] [[pdc:Guckbax]] [[de:Fernsehen]] [[et:Televisioon]] [[el:Τηλεόραση]] [[es:Televisión]] [[eo:Televido]] [[eu:Telebista]] [[fa:تلویزیون]] [[fr:Télévision]] [[ga:Teilifís]] [[ko:텔레비전]] [[hr:Televizija]] [[io:Televiziono]] [[id:Televisi]] [[it:Televisione]] [[he:טלוויזיה]] [[ku:Televîzyon]] [[la:Televisio]] [[lb:Televisioun]] [[lt:Televizija]] [[hu:Televízió]] [[ms:Televisyen]] [[nl:Televisie]] [[ja:テレビ]] [[no:TV]] [[ug:تېلېۋىزور]] [[nds:Kiekschapp]] [[pl:Telewizja]] [[pt:Televisão]] [[ro:Televiziune]] [[ru:Телевидение]] [[sco:Televeesion]] [[sq:Televizioni]] [[simple:Television]] [[sk:Televízia]] [[sl:Televizija]] [[sr:Телевизија]] [[fi:Televisio]] [[sv:TV]] [[tl:Telebisyon]] [[ta:தொலைக்காட்சி]] [[th:โทรทัศน์]] [[vi:Tivi]] [[tr:Televizyon]] [[uk:Телебачення]] [[fiu-vro:Televis'uun]] [[zh:电视]] 3591 2006-12-23T13:29:14Z Pill 73 Revert to revision 3118 dated 2006-08-11 21:24:48 by Eukesh using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] '''टेलिभिजन''' एकस्य [[दूरसंचार]] यन्त्र [[चलचित्र]] व [[ध्वनि]] [[प्रसारण]] व संकलनेषु प्रयोजने| The term has come to refer to all the aspects of television from the [[television set]] to the [[television program|programming]] and [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]]. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far seeing" (Greek "tele," meaning far, and Latin "visus," meaning seeing). == ईतिहास == The origins of what would become today's television system can be traced back as far as the discovery of the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873, and the invention of a scanning disk by [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884. All practical television systems use the fundamental idea of scanning an image to produce a time series signal representation. That representation is then transmitted to a device to reverse the scanning process. The final device, the television, relies on the human eye to integrate the result into a coherent image. While electromechanical techniques were developed prior to World War II, most notably by [[Charles Francis Jenkins]] and [[John Logie Baird]], completely electronic television systems relied on the inventions of [[Philo Taylor Farnsworth]], [[Vladimir Zworykin]] and others to produce a system suitable for mass distribution of television programming. Commercial broadcast programming, following years of experimental broadcasts seen only in a few specially-equipped homes, occurred in both the United States and the United Kingdom before World War II. The first television broadcasts with a modern level of definition (more than 240 lines) were made in England in 1936. So-called "System A" used 405 lines. Television did not become common in United States homes until the middle 1950s. While North American over-the-air broadcasting was originally free of direct marginal cost to the consumer (i.e., cost in excess of acquisition and upkeep of the hardware) and broadcasters were compensated primarily by receipt of advertising revenue, increasingly United States television consumers obtain their programming by subscription to cable television systems or direct-to-home satellite transmissions. In the United Kingdom, on the other hand, the owner of each television must pay a [[Television licence|license fee]] annually which is used to support the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]. == Adoption == Although Britain was the first country in the world to start large-scale public transmissions, the public uptake was initially very slow. Television sets were very expensive at first, and prices did not drop to an affordable level until technology developed during the [[Second World War]] for [[radar]] was introduced. As well as making televisions cheaper, it also made them safer and much smaller. These smaller, cheaper sets were more acceptable to the public. A major driver for television uptake in Britain was the [[Coronation]] of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953. This event was viewed by over 20 million people, and was for many their first exposure to television. People gathered for [[Coronation parties]], and many people bought television receivers specially in time for the event. During the year after the Coronation, television licence subscription increased by 50%. ==प्रविधि== ===Elements of a television system=== The elements of a simple television system are: * An image source - this may be a [[Professional video camera|camera]] for live pick-up of images or a [[flying spot scanner]] for transmission of [[motion picture|films]] * A sound source. * A [[transmitter]], which modulates one or more [[television signal]]s with both picture and sound information for transmission. * A receiver (television) which recovers the picture and sound signals from the television broadcast. * A display device, which turns the electrical signals into visible light and audible sound. Practical television systems include equipment for selecting different image sources, mixing images from several sources at once, insertion of pre-recorded video signals, synchronizing signals from many sources, and direct image generation by computer for such purposes as station identification. Transmission may be over the air from land-based transmitters, over metal or optical cables, or by radio from synchronous [[Satellite television|satellite]]s. Digital systems may be inserted anywhere in the chain to provide better image transmission quality, reduction in transmission [[bandwidth]], special effects, or security of transmission from reception by non-subscribers. <!-- Elements of a television system - block diagram here --> <!-- Image source, camera, film, magnetic tape, exceptionally computer-generated images--> <!-- Sound source --> <!-- Transmitter, over the air, bandwidth required, antenna, satellite system, cable system, digital encoding, scrambling --> <!-- Receiver, antenna, cable connection, satellite down-converter, digital decode, descramble--> <!-- Display, cathode ray tube, color tube, now LCD, historically mechanical scanned lamp--> <!-- Recorder, analog magnetic tape, now digital --> ===दृस्टि प्रविधि=== दृस्टि प्रविधि विकाशेनु विभिन्न प्रकारेन आधुनिक टिभी निर्मानम्: *'''CRT''': The most common displays are direct-view [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s for up to 40&nbsp;in (100&nbsp;cm) (in 4:3) and 46&nbsp;in (115&nbsp;cm) (in 16:9) [[diagonal]]ly. These are still the least expensive, and are a refined technology that can still provide the best overall picture quality. As they do not have a fixed [[native resolution]], in some cases they are also capable of displaying sources with a variety of different resolutions at the best possible image quality. The [[frame rate]] or refresh rate of a typical [[NTSC]] format CRT TV is 60&nbsp;Hz, and for the [[PAL]] format, it is 50&nbsp;Hz. A typical [[NTSC]] broadcast signal's visible portion has an equivalent resolution of about 640x480&nbsp;pixels. It actually could be slightly higher than that, but the [[Vertical blanking interval|Vertical Blanking Interval]], or VBI, allows other signals to be carried along with the broadcast. *'''Rear projection''': Most very large screen TVs (up to over 100&nbsp;inch (254&nbsp;cm)) use [[projection]] technology. Three types of projection systems are used in projection TVs: CRT-based, [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]-based, and [[DLP]] (reflective micromirror chip) -based. Projection television has been commercially available since the 1970s, but at that time could not match the image sharpness of the CRT; current models are vastly improved, and offer a cost-effective large-screen display. A variation is a [[video projector]], using similar technology, which projects onto a [[Projection screen|screen]]. *'''Flat panel LCD''' or '''plasma''': Modern advances have brought [[Flat panel display|flat panel]]s to TV that use [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|active matrix]] [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] or [[plasma display]] technology. Flat panel LCDs and [[plasma display]]s are as little as 1&nbsp;inch thick and can be hung on a wall like a picture or put over a [[pedestal]]. Some models can also be used as [[Computer display|computer monitor]]s.<br>{{seealso|Liquid crystal display television}} It is important to think about the living environment of your television before deciding on a single display technology. Each has its pros and cons, Flat panel LCD display can have narrow viewing angles and so may not suit a home environment. Rear projection screens do not perform well in natural [[daylight]] or well lit rooms and so are best suited to dark viewing areas. A complete run down of the pros and cons of each display should be sought before purchasing a single television technology. ===Terminology for televisions=== Pixel [[Display resolution|resolution]] is the amount of individual points known as [[pixels]] on a given screen. A typical resolution of 800x600 means that the television display has 800 pixels across and 600&nbsp;pixels on the vertical axis. The higher the resolution on a specified display the sharper the image. Contrast [[ratio]] is a measurement of the range between the brightest and darkest points on the screen. The higher the contrast ratio, the better looking picture there is in terms of richness, deepness, and [[shadow]] detail. The [[brightness]] of a picture measures how vibrant and impacting the colours are. Measured in cd/m2 equivalent to the amount of candles required to power the [[image]]. ===Signal connections=== The number of ways to connect a video device to a television has increased over the years: [[Image:High Definition Multimedia Interface Plug.jpg|70px|right]] *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface|HDMI]] - a 19 or 29-pin industry-supported digital interface which supports standard, enhanced, or [[High-definition television|high-definition video]], plus multi-channel digital audio on a single cable. The video signal is [[Backward compatibility|backward-compatible]] with [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]. Increasingly common on displays, DVD players, and high-end PC [[graphics card]]s. [[Copy protection]] is implemented using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. HDMI 1.3 is required to enable high-definition content on [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]] and [[HD DVD]] disks. [[Image:DVI Connector.JPG|70px|right]] *[[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] - a 17 to 29-pin connector that carries digital video signals, designed to carry [[High-definition television|HDTV]] but also used in current DVD players and latest digital displays. Copy protection is available using [[High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection|HDCP]]. [[Image:Component_video_RCA.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Component video]] - three separate [[RCA connector|RCA jack]]s (colored red, green and blue) carry three [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one brightness ([[Luminance (video)|luminance]]) and two colors ([[Chrominance|chromas]]), and is usually referred to as "Y, B-Y, R-Y", "Y Cr Cb" ([[interlace]]d) or "Y Pr Pb" ([[Progressive scan|progressive]]), or [[YUV]]. Audio is not carried on this cable. This connection provides for picture quality superior to [[S-Video]] and is typically used in home theater for DVDs, satellite and analogue HDTV; it is less common in [[Europe]] but is starting to become more widely available. [[Image:SCART 20050724 003.jpg|70px|right]] *[[SCART]] - a large 21 pin connector that may carry [[Analog signal|analog]] signals consisting of: one video signal [[composite video]]; or two video signals [[S-Video]]; or for picture quality similar to [[component video]], three signals of separate red, green and blue or [[RGB color model|RGB]]; or for best picture quality, four video signals of separate red, green, blue and [[Synchronization|sync]] or RGBS; plus right and left [[line-level]] audio channels; along with a number of control signals including an [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect-ratio]] flag (e.g. widescreen). This system has been standard in [[Europe]] since mid-1980s for all consumer electronics, which meant that RGBS was available on even the earliest [[PAL]] DVD players and satellite receivers. [[Japan]] uses a 21 pin RGB connector which is visually similar to SCART but with different pin configurations. The SCART connector is not used in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Image:SVideoConnector.jpg|70px|right]] *[[S-Video]] - small round connector with two separate [[Analog signal|analog]] video signals, one carrying brightness (luminance), the other carrying color (chroma). Also referred to as Y/C video. Provides most of the benefit of component video, with slightly less color fidelity. Use started in the 1980s for [[S-VHS]], [[8 mm video format|Hi-8]], and early [[NTSC]] DVD players to relay high quality video before component was available. This will sometimes, completely incorrectly, be referred to as an [[S-VHS]] connector. Audio is not carried on this cable. [[Image:Composite.jpg|70px|right]] *[[Composite video]] - The most common form of connecting external devices, putting all the [[Analog signal|analog]] video information into one signal. Most televisions provide this option with a yellow [[RCA connector|RCA jack]] or occasionally a [[BNC connector]]. Audio is not carried on this cable, though two separate cables with similar red and white RCA jacks for right and left [[line-level]] audio are commonly bonded to composite video cables. *[[coaxial cable|Coaxial]] RF - All audio channels and picture components are transmitted through one [[coaxial cable]] and [[modulate]]d on a [[radio frequency]]. Most TVs manufactured since the 1970s provide a coaxial connection, and this is the type of cable typically used for [[cable television]]. Although still found on [[VHS]] tape-players, most modern DVD players and other video devices no longer supply an RF output, so very old TV sets made before composite video jacks became commonplace will need a [[modulation|modulator]] device. [[NTSC]] sets use a 75&nbsp;[[ohm]] F-connector; most [[PAL]] sets use a 50&nbsp;ohm Belling Lee. Most set-top TV antennas have a 300&nbsp;ohm [[Electrical impedance|impedance]], so to connect them to a coaxial input requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation. *300&nbsp;ohm [[twin-lead]] - The predecessor to [[coaxial cable]], generally a flat insulated cable with a pair of wires separated by 0.5&nbsp;inch, found on NTSC television sets from 1940 to about 1985, and originally used to connect the receiver to either an outdoor [[antenna]] or [[Dipole antenna|rabbit ears]], though twinlead line losses make an inefficient application for the former. Connection to the set was by connecting the wire to a pair of screws on the back of the television set. Nominal [[Electrical impedance|impedance]] was 300&nbsp;ohms; connecting an older set to cable or VCRs requires an inexpensive [[Balun|matching transformer]] to avoid signal degradation due to [[impedance mismatch]]. Twin-lead wiring is sensitive to nearby metal objects. Long runs must be properly supported away from metal objects and should be mounted with a loose twist in the cable - see [[unshielded twisted pair]] cables which operate by the same principle as properly installed twin-lead. *[[Optical fiber|Fiber optic]] - The latest in connections and only on extremely new and high quality TVs, fiber optics use a [[laser]] to transmit data along a glass fiber. Used for sound and/or video, can be found on newer TVs, high end video editing systems, as well as in high end computer systems. Can be referred to as [[S/PDIF]] digital-audio format. ===Aspect ratios=== '''[[Aspect ratio (image)|Aspect ratio]]''' refers to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical measurements of a television's picture. Mechanically scanned television as first demonstrated by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926 used a 7:3 vertical aspect ratio, oriented for the head and shoulders of a single person in close-up. Most of the early electronic TV systems from the mid-1930s onward shared the same [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 which was chosen to match the [[Academy ratio|Academy Ratio]] used in cinema films at the time. This ratio was also square enough to be conveniently viewed on round [[cathode ray tube|cathode-ray tube]]s (CRTs), which were all that could be produced given the [[manufacturing]] [[technology]] of the time. (Today's CRT technology allows the manufacture of much wider tubes, and the flat-screen technologies which are becoming steadily more popular have no technical aspect ratio limitations at all.) The [[BBC]]'s television service used a more squarish [http://tcc.members.beeb.net/tchistory.html 5:4] ratio from 1936 to [http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/Test-Cards/Test-Card-Technical.html#Aspect-Ratio 3 April 1950], when it too switched to a 4:3 ratio. This did not present significant problems, as most sets at the time used round tubes which were easily adjusted to the 4:3 ratio when the transmissions changed. In the 1950s, [[movie studio]]s moved towards [[widescreen]] aspect ratios such as [[CinemaScope]] in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a [[gimmick]], widescreen is still the format of choice today and square aspect ratio movies are rare. Some people argue that widescreen is actually a disadvantage when showing objects that are tall instead of [[panorama|panoramic]], others say that natural vision is more panoramic than tall, and therefore widescreen is easier on the eye. The switch to [[digital television]] systems has been used as an opportunity to change the standard television picture format from the old ratio of 4:3 (1.33:1) to an aspect ratio of 16:9 (approximately 1.78:1). This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of modern widescreen [[film|movie]]s, which range from 1.66:1 through 1.85:1 to 2.35:1. There are two methods for transporting widescreen content, the better of which uses what is called [[full screen anamorphic|anamorphic widescreen]] format. This format is very similar to the technique used to fit a widescreen movie frame inside a 1.33:1 35mm film frame. The image is compressed horizontally when recorded, then expanded again when played back. The anamorphic widescreen 16:9 format was first introduced via European [[PALPlus]] television broadcasts and then later on "widescreen" [[DVD]]s; the [[ATSC]] [[High-definition television|HDTV]] system uses straight widescreen format, no horizontal compression or expansion is used. Recently "widescreen" has spread from television to computing where both [[desktop computer|desktop]] and [[laptop]] computers are commonly equipped with widescreen displays. There are some complaints about distortions of movie picture ratio due to some DVD playback software not taking account of aspect ratios; but this will subside as the DVD playback software matures. Furthermore, computer and laptop widescreen displays are in the 16:10 aspect ratio both physically in size and in pixel counts, and not in 16:9 of consumer televisions, leading to further complexity. This was a result of widescreen computer display engineers' uninformed assumption that people viewing 16:9 content on their computer would prefer that an area of the screen be reserved for playback controls or [[subtitle]]s, as opposed to viewing content full-screen. =====Aspect ratio incompatibility===== The television industry's changing of [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]s is not without difficulties, and can present a considerable problem. Displaying a widescreen aspect (rectangular) image on a conventional aspect (square) display can be shown: *in "[[letterbox]]" format, with black horizontal bars at the top and bottom *with part of the image being cropped, usually the extreme left and right of the image being cut off (or in "[[pan and scan]]", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally compressed A conventional aspect (square) image on a widescreen aspect (rectangular) display can be shown: *in "[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]" format, with black vertical bars to the left and right *with upper and lower portions of the image cut off (or in "tilt and scan", parts selected by an operator) *with the image horizontally distorted A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as [[Super 35 mm film|Super 35]] (championed by [[James Cameron]]) has been used to film a number of major movies such as [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[Austin Powers]]'', and ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (see also: [[List of top-grossing films shot in Super 35]]). This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard "[[full screen]]" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either "[[Letterbox|letterboxing]]" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional "[[pan-and-scan]]" cropping. === Sound === {{further|[[NICAM]]}} === Television add-ons === Today there are many television add-ons including [[Computer and video games|Video Game]] Consoles, [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]]s, [[Set-top box]]es for [[Cable television|Cable]] and [[Satellite television|Satellite]] reception, [[DVD]] players, or [[Digital video recorder|Digital Video Recorders]] (including personal video recorders, PVRs). The add-on market continues to grow as new technologies are developed. === New developments === *[[Ambilight]]™ *[[Broadcast flag]] *[[CableCARD]]™ *[[DLP|Digital Light Processing]] (DLP) *[[Digital Rights Management]] (DRM) *[[Digital television]] (DTV) *[[Digital Video Recorder]]s *[[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] TV (DBS) *[[DVD]] *[[Flicker-free]] (100&nbsp;Hz or 120&nbsp;Hz, depending on country) *[[High Definition TV]] (HDTV) *[[High-Definition Multimedia Interface]] (HDMI) *[[IPTV]] *[[Internet television]] *[[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]] and [[Plasma display]] [[Flat panel display|Flat screen]] TV *[[Surface-conduction Electron-emitter Display|SED]] display technology *[[Organic light-emitting diode|OLED]] display technology *[[P2PTV]] *[[Pay-per-view]] *[[Picture-in-picture]] (PiP) *[[Pixelplus]] *[[Video on-demand]] (VOD) *[[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) *[[Web TV]] ==Geographical usage== *[[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]] {{main|Geographical usage of television}} ==Content== ===Advertising=== Since their inception in the USA in 1940, [[television commercial|TV commercial]]s have become one of the most effective, most pervasive, and most popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by [[Nielsen Ratings]]. ===Programming=== Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels: #'''Original Run''' or '''First Run''' - a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #'''[[Television syndication|Syndication]]''' - this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may or may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, [[TV stations]] or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers. In most countries, the first wave occurs primarily on [[Free-to-air|free-to-air (FTA)]] television, while the second wave happens on subscription TV and in other countries. In the U.S., however, the first wave occurs on the FTA networks and subscription services, and the second wave travels via all means of distribution. First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic FTA elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, [[Affiliate]]s rarely buy or produce non-network programming that isn't centered around local events. == Social aspects == ===Alleged dangers=== Paralleling television's growing primacy in family life and society, an increasingly vocal chorus of legislators, [[scientist]]s and [[parent]]s are raising objections to the uncritical acceptance of the medium. For example, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government imposed a total ban on advertising to [[children]] under twelve in 1991 (see [[advertising]]). In the U.S., the [http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_tveffect.shtml National Institute on Media and the Family] (not a government agency) points out that U.S. children watch an average of 25 [[hour]]s of television per week and features studies showing it interferes with the [[education]]al and maturational process. Fifty years of research on the impact of television on children's emotional and social development (Norma Pecora, John P. Murray, & Ellen A. Wartella, Children and Television: 50 Years of Research, published by Erlbaum Press, June, 2006) demonstrate that there are clear and lasting effects of viewing violence. In a recent study (February, 2006) published in the journal Media Psychology, volume 8, number 1, pages 25-37, the research team demonstrated that the brain activation patterns of children viewing violence show that children are aroused by the violence (increased heart rates), demonstrate fear (activation of the amygdala-the fight or flight sensor in the brain) in response to the video violence, and store the observed violence in an area of the brain (the Posterior Cingulate) that is reserved for long-term memory of traumatic events. A [[23 February]] [[2002]] article in [http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm?articleID=0005339B-A694-1CC5-B4A8809EC588EEDF Scientific American] suggested that compulsive television watching was no different from any other [[addiction]], a finding backed up by reports of withdrawal symptoms among families forced by circumstance to cease watching. A longitudinal study in [[New Zealand]] involving 1000 people (from childhood to 26 years of age) demonstrated that "television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with poor educational achievement by 26 years of age". In other words, the more the child watched television, the less likely he or she was to finish school and enroll in a [[university]]. The changes in TV equipment and programming has been noted as one of the largest changes known to people because it was vital to people in the past as well as in the present. In [[Iceland]], television broadcasting hours were restricted until 1984, with no television programs being broadcast on Thursday, or during the whole of July. Television's biggest social aspect is the fact that it allows users to instantly view content that may be occurring far away from where they are. Television has been a major contributor in the process of globalization. The Earth's residents can be linked by the programming they watch; but like the internet, television has been taken advantage of as a perfect medium for advertising and the spreading of thoughts and ideas. ===Technology trends=== In its infancy, television was an ephemeral medium. Fans of regular shows planned their [[TV listings|schedules]] so that they could be available to watch their shows at their time of broadcast. The term ''appointment television'' was coined by marketers to describe this kind of attachment. The viewership's dependence on schedule lessened with the invention of programmable video recorders, such as the [[Videocassette recorder]] and the [[Digital video recorder]]. Consumers could watch programs on their own schedule once they were broadcast and recorded. Television service providers also offer ''video on demand,'' a set of programs which could be watched at any time. Both [[mobile phone]] networks and the [[internet]] are capable of carrying video streams. There is already a fair amount of internet TV available, either live or as downloadable programs. Mobile phone TV is planned to eventually become mainstream, after worldwide over-the-air digital TV takes over analogue and some technical difficulties can be overcome - especially the ones related to battery life. ===Suitability for audience=== Almost since the medium's inception there have been charges that some programming is, in one way or another, inappropriate, [[offensive]] or [[decency|indecent]]. Critics such as Jean Kilborne have claimed that television, as well as other mass media images, harm the self image of young girls. Other commentators such as Sut Jhally, make the case that television advertising in the U.S. has been so effective that happiness has increasingly come to be equated with the purchasing of products. [[George Gerbner]] has presented evidence that the frequent portrayals of crime, especially minority crime, has led to the [[Mean World Syndrome]], the view among frequent viewers of television that crime rates are much higher than the actual data would indicate. In addition, a lot of television has been charged with presenting propaganda, political or otherwise, and been pitched at a low intellectual level. ==Further reading== *[[Erik Barnouw]], ''Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television'', Oxford University Press, 1992. *[[Pierre Bourdieu]], ''On Television'', The New Press, 2001. *Brooks, Tim and March, Earle, ''The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows'', Ballantine, Eighth Edition, 2002. *[[Guy Debord]], ''The Society of the Spectacle'', Zone Books, 1995. *[[Jacques Derrida]], [[Bernard Stiegler]], ''Echographies of Television'', Polity Press, 2002. *[[Jerry Mander]], ''Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television'', Perennial, 1978. * [[Neil Postman]], ''[[Amusing Ourselves to Death]]: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business''. Penguin USA, 1985. ISBN 0670804541 *Dr. Aric Sigman, ''Remotely Controlled: How Television Is Damaging Our Lives — And What We Can Do About It'', Vermilion, 2005. *Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, ''Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television'', Rutgers University Press, 2002. ==References== *David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, ''Tube: the Invention of Television'', Counterpoint, Washington D.C. USA, (1996) ISBN 1-887178-17-1 *Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland, Jefferson, NC, USA, and London (2003) ISBN 0-7864-1220-8 ==See also== * [[Golden Age of Television]] * [[Archive of American Television]] * [[Composite monitor]] * [[European Broadcasting Union]] ([[EBU]]) * [[Electronic field production]] * [[Electronic news gathering]] * [[History of television]] * [[List of television topics]] * [[List of 'years in television']] * [[Lists of television channels]] * [[List of television programs|List of television programs/series]] * [[List of television personalities]] * [[Live television]] * [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [[PC card]] * [[S-video monitor]] * [[Teletext]] * [[TV/VCR combo]] * [[TV/FM DX|Long distance television reception (TV DX)]] * [[BARB]] * [[TV listings]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Television}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tv/ BBC Television] * [http://www.gooya.co.uk/worldtv.html A directory of world television channels] * [http://www.tvhistory.tv/ Television History — The First 75 Years] * [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/index.html The Encyclopedia of Television] at the [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] * [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television] Some of the rarest sets in America * [http://www.the-best-of-television.com/ The #1 Online Television Resource] * [http://www.cherishedtelevision.co.uk/home.html Cherished Television] [[Category:Scottish inventions]] [[Category:Television| ]] [[af:Televisie]] [[ang:Feorrsīen]] [[ar:تلفزيون]] [[bs:Televizija]] [[bg:Телевизия]] [[ca:Televisió]] [[cs:Televize]] [[cy:Teledu]] [[da:Tv]] [[pdc:Guckbax]] [[de:Fernsehen]] [[et:Televisioon]] [[el:Τηλεόραση]] [[es:Televisión]] [[eo:Televido]] [[eu:Telebista]] [[fa:تلویزیون]] [[fr:Télévision]] [[ga:Teilifís]] [[ko:텔레비전]] [[hr:Televizija]] [[io:Televiziono]] [[id:Televisi]] [[it:Televisione]] [[he:טלוויזיה]] [[ku:Televîzyon]] [[la:Televisio]] [[lb:Televisioun]] [[lt:Televizija]] [[hu:Televízió]] [[ms:Televisyen]] [[nl:Televisie]] [[ja:テレビ]] [[no:TV]] [[ug:تېلېۋىزور]] [[nds:Kiekschapp]] [[pl:Telewizja]] [[pt:Televisão]] [[ro:Televiziune]] [[ru:Телевидение]] [[sco:Televeesion]] [[sq:Televizioni]] [[simple:Television]] [[sk:Televízia]] [[sl:Televizija]] [[sr:Телевизија]] [[fi:Televisio]] [[sv:TV]] [[tl:Telebisyon]] [[ta:தொலைக்காட்சி]] [[th:โทรทัศน์]] [[vi:Tivi]] [[tr:Televizyon]] [[uk:Телебачення]] [[fiu-vro:Televis'uun]] [[zh:电视]] 1676 3109 2006-08-11T20:20:17Z Eukesh 59 '''चिन्तनशास्त्र''' एक अध्ययनात्मक व प्रयोगात्मक वैज्ञानिक क्षेत्र हन्ति| चिन्तनशास्त्रे मनुष्ये मन, मस्तिस्क व विचारस्य अध्ययन करन्ति|| Psychology also refers to the application of such [[knowledge]] to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' [[everyday life|daily lives]] and the treatment of [[mental illness]]. Psychology differs from [[anthropology]], [[economics]], [[political science]], and [[sociology]] in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the [[mental function]] and overt [[behaviour]] of individuals, while the other disciplines rely more heavily on field studies and historical methods for extracting descriptive generalizations. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from [[biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of [[neuropsychology]] combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced. The word ''psychology'' comes from the [[ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]] ψυχή, ''[[psyche]]'' ("soul", "mind") and ''[[-logy|logy]]'', study). ==History== [[Image:Rudolf-Goclenius-1.jpg|thumb|Rudolf Goclenius]] [[Rudolph Goclenius]], a German scholastic philosopher, is credited with inventing the term 'psychology' (1590). The root of the word psychology ([[psyche]]) means "[[soul]]" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of the soul (in a religious sense of this term). Psychology as a medical discipline can be seen in [[Thomas Willis]]' reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of [[human brain|brain function]], as part of his [[1672]] [[anatomical]] treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). Until about the end of the [[19th century]], psychology was regarded as a branch of [[philosophy]]. In [[1879]] [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded a laboratory at the [[Leipzig]] University in Germany specifically to focus on the study of psychology. [[William James]] later published his [[1890]] book, ''[[Principles of Psychology]]'' which laid many of the foundations for the sorts of questions that [[psychologist]]s would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] (a pioneer in studies on [[memory]]) and the [[Russia]]n [[Ivan Pavlov]] (who discovered the learning process of [[classical conditioning]]). [[Image:Rodin The Thinker Laeken cemetery.jpg|thumb|left|[[Auguste Rodin]]'s ''The Thinker'', bronze cast by Alexis Rudier, [[Laeken]] Cemetery, [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]].]] Meanwhile, [[Sigmund Freud]], who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had invented and applied a method of [[psychotherapy]] known as [[psychoanalysis]]. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and [[introspection]], but was particularly focused on resolving mental distress and [[psychopathology]]. Freud's theories were wildly successful, not least because they aimed to be of practical benefit to individual patients, but also because they tackled subjects such as [[Human sexuality|sexuality]] and [[psychological repression|repression]] as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered [[taboo]] subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Although it has become fashionable to discredit many of Freud's more outlandish theories, his application of psychology to clinical work and his more mainstream work has been massively influential. Partly as a reaction to the subjective and introspective nature of psychology at the time, [[behaviorism|behaviourism]] began to become popular as a guiding psychological theory. Championed by [[psychologist]]s such as [[John B. Watson]], [[Edward Thorndike]], and [[B.F. Skinner]], behaviorists argued that psychology should be a science of behaviour, not the mind, they rejected the idea that internal mental states such as [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s, or goals, could be studied scientifically. In his paper "Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It" (1913), Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms no essential part of its methods" and "The behaviourist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute". Behaviourism was the dominant model in psychology for much of the early 20th century, largely due to the creation and successful application (not least of which in [[advertising]]) of [[conditioning]] theories as scientific models of human behaviour. However, it became increasingly clear that although behaviourism had made some important discoveries, it was deficient as a guiding theory of human behaviour. [[Noam Chomsky]]'s review of Skinner's book ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' (that aimed to explain [[language acquisition]] in a behaviourist framework) is considered one of the major factors in the ending of behaviourism's reign. Chomsky demonstrated that language could not purely be learnt from conditioning, as people could produce sentences unique in structure and meaning that couldn't possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language, implying that there must be internal states of mind that behaviourism rejected as illusory. Similarly, work by [[Albert Bandura]] showed that children could [[social learning theory|learn by social observation]], without any change in overt behaviour, and so must be accounted for by internal representations. [[Humanistic psychology]] emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to [[positivism|positivist]] and scientific approaches to the mind. It stresses a [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behaviour by conducting [[qualitative psychological research|qualitative research]]. The humanistic approach has its roots in [[existentialism|existentialist]] and [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were [[Abraham Maslow]] who formulated a [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of human needs]], [[Carl Rogers]] who created and developed client-centred therapy, and [[Fritz Perls]] who helped create and develop [[Gestalt therapy]]. The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as [[information processing]]. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]] as the dominant model of the mind. Links between [[brain]] and [[nervous system]] function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people like [[Charles Sherrington]] and [[Donald Olding Hebb|Donald Hebb]], and partly due to studies of people with [[brain injury]] (see [[cognitive neuropsychology]]). With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, [[neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuroscience]] have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology. With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as [[philosophy]], [[computer science]] and [[neuroscience]]) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of [[cognitive science]] has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way. However, many psychologists have not been happy with what they perceive as 'mechanical' models of the mind and human nature. Coming full circle, [[Transpersonal psychology]] and the [[Analytical Psychology]] of [[Carl Jung]] seek to return psychology to its spiritual roots. Others, such as [[Serge Moscovici]] and [[Gerard Duveen]], argue that behaviour and thought are essentially social in nature and seek to embed psychology in a broader social scientific study that incorporates the social meaning of experience and behaviour. ==Principles== ===Mind and brain=== Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behaviour and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behaviour as it actually occurs. In the past 20 years or so psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the [[brain]] or [[nervous system]]. It is still not clear in what ways these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness - or are both going on in various ways - or is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' which bears no direct relationship to neural processes? An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[neuropsychology]], and [[cognitive neuroscience]]. ===Schools of thought=== Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some [[psychologist]]s may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. {{See also|List of psychological schools}} ==Scope of psychology== Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the [[list of psychological topics]] and [[list of psychology disciplines]]. ===Research psychology=== Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in [[academic]] settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas of [[abnormal psychology]], [[biological psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]], [[comparative psychology]], [[developmental psychology]], [[personality psychology]], [[social psychology]] and others. Research psychology is contrasted with [[applied psychology]]. ====Abnormal psychology==== {{main|Abnormal psychology}} [[Abnormal psychology]] is the study of [[abnormal]] psychological behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology studies the nature of psychopathology and its causes, and this knowledge is applied to treating patients with psychological disorders in [[clinical psychology]]. The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], published by the [[American Psychiatric Association]], is the handbook used most often in diagnosing mental disorders in the United States.The current version of the book is known as DSM IV-TR. It lists a set of disorders and provides detailed descriptions on what constitutes a disorder, such as [[Major Depression]] or [[Anxiety Disorder]]. ====Biological psychology==== [[Image:Hypothalamus.jpg|thumb|150px|left||Image of the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the [[hypothalamus]].]] {{main|Biological psychology|Evolutionary psychology|Neuropsychology|Physiological psychology}} [[Biological psychology]] is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the [[central nervous system]], it is sensible to study how the [[brain]] functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in [[behavioral neuroscience]], [[cognitive neuroscience]], and [[neuropsychology]]. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the [[brain]] relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of [[brain injury]] in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. The approach of [[cognitive neuroscience]] to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use [[neuroimaging]] tools, such as [[fMRI]], to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task. ====Cognitive psychology==== [[Image:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork_english.png|thumb|150px|Neural network with two layers.]] {{main|Cognitive psychology}} The nature of [[thought]] is another core interest in psychology. [[Cognitive psychology]] studies [[cognition]], the [[mental function|mental processes]] underlying behavior. It uses [[information processing]] as a framework for understanding the mind. [[Perception]], [[learning]], [[problem solving]], [[memory]], [[attention]], [[language]] and [[emotion]] are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]], whose adherents argue for an [[information processing]] model of mental function, informed by [[positivism]] and [[experimental psychology]]. [[Cognitive science]] is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing. Both areas use [[computer simulation|computational models]] to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer. ====Comparative psychology==== {{main|Comparative psychology}} [[Comparative psychology]] refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of [[animal]]s other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as [[ethology]]. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of [[animal]]s is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., [[animal cognition]] and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., [[affective neuroscience]] and [[social neuroscience]]). ====Developmental psychology==== [[Image:Baby thinking Sofia SERRES.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A baby thinking]] {{main|Developmental psychology}} Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, [[developmental psychology]] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or [[moral development]]. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study [[aging]] and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]]'s theory of development in context (''The Ecology of Human Development'' - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research. ====Personality psychology==== [[Personality psychology]] studies enduring psychological patterns of [[behavior]], [[thought]] and [[emotion]], commonly called an individual's [[personality]]. Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. [[Trait theory|Trait theories]] attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of [[factor analysis]]. The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of [[Hans Eysenck]], which had three dimensions: [[extraversion]]&mdash;[[introversion]], [[neuroticism]]&mdash;[[emotion|emotional stability]], and [[psychoticism]]. [[Raymond Cattell]] proposed a theory of [[16 Personality Factors|16 personality factors]]. The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "[[Big Five personality traits|Big Five]]" theory, proposed by [[Lewis Goldberg]] and others. A different, but well known, approach to personality is that of [[Sigmund Freud]], whose ''structural theory of personality'' divided personality into the [[ego, superego, and id]]. Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists. ====Social psychology==== [[Image:Shibuya tokyo.jpg|thumb|150px|right||A crowd of people in [[Shibuya, Tokyo]].]] {{main|Social psychology}} [[Social psychology]] is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]] or [[persuasion]]), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] or [[stereotype]]s about other people. [[Social cognition]] is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior. A related area is [[community psychology]], which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than using the individual as the unit of measurement. "[[Sense of community]]" has become its conceptual center (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999). ===Applied psychology=== [[Applied psychology]] encompasses both psychological research that is designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as [[business management]], [[product design]], [[ergonomics]], [[nutrition]], and [[clinical medicine]]. [[Applied psychology]] includes the areas of [[clinical psychology]], [[industrial and organizational psychology]], [[human factors]], [[forensic psychology]], [[health psychology]], [[school psychology]] and others. ====Clinical psychology==== [[Clinical psychology]] is the application of [[abnormal psychology]] research to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of [[psychopathology]], including behavioral and mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with [[counseling]] and [[psychotherapy]], although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as [[psychiatry|psychiatrists]], clinical psychologists do not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with [[brain injury]]. This area is known as [[clinical neuropsychology]]. In recent years and particularly in the [[United States]], a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many research psychologists believe that many contemporary clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the research psychologists are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement resulted in the formation of the [[Association for Psychological Science]] by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the [[American Psychological Association]]. The majority of work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside a Cognitive-Behaviorial therapy (CBT) framework. CBT is an umbrella term that refers to a number of therapies which focus on changing cognitions and/or behaviors, rather than changing behavior exclusively, or discovering the unconscious causes of psychopatholgy (as in the psychodynamic school). The two most famous CBT therapies are Aaron T. Beck's [[cognitive therapy]] and Albert Ellis's [[rational emotive behaviour therapy]] (with cognitive therapy being, by far, the most extensively studied therapy in contemporary clinical psychology). ====Counseling psychology==== [[Counseling psychology]] as a psychological specialty facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counseling psychology differes from clinical psychology in that it is focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday [[stress]] as opposed to severe mental disorders. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, private practice, businesses, and community mental health centers. ====Educational psychology==== [[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in [[education|educational]] settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of [[school]]s as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as [[Lev Vygotsky]], [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Jerome Bruner]] has been influential in creating [[teaching]] methods and educational practices. ====Forensic psychology==== [[Forensic psychology]] is the area concerned with the application of psychological methods and principles to the legal arena. Most typically, forensic psychology involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. Typically, referrals to forensic practices constitute assessments for individuals that have ostensibly suffered neurologic insult(s). These patients have sought legal recourse, and the job of the forensic psychologist is to demonstrate that there is or is not (depending on their employ by either the prosecution or defense) a cause-and-effect relation between the accident and the subsequent (again, ostensible) neurologic change. A job required of the forensic psychologist in any case is the detection of [[malingering]], although this is not exclusive to forensics. Malingering, or the detection of 'faking' (this term is used somewhat liberally) is particularly germane to a forensic assessment, for obvious reasons. In addition to such applied practices, it also includes academic or empirical research on topics involving the relationship of law to human mental processes and behavior (see also [[legal psychology]]). ====Health psychology==== [[Health psychology]] is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, [[health psychology]] is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on [[quality of life]] or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care. ====Human factors psychology==== [[Human factors|Human factors psychology]] is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors psychology is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior. ====Industrial and organizational psychology==== [[Industrial and organizational psychology]] focuses to varying degrees on the psychology of the workforce, customer, and consumer, including issues such as the psychology of: * recruitment, selection and training; * job performance and [[Scientific_management|appraisal of performance]]; * job satisfaction; * factors of [[motivation]] including pay and working conditions; * [[change management]]; * [[work behavior]]; * [[stress (medicine)|stress]] at work; * [[Leadership#Specific_theories_of_leadership|leadership]]; and * [[management]]. Applications of industrial psychology include improving human performance and satisfaction in the workplace, as well as the improvement of organizational performance. The primary purpose of industrial psychologists is integration of psychometric research into applications that achieve these ends. (Bradberry and Greaves, 2005) ====School psychology==== [[School psychology]] is the area of discipline in order to help children and youth succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. School psychologists collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school (NASPonline.com, 2006). ==Research methods== [[Image:wundt.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German psychologist, generally acknowledged as a founder of [[experimental psychology]].]] Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of [[scientific method]], encompassing both [[qualitative research|qualitative]] [[ethology|ethological]] and [[quantitative psychological research|quantitative statistical]] modalities to generate and evaluate [[scientific explanation|explanatory]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] with regard to psychological [[pheneomenon|phenomena]]. Where research ethics and the state of development in a given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by [[experiment]]al protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. [[Qualitative psychological research]] utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including [[action research]], [[ethography]], [[ethnography]], [[exploratory statistics]], [[structured interview|structured]] and [[life history|unstructured]] [[interview]]s, and [[participant observation]], to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by classical experimentation. Research in [[humanistic psychology]] is more typically pursued by [[ethnography|ethnographic]], [[historical method|historical]], and [[historiography|historiographic]] methods. The [[psychological testing|testing]] of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. [[Psychometrics|Psychometric]] and [[statistics|statistical]] methods predominate, including various well-known standardised tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires. Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in [[applied psychology]] to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their work. Clinical psychology, among many of the various discipline of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology to help others. When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge, especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well. ===Controlled experiments=== [[Image:Skinner.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[B.F. Skinner]] was an American psychologist and pioneer of [[experimental psychology]] and [[behaviorism]].]] The majority of psychological research is conducted in the [[laboratory]] under controlled conditons. This method of research relies completely on the scientific method to determine the basis of behavior. Common measurements of behavior include [[reaction time]] and various [[Psychometrics|psychometric]] measurements. Experiments are conducted to test a particular [[hypothesis]]. As an example of a psychological experiment, one may want to test people's perception of different [[tone]]s. Specifically, one could ask the following question: is it easier for people to discriminate one pair of tones from another depending upon their frequency? To answer this, one would want to disprove the hypothesis that all tones are equally discriminable, regardless of their frequency. (See [[hypothesis testing]] for an explanation of why one would disprove a hypothesis rather than attempt to prove one.) A task to test this hypothesis would have a participant seated in a room listening to a series of tones. If the participant would make one indication (by pressing a button, for example) if they thought the tones were two different sounds, and another indication if they thought they were the same sound. The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable. The result of this particular experiment would probably indicate better discrimination of certain tones based on the human [[Absolute threshold of hearing|threshold of hearing]]. ===Correlational studies=== A [[correlation|correlational]] study uses [[statistics]] to determine if one [[variable]] is likely to co-occur with another variable. For example, one might be interested in whether or not a person's smoking is correlated with that individual's chance of getting lung cancer. One way to answer this would simply be to take a group of people who smoke and measure the proportion of those who get lung cancer within a certain time. In this particular case, one would probably find a high correlation. (Tobacco is already known to have a deleterious effect on the lungs). Based on this correlation alone, however, we cannot know for certain that smoking is the ''cause'' of lung cancer. It could be that those more prone to cancer are also more likely to take up smoking. A third alternative is that some other variable caused both conditons. This is a major limitation of correlational studies, exemplified by the fact that [[Correlation implies causation (logical fallacy)|correlation does not imply causation]]. ===Longitudinal studies=== A [[longitudinal study]] is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study [[specific language impairment]] (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations. ===Neuropsychological methods=== [[Neuropsychology]] involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either [[brain injury]] or [[mental illness]]. [[Cognitive neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuropsychiatry]] study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional dissociations') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism. In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioural experiments, brain-scanning or [[functional neuroimaging]] - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]], which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations. ===Computational modeling=== [[computer simulation|Computational modeling]] is a tool often used in [[cognitive psychology]] to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers are extremely fast, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualise hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. [[Connectionism]] uses [[neural nets]] to simulate the brain. Another method is [[symbolic modeling]], which represents different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include [[dynamic systems]] and [[stochastic process|stochastic]] modeling. == Criticism == Although modern mainstream psychology largely attempts to be a scientific endeavor, the field has a history of controversy. Some criticisms of psychology have been made on ethical and philosophical grounds. Some have argued that by subjecting the human mind to experimentation and statistical study, psychologists objectify persons; because it treats human beings as things, as objects that can be examined by experiment, psychology is sometimes portrayed as dehumanizing, ignoring or downplaying what is most essential about being human. Another common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science. Since some areas of psychology rely on "soft" research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, some have said that those areas of psychology are not as scientific as psychologists claim. Furthermore, methods such as introspection and expert analysis are commonplace, but since these methods are open to subjectivity and rely on speculation, many have disputed whether psychology should even be classified as a science, since objectivity, validity, and rigour are key attributes one rule for empiricism and science. Furthermore, many believe that the mind is not amenable to quantitative scientific research, and as support for their criticism cite the vast theoretical diversity of psychology, a discipline that involves significant disagreement about how the mind works. One approach calling itself [[critical psychology]] takes almost an opposite approach. Rather than scientific validity being the standard against which psychology research should be judged, critical psychology uses philosophical, analytical, political, economic and social theories such as [[Marxism]], constructionism, discourse analysis and qualitative approaches to criticize mainstream psychology, claiming among other things that it serves as a bulwark of an unjust or unsatisfying status quo when it should, instead, use its methods and knowledge base to critique and change societal norms. Students of psychology soon realize that the subject covers a huge range of material. Another criticism levelled at psychology and cognitive science is that the philosophical underpinnings of research are flawed. See [[functionalism (psychology)|functionalism]] and [[pragmatism]] for more. Another criticism of modern psychology is that it ignores [[spirituality]], the [[soul]], and spiritual concepts such as [[original sin]]. Not surprisingly, these arguments are made mostly by pious individuals, religious leaders (such as the [[Pope]]) and evangelists. These groups agree with the functionalists and pragmatics, in saying that the philosophical underpinnings of research are flawed, but they believe that the error of psychology is in its failure to acknowledge the crucial role that the [[soul]] plays in human behavior. There is also a criticism from empirical psychology researchers concerning the gap between research and clinical practice in psychology. A recent trend has seen the growth of dubious or unvalidated therapies such as [[neurolinguistic programming]], [[rebirthing]], and [[primal therapy]] being promoted by some psychotherapy bodies. Bodies such as the Scientific Review of Mental Health Practices have been set up to raise awareness and research about this issue ^{[http://www.srmhp.org/0101/raison-detre.html]}. ==References== *[[Aristotle]], Joe Sachs (translator). (350 BCE / 2001) ''On Memory and Recollection'' (''De Memoria et Reminiscentia''). Santa Fe, NM : Green Lion Press. ISBN 1888009179 *Bradberry, Travis and Greaves, Jean. (2005) [http://www.eiquickbook.com "The Emotional Intelligence Quick Book."] New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0743273265 *[[Urie Bronfenbrenner|Bronfenbrenner, U.]] (1979). ''The Ecology of Human Development''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22456-6 *Chavis, D.M., and Pretty, G. (1999). Sense of community: Advances in measurement and application. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 27(6), 635-642. * Rousseau, George (1990). ''The Languages of Psyche: Mind and Body in Enlightenment Thought'' (Berkeley, Los Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press). ISBN 0 520070445 *Sarason, S.B. (1986). Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14, 405-407. ==See also== * [[Psychologists]] * [[List of psychology topics|Psychological topics]] * [[List of publications in psychology|Important publications]] * [[List of psychologists|Prominent psychologists]] * [[List of psychology organizations|Organizations]] * [[The Psychology Wiki]] ===Related areas=== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Anthropology]] * [[Aging]] * [[Artificial consciousness]] * [[Cognitive science]] * [[Complex system]]s * [[Counseling]] * [[Discourse analysis]] * [[Economics]] * [[Education]] {{col-break}} * [[Emotion]] * [[Ethology]] * [[Game theory]] * [[Hypnotherapy]] * [[Linguistics]] * [[Marketing]] * [[Moral value]] * [[Multilevel model]] * [[Neuroscience]] {{col-break}} * [[Philosophy of mind]] * [[Philosophy of psychology]] * [[Psychoanalysis]] * [[Psychodynamics]] * [[Psycholinguistics]] * [[Psychology of religion]] * [[Sociology]] * [[Structural equation modeling]] * [[Systems theory]] {{col-end}} ===Related topics=== * [[Aristotle]], ''[[On the Soul]]'' * [[Tabula rasa]] * [[Empiricism]] * [[Rationalism]] * [[Scientific method]] == External links == {{Sisterlinks|Psychology}} {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Psychology}} * [http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/ AmoebaWeb Psychology Resources] * [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec99/toc.html A Century of Psychology (APA)] * [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca Classics in the History of Psychology] * [http://www.clinicallypsyched.com Clinically Psyched] Clinical Psychology News and Forum * [http://www.psychology.net/ Current Events and News: Psychology.net] * [http://allpsych.com/dictionary/ Dictionary of Psychology] * [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology] * [http://www.psychomaster.com/ Psychology Search Engine] * {{wikia|psychology|Psychology}} * {{dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology/|Psychology}} * [http://zerzan.dzabalesku.net/sadrzaj/textz/html/Z_mass-psychology-of-misery.html ''The Mass Psychology of Misery''] by [[John Zerzan]] {{Social sciences-footer}} [[Category:Psychology| ]] [[Category:Human behavior]] [[Category:Social sciences]] [[Category:Behavioural sciences]] [[af:Sielkunde]] [[ar:علم النفس]] [[an:Sicolochía]] [[ast:Psicoloxía]] [[bn:মনস্তত্ত্ববিদ্যা]] [[bs:Psihologija]] [[br:Psikoloji]] [[bg:Психология]] [[ca:Psicologia]] [[ceb:Saykolohiya]] [[cs:Psychologie]] [[cy:Seicoleg]] [[da:Psykologi]] [[de:Psychologie]] [[et:Psühholoogia]] [[el:Ψυχολογία]] [[es:Psicología]] [[eo:Psikologio]] [[eu:Psikologia]] [[fa:روان‌شناسی]] [[fr:Psychologie]] [[fy:Psychology]] [[fur:Psicologjie]] [[ga:Síceolaíocht]] [[gl:Psicoloxía]] [[ko:심리학]] [[hi:मानस शास्त्र]] [[hr:Psihologija]] [[io:Psikologio]] [[id:Psikologi]] [[ia:Psychologia]] [[is:Sálfræði]] [[it:Psicologia]] [[he:פסיכולוגיה]] [[jv:Psikologi]] [[ka:ფსიქოლოგია]] [[csb:Psychòlogijô]] [[ky:Психология]] [[ku:Psîkologî]] [[lad:Psikolojiya]] [[la:Psychologia]] [[lv:Psiholoģija]] [[lb:Psychologie]] [[lt:Psichologija]] [[li:Psychologie]] [[hu:Pszichológia]] [[mk:Психологија]] [[mt:Psikoloġija]] [[ms:Psikologi]] [[nl:Psychologie]] [[ja:心理学]] [[no:Psykologi]] [[nn:Psykologi]] [[oc:Psicologia]] [[pl:Psychologia]] [[pt:Psicologia]] [[ro:Psihologie]] [[ru:Психология]] [[war:Psikolohiya]] [[sq:Psikologjia]] [[scn:Psicoluggìa]] [[simple:Psychology]] [[sk:Psychológia]] [[sl:Psihologija]] [[sr:Психологија]] [[sh:Psihologija]] [[su:Psikologi]] [[fi:Psykologia]] [[sv:Psykologi]] [[tl:Sikolohiya]] [[th:จิตวิทยา]] [[vi:Tâm lý học]] [[tpi:Saikolosi]] [[tr:Psikoloji]] [[uk:Психологія]] [[zh:心理学]] 1677 3110 2006-08-11T20:25:38Z Eukesh 59 '''राज्यनीति''' is a process by which decisions are made within groups. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within [[government]]s, politics is observed in all human (and many non-human) group interactions, including [[corporation|corporate]], [[academia|academic]], and [[religion|religious]] institutions. '''[[Political science]]''' (also political studies) is the study of the theory and practice of politics and the description and [[analysis]] of [[political system]]s and political behavior. ==अन्य परिभाषा== Alternative definitions of politics have been proposed that fulfill the needs of differing perspectives. They include: *'''Dictionary''' definitions, for example, "the art and science of government" [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/politics] *'''Textbook''' definitions, notably, a "process of conflict resolution in which support is mobilized and maintained for collective projects". -- An Introduction to Government and Politics ... [[Dickerson]] and [[Flanagan]] *'''Theorists''', such as [[Harold Lasswell]], who defined politics as "who gets what, when, where, and how." *and '''Practitioners''' like **[[Mao Zedong]], who said "Politics is war without bloodshed while war is politics with bloodshed." **and [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s cryptic remark, "Politics is the art of feasibility." ==प्राकृतिक राज्य== In 1651, [[Thomas Hobbes]] published his most famous work, ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]'', in which he proposed a model of early human development to justify the creation of a government. Hobbes described an ideal [[state of nature]] wherein every person had equal right to every resource in nature and was free to use any means to acquire those resources. He claimed that such an arrangement created a “war of all against all” (''[[bellum omnium contra omnes]]''). Further, he noted that men would enter into a [[social contract]] and would give up absolute rights for certain protections. Hobbes made a second claim: that the solution to the aggression problem was a centralized authoritarian [[state]], which he called Leviathan. While it appears that social cooperation and [[dominance hierarchy|dominance hierarchies]] predate human societies, Hobbes' model illustrates a rationale for the creation of [[societies]] ([[polity|polities]]). Another theory, proposed by [[biopolitics]] and based upon evolution is that politics is a macrotool created by man to organise itself for the collective survival of the group or polity. In effect, organising and promoting survival is the purpose, reason and practice of politics. ==Early history== [[V.G. Childe]] describes the transformation of human society that took place around [[6th millennium BCE|6000 BCE]] as an urban revolution. Among the features of this new type of civilization were the institutionalization of social stratification, non-agricultural specialised crafts (including priests and lawyers), taxation, and writing, all of which require clusters of densely populated settlements - [[city-states]]. The word ''politics'' is derived from the Greek word for city-state, "[[polis]]". Corporate, religious, academic and every other polity, especially those constrained by limited resources, contain dominance hierarchy and therefore politics. Politics is most often studied in relation to the administration of governments. The oldest form of government was tribal organization. Rule by elders was supplanted by [[monarchy]], often aided by military conquest, led to a system of [[Feudalism]] as an arrangement where a single family dominated the political affairs of a community. Monarchies have existed in one form or another for the past 5000 years of human history. ==Definitions== *'''[[Political power|Power]]''' according to political theorist, Hannah Arendt, is "the human ability not just to act but to act in concert." *'''[[Authority]]''' is the ability to enforce laws, to exact obedience, to command, to determine, or to judge. *A '''[[government]]''' is the body that has the authority to make and enforce rules or laws. *'''[[Legitimacy]]''' is an attribute of government gained through the acquisition and application of power in accordance with recognized or accepted standards or principles. *'''[[Sovereignty]]''' is the ability of a government to exert control over its territory free from outside influence. ==Theoretical view of political power== Many questions surround the political notion of power with both positive and negative aspects attached to it. Generally, power is considered integral in politics and is the subject of a great deal of debate and definitions that have evolved over time. Many academics define political power by referring to various academic disciplines including politics, sociology, group psychology, economics, and other facets of society. The multiple notions of political power that are put forth range from conventional views that simply revolve around the actions of politicians to those who view political power as an insidious form of institutionalized social control - most notably [[anarchism|"anarchists"]] and [[Anarcho-capitalism|"radical capitalists"]]. The main views of political power revolve around [[normative]], [[post-modern]], and [[sociological]] perspectives. ===Normative faces of power debate=== The faces of power debate has coalesced into a viable conception of three dimensions of power including ''decision-making'', ''agenda-setting'', and ''preference-shaping''. The decision-making dimension was first put forth by [[Robert Dahl]], who advocated the notion that political power is based in the formal political arena and is measured through voting patterns and the decisions made by politicians. This view was seen by many as simplistic and a second dimension to the notion of political power was added by academics [[Peter Bachrach]] and [[Morton Baratz]] involving agenda-setting. Bachrach and Baratz viewed power as involving both the formal political arena and behind the scenes agenda-setting by elite groups who could be either politicians and/or others (such as industrialists, campaign contributors, special interest groups and so on), often with a hidden agenda that most of the public may not be aware of. The third dimension of power was added by British academic [[Steven Lukes]] who felt that even with this second dimension, some other traits of political power needed to be addressed through the concept of 'preference-shaping'. This third dimension is inspired by many [[Neo-Gramscianism|Neo-Gramscian]] views such as [[cultural hegemony]] and deals with how [[civil society]] and the general public have their preferences shaped for them by those in power through the use of propaganda or the media. Ultimately, this third dimension holds that the general public may not be aware of what decisions are actually in their interest due to the invisible power of elites who work to distort their perceptions. Critics of this view claim that such notions are themselves elitist, which Lukes then clearly admits as one problem of this view and yet clarifies that as long as those who make claims that preferences are being shaped explain their own interests etc., there is room for more transparency. ===Postmodern challenge of normative views of power=== Some within the [[postmodern]] and [[post-structuralist]] field claim that power is something that is not in the hands of the few and is rather dispersed throughout society in various ways and that power relationships are part of everyday life. This is part of French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]]'s view, which he terms the ''microphysics'' of power and is part of a European debate over how to define power. Foucault seeks to convey a questioning of authority in various ways and also attempts to illustrate the repressive nature of power through societal controls which include institutional indoctrination (schools), surveillance (the police-state), and defining normal and abnormal behavior so as to stamp-out any challenges to the status quo. This view of power treads a line that leans more towards institutions as the basis of societal control (see [[New institutionalism]]) and ignores certain aspects of [[agency]] and [[ideation|ideational]] agendas. Power, according to Foucault, is 'ubiquitous' (everywhere in society) and cannot be easily measured or critiqued without a great deal of context. Critics such as [[Jurgen Habermas]] and [[Noam Chomsky]] charge that such views by Foucault and his followers are [[nihilist]]ic and even supportive of [[conservative]] and [[Social Darwinism]] views of society and defend the status quo of inegalitarian societies, which Foucault claims is a misreading of both his intent and conclusions which are that power must be questioned in all of its forms and not simply those aspects that some might view as inegalitarian since even humanism can be a mask for those seeking power. Ultimately, this concept of power has helped political analysis to question both itself and the societal controls that permeate all aspects of society, but the ambiguity of the post-modern challenge has left many to use the methodology sparingly since measuring power from a post-structuralist perspective remains somewhat problematic. Nietzsche wrote: "how can we help it that power likes to walk on crooked legs?" ==Pragmatic view of power== [[Samuel Gompers]]' maxim, often paraphrased as,"Reward your friends and punish your enemies," hints at two of the five types of power recognized by [[social psychology|social psychologists]]: '''incentive power''' (the power to reward) and '''coercive power''' (the power to punish). Arguably the other three grow out of these two. '''Legitimate power''', the power of the policeman or the referee, is the power given to an individual by a recognized authority to enforce standards of behavior. Legitimate power is similar to coercive power in that unacceptable behavior is punished by fine or penalty. '''Referent power''' is bestowed upon individuals by virtue of accomplishment or attitude. Fulfillment of the desire to feel similar to a celebrity or a hero is the reward for obedience. '''Expert power''' springs from education or experience. Following the lead of an experienced coach is often rewarded with success. Expert power is conditional to the circumstances. A brain surgeon is no help when your pipes are leaking. ==Authority and legitimacy== [[Max Weber]] identified three sources of legitimacy for authority, known as the [[tripartite classification of authority]]. He proposed three reasons why people follow the orders of those who give them: ===Traditional=== [[Traditional domination|Traditional authorities]] receive loyalty because they continue and support the preservation of existing values, the status quo. Traditional authority has the longest history. [[Patriarchy|Patriarchal]] (and more rarely [[Matriarchy|matriarchal]]) societies gave rise to hereditary monarchies where authority was given to descendants of previous leaders. Followers submit to this authority because "we've always done it that way." Examples of traditional authoritarians include [[absolute monarch]]s. ===Charismatic=== [[Charismatic domination|Charismatic authority]] grows out of the personal charm or the strength of an individual personality (see [[cult of personality]] for the most extreme version). Charismatic regimes are often short-lived, seldom outliving the charismatic figure that leads them. Examples of Charismatic regimes include: [[Julius Caesar]], [[Augustus]], [[Hitler]], [[Napoleon]], [[Mao Zedong|Mao]], and [[Fidel Castro]]. For a charismatic regime to survive the rule of the individual personality, it must transform its legitimacy into a different form of authority. An example of this would be [[Augustus]]' efforts to create the position of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[principate]] and establish a ruling dynasty, which could be viewed as a shift to a traditional form of authority, in the form of the [[principate]] that would exist in Rome for more than 400 years after his death. ===Legal-rational=== [[Legal domination|Legal-rational authorities]] receive their ability to compel behavior by virtue of the office that they hold. It is the authority that demands obedience to the office rather than the office holder. Modern democracies are examples of legal-rational regimes. People also abide by legal-rational authority because it makes sense to do so for the greater good of society. ==See also== {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|Politics}} *[[Food politics]] *[[List of politics by country articles]] *[[List of years in politics]] *[[Music and politics]] *[[Political compass]] *[[Political corruption]] *[[Political criticism]] *[[Political economy]] *[[Political movement]] *[[Political parties of the world]] *[[Political party]] *[[Political psychology]] *[[Political science]] *[[Political sociology]] *[[Political spectrum]] ==References== *[[Otto von Bismarck]]; remark, Aug. 11, 1867 *[[Dickerson]], Mark O. & [[Flanagan]]; Thomas, 1990 Introduction to Government & Politics: A Conceptual Approach. third edition *[[Gompers]], Samuel; “Men of Labor! Be Up and Doing,” editorial, ''[[American Federationist]]'', May 1906, p. 319 *[[Mao Zedong]]; Lecture, May 1938. "On Protracted War," Selected Works, vol. 2 (1965).) [[Category:Politics| ]] [[af:Politiek]] [[ar:سياسة]] [[an:Politica]] [[ast:Política]] [[bn:রাজনীতি]] [[bs:Politika]] [[br:Politikerezh]] [[bg:Политика]] [[ca:Política]] [[ceb:Politika]] [[cs:Politika]] [[da:Politik]] [[de:Politik]] [[et:Poliitika]] [[es:Política]] [[eo:Politiko]] [[fa:سیاست]] [[fr:Politique]] [[fy:Polityk]] [[fur:Politiche]] [[ga:Polaitíocht]] [[gl:Política]] [[ko:정치]] [[hr:Politika]] [[io:Politiko]] [[id:Politik]] [[ia:Politica]] [[it:Politica]] [[he:פוליטיקה]] [[ka:პოლიტიკა]] [[sw:Siasa]] [[la:Politica]] [[lb:Politik]] [[li:Polletiek]] [[ln:Politiki]] [[lt:Politika]] [[hu:Politika]] [[mk:Политика]] [[ms:Politik]] [[nl:Politiek]] [[ja:政治]] [[no:Politikk]] [[nrm:Politique]] [[nds:Politik]] [[pl:Polityka]] [[pt:Política]] [[ru:Политика]] [[sc:Polìtica]] [[scn:Pulitica]] [[simple:Politics]] [[su:Pulitik]] [[fi:Politiikka]] [[sv:Politik]] [[tl:Politika]] [[th:การเมือง]] [[tr:Politika]] [[uk:Політика]] [[zh:政治]] 1678 3111 2006-08-11T20:27:53Z Eukesh 59 '''सुशांख्य यन्त्र (कम्प्युटर) विज्ञान''' is the study of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer system]]s.<ref>"''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies</ref><ref>"''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University</ref><ref>"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]</ref> Computer science has many [[diversity of computer science|sub-fields]]; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others (such as [[computational complexity theory]]) relate to properties of [[computational problem]]s. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing computations, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming language]]s to solve specific computational problems. == History == {{main|History of computer science}} The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[digital computer]]. Prior to the 1920s, the term ''computer'' referred to a human clerk who performed calculations. Early researchers in what came to be called computer science, such as [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], and [[Alan Turing]], were interested in the question of computability: what things can be computed by a human clerk who simply follows a list of instructions with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight? Part of the motivation for this work was the desire to develop ''computing machines'' that could automate the often tedious and error-prone work of a human computer. During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref> ==Major achievements== {{section-stub}} Despite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include: * A formal definition of [[computation]] and [[computability]], and proof that there are computationally [[halting problem|unsolvable]] and [[Intractable#Intractability|intractable]] problems<ref>{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=March 2000|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf|title=Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa 2000}}</ref>. * The concept of a [[programming language]], a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction<ref>{{cite book| |last=Abelson |first=H. |authorlink=Hal Abelson |coauthor=G.J. Sussman with J.Sussman |year=1996 |title=Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs |edition=2nd Ed. |publisher=MIT Press |id=ISBN 0-262-01153-0 |quote=The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called ''procedural epistemology'' &mdash; the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects. }}</ref> * Revolutionary technologies such as general-purpose [[computer]]s, the [[Internet]], [[digital signature]]s, [[electronic commerce]], and [[search engine]]s;<ref name="constable1997">{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=1997|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/Nature.pdf|title=Nature of the Information Sciences}}</ref> * The enabling of new types of scientific research, such as computational physics and computational chemistry.<ref name="constable1997"/> == Relationship with other fields == {{main|Diversity of computer science}} {{Wikiquotepar|Edsger Dijkstra}} Despite its name, computer science rarely involves the study of computers themselves. In fact, the renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] is often quoted as saying, ''"Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."'' The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of [[computer hardware]] is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called [[information technology]] or [[information systems]]. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement ''"Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing"'' credited to [[Stan Kelly-Bootle]]<ref>'''Computer Language''', Oct 1990</ref> and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive science]], [[physics]] (see [[quantum computing]]), and [[linguistics]]. Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref>. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]]. The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how [[Diversity of computer science|computer science is defined]]. Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, believe that the principle focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principle focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making them different disciplines. This view is promulgated by (among others) [[David Parnas]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Parnas | first = David L. | authorlink = David Parnas | year = 1998 | title = [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/parnas98software.html Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes] | journal = Annals of Software Engineering | volume = 6 | pages = 19&ndash;37 }}, p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}."</ref>. Still others maintain that software cannot be engineered at all. ==Fields of computer science== {{section-stub}} === Mathematical foundations === ; [[Cryptography]] : Algorithms for protecting private data, including [[encryption]]. ; [[Graph theory]] : Foundations for data structures and searching algorithms. ; [[Mathematical logic]] : Boolean logic and other ways of modeling logical queries. ; [[Type Theory]] : Formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understand properties of programs -- especially program safety. === Theory of computation === {{main|Theory of computation}} ; [[Automata theory]] : Different logical structures for solving problems. ; [[Computability theory (computer science)|Computability theory]] : What is calculable with the current models of computers. Proofs developed by [[Alan Turing]] and others provide insight into the possibilities of what may be computed and what may not. ; [[Computational complexity theory]] : Fundamental bounds (especially time and storage space) on classes of computations. === Algorithms and data structures === ; [[Analysis of algorithms]] : Time and space complexity of algorithms. ; [[Algorithms]] : Formal logical processes used for computation, and the efficiency of these processes. ; [[Data structure]]s : The organization of and rules for the manipulation of data. ; [[Genetic algorithm]]s : A genetic algorithm is a search technique to find approximate solutions to optimization and search problems. === Programming languages and compilers === ; [[Compiler]]s : Ways of translating computer programs, usually from [[high-level programming language|higher level]] languages to [[low-level programming language|lower level]] ones. Based heavily on mathematical logic. ; [[Programming language]]s : Formal language paradigms for expressing algorithms, and the properties of these languages (EG: what problems they are suited to solve). === Databases === ; [[Data mining]] : Study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documents and databases; closely related to [[information retrieval]]. === Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems === ; [[Concurrency (computer science)|Concurrency]] : The theory and practice of simultaneous computation; data safety in any multitasking or multithreaded environment. ; [[Distributed computing]] : Computing using multiple computing devices over a network to accomplish a common objective or task. ; [[Computer networking|Networking]] : Algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across different shared or dedicated media, often including [[error correction]]. ; [[Parallel computing]] : Computing using multiple concurrent threads of execution. ===Computer architecture === ; [[Computer architecture]] : The design, organization, optimization and verification of a computer system, mostly about [[CPU]]s and [[Memory (computers)|Memory]] subsystem (and the bus connecting them). ; [[Operating system]]s : Systems for managing computer programs and providing the basis of a useable system. ; === Software engineering === ; [[Computer programming]] : The act of writing algorithms in a [[programming language]]. ; [[Formal methods]] : Mathematical approaches for describing and reasoning about software designs. ; [[Software engineering]] : The principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs, as well as proper engineering practices. === Artificial intelligence === ; [[Artificial intelligence]] : The implementation and study of systems that exhibit an autonomous intelligence or behaviour of their own. ; [[Automated reasoning]] : Solving engines, such as used in [[Prolog]], which produce steps to a result given a query on a fact and rule database. ; [[Robotics]] : Algorithms for controlling the behavior of robots. ; [[Computer vision]] : Algorithms for identifying three dimensional objects from a two dimensional picture. ; [[Machine Learning]] : Automated creation of a set of rules and axioms based on input. === Computer graphics === ; [[Computer graphics]] : Algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically, and for integrating or altering visual and spatial information sampled from the real world. ; [[Image processing]] : Determining information from an image through computation. ; [[Human computer interaction]] : The study and design of computer interfaces that people use. === Scientific computing === ; [[Bioinformatics]] : The use of computer science to maintain, analyse, store [[biological data]] and to assist in solving biological problems such as protein folding. ==Computer science education== Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the [[theory of computation]], [[analysis of algorithms]], [[formal methods]], [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency theory]], [[databases]], [[computer graphics]] and [[systems analysis]], among others. They typically also teach [[computer programming]], but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming. == See also == *[[Computing]] *[[Informatics]] *[[List of basic computer science topics]] *[[List of computer science conferences]] *[[List of open problems in computer science]] *[[List of publications in computer science]] *[[List of prominent pioneers in computer science]] *[[List of software engineering topics]] *[[Career domains in computer science]] == References == <div class="references-small"> <references/> * [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998. * [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001. </div> == External links == {{wikibooks}} {{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Computer Science}} *[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science/ Open Directory Project: Computer Science] *[http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies] *[http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/computers_math/computer_science/ Computer Science Research News from ScienceDaily] [[Category:Computer science| ]] [[af:Rekenaarwetenskap]] [[an:Informatica]] [[ar:معلوماتية]] [[ast:Informática]] [[bg:Информатика]] [[bn:কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান]] [[br:Urzhiataerezh]] [[bs:Informatika]] [[ca:Informàtica]] [[cs:Informatika (počítačová věda)]] [[csb:Infòrmatika]] [[da:Datalogi]] [[de:Informatik]] [[el:Επιστήμη Υπολογιστών]] [[es:Ciencias de la computación]] [[eo:Komputiko]] [[et:Informaatika]] [[eu:Informatika]] [[fa:علم رایانه]] [[fi:Tietojenkäsittelytiede]] [[fr:Informatique]] [[fur:Informatiche]] [[fy:Ynformatika]] [[ga:Ríomheolaíocht]] [[gv:Sheanse Coearrooagh]] [[gl:Informática]] [[he:מדעי המחשב]] [[ko:전산학]] [[hr:Računarstvo]] [[hu:Számítástechnika]] [[ia:Informatica]] [[id:Ilmu komputer]] [[ie:Informatica]] [[io:Informatiko]] [[is:Tölvunarfræði]] [[it:Informatica]] [[iu:ᑐᓴᐅᒪᖃᑦᑕᐅᑎᔾᔪᑎᓂᒃ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᑎᔩᑦ]] [[ja:情報工学]] [[jbo:samske]] [[la:Informatica]] [[lb:Informatik]] [[li:Informatica]] [[lt:Informatika]] [[lv:Datorzinātne]] [[ml:കംപ്യുട്ടര്‍ ശാസ്ത്രം]] [[nds-nl:Komputerkunde]] [[nl:Informatica]] [[no:Informatikk]] [[oc:Informatica]] [[pl:Informatyka]] [[pt:Ciência da computação]] [[ro:Informatică]] [[ru:Информатика]] [[scn:Nfurmàtica]] [[simple:Computer science]] [[sk:Veda o počítačoch]] [[sl:Računalništvo]] [[sr:Информатика]] <!--[[sr:Рачунарство]]--> [[sv:Datavetenskap]] [[tl:Agham pangkompyuter]] [[th:วิทยาการคอมพิวเตอร์]] [[tr:Bilişim bilimi]] [[uk:Інформатика]] [[vi:Khoa học máy tính]] [[zh:计算机科学]] 3112 2006-08-11T20:29:56Z Eukesh 59 /* History */ '''सुशांख्य यन्त्र (कम्प्युटर) विज्ञान''' is the study of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer system]]s.<ref>"''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies</ref><ref>"''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University</ref><ref>"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]</ref> Computer science has many [[diversity of computer science|sub-fields]]; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others (such as [[computational complexity theory]]) relate to properties of [[computational problem]]s. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing computations, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming language]]s to solve specific computational problems. == ईतिहास == The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[अंगुली सुशांख्य यन्त्र (digital computer)]]. Prior to the 1920s, the term ''computer'' referred to a human clerk who performed calculations. Early researchers in what came to be called computer science, such as [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], and [[Alan Turing]], were interested in the question of computability: what things can be computed by a human clerk who simply follows a list of instructions with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight? Part of the motivation for this work was the desire to develop ''computing machines'' that could automate the often tedious and error-prone work of a human computer. During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref> ==Major achievements== {{section-stub}} Despite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include: * A formal definition of [[computation]] and [[computability]], and proof that there are computationally [[halting problem|unsolvable]] and [[Intractable#Intractability|intractable]] problems<ref>{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=March 2000|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf|title=Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa 2000}}</ref>. * The concept of a [[programming language]], a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction<ref>{{cite book| |last=Abelson |first=H. |authorlink=Hal Abelson |coauthor=G.J. Sussman with J.Sussman |year=1996 |title=Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs |edition=2nd Ed. |publisher=MIT Press |id=ISBN 0-262-01153-0 |quote=The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called ''procedural epistemology'' &mdash; the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects. }}</ref> * Revolutionary technologies such as general-purpose [[computer]]s, the [[Internet]], [[digital signature]]s, [[electronic commerce]], and [[search engine]]s;<ref name="constable1997">{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=1997|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/Nature.pdf|title=Nature of the Information Sciences}}</ref> * The enabling of new types of scientific research, such as computational physics and computational chemistry.<ref name="constable1997"/> == Relationship with other fields == {{main|Diversity of computer science}} {{Wikiquotepar|Edsger Dijkstra}} Despite its name, computer science rarely involves the study of computers themselves. In fact, the renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] is often quoted as saying, ''"Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."'' The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of [[computer hardware]] is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called [[information technology]] or [[information systems]]. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement ''"Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing"'' credited to [[Stan Kelly-Bootle]]<ref>'''Computer Language''', Oct 1990</ref> and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive science]], [[physics]] (see [[quantum computing]]), and [[linguistics]]. Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref>. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]]. The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how [[Diversity of computer science|computer science is defined]]. Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, believe that the principle focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principle focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making them different disciplines. This view is promulgated by (among others) [[David Parnas]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Parnas | first = David L. | authorlink = David Parnas | year = 1998 | title = [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/parnas98software.html Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes] | journal = Annals of Software Engineering | volume = 6 | pages = 19&ndash;37 }}, p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}."</ref>. Still others maintain that software cannot be engineered at all. ==Fields of computer science== {{section-stub}} === Mathematical foundations === ; [[Cryptography]] : Algorithms for protecting private data, including [[encryption]]. ; [[Graph theory]] : Foundations for data structures and searching algorithms. ; [[Mathematical logic]] : Boolean logic and other ways of modeling logical queries. ; [[Type Theory]] : Formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understand properties of programs -- especially program safety. === Theory of computation === {{main|Theory of computation}} ; [[Automata theory]] : Different logical structures for solving problems. ; [[Computability theory (computer science)|Computability theory]] : What is calculable with the current models of computers. Proofs developed by [[Alan Turing]] and others provide insight into the possibilities of what may be computed and what may not. ; [[Computational complexity theory]] : Fundamental bounds (especially time and storage space) on classes of computations. === Algorithms and data structures === ; [[Analysis of algorithms]] : Time and space complexity of algorithms. ; [[Algorithms]] : Formal logical processes used for computation, and the efficiency of these processes. ; [[Data structure]]s : The organization of and rules for the manipulation of data. ; [[Genetic algorithm]]s : A genetic algorithm is a search technique to find approximate solutions to optimization and search problems. === Programming languages and compilers === ; [[Compiler]]s : Ways of translating computer programs, usually from [[high-level programming language|higher level]] languages to [[low-level programming language|lower level]] ones. Based heavily on mathematical logic. ; [[Programming language]]s : Formal language paradigms for expressing algorithms, and the properties of these languages (EG: what problems they are suited to solve). === Databases === ; [[Data mining]] : Study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documents and databases; closely related to [[information retrieval]]. === Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems === ; [[Concurrency (computer science)|Concurrency]] : The theory and practice of simultaneous computation; data safety in any multitasking or multithreaded environment. ; [[Distributed computing]] : Computing using multiple computing devices over a network to accomplish a common objective or task. ; [[Computer networking|Networking]] : Algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across different shared or dedicated media, often including [[error correction]]. ; [[Parallel computing]] : Computing using multiple concurrent threads of execution. ===Computer architecture === ; [[Computer architecture]] : The design, organization, optimization and verification of a computer system, mostly about [[CPU]]s and [[Memory (computers)|Memory]] subsystem (and the bus connecting them). ; [[Operating system]]s : Systems for managing computer programs and providing the basis of a useable system. ; === Software engineering === ; [[Computer programming]] : The act of writing algorithms in a [[programming language]]. ; [[Formal methods]] : Mathematical approaches for describing and reasoning about software designs. ; [[Software engineering]] : The principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs, as well as proper engineering practices. === Artificial intelligence === ; [[Artificial intelligence]] : The implementation and study of systems that exhibit an autonomous intelligence or behaviour of their own. ; [[Automated reasoning]] : Solving engines, such as used in [[Prolog]], which produce steps to a result given a query on a fact and rule database. ; [[Robotics]] : Algorithms for controlling the behavior of robots. ; [[Computer vision]] : Algorithms for identifying three dimensional objects from a two dimensional picture. ; [[Machine Learning]] : Automated creation of a set of rules and axioms based on input. === Computer graphics === ; [[Computer graphics]] : Algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically, and for integrating or altering visual and spatial information sampled from the real world. ; [[Image processing]] : Determining information from an image through computation. ; [[Human computer interaction]] : The study and design of computer interfaces that people use. === Scientific computing === ; [[Bioinformatics]] : The use of computer science to maintain, analyse, store [[biological data]] and to assist in solving biological problems such as protein folding. ==Computer science education== Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the [[theory of computation]], [[analysis of algorithms]], [[formal methods]], [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency theory]], [[databases]], [[computer graphics]] and [[systems analysis]], among others. They typically also teach [[computer programming]], but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming. == See also == *[[Computing]] *[[Informatics]] *[[List of basic computer science topics]] *[[List of computer science conferences]] *[[List of open problems in computer science]] *[[List of publications in computer science]] *[[List of prominent pioneers in computer science]] *[[List of software engineering topics]] *[[Career domains in computer science]] == References == <div class="references-small"> <references/> * [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998. * [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001. </div> == External links == {{wikibooks}} {{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Computer Science}} *[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science/ Open Directory Project: Computer Science] *[http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies] *[http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/computers_math/computer_science/ Computer Science Research News from ScienceDaily] [[Category:Computer science| ]] [[af:Rekenaarwetenskap]] [[an:Informatica]] [[ar:معلوماتية]] [[ast:Informática]] [[bg:Информатика]] [[bn:কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান]] [[br:Urzhiataerezh]] [[bs:Informatika]] [[ca:Informàtica]] [[cs:Informatika (počítačová věda)]] [[csb:Infòrmatika]] [[da:Datalogi]] [[de:Informatik]] [[el:Επιστήμη Υπολογιστών]] [[es:Ciencias de la computación]] [[eo:Komputiko]] [[et:Informaatika]] [[eu:Informatika]] [[fa:علم رایانه]] [[fi:Tietojenkäsittelytiede]] [[fr:Informatique]] [[fur:Informatiche]] [[fy:Ynformatika]] [[ga:Ríomheolaíocht]] [[gv:Sheanse Coearrooagh]] [[gl:Informática]] [[he:מדעי המחשב]] [[ko:전산학]] [[hr:Računarstvo]] [[hu:Számítástechnika]] [[ia:Informatica]] [[id:Ilmu komputer]] [[ie:Informatica]] [[io:Informatiko]] [[is:Tölvunarfræði]] [[it:Informatica]] [[iu:ᑐᓴᐅᒪᖃᑦᑕᐅᑎᔾᔪᑎᓂᒃ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᑎᔩᑦ]] [[ja:情報工学]] [[jbo:samske]] [[la:Informatica]] [[lb:Informatik]] [[li:Informatica]] [[lt:Informatika]] [[lv:Datorzinātne]] [[ml:കംപ്യുട്ടര്‍ ശാസ്ത്രം]] [[nds-nl:Komputerkunde]] [[nl:Informatica]] [[no:Informatikk]] [[oc:Informatica]] [[pl:Informatyka]] [[pt:Ciência da computação]] [[ro:Informatică]] [[ru:Информатика]] [[scn:Nfurmàtica]] [[simple:Computer science]] [[sk:Veda o počítačoch]] [[sl:Računalništvo]] [[sr:Информатика]] <!--[[sr:Рачунарство]]--> [[sv:Datavetenskap]] [[tl:Agham pangkompyuter]] [[th:วิทยาการคอมพิวเตอร์]] [[tr:Bilişim bilimi]] [[uk:Інформатика]] [[vi:Khoa học máy tính]] [[zh:计算机科学]] 3628 2007-01-22T14:01:59Z 84.174.105.230 {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} '''सुशांख्य यन्त्र (कम्प्युटर) विज्ञान''' is the study of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer system]]s.<ref>"''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies</ref><ref>"''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University</ref><ref>"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]</ref> Computer science has many [[diversity of computer science|sub-fields]]; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others (such as [[computational complexity theory]]) relate to properties of [[computational problem]]s. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing computations, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming language]]s to solve specific computational problems. == ईतिहास == The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[अंगुली सुशांख्य यन्त्र (digital computer)]]. Prior to the 1920s, the term ''computer'' referred to a human clerk who performed calculations. Early researchers in what came to be called computer science, such as [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], and [[Alan Turing]], were interested in the question of computability: what things can be computed by a human clerk who simply follows a list of instructions with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight? Part of the motivation for this work was the desire to develop ''computing machines'' that could automate the often tedious and error-prone work of a human computer. During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref> ==Major achievements== {{section-stub}} Despite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include: * A formal definition of [[computation]] and [[computability]], and proof that there are computationally [[halting problem|unsolvable]] and [[Intractable#Intractability|intractable]] problems<ref>{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=March 2000|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf|title=Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa 2000}}</ref>. * The concept of a [[programming language]], a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction<ref>{{cite book| |last=Abelson |first=H. |authorlink=Hal Abelson |coauthor=G.J. Sussman with J.Sussman |year=1996 |title=Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs |edition=2nd Ed. |publisher=MIT Press |id=ISBN 0-262-01153-0 |quote=The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called ''procedural epistemology'' &mdash; the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects. }}</ref> * Revolutionary technologies such as general-purpose [[computer]]s, the [[Internet]], [[digital signature]]s, [[electronic commerce]], and [[search engine]]s;<ref name="constable1997">{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=1997|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/Nature.pdf|title=Nature of the Information Sciences}}</ref> * The enabling of new types of scientific research, such as computational physics and computational chemistry.<ref name="constable1997"/> == Relationship with other fields == {{main|Diversity of computer science}} {{Wikiquotepar|Edsger Dijkstra}} Despite its name, computer science rarely involves the study of computers themselves. In fact, the renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] is often quoted as saying, ''"Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."'' The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of [[computer hardware]] is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called [[information technology]] or [[information systems]]. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement ''"Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing"'' credited to [[Stan Kelly-Bootle]]<ref>'''Computer Language''', Oct 1990</ref> and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive science]], [[physics]] (see [[quantum computing]]), and [[linguistics]]. Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref>. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]]. The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how [[Diversity of computer science|computer science is defined]]. Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, believe that the principle focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principle focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making them different disciplines. This view is promulgated by (among others) [[David Parnas]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Parnas | first = David L. | authorlink = David Parnas | year = 1998 | title = [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/parnas98software.html Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes] | journal = Annals of Software Engineering | volume = 6 | pages = 19&ndash;37 }}, p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}."</ref>. Still others maintain that software cannot be engineered at all. ==Fields of computer science== {{section-stub}} === Mathematical foundations === ; [[Cryptography]] : Algorithms for protecting private data, including [[encryption]]. ; [[Graph theory]] : Foundations for data structures and searching algorithms. ; [[Mathematical logic]] : Boolean logic and other ways of modeling logical queries. ; [[Type Theory]] : Formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understand properties of programs -- especially program safety. === Theory of computation === {{main|Theory of computation}} ; [[Automata theory]] : Different logical structures for solving problems. ; [[Computability theory (computer science)|Computability theory]] : What is calculable with the current models of computers. Proofs developed by [[Alan Turing]] and others provide insight into the possibilities of what may be computed and what may not. ; [[Computational complexity theory]] : Fundamental bounds (especially time and storage space) on classes of computations. === Algorithms and data structures === ; [[Analysis of algorithms]] : Time and space complexity of algorithms. ; [[Algorithms]] : Formal logical processes used for computation, and the efficiency of these processes. ; [[Data structure]]s : The organization of and rules for the manipulation of data. ; [[Genetic algorithm]]s : A genetic algorithm is a search technique to find approximate solutions to optimization and search problems. === Programming languages and compilers === ; [[Compiler]]s : Ways of translating computer programs, usually from [[high-level programming language|higher level]] languages to [[low-level programming language|lower level]] ones. Based heavily on mathematical logic. ; [[Programming language]]s : Formal language paradigms for expressing algorithms, and the properties of these languages (EG: what problems they are suited to solve). === Databases === ; [[Data mining]] : Study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documents and databases; closely related to [[information retrieval]]. === Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems === ; [[Concurrency (computer science)|Concurrency]] : The theory and practice of simultaneous computation; data safety in any multitasking or multithreaded environment. ; [[Distributed computing]] : Computing using multiple computing devices over a network to accomplish a common objective or task. ; [[Computer networking|Networking]] : Algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across different shared or dedicated media, often including [[error correction]]. ; [[Parallel computing]] : Computing using multiple concurrent threads of execution. ===Computer architecture === ; [[Computer architecture]] : The design, organization, optimization and verification of a computer system, mostly about [[CPU]]s and [[Memory (computers)|Memory]] subsystem (and the bus connecting them). ; [[Operating system]]s : Systems for managing computer programs and providing the basis of a useable system. ; === Software engineering === ; [[Computer programming]] : The act of writing algorithms in a [[programming language]]. ; [[Formal methods]] : Mathematical approaches for describing and reasoning about software designs. ; [[Software engineering]] : The principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs, as well as proper engineering practices. === Artificial intelligence === ; [[Artificial intelligence]] : The implementation and study of systems that exhibit an autonomous intelligence or behaviour of their own. ; [[Automated reasoning]] : Solving engines, such as used in [[Prolog]], which produce steps to a result given a query on a fact and rule database. ; [[Robotics]] : Algorithms for controlling the behavior of robots. ; [[Computer vision]] : Algorithms for identifying three dimensional objects from a two dimensional picture. ; [[Machine Learning]] : Automated creation of a set of rules and axioms based on input. === Computer graphics === ; [[Computer graphics]] : Algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically, and for integrating or altering visual and spatial information sampled from the real world. ; [[Image processing]] : Determining information from an image through computation. ; [[Human computer interaction]] : The study and design of computer interfaces that people use. === Scientific computing === ; [[Bioinformatics]] : The use of computer science to maintain, analyse, store [[biological data]] and to assist in solving biological problems such as protein folding. ==Computer science education== Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the [[theory of computation]], [[analysis of algorithms]], [[formal methods]], [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency theory]], [[databases]], [[computer graphics]] and [[systems analysis]], among others. They typically also teach [[computer programming]], but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming. == See also == *[[Computing]] *[[Informatics]] *[[List of basic computer science topics]] *[[List of computer science conferences]] *[[List of open problems in computer science]] *[[List of publications in computer science]] *[[List of prominent pioneers in computer science]] *[[List of software engineering topics]] *[[Career domains in computer science]] == References == <div class="references-small"> <references/> * [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998. * [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001. </div> == External links == {{wikibooks}} {{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Computer Science}} *[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science/ Open Directory Project: Computer Science] *[http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies] *[http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/computers_math/computer_science/ Computer Science Research News from ScienceDaily] [[Category:Computer science| ]] [[af:Rekenaarwetenskap]] [[an:Informatica]] [[ar:معلوماتية]] [[ast:Informática]] [[bg:Информатика]] [[bn:কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান]] [[br:Urzhiataerezh]] [[bs:Informatika]] [[ca:Informàtica]] [[cs:Informatika (počítačová věda)]] [[csb:Infòrmatika]] [[da:Datalogi]] [[de:Informatik]] [[el:Επιστήμη Υπολογιστών]] [[es:Ciencias de la computación]] [[eo:Komputiko]] [[et:Informaatika]] [[eu:Informatika]] [[fa:علم رایانه]] [[fi:Tietojenkäsittelytiede]] [[fr:Informatique]] [[fur:Informatiche]] [[fy:Ynformatika]] [[ga:Ríomheolaíocht]] [[gv:Sheanse Coearrooagh]] [[gl:Informática]] [[he:מדעי המחשב]] [[ko:전산학]] [[hr:Računarstvo]] [[hu:Számítástechnika]] [[ia:Informatica]] [[id:Ilmu komputer]] [[ie:Informatica]] [[io:Informatiko]] [[is:Tölvunarfræði]] [[it:Informatica]] [[iu:ᑐᓴᐅᒪᖃᑦᑕᐅᑎᔾᔪᑎᓂᒃ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᑎᔩᑦ]] [[ja:情報工学]] [[jbo:samske]] [[la:Informatica]] [[lb:Informatik]] [[li:Informatica]] [[lt:Informatika]] [[lv:Datorzinātne]] [[ml:കംപ്യുട്ടര്‍ ശാസ്ത്രം]] [[nds-nl:Komputerkunde]] [[nl:Informatica]] [[no:Informatikk]] [[oc:Informatica]] [[pl:Informatyka]] [[pt:Ciência da computação]] [[ro:Informatică]] [[ru:Информатика]] [[scn:Nfurmàtica]] [[simple:Computer science]] [[sk:Veda o počítačoch]] [[sl:Računalništvo]] [[sr:Информатика]] <!--[[sr:Рачунарство]]--> [[sv:Datavetenskap]] [[tl:Agham pangkompyuter]] [[th:วิทยาการคอมพิวเตอร์]] [[tr:Bilişim bilimi]] [[uk:Інформатика]] [[vi:Khoa học máy tính]] [[zh:计算机科学]] 3630 2007-01-24T16:41:56Z Eukesh 59 This article needs translation. '''सुशांख्य यन्त्र (कम्प्युटर) विज्ञान, संगणन यन्त्र विज्ञान''' सूचना व गणनस्य सैद्धान्तिक ज्ञानस्य शास्त्र एवम् सिद्धान्तस्य प्रयोय्ग शास्त्र। <ref>"''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies</ref><ref>"''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University</ref><ref>"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]</ref> Computer science has many [[diversity of computer science|sub-fields]]; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others (such as [[computational complexity theory]]) relate to properties of [[computational problem]]s. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing computations, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming language]]s to solve specific computational problems. == इतिहास == The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[अंगुली सुशांख्य यन्त्र (digital computer)]]. Prior to the 1920s, the term ''computer'' referred to a human clerk who performed calculations. Early researchers in what came to be called computer science, such as [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], and [[Alan Turing]], were interested in the question of computability: what things can be computed by a human clerk who simply follows a list of instructions with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight? Part of the motivation for this work was the desire to develop ''computing machines'' that could automate the often tedious and error-prone work of a human computer. During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref> ==Major achievements== {{section-stub}} Despite its relatively short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society. These include: * A formal definition of [[computation]] and [[computability]], and proof that there are computationally [[halting problem|unsolvable]] and [[Intractable#Intractability|intractable]] problems<ref>{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=March 2000|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf|title=Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa 2000}}</ref>. * The concept of a [[programming language]], a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction<ref>{{cite book| |last=Abelson |first=H. |authorlink=Hal Abelson |coauthor=G.J. Sussman with J.Sussman |year=1996 |title=Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs |edition=2nd Ed. |publisher=MIT Press |id=ISBN 0-262-01153-0 |quote=The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called ''procedural epistemology'' &mdash; the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects. }}</ref> * Revolutionary technologies such as general-purpose [[computer]]s, the [[Internet]], [[digital signature]]s, [[electronic commerce]], and [[search engine]]s;<ref name="constable1997">{{cite paper|author=Constable, R.L.|date=1997|url=http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/Nature.pdf|title=Nature of the Information Sciences}}</ref> * The enabling of new types of scientific research, such as computational physics and computational chemistry.<ref name="constable1997"/> == Relationship with other fields == {{main|Diversity of computer science}} {{Wikiquotepar|Edsger Dijkstra}} Despite its name, computer science rarely involves the study of computers themselves. In fact, the renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] is often quoted as saying, ''"Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."'' The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of [[computer hardware]] is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called [[information technology]] or [[information systems]]. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement ''"Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing"'' credited to [[Stan Kelly-Bootle]]<ref>'''Computer Language''', Oct 1990</ref> and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive science]], [[physics]] (see [[quantum computing]]), and [[linguistics]]. Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines<ref>{{cite journal|last=Denning|first=P.J.|year=2000|title=[http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf Computer science:the discipline]|journal=Encyclopedia of Computer Science}}</ref>. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]]. The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how [[Diversity of computer science|computer science is defined]]. Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, believe that the principle focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principle focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making them different disciplines. This view is promulgated by (among others) [[David Parnas]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Parnas | first = David L. | authorlink = David Parnas | year = 1998 | title = [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/parnas98software.html Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes] | journal = Annals of Software Engineering | volume = 6 | pages = 19&ndash;37 }}, p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}."</ref>. Still others maintain that software cannot be engineered at all. ==Fields of computer science== {{section-stub}} === Mathematical foundations === ; [[Cryptography]] : Algorithms for protecting private data, including [[encryption]]. ; [[Graph theory]] : Foundations for data structures and searching algorithms. ; [[Mathematical logic]] : Boolean logic and other ways of modeling logical queries. ; [[Type Theory]] : Formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understand properties of programs -- especially program safety. === Theory of computation === {{main|Theory of computation}} ; [[Automata theory]] : Different logical structures for solving problems. ; [[Computability theory (computer science)|Computability theory]] : What is calculable with the current models of computers. Proofs developed by [[Alan Turing]] and others provide insight into the possibilities of what may be computed and what may not. ; [[Computational complexity theory]] : Fundamental bounds (especially time and storage space) on classes of computations. === Algorithms and data structures === ; [[Analysis of algorithms]] : Time and space complexity of algorithms. ; [[Algorithms]] : Formal logical processes used for computation, and the efficiency of these processes. ; [[Data structure]]s : The organization of and rules for the manipulation of data. ; [[Genetic algorithm]]s : A genetic algorithm is a search technique to find approximate solutions to optimization and search problems. === Programming languages and compilers === ; [[Compiler]]s : Ways of translating computer programs, usually from [[high-level programming language|higher level]] languages to [[low-level programming language|lower level]] ones. Based heavily on mathematical logic. ; [[Programming language]]s : Formal language paradigms for expressing algorithms, and the properties of these languages (EG: what problems they are suited to solve). === Databases === ; [[Data mining]] : Study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documents and databases; closely related to [[information retrieval]]. === Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems === ; [[Concurrency (computer science)|Concurrency]] : The theory and practice of simultaneous computation; data safety in any multitasking or multithreaded environment. ; [[Distributed computing]] : Computing using multiple computing devices over a network to accomplish a common objective or task. ; [[Computer networking|Networking]] : Algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across different shared or dedicated media, often including [[error correction]]. ; [[Parallel computing]] : Computing using multiple concurrent threads of execution. ===Computer architecture === ; [[Computer architecture]] : The design, organization, optimization and verification of a computer system, mostly about [[CPU]]s and [[Memory (computers)|Memory]] subsystem (and the bus connecting them). ; [[Operating system]]s : Systems for managing computer programs and providing the basis of a useable system. ; === Software engineering === ; [[Computer programming]] : The act of writing algorithms in a [[programming language]]. ; [[Formal methods]] : Mathematical approaches for describing and reasoning about software designs. ; [[Software engineering]] : The principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs, as well as proper engineering practices. === Artificial intelligence === ; [[Artificial intelligence]] : The implementation and study of systems that exhibit an autonomous intelligence or behaviour of their own. ; [[Automated reasoning]] : Solving engines, such as used in [[Prolog]], which produce steps to a result given a query on a fact and rule database. ; [[Robotics]] : Algorithms for controlling the behavior of robots. ; [[Computer vision]] : Algorithms for identifying three dimensional objects from a two dimensional picture. ; [[Machine Learning]] : Automated creation of a set of rules and axioms based on input. === Computer graphics === ; [[Computer graphics]] : Algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically, and for integrating or altering visual and spatial information sampled from the real world. ; [[Image processing]] : Determining information from an image through computation. ; [[Human computer interaction]] : The study and design of computer interfaces that people use. === Scientific computing === ; [[Bioinformatics]] : The use of computer science to maintain, analyse, store [[biological data]] and to assist in solving biological problems such as protein folding. ==Computer science education== Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the [[theory of computation]], [[analysis of algorithms]], [[formal methods]], [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency theory]], [[databases]], [[computer graphics]] and [[systems analysis]], among others. They typically also teach [[computer programming]], but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming. == See also == *[[Computing]] *[[Informatics]] *[[List of basic computer science topics]] *[[List of computer science conferences]] *[[List of open problems in computer science]] *[[List of publications in computer science]] *[[List of prominent pioneers in computer science]] *[[List of software engineering topics]] *[[Career domains in computer science]] == References == <div class="references-small"> <references/> * [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998. * [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001. </div> == External links == {{wikibooks}} {{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Computer Science}} *[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science/ Open Directory Project: Computer Science] *[http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies] *[http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/computers_math/computer_science/ Computer Science Research News from ScienceDaily] [[Category:Computer science| ]] [[af:Rekenaarwetenskap]] [[an:Informatica]] [[ar:معلوماتية]] [[ast:Informática]] [[bg:Информатика]] [[bn:কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান]] [[br:Urzhiataerezh]] [[bs:Informatika]] [[ca:Informàtica]] [[cs:Informatika (počítačová věda)]] [[csb:Infòrmatika]] [[da:Datalogi]] [[de:Informatik]] [[el:Επιστήμη Υπολογιστών]] [[es:Ciencias de la computación]] [[eo:Komputiko]] [[et:Informaatika]] [[eu:Informatika]] [[fa:علم رایانه]] [[fi:Tietojenkäsittelytiede]] [[fr:Informatique]] [[fur:Informatiche]] [[fy:Ynformatika]] [[ga:Ríomheolaíocht]] [[gv:Sheanse Coearrooagh]] [[gl:Informática]] [[he:מדעי המחשב]] [[ko:전산학]] [[hr:Računarstvo]] [[hu:Számítástechnika]] [[ia:Informatica]] [[id:Ilmu komputer]] [[ie:Informatica]] [[io:Informatiko]] [[is:Tölvunarfræði]] [[it:Informatica]] [[iu:ᑐᓴᐅᒪᖃᑦᑕᐅᑎᔾᔪᑎᓂᒃ ᐊᐅᓚᑦᑎᔩᑦ]] [[ja:情報工学]] [[jbo:samske]] [[la:Informatica]] [[lb:Informatik]] [[li:Informatica]] [[lt:Informatika]] [[lv:Datorzinātne]] [[ml:കംപ്യുട്ടര്‍ ശാസ്ത്രം]] [[nds-nl:Komputerkunde]] [[nl:Informatica]] [[no:Informatikk]] [[oc:Informatica]] [[pl:Informatyka]] [[pt:Ciência da computação]] [[ro:Informatică]] [[ru:Информатика]] [[scn:Nfurmàtica]] [[simple:Computer science]] [[sk:Veda o počítačoch]] [[sl:Računalništvo]] [[sr:Информатика]] <!--[[sr:Рачунарство]]--> [[sv:Datavetenskap]] [[tl:Agham pangkompyuter]] [[th:วิทยาการคอมพิวเตอร์]] [[tr:Bilişim bilimi]] [[uk:Інформатика]] [[vi:Khoa học máy tính]] [[zh:计算机科学]] 1679 3115 2006-08-11T20:46:30Z Eukesh 59 [[टेलिभिजन]] moved to [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]]: more precise paali word #REDIRECT [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]] 1680 3117 2006-08-11T20:57:36Z Eukesh 59 [[Image:Euclid.jpg|right|thumb|220px|[[Euclid]], a famous Greek mathematician known as the father of geometry, is shown here in detail from ''[[The School of Athens]]'' by [[Raphael]].]] '''Mathematics''' is the discipline that deals with concepts such as [[quantity]], [[structure]], [[space]] and [[change]]. It evolved, through the use of [[abstraction (mathematics)|abstraction]] and [[logic|logical]] [[reasoning]], from [[counting]], [[calculation]], [[measurement]] and the study of the [[shape]]s and [[motion (physics)|motion]]s of physical objects. [[Mathematician]]s explore these and related concepts, aiming to formulate new [[conjecture]]s and establish their truth by [[Rigour|rigorous]] deduction from appropriately chosen [[axiom]]s and [[definition]]s. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics is widespread, as it has been throughout history. Refinements of basic ideas are visible in ancient mathematical texts originating in [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and [[ancient India]], with increased rigour introduced by the [[ancient Greeks]]. From this point on, the development continued in short bursts until the [[Renaissance]] period of the [[16th century]] where mathematical innovations interacted with new [[scientific discoveries]] leading to an acceleration in understanding that continues to the present day. Today, mathematics is used throughout the world in many fields, including [[science]], [[engineering]], [[medicine]] and [[economics]]. The application of mathematics to such fields, often dubbed [[applied mathematics]], inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and has sometimes led to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in [[pure mathematics]] for its own sake without having any practical application in mind, although others may discover such applications later. The word "mathematics" is often abbreviated '''math''' in the [[North American English|U.S. and Canada]] and '''maths''' in [[British English|Britain]], [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]] and many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. ==Etymology== The word "mathematics" (Greek: μαθηματικά) comes from the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] μάθημα (''máthēma''), which means ''learning'', ''study'', ''science'', and additionally came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study", even in Classical times. Its adjective is μαθηματικός (''mathēmatikós''), ''related to learning'', or ''studious'', which likewise further came to mean ''mathematical''. In particular, μαθηματική τέχνη (''mathēmatikḗ tékhnē''), in [[Latin]] ''ars mathematica'', meant ''the mathematical art''. The apparent plural form in {{lan|English}}, like the {{lan|French}} plural form ''les mathématiques'' (and the less commonly used singular derivative ''la mathématique''), goes back to the Latin neuter plural ''mathematica'' ([[Cicero]]), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (''ta mathēmatiká''), used by [[Aristotle]], and meaning roughly "all things mathematical". Despite the form and etymology, the word, like the names of arts and sciences in general, is used as a singular [[mass noun]] in English today.<ref>''[[The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology]]'', 1983 reprint. ISBN 0-19-8611129.</ref><ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], second edition, ed. John Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989, ISBN 0198611862.</ref> ==History== [[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|right|A [[quipu]], a counting device used by the [[Inca Empire|Inca]].]] The evolution of mathematics might be seen to be an ever-increasing series of [[abstraction]]s, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstraction was probably that of [[number]]s. The realization that two apples and two oranges have something in common was a breakthrough in human thought. In addition to recognizing how to [[Counting|count]] ''physical'' objects, [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] peoples also recognized how to count ''abstract'' quantities, like [[time]] — [[day]]s, [[season]]s, [[year]]s. [[Arithmetic]] ([[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]]), naturally followed. Monolithic monuments testify to knowledge of [[geometry]]. Further steps need [[writing]] or some other system for recording numbers such as [[Tally sticks|tallies]] or the knotted strings called [[quipu]] used by the [[Inca empire]] to store numerical data. [[Numeral system]]s have been many and diverse. From the beginnings of recorded history, the major disciplines within mathematics arose out of the need to do calculations relating to [[taxation]] and [[commerce]], to understand the relationships among numbers, to [[land measurement|measure land]], and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical events]]. These needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics, into the studies of ''quantity'', ''structure'', ''space'', and ''change''. Mathematics since has been much extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries have been made throughout history and continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]], "The number of papers and books included in the [[Mathematical Reviews]] database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical [[theorem]]s and their [[mathematical proof|proof]]s."<ref>{{cite journal| author = Mikhail B. Sevryuk| year = 2006| month = January| title = Book Reviews| journal = [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]]| volume = 43| issue = 1| pages = 101-109| url = http://www.ams.org/bull/2006-43-01/S0273-0979-05-01069-4/S0273-0979-05-01069-4.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2006-06-24}}</ref> ==Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics== [[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|thumb|Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1643-1727), an inventor of [[infinitesimal calculus]].]] Mathematics arises wherever there are difficult problems that involve quantity, structure, space, or change. At first these were found in [[commerce]], [[land measurement]] and later [[astronomy]]; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] was one of the [[infinitesimal calculus]] inventors, [[Feynman]] invented the [[Feynman path integral]] using a combination of reasoning and physical insight, and today's [[string theory]] also inspires new mathematics. Some mathematics is only relevant in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. The remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematics often turns out to have practical applications is what [[Eugene Wigner]] has called "[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics]]." As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization in mathematics. One major distinction is between [[pure mathematics]] and [[applied mathematics]]. Within applied mathematics, two major areas have split off and become disciplines in their own right, [[statistics]] and [[computer science]]. Many mathematicians talk about the ''elegance'' of mathematics, its intrinsic [[aesthetics]] and inner [[beauty]]. [[Simplicity]] and [[generality]] are valued. There is beauty also in a clever proof, such as [[Euclid]]'s proof that there are infinitely many [[prime number]]s, and in a numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the [[fast Fourier transform]]. [[G. H. Hardy]] in ''[[A Mathematician's Apology]]'' expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. ==Notation, language, and rigor== [[Image:Pic79.png|right|thumb|In modern notation, simple expressions can describe complex concepts. This image is generated by a single [[equation]].]] Most of the mathematical notation we use today was not invented until the [[16th century]]. Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often find it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax and encodes information that would be difficult to write in any other way. Mathematical language also is hard for beginners. Words such as ''or'' or ''only'' have more precise meanings than in everyday speech. Also confusing to beginners, words such as ''[[open set|open]]'' and ''[[field (mathematics)|field]]'' have been given specialized mathematical meanings, and [[mathematical jargon]] includes technical terms such as ''[[homeomorphism]]'' and ''[[integrability|integrable]]''. It was said that [[Henri Poincaré]] was only elected to the [[Académie française]] so that he could tell them how to define ''[[automorphic|automorphe]]'' in their dictionary. But there is a reason for special notation and technical jargon: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as "rigor". Rigor is fundamentally a matter of [[mathematical proof]]. Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken "[[theorem]]s", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject (for example, in [[mathematical analysis]]). The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of [[Isaac Newton]] the methods employed were less rigorous. Problems inherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about [[computer-assisted proof]]s. Since large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be sufficiently rigorous. [[Axiom]]s in traditional thought were 'self-evident truths', but that conception is problematic. At a formal level, an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas of an [[axiomatic system]]. It was the goal of [[Hilbert's program]] to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] every (sufficiently powerful) axiomatic system has undecidable formulas; and so a final [[axiomatization]] of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to be (as far as its formal content) nothing but [[set theory]] in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory. ==Mathematics as science== [[Image:Carl Friedrich Gauss.jpg|right|thumb|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], while known as the "prince of mathematicians", did not believe that mathematics was worthy of study in its own right.]] [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".<ref>[[Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen|Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von]]: ''Gauss zum Gedächtniss'', 1856. (''Gauss zum Gedächtnis'' 1965 reprint by Sändig Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend: ISBN 3-253-01702-8, [http://www.amazon.de/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0000BN5SQ ASIN: B0000BN5SQ]).</ref> In the original Latin ''Regina Scientiarum'', as well as in {{lan|German}} ''Königin der Wissenschaften'', the word corresponding to ''science'' means (field of) knowledge. Indeed, this is also the original meaning in English, and there is no doubt that mathematics is in this sense a science. The specialization restricting the meaning to ''natural'' science is of later date. If one considers [[science]] to be strictly about the physical world, then mathematics, or at least [[pure mathematics]], is not a science. [[Karl Popper]] believed that mathematics was not experimentally [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]] and thus not a science.{{fact}} However, other thinkers, notably [[Imre Lakatos]], have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself. In his 2002 book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'', [[Stephen Wolfram]] argues that computational mathematics deserves to be explored empirically as a scientific field in its own right. An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as [[theoretical physics]]) are mathematics with axioms that are intended to correspond to reality. In fact, the theoretical physicist, J. M. Ziman, proposed that science is ''public knowledge'' and thus includes mathematics.<ref>{{cite paper|url=http://info.med.yale.edu/therarad/summers/ziman.htm|date=1968|title=Public Knowledge:An essay concerning the social dimension of science|author= Ziman, J.M., F.R.S.}}</ref> In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. [[intuition (knowledge)|Intuition]] and [[experiment|experimentation]] also play a role in the formulation of [[conjecture]]s in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. [[Experimental mathematics]] continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics, weakening the objection that mathematics does not utilize the [[scientific method]]. The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. While some in [[applied mathematics]] feel that they are scientists, those in pure mathematics often feel that they are working in an area more akin to [[logic]] and that they are, hence, fundamentally [[Philosophy|philosophers]]. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven [[liberal arts]]; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and [[engineering]] has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is ''created'' (as in art) or ''discovered'' (as in science). It is common to see [[University|universities]] divided into sections that include a division of ''Science and Mathematics'', indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the [[philosophy of mathematics]]. Mathematical awards are generally kept separate from their equivalents in science. The most prestigious award in mathematics is the [[Fields Medal]],<ref>"The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most influential award in mathematics."{{cite paper|url=http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_Monastyrsky.pdf|date=2001|title=Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal|author=Monastyrsky, Michael|publisher=Canadian Mathematical Society|accessdate=2006-07-28}}</ref> established in 1936 and now awarded every 4 years. It is usually considered the equivalent of science's [[Nobel prize]]. Another major international award, the [[Abel Prize]], was introduced in 2003. Both of these are awarded for a particular body of work, either innovation in a new area of mathematics or resolution of an outstanding problem in an established field. A famous list of 23 such open problems, called "[[Hilbert's problems]]", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician [[David Hilbert]]. This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the "[[Clay Mathematics Institute#The Millennium Prize problems|Millennium Prize Problems]]", was published in 2000. Solution of each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the [[Riemann hypothesis]]) is duplicated in Hilbert's problems. ==Fields of mathematics== [[Image:Abacus 6.png|right|thumb|Early mathematics was entirely concerned with the need to perform practical calculations, as reflected in this Chinese [[abacus]].]] As noted above, the major disciplines within mathematics first arose out of the need to do calculations in commerce, to understand the relationships between numbers, to measure land, and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical]] events. These four needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e., [[arithmetic]], [[algebra]], [[geometry]], and [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to [[Mathematical logic|logic]], to [[set theory]] ([[Foundations of mathematics|foundations]]), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences ([[applied mathematics]]), and more recently to the rigorous study of [[uncertainty]]. ===Quantity=== The study of quantity starts with [[number]]s, first the familiar [[natural number]]s and [[integer]]s ("whole numbers") and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in [[arithmetic]]. The deeper properties of integers are studied in [[number theory]], whence such popular results as [[Fermat's last theorem]]. Number theory also holds two widely-considered unsolved problems: the [[twin prime conjecture]] and [[Goldbach's conjecture]]. As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognised as a [[subset]] of the [[rational numbers]] ("fractions"). These, in turn, are contained within the [[real numbers]], which are used to represent continuous quantities. Real numbers are generalised to [[complex number]]s. These are the first steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include [[quarternions]] and [[octonions]]. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the [[transfinite numbers]], which formalise the concept of counting to infinite. Another area of study is size, which leads to the [[cardinal number]]s and then to another conception of infinity; the [[aleph number]]s, which allow meaningful comparison of the size of infinitely large sets. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1, 2, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\ldots, -1, 0, 1, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{1}{2}, \frac{2}{3}, 0.125,\ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{2}{3}, \pi, e, \sqrt{2},\ldots \,</math> || <math>5, i, 3i+2, e^{i\pi/3},\ldots \,</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s|| [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |} ===Structure=== Many mathematical objects, such as [[set]]s of numbers and [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, exhibit internal structure. The structural properties of these objects are investigated in the study of [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[field (mathematics)|fields]] and other abstract systems, which are themselves such objects. This is the field of [[abstract algebra]]. An important concept here is that of [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s, generalized to [[vector space]]s, and studied in [[linear algebra]]. The study of vectors combines three of the fundamental areas of mathematics; quantity, structure, and space. [[Vector calculus]] expands the field into a fourth fundamental area, that of change. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Elliptic curve simple.png|96px]] || [[Image:Rubik float.png|96px]] || [[Image:GroupDiagramD6.png|96px]] || [[Image:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Group theory]] || [[Order theory]] |} ===Space=== The study of space originates with [[geometry]] - in particular, [[Euclidean geometry]]. [[Trigonometry]] combines space and number, and encompasses the well-known [[Pythagorean theorem]]. The modern study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, [[Non-euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean geometries]] (which play a central role in [[general relativity]]) and [[topology]]. Quantity and space both play a role in [[analytic geometry]], [[differential geometry]], and [[algebraic geometry]]. Within differential geometry are the concepts of [[fiber bundles]] and calculus on [[manifold]]s. Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of [[polynomial]] equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of [[topological groups]], which combine structure and space. [[Lie group]]s are used to study space, structure, and change. [[Topology]] in all its many ramifications may have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics, and includes the long-standing [[Poincaré conjecture]] and the controversial [[four color theorem]], whose only proof, by computer, has never been verified by a human. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Pythagorean.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Taylorsine.svg|96px]] || [[Image:OsculatingCircle.png|96px]] || [[Image:Torus.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Koch curve.png|96px]] |- |[[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Topology]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} ===Change=== Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the [[natural science]]s, and [[calculus]] was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. [[function (mathematics)|Functions]] arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real numbers and real-valued functions is known as [[real analysis]], with [[complex analysis]] the equivalent field for the complex numbers. The [[Riemann hypothesis]], one of the most fundamental open questions in mathematics, is drawn from complex analysis. [[Functional analysis]] focuses attention on (typically infinite-dimensional) [[space#Mathematical spaces|space]]s of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is [[quantum mechanics]]. Many problems lead naturally to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as [[differential equation]]s. Many phenomena in nature can be described by [[dynamical system]]s; [[chaos theory]] makes precise the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still [[deterministic system (mathematics)|deterministic]] behavior. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | [[Image:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Vectorfield_jaredwf.png|96px]] || <math>\frac{d^2}{dx^2} y = \frac{d}{dx} y + c</math> || [[Image:Limitcycle.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:LorenzAttractor.png|96px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]]|| [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical system]]s || [[Chaos theory]] |} ===Foundations and philosophy=== In order to clarify the [[foundations of mathematics]], the fields of [[mathematical logic]] and [[set theory]] were developed. Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics on a rigid [[axiom]]atic framework, and studying the results of such a framework. As such, it is home to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems#Second incompleteness theorem|Gödel's second incompleteness theorem]], perhaps the most widely celebrated result in logic, which (informally) implies that there are always true theorems which cannot be proven. Modern logic is divided into [[recursion theory]], [[model theory]], and [[proof theory]], and is closely linked to [[theoretical computer science|theoretical]] [[computer science]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math> P \Rightarrow Q \,</math>|| [[Image:Venn_A_intersect_B.png|128px]] || [[Image:MorphismComposition-01.png|96px]] |- | [[Mathematical logic]] || [[Set theory]] || [[Category theory]] || |} ===Discrete mathematics=== [[Discrete mathematics]] is the common name for the fields of mathematics most generally useful in [[theoretical computer science]]. This includes [[Computability theory (computation)|computability theory]], [[computational complexity theory]], and [[information theory]]. Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most powerful known model - the [[Turing machine]]. Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems, although theoretically soluble by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to remain practically unfeasible, even with rapid advance of computer hardware. Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence concepts such as [[data compression|compression]] and [[Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory|entropy]]. As a relatively new field, discrete mathematics has a number of fundamental open problems. The most famous of these is the "[[Complexity classes P and NP|P=NP?]]" problem, one of the [[Millennium Prize Problems]]. It is widely believed that the answer to this problem is no. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math>\begin{matrix} (1,2,3) & (1,3,2) \\ (2,1,3) & (2,3,1) \\ (3,1,2) & (3,2,1) \end{matrix}</math> || [[Image:DFAexample.png|96px]] || [[Image:Caesar3.png|96px]] || [[Image:6n-graf.svg|96px]] |- | [[Combinatorics]] || [[Theory of computation]] || [[Cryptography]] || [[Graph theory]] |} ===Applied mathematics=== Applied mathematics considers the use of abstract mathematical tools in solving concrete problems in [[natural science]]. An important field in applied mathematics is [[statistics]], which uses [[probability theory]] as a tool and allows the description, analysis, and prediction of phenomena where chance plays a role. This is used in all the sciences. (Many statisticians, however, do not consider themselves to be mathematicians, but rather part of an allied group.) [[Numerical analysis]] investigates computational methods for efficiently solving a broad range of mathematical problems that are typically too large for human numerical capacity; it includes the study of [[rounding error]]s or other sources of error in computation. :[[Mathematical physics]] • [[Mechanics|Analytical mechanics]] • [[Fluid mechanics|Mathematical fluid dynamics]] • [[Numerical analysis]] • [[Optimization (mathematics)|Optimization]] • [[Probability]] • [[Statistics]] • [[Mathematical economics]] • [[Financial mathematics]] • [[Game theory]] • [[Mathematical biology]] • [[Cryptography]] • [[Operations research]] ==Common misconceptions== Mathematics is not a closed intellectual system, in which everything has already been worked out. There is no shortage of open problems. [[Pseudomathematics]] is a form of mathematics-like activity undertaken outside [[academia]], and occasionally by mathematicians themselves. It often consists of determined attacks on famous questions, consisting of proof-attempts made in an isolated way (that is, long papers not supported by previously published theory). The relationship to generally-accepted mathematics is similar to that between [[pseudoscience]] and real science. The misconceptions involved are normally based on: *misunderstanding of the implications of [[mathematical rigor]]; *attempts to circumvent the usual criteria for publication of [[mathematical paper]]s in a [[learned journal]] after [[peer review]], often in the belief that the journal is biased against the author; *lack of familiarity with, and therefore underestimation of, the existing literature. The case of [[Kurt Heegner]]'s work shows that the mathematical establishment is neither infallible, nor unwilling to admit error in assessing 'amateur' work. And like [[astronomy]], mathematics owes much to amateur contributors such as [[Pierre de Fermat|Fermat]] and [[Marin Mersenne|Mersenne]]. === Relationship between mathematics and physical reality === Mathematical concepts and theorems need not correspond to anything in the physical world. Insofar as a correspondence does exist, while mathematicians and physicists may select axioms and postulates that seem reasonable and intuitive, it is not necessary for the basic assumptions within an axiomatic system to be true in an empirical or physical sense. This leads to confusion on the part of those who assume that where mathematical concepts are named after or ostensibly correspond with aspects of reality (physics, economics, etc), they have a rigorous relationship with it. Such is simply not the case, and empirical testing of mathematical predictions is not a mathematical undertaking (see [[Mathematics#Mathematics as science|Mathematics as science]] above). Thus while most systems of axioms are derived from our perceptions and experiments, they are not dependent on them. Nevertheless, mathematics remains extremely useful for solving real-world problems. This fact led Eugene Wigner to write an essay, ''[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]''. === What mathematics is not === Mathematics is not about unrestricted [[theorem proving]], any more than [[literature]] is about the construction of [[grammar|grammatically correct]] [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s. Mathematics is not [[accountancy]]. Although arithmetic computation is crucial to accountants, their main concern is to verify that computations are correct through a system of doublechecks. Advances in abstract mathematics are mostly irrelevant to the efficiency of bookkeeping, but the use of computers clearly does matter. Mathematics is not [[numerology]]. Numerology uses [[modular arithmetic]] to reduce names and dates down to numbers, but assigns emotions or traits to these numbers intuitively or on the basis of traditions. ==References== <div class="references-small"> <references/> *[[Morris Kline|Kline, Morris]], ''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times'', Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0195061357. </div> ==Further reading== *Benson, Donald C., ''The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies'', Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0195139194. *[[Carl B. Boyer|Boyer, Carl B.]], ''A History of Mathematics'', Wiley; 2 edition (March 6, 1991). ISBN 0471543977. &mdash; A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number to contemporary Mathematics. *Courant, R. and H. Robbins, ''What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods'', Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (July 18, 1996). ISBN 0195105192. *[[Philip J. Davis|Davis, Philip J.]] and [[Reuben Hersh|Hersh, Reuben]], ''The Mathematical Experience''. Mariner Books; Reprint edition (January 14, 1999). ISBN 0395929687.&mdash; A gentle introduction to the world of mathematics. *Gullberg, Jan, ''Mathematics—From the Birth of Numbers''. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October 1997). ISBN 039304002X. &mdash; An encyclopedic overview of mathematics presented in clear, simple language. *Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), ''[[Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]]''. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000. &mdash; A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten (expensive) volumes, the most complete and authoritative work available. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online [http://eom.springer.de/default.htm]. *Pappas, Theoni, ''The Joy Of Mathematics'', Wide World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989). ISBN 0933174659. *{{cite book | last = Paulos | first = John Allen | authorlink = John Allen Paulos | year = 1996 | title = A Mathematician Reads the Newspaper | publisher = Anchor | id = ISBN 038548254X}} ==See also== * [[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics portal]] * [[Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[Mathematical game]] * [[Mathematical problem]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Mathematics}} {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Mathematics}} * Online [http://eom.springer.de/ "Encyclopaedia of Mathematics"] from Springer. Graduate-level reference work with over 8,000 entries, illuminating nearly 50,000 notions in mathematics. * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ ''Interactive Mathematics Miscellany and Puzzles''] &mdash; A collection of articles on various mathematical topics, with interactive [[Java applet|Java]] illustrations at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www-math.mit.edu/daimp Some mathematics applets, at MIT] * Rusin, Dave: [http://www.math-atlas.org/ ''The Mathematical Atlas'']. A guided tour through the various branches of modern mathematics. * Stefanov, Alexandre: [http://us.geocities.com/alex_stef/mylist.html ''Textbooks in Mathematics'']. A list of free online textbooks and lecture notes in mathematics. * Weisstein, Eric et al.: [http://www.mathworld.com/ ''MathWorld: World of Mathematics'']. An online encyclopedia of mathematics. * Polyanin, Andrei: [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/ ''EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations'']. An online resource focusing on algebraic, ordinary differential, partial differential ([[mathematical physics]]), integral, and other mathematical equations. * [http://planetmath.org/ ''Planet Math'']. An online mathematics encyclopedia under construction, focusing on modern mathematics. Uses the [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], allowing article exchange with Wikipedia. Uses [[TeX]] markup. * [http://www.mathforge.net/ ''Mathforge'']. A news-blog with topics ranging from popular mathematics to popular physics to computer science and education. * [http://www.youngmath.net/concerns ''Young Mathematicians Network (YMN)'']. A math-blog "Serving the Community of Young Mathematicians". Topics include: Mathematics News, Grad and Undergrad Life, Job Search, Career, Work & Family, Teaching, Research, Misc... * [http://metamath.org/ ''Metamath'']. A site and a language, that formalize mathematics from its foundations. * [http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/ Mathematician Biographies]. The [[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]] Extensive history and quotes from all famous mathematicians. * Cain, George: [http://www.math.gatech.edu/~cain/textbooks/onlinebooks.html Online Mathematics Textbooks] available free online. * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaVII.html Math & Logic: The history of formal mathematical, logical, linguistic and methodological ideas.] In ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas.'' * [http://www.nrich.maths.org/public/index.php nrich] Prize winning mathematics site for students from age five from [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] {{Mathematics-footer}} [[Category:Mathematics| ]] [[Category:School subjects]] {{Link FA|mk}} [[af:Wiskunde]] [[ar:رياضيات]] [[an:Matematicas]] [[ast:Matemátiques]] [[az:Riyaziyyat]] [[bn:গণিত]] [[zh-min-nan:Sò͘-ha̍k]] [[ba:Математика]] [[be:Матэматыка]] [[bs:Matematika]] [[br:Matematikoù]] [[bg:Математика]] [[ca:Matemàtiques]] [[ceb:Matematika]] [[cs:Matematika]] [[co:Matematica]] [[cy:Mathemateg]] [[da:Matematik]] [[de:Mathematik]] [[et:Matemaatika]] [[el:Μαθηματικά]] [[es:Matemáticas]] [[eo:Matematiko]] [[eu:Matematika]] [[fa:ریاضیات]] [[fo:Støddfrøði]] [[fr:Mathématiques]] [[fy:Wiskunde]] [[fur:Matematiche]] [[ga:Matamaitic]] [[gv:Maddaght]] [[gd:Matamataig]] [[gl:Matemáticas]] [[gu:ગણિત]] [[ko:수학]] [[hr:Matematika]] [[io:Matematiko]] [[id:Matematika]] [[ia:Mathematica]] [[is:Stærðfræði]] [[it:Matematica]] [[he:מתמטיקה]] [[ka:მათემატიკა]] [[csb:Matematika]] [[ky:Математика]] [[sw:Hisabati]] [[lad:Matematika]] [[la:Mathematica]] [[lv:Matemātika]] [[lb:Mathematik]] [[lt:Matematika]] [[li:Mathematik]] [[jbo:cmaci]] [[hu:Matematika]] [[mk:Математика]] [[ms:Matematik]] [[nl:Wiskunde]] [[ja:数学]] [[no:Matematikk]] [[nn:Matematikk]] [[nrm:Caltchul]] [[oc:Matematicas]] [[ug:ماتېماتىكا]] [[ps:شمېر پوهنه]] [[km:គណិតសាស្ត្រ]] [[nds:Mathematik]] [[pl:Matematyka]] [[pt:Matemática]] [[ro:Matematică]] [[ru:Математика]] [[sc:Matemàtica]] [[sco:Mathematics]] [[sq:Matematika]] [[scn:Matimàtica]] [[simple:Mathematics]] [[sk:Matematika]] [[sl:Matematika]] [[sr:Математика]] [[su:Matematika]] [[fi:Matematiikka]] [[sv:Matematik]] [[tl:Matematika]] [[ta:கணிதம்]] [[tt:Matematik]] [[tet:Matemátika]] [[th:คณิตศาสตร์]] [[vi:Toán học]] [[tr:Matematik]] [[uk:Математика]] [[uz:Matematika]] [[vec:Matematèga]] [[fiu-vro:Matõmaatiga]] [[zh-yue:數學]] [[zh:数学]] 3213 2006-09-26T13:35:36Z 85.108.98.167 [[Image:Euclid.jpg|right|thumb|220px|[[Euclid]], a famous Greek mathematician known as the father of geometry, is shown here in detail from ''[[The School of Athens]]'' by [[Raphael]].]] '''Mathematics''' is the discipline that deals with concepts such as [[quantity]], [[structure]], [[space]] and [[change]]. It evolved, through the use of [[abstraction (mathematics)|abstraction]] and [[logic|logical]] [[reasoning]], from [[counting]], [[calculation]], [[measurement]] and the study of the [[shape]]s and [[motion (physics)|motion]]s of physical objects. [[Mathematician]]s explore these and related concepts, aiming to formulate new [[conjecture]]s and establish their truth by [[Rigour|rigorous]] deduction from appropriately chosen [[axiom]]s and [[definition]]s. [http://www.dusler-sokagi.com Aşk] [http://www.dusler-sokagi.com Arkadaşlık] [http://www.dusler-sokagi.com Dostluk] [http://www.dusler-sokagi.com Şiirler] [http://www.dusler-sokagi.com sevgili] [http://www.avcilarmekani.com Av Videoları] [http://www.avcilarmekani.com Av Köpekleri] [http://www.avcilarmekani.com Satılık Av Tüfekleri] [http://www.avcilarmekani.com Balık Avı] [http://www.avcilarmekani.com Tavşan Avı] [http://www.avcilarmekani.com Domuz Avı] [http://www.avcilarmekani.com Av Oyunları] [http://www.dilaylam.com Aşk] [http://www.dilaylam.com Arkadaşlık] [http://www.dilaylam.com Dostluk] [http://www.dilaylam.com Şiirler] [http://www.dilaylam.com sevgili] Knowledge and use of basic mathematics is widespread, as it has been throughout history. Refinements of basic ideas are visible in ancient mathematical texts originating in [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and [[ancient India]], with increased rigour introduced by the [[ancient Greeks]]. From this point on, the development continued in short bursts until the [[Renaissance]] period of the [[16th century]] where mathematical innovations interacted with new [[scientific discoveries]] leading to an acceleration in understanding that continues to the present day. Today, mathematics is used throughout the world in many fields, including [[science]], [[engineering]], [[medicine]] and [[economics]]. The application of mathematics to such fields, often dubbed [[applied mathematics]], inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and has sometimes led to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in [[pure mathematics]] for its own sake without having any practical application in mind, although others may discover such applications later. The word "mathematics" is often abbreviated '''math''' in the [[North American English|U.S. and Canada]] and '''maths''' in [[British English|Britain]], [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]] and many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. ==Etymology== The word "mathematics" (Greek: μαθηματικά) comes from the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] μάθημα (''máthēma''), which means ''learning'', ''study'', ''science'', and additionally came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study", even in Classical times. Its adjective is μαθηματικός (''mathēmatikós''), ''related to learning'', or ''studious'', which likewise further came to mean ''mathematical''. In particular, μαθηματική τέχνη (''mathēmatikḗ tékhnē''), in [[Latin]] ''ars mathematica'', meant ''the mathematical art''. The apparent plural form in {{lan|English}}, like the {{lan|French}} plural form ''les mathématiques'' (and the less commonly used singular derivative ''la mathématique''), goes back to the Latin neuter plural ''mathematica'' ([[Cicero]]), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (''ta mathēmatiká''), used by [[Aristotle]], and meaning roughly "all things mathematical". Despite the form and etymology, the word, like the names of arts and sciences in general, is used as a singular [[mass noun]] in English today.<ref>''[[The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology]]'', 1983 reprint. ISBN 0-19-8611129.</ref><ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], second edition, ed. John Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989, ISBN 0198611862.</ref> ==History== [[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|right|A [[quipu]], a counting device used by the [[Inca Empire|Inca]].]] The evolution of mathematics might be seen to be an ever-increasing series of [[abstraction]]s, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstraction was probably that of [[number]]s. The realization that two apples and two oranges have something in common was a breakthrough in human thought. In addition to recognizing how to [[Counting|count]] ''physical'' objects, [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] peoples also recognized how to count ''abstract'' quantities, like [[time]] — [[day]]s, [[season]]s, [[year]]s. [[Arithmetic]] ([[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]]), naturally followed. Monolithic monuments testify to knowledge of [[geometry]]. Further steps need [[writing]] or some other system for recording numbers such as [[Tally sticks|tallies]] or the knotted strings called [[quipu]] used by the [[Inca empire]] to store numerical data. [[Numeral system]]s have been many and diverse. From the beginnings of recorded history, the major disciplines within mathematics arose out of the need to do calculations relating to [[taxation]] and [[commerce]], to understand the relationships among numbers, to [[land measurement|measure land]], and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical events]]. These needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics, into the studies of ''quantity'', ''structure'', ''space'', and ''change''. Mathematics since has been much extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries have been made throughout history and continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]], "The number of papers and books included in the [[Mathematical Reviews]] database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical [[theorem]]s and their [[mathematical proof|proof]]s."<ref>{{cite journal| author = Mikhail B. Sevryuk| year = 2006| month = January| title = Book Reviews| journal = [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]]| volume = 43| issue = 1| pages = 101-109| url = http://www.ams.org/bull/2006-43-01/S0273-0979-05-01069-4/S0273-0979-05-01069-4.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2006-06-24}}</ref> ==Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics== [[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|thumb|Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1643-1727), an inventor of [[infinitesimal calculus]].]] Mathematics arises wherever there are difficult problems that involve quantity, structure, space, or change. At first these were found in [[commerce]], [[land measurement]] and later [[astronomy]]; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] was one of the [[infinitesimal calculus]] inventors, [[Feynman]] invented the [[Feynman path integral]] using a combination of reasoning and physical insight, and today's [[string theory]] also inspires new mathematics. Some mathematics is only relevant in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. The remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematics often turns out to have practical applications is what [[Eugene Wigner]] has called "[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics]]." As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization in mathematics. One major distinction is between [[pure mathematics]] and [[applied mathematics]]. Within applied mathematics, two major areas have split off and become disciplines in their own right, [[statistics]] and [[computer science]]. Many mathematicians talk about the ''elegance'' of mathematics, its intrinsic [[aesthetics]] and inner [[beauty]]. [[Simplicity]] and [[generality]] are valued. There is beauty also in a clever proof, such as [[Euclid]]'s proof that there are infinitely many [[prime number]]s, and in a numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the [[fast Fourier transform]]. [[G. H. Hardy]] in ''[[A Mathematician's Apology]]'' expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. ==Notation, language, and rigor== [[Image:Pic79.png|right|thumb|In modern notation, simple expressions can describe complex concepts. This image is generated by a single [[equation]].]] Most of the mathematical notation we use today was not invented until the [[16th century]]. Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often find it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax and encodes information that would be difficult to write in any other way. Mathematical language also is hard for beginners. Words such as ''or'' or ''only'' have more precise meanings than in everyday speech. Also confusing to beginners, words such as ''[[open set|open]]'' and ''[[field (mathematics)|field]]'' have been given specialized mathematical meanings, and [[mathematical jargon]] includes technical terms such as ''[[homeomorphism]]'' and ''[[integrability|integrable]]''. It was said that [[Henri Poincaré]] was only elected to the [[Académie française]] so that he could tell them how to define ''[[automorphic|automorphe]]'' in their dictionary. But there is a reason for special notation and technical jargon: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as "rigor". Rigor is fundamentally a matter of [[mathematical proof]]. Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken "[[theorem]]s", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject (for example, in [[mathematical analysis]]). The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of [[Isaac Newton]] the methods employed were less rigorous. Problems inherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about [[computer-assisted proof]]s. Since large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be sufficiently rigorous. [[Axiom]]s in traditional thought were 'self-evident truths', but that conception is problematic. At a formal level, an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas of an [[axiomatic system]]. It was the goal of [[Hilbert's program]] to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] every (sufficiently powerful) axiomatic system has undecidable formulas; and so a final [[axiomatization]] of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to be (as far as its formal content) nothing but [[set theory]] in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory. ==Mathematics as science== [[Image:Carl Friedrich Gauss.jpg|right|thumb|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], while known as the "prince of mathematicians", did not believe that mathematics was worthy of study in its own right.]] [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".<ref>[[Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen|Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von]]: ''Gauss zum Gedächtniss'', 1856. (''Gauss zum Gedächtnis'' 1965 reprint by Sändig Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend: ISBN 3-253-01702-8, [http://www.amazon.de/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0000BN5SQ ASIN: B0000BN5SQ]).</ref> In the original Latin ''Regina Scientiarum'', as well as in {{lan|German}} ''Königin der Wissenschaften'', the word corresponding to ''science'' means (field of) knowledge. Indeed, this is also the original meaning in English, and there is no doubt that mathematics is in this sense a science. The specialization restricting the meaning to ''natural'' science is of later date. If one considers [[science]] to be strictly about the physical world, then mathematics, or at least [[pure mathematics]], is not a science. [[Karl Popper]] believed that mathematics was not experimentally [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]] and thus not a science.{{fact}} However, other thinkers, notably [[Imre Lakatos]], have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself. In his 2002 book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'', [[Stephen Wolfram]] argues that computational mathematics deserves to be explored empirically as a scientific field in its own right. An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as [[theoretical physics]]) are mathematics with axioms that are intended to correspond to reality. In fact, the theoretical physicist, J. M. Ziman, proposed that science is ''public knowledge'' and thus includes mathematics.<ref>{{cite paper|url=http://info.med.yale.edu/therarad/summers/ziman.htm|date=1968|title=Public Knowledge:An essay concerning the social dimension of science|author= Ziman, J.M., F.R.S.}}</ref> In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. [[intuition (knowledge)|Intuition]] and [[experiment|experimentation]] also play a role in the formulation of [[conjecture]]s in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. [[Experimental mathematics]] continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics, weakening the objection that mathematics does not utilize the [[scientific method]]. The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. While some in [[applied mathematics]] feel that they are scientists, those in pure mathematics often feel that they are working in an area more akin to [[logic]] and that they are, hence, fundamentally [[Philosophy|philosophers]]. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven [[liberal arts]]; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and [[engineering]] has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is ''created'' (as in art) or ''discovered'' (as in science). It is common to see [[University|universities]] divided into sections that include a division of ''Science and Mathematics'', indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the [[philosophy of mathematics]]. Mathematical awards are generally kept separate from their equivalents in science. The most prestigious award in mathematics is the [[Fields Medal]],<ref>"The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most influential award in mathematics."{{cite paper|url=http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_Monastyrsky.pdf|date=2001|title=Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal|author=Monastyrsky, Michael|publisher=Canadian Mathematical Society|accessdate=2006-07-28}}</ref> established in 1936 and now awarded every 4 years. It is usually considered the equivalent of science's [[Nobel prize]]. Another major international award, the [[Abel Prize]], was introduced in 2003. Both of these are awarded for a particular body of work, either innovation in a new area of mathematics or resolution of an outstanding problem in an established field. A famous list of 23 such open problems, called "[[Hilbert's problems]]", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician [[David Hilbert]]. This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the "[[Clay Mathematics Institute#The Millennium Prize problems|Millennium Prize Problems]]", was published in 2000. Solution of each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the [[Riemann hypothesis]]) is duplicated in Hilbert's problems. ==Fields of mathematics== [[Image:Abacus 6.png|right|thumb|Early mathematics was entirely concerned with the need to perform practical calculations, as reflected in this Chinese [[abacus]].]] As noted above, the major disciplines within mathematics first arose out of the need to do calculations in commerce, to understand the relationships between numbers, to measure land, and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical]] events. These four needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e., [[arithmetic]], [[algebra]], [[geometry]], and [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to [[Mathematical logic|logic]], to [[set theory]] ([[Foundations of mathematics|foundations]]), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences ([[applied mathematics]]), and more recently to the rigorous study of [[uncertainty]]. ===Quantity=== The study of quantity starts with [[number]]s, first the familiar [[natural number]]s and [[integer]]s ("whole numbers") and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in [[arithmetic]]. The deeper properties of integers are studied in [[number theory]], whence such popular results as [[Fermat's last theorem]]. Number theory also holds two widely-considered unsolved problems: the [[twin prime conjecture]] and [[Goldbach's conjecture]]. As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognised as a [[subset]] of the [[rational numbers]] ("fractions"). These, in turn, are contained within the [[real numbers]], which are used to represent continuous quantities. Real numbers are generalised to [[complex number]]s. These are the first steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include [[quarternions]] and [[octonions]]. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the [[transfinite numbers]], which formalise the concept of counting to infinite. Another area of study is size, which leads to the [[cardinal number]]s and then to another conception of infinity; the [[aleph number]]s, which allow meaningful comparison of the size of infinitely large sets. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1, 2, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\ldots, -1, 0, 1, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{1}{2}, \frac{2}{3}, 0.125,\ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{2}{3}, \pi, e, \sqrt{2},\ldots \,</math> || <math>5, i, 3i+2, e^{i\pi/3},\ldots \,</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s|| [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |} ===Structure=== Many mathematical objects, such as [[set]]s of numbers and [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, exhibit internal structure. The structural properties of these objects are investigated in the study of [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[field (mathematics)|fields]] and other abstract systems, which are themselves such objects. This is the field of [[abstract algebra]]. An important concept here is that of [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s, generalized to [[vector space]]s, and studied in [[linear algebra]]. The study of vectors combines three of the fundamental areas of mathematics; quantity, structure, and space. [[Vector calculus]] expands the field into a fourth fundamental area, that of change. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Elliptic curve simple.png|96px]] || [[Image:Rubik float.png|96px]] || [[Image:GroupDiagramD6.png|96px]] || [[Image:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Group theory]] || [[Order theory]] |} ===Space=== The study of space originates with [[geometry]] - in particular, [[Euclidean geometry]]. [[Trigonometry]] combines space and number, and encompasses the well-known [[Pythagorean theorem]]. The modern study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, [[Non-euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean geometries]] (which play a central role in [[general relativity]]) and [[topology]]. Quantity and space both play a role in [[analytic geometry]], [[differential geometry]], and [[algebraic geometry]]. Within differential geometry are the concepts of [[fiber bundles]] and calculus on [[manifold]]s. Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of [[polynomial]] equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of [[topological groups]], which combine structure and space. [[Lie group]]s are used to study space, structure, and change. [[Topology]] in all its many ramifications may have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics, and includes the long-standing [[Poincaré conjecture]] and the controversial [[four color theorem]], whose only proof, by computer, has never been verified by a human. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Pythagorean.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Taylorsine.svg|96px]] || [[Image:OsculatingCircle.png|96px]] || [[Image:Torus.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Koch curve.png|96px]] |- |[[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Topology]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} ===Change=== Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the [[natural science]]s, and [[calculus]] was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. [[function (mathematics)|Functions]] arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real numbers and real-valued functions is known as [[real analysis]], with [[complex analysis]] the equivalent field for the complex numbers. The [[Riemann hypothesis]], one of the most fundamental open questions in mathematics, is drawn from complex analysis. [[Functional analysis]] focuses attention on (typically infinite-dimensional) [[space#Mathematical spaces|space]]s of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is [[quantum mechanics]]. Many problems lead naturally to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as [[differential equation]]s. Many phenomena in nature can be described by [[dynamical system]]s; [[chaos theory]] makes precise the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still [[deterministic system (mathematics)|deterministic]] behavior. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | [[Image:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Vectorfield_jaredwf.png|96px]] || <math>\frac{d^2}{dx^2} y = \frac{d}{dx} y + c</math> || [[Image:Limitcycle.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:LorenzAttractor.png|96px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]]|| [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical system]]s || [[Chaos theory]] |} ===Foundations and philosophy=== In order to clarify the [[foundations of mathematics]], the fields of [[mathematical logic]] and [[set theory]] were developed. Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics on a rigid [[axiom]]atic framework, and studying the results of such a framework. As such, it is home to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems#Second incompleteness theorem|Gödel's second incompleteness theorem]], perhaps the most widely celebrated result in logic, which (informally) implies that there are always true theorems which cannot be proven. Modern logic is divided into [[recursion theory]], [[model theory]], and [[proof theory]], and is closely linked to [[theoretical computer science|theoretical]] [[computer science]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math> P \Rightarrow Q \,</math>|| [[Image:Venn_A_intersect_B.png|128px]] || [[Image:MorphismComposition-01.png|96px]] |- | [[Mathematical logic]] || [[Set theory]] || [[Category theory]] || |} ===Discrete mathematics=== [[Discrete mathematics]] is the common name for the fields of mathematics most generally useful in [[theoretical computer science]]. This includes [[Computability theory (computation)|computability theory]], [[computational complexity theory]], and [[information theory]]. Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most powerful known model - the [[Turing machine]]. Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems, although theoretically soluble by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to remain practically unfeasible, even with rapid advance of computer hardware. Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence concepts such as [[data compression|compression]] and [[Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory|entropy]]. As a relatively new field, discrete mathematics has a number of fundamental open problems. The most famous of these is the "[[Complexity classes P and NP|P=NP?]]" problem, one of the [[Millennium Prize Problems]]. It is widely believed that the answer to this problem is no. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math>\begin{matrix} (1,2,3) & (1,3,2) \\ (2,1,3) & (2,3,1) \\ (3,1,2) & (3,2,1) \end{matrix}</math> || [[Image:DFAexample.png|96px]] || [[Image:Caesar3.png|96px]] || [[Image:6n-graf.svg|96px]] |- | [[Combinatorics]] || [[Theory of computation]] || [[Cryptography]] || [[Graph theory]] |} ===Applied mathematics=== Applied mathematics considers the use of abstract mathematical tools in solving concrete problems in [[natural science]]. An important field in applied mathematics is [[statistics]], which uses [[probability theory]] as a tool and allows the description, analysis, and prediction of phenomena where chance plays a role. This is used in all the sciences. (Many statisticians, however, do not consider themselves to be mathematicians, but rather part of an allied group.) [[Numerical analysis]] investigates computational methods for efficiently solving a broad range of mathematical problems that are typically too large for human numerical capacity; it includes the study of [[rounding error]]s or other sources of error in computation. :[[Mathematical physics]] • [[Mechanics|Analytical mechanics]] • [[Fluid mechanics|Mathematical fluid dynamics]] • [[Numerical analysis]] • [[Optimization (mathematics)|Optimization]] • [[Probability]] • [[Statistics]] • [[Mathematical economics]] • [[Financial mathematics]] • [[Game theory]] • [[Mathematical biology]] • [[Cryptography]] • [[Operations research]] ==Common misconceptions== Mathematics is not a closed intellectual system, in which everything has already been worked out. There is no shortage of open problems. [[Pseudomathematics]] is a form of mathematics-like activity undertaken outside [[academia]], and occasionally by mathematicians themselves. It often consists of determined attacks on famous questions, consisting of proof-attempts made in an isolated way (that is, long papers not supported by previously published theory). The relationship to generally-accepted mathematics is similar to that between [[pseudoscience]] and real science. The misconceptions involved are normally based on: *misunderstanding of the implications of [[mathematical rigor]]; *attempts to circumvent the usual criteria for publication of [[mathematical paper]]s in a [[learned journal]] after [[peer review]], often in the belief that the journal is biased against the author; *lack of familiarity with, and therefore underestimation of, the existing literature. The case of [[Kurt Heegner]]'s work shows that the mathematical establishment is neither infallible, nor unwilling to admit error in assessing 'amateur' work. And like [[astronomy]], mathematics owes much to amateur contributors such as [[Pierre de Fermat|Fermat]] and [[Marin Mersenne|Mersenne]]. === Relationship between mathematics and physical reality === Mathematical concepts and theorems need not correspond to anything in the physical world. Insofar as a correspondence does exist, while mathematicians and physicists may select axioms and postulates that seem reasonable and intuitive, it is not necessary for the basic assumptions within an axiomatic system to be true in an empirical or physical sense. This leads to confusion on the part of those who assume that where mathematical concepts are named after or ostensibly correspond with aspects of reality (physics, economics, etc), they have a rigorous relationship with it. Such is simply not the case, and empirical testing of mathematical predictions is not a mathematical undertaking (see [[Mathematics#Mathematics as science|Mathematics as science]] above). Thus while most systems of axioms are derived from our perceptions and experiments, they are not dependent on them. Nevertheless, mathematics remains extremely useful for solving real-world problems. This fact led Eugene Wigner to write an essay, ''[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]''. === What mathematics is not === Mathematics is not about unrestricted [[theorem proving]], any more than [[literature]] is about the construction of [[grammar|grammatically correct]] [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s. Mathematics is not [[accountancy]]. Although arithmetic computation is crucial to accountants, their main concern is to verify that computations are correct through a system of doublechecks. Advances in abstract mathematics are mostly irrelevant to the efficiency of bookkeeping, but the use of computers clearly does matter. Mathematics is not [[numerology]]. Numerology uses [[modular arithmetic]] to reduce names and dates down to numbers, but assigns emotions or traits to these numbers intuitively or on the basis of traditions. ==References== <div class="references-small"> <references/> *[[Morris Kline|Kline, Morris]], ''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times'', Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0195061357. </div> ==Further reading== *Benson, Donald C., ''The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies'', Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0195139194. *[[Carl B. Boyer|Boyer, Carl B.]], ''A History of Mathematics'', Wiley; 2 edition (March 6, 1991). ISBN 0471543977. &mdash; A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number to contemporary Mathematics. *Courant, R. and H. Robbins, ''What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods'', Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (July 18, 1996). ISBN 0195105192. *[[Philip J. Davis|Davis, Philip J.]] and [[Reuben Hersh|Hersh, Reuben]], ''The Mathematical Experience''. Mariner Books; Reprint edition (January 14, 1999). ISBN 0395929687.&mdash; A gentle introduction to the world of mathematics. *Gullberg, Jan, ''Mathematics—From the Birth of Numbers''. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October 1997). ISBN 039304002X. &mdash; An encyclopedic overview of mathematics presented in clear, simple language. *Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), ''[[Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]]''. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000. &mdash; A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten (expensive) volumes, the most complete and authoritative work available. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online [http://eom.springer.de/default.htm]. *Pappas, Theoni, ''The Joy Of Mathematics'', Wide World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989). ISBN 0933174659. *{{cite book | last = Paulos | first = John Allen | authorlink = John Allen Paulos | year = 1996 | title = A Mathematician Reads the Newspaper | publisher = Anchor | id = ISBN 038548254X}} ==See also== * [[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics portal]] * [[Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[Mathematical game]] * [[Mathematical problem]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Mathematics}} {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Mathematics}} * Online [http://eom.springer.de/ "Encyclopaedia of Mathematics"] from Springer. Graduate-level reference work with over 8,000 entries, illuminating nearly 50,000 notions in mathematics. * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ ''Interactive Mathematics Miscellany and Puzzles''] &mdash; A collection of articles on various mathematical topics, with interactive [[Java applet|Java]] illustrations at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www-math.mit.edu/daimp Some mathematics applets, at MIT] * Rusin, Dave: [http://www.math-atlas.org/ ''The Mathematical Atlas'']. A guided tour through the various branches of modern mathematics. * Stefanov, Alexandre: [http://us.geocities.com/alex_stef/mylist.html ''Textbooks in Mathematics'']. A list of free online textbooks and lecture notes in mathematics. * Weisstein, Eric et al.: [http://www.mathworld.com/ ''MathWorld: World of Mathematics'']. An online encyclopedia of mathematics. * Polyanin, Andrei: [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/ ''EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations'']. An online resource focusing on algebraic, ordinary differential, partial differential ([[mathematical physics]]), integral, and other mathematical equations. * [http://planetmath.org/ ''Planet Math'']. An online mathematics encyclopedia under construction, focusing on modern mathematics. Uses the [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], allowing article exchange with Wikipedia. Uses [[TeX]] markup. * [http://www.mathforge.net/ ''Mathforge'']. A news-blog with topics ranging from popular mathematics to popular physics to computer science and education. * [http://www.youngmath.net/concerns ''Young Mathematicians Network (YMN)'']. A math-blog "Serving the Community of Young Mathematicians". Topics include: Mathematics News, Grad and Undergrad Life, Job Search, Career, Work & Family, Teaching, Research, Misc... * [http://metamath.org/ ''Metamath'']. A site and a language, that formalize mathematics from its foundations. * [http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/ Mathematician Biographies]. The [[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]] Extensive history and quotes from all famous mathematicians. * Cain, George: [http://www.math.gatech.edu/~cain/textbooks/onlinebooks.html Online Mathematics Textbooks] available free online. * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaVII.html Math & Logic: The history of formal mathematical, logical, linguistic and methodological ideas.] In ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas.'' * [http://www.nrich.maths.org/public/index.php nrich] Prize winning mathematics site for students from age five from [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] {{Mathematics-footer}} [[Category:Mathematics| ]] [[Category:School subjects]] {{Link FA|mk}} [[af:Wiskunde]] [[ar:رياضيات]] [[an:Matematicas]] [[ast:Matemátiques]] [[az:Riyaziyyat]] [[bn:গণিত]] [[zh-min-nan:Sò͘-ha̍k]] [[ba:Математика]] [[be:Матэматыка]] [[bs:Matematika]] [[br:Matematikoù]] [[bg:Математика]] [[ca:Matemàtiques]] [[ceb:Matematika]] [[cs:Matematika]] [[co:Matematica]] [[cy:Mathemateg]] [[da:Matematik]] [[de:Mathematik]] [[et:Matemaatika]] [[el:Μαθηματικά]] [[es:Matemáticas]] [[eo:Matematiko]] [[eu:Matematika]] [[fa:ریاضیات]] [[fo:Støddfrøði]] [[fr:Mathématiques]] [[fy:Wiskunde]] [[fur:Matematiche]] [[ga:Matamaitic]] [[gv:Maddaght]] [[gd:Matamataig]] [[gl:Matemáticas]] [[gu:ગણિત]] [[ko:수학]] [[hr:Matematika]] [[io:Matematiko]] [[id:Matematika]] [[ia:Mathematica]] [[is:Stærðfræði]] [[it:Matematica]] [[he:מתמטיקה]] [[ka:მათემატიკა]] [[csb:Matematika]] [[ky:Математика]] [[sw:Hisabati]] [[lad:Matematika]] [[la:Mathematica]] [[lv:Matemātika]] [[lb:Mathematik]] [[lt:Matematika]] [[li:Mathematik]] [[jbo:cmaci]] [[hu:Matematika]] [[mk:Математика]] [[ms:Matematik]] [[nl:Wiskunde]] [[ja:数学]] [[no:Matematikk]] [[nn:Matematikk]] [[nrm:Caltchul]] [[oc:Matematicas]] [[ug:ماتېماتىكا]] [[ps:شمېر پوهنه]] [[km:គណិតសាស្ត្រ]] [[nds:Mathematik]] [[pl:Matematyka]] [[pt:Matemática]] [[ro:Matematică]] [[ru:Математика]] [[sc:Matemàtica]] [[sco:Mathematics]] [[sq:Matematika]] [[scn:Matimàtica]] [[simple:Mathematics]] [[sk:Matematika]] [[sl:Matematika]] [[sr:Математика]] [[su:Matematika]] [[fi:Matematiikka]] [[sv:Matematik]] [[tl:Matematika]] [[ta:கணிதம்]] [[tt:Matematik]] [[tet:Matemátika]] [[th:คณิตศาสตร์]] [[vi:Toán học]] [[tr:Matematik]] [[uk:Математика]] [[uz:Matematika]] [[vec:Matematèga]] [[fiu-vro:Matõmaatiga]] [[zh-yue:數學]] [[zh:数学]] 3363 2006-12-10T08:27:15Z 203.173.138.159 [[Image:Euclid.jpg|right|thumb|220px|[[Euclid]], a famous Greek mathematician known as the father of geometry, is shown here in detail from ''[[The School of Athens]]'' by [[Raphael]].]] '''Mathematics''' is the discipline that deals with concepts such as [[quantity]], [[structure]], [[space]] and [[change]]. It evolved, through the use of [[abstraction (mathematics)|abstraction]] and [[logic|logical]] [[reasoning]], from [[counting]], [[calculation]], [[measurement]] and the study of the [[shape]]s and [[motion (physics)|motion]]s of physical objects. [[Mathematician]]s explore these and related concepts, aiming to formulate new [[conjecture]]s and establish their truth by [[Rigour|rigorous]] deduction from appropriately chosen [[axiom]]s and [[definition]]s. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics is widespread, as it has been throughout history. Refinements of basic ideas are visible in ancient mathematical texts originating in [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and [[ancient India]], with increased rigour introduced by the [[ancient Greeks]]. From this point on, the development continued in short bursts until the [[Renaissance]] period of the [[16th century]] where mathematical innovations interacted with new [[scientific discoveries]] leading to an acceleration in understanding that continues to the present day. Today, mathematics is used throughout the world in many fields, including [[science]], [[engineering]], [[medicine]] and [[economics]]. The application of mathematics to such fields, often dubbed [[applied mathematics]], inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and has sometimes led to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in [[pure mathematics]] for its own sake without having any practical application in mind, although others may discover such applications later. The word "mathematics" is often abbreviated '''math''' in the [[North American English|U.S. and Canada]] and '''maths''' in [[British English|Britain]], [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]] and many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. ==Etymology== The word "mathematics" (Greek: μαθηματικά) comes from the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] μάθημα (''máthēma''), which means ''learning'', ''study'', ''science'', and additionally came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study", even in Classical times. Its adjective is μαθηματικός (''mathēmatikós''), ''related to learning'', or ''studious'', which likewise further came to mean ''mathematical''. In particular, μαθηματική τέχνη (''mathēmatikḗ tékhnē''), in [[Latin]] ''ars mathematica'', meant ''the mathematical art''. The apparent plural form in {{lan|English}}, like the {{lan|French}} plural form ''les mathématiques'' (and the less commonly used singular derivative ''la mathématique''), goes back to the Latin neuter plural ''mathematica'' ([[Cicero]]), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (''ta mathēmatiká''), used by [[Aristotle]], and meaning roughly "all things mathematical". Despite the form and etymology, the word, like the names of arts and sciences in general, is used as a singular [[mass noun]] in English today.<ref>''[[The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology]]'', 1983 reprint. ISBN 0-19-8611129.</ref><ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], second edition, ed. John Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989, ISBN 0198611862.</ref> ==History== [[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|right|A [[quipu]], a counting device used by the [[Inca Empire|Inca]].]] The evolution of mathematics might be seen to be an ever-increasing series of [[abstraction]]s, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstraction was probably that of [[number]]s. The realization that two apples and two oranges have something in common was a breakthrough in human thought. In addition to recognizing how to [[Counting|count]] ''physical'' objects, [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] peoples also recognized how to count ''abstract'' quantities, like [[time]] — [[day]]s, [[season]]s, [[year]]s. [[Arithmetic]] ([[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]]), naturally followed. Monolithic monuments testify to knowledge of [[geometry]]. Further steps need [[writing]] or some other system for recording numbers such as [[Tally sticks|tallies]] or the knotted strings called [[quipu]] used by the [[Inca empire]] to store numerical data. [[Numeral system]]s have been many and diverse. From the beginnings of recorded history, the major disciplines within mathematics arose out of the need to do calculations relating to [[taxation]] and [[commerce]], to understand the relationships among numbers, to [[land measurement|measure land]], and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical events]]. These needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics, into the studies of ''quantity'', ''structure'', ''space'', and ''change''. Mathematics since has been much extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries have been made throughout history and continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]], "The number of papers and books included in the [[Mathematical Reviews]] database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical [[theorem]]s and their [[mathematical proof|proof]]s."<ref>{{cite journal| author = Mikhail B. Sevryuk| year = 2006| month = January| title = Book Reviews| journal = [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]]| volume = 43| issue = 1| pages = 101-109| url = http://www.ams.org/bull/2006-43-01/S0273-0979-05-01069-4/S0273-0979-05-01069-4.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2006-06-24}}</ref> ==Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics== [[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|thumb|Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1643-1727), an inventor of [[infinitesimal calculus]].]] Mathematics arises wherever there are difficult problems that involve quantity, structure, space, or change. At first these were found in [[commerce]], [[land measurement]] and later [[astronomy]]; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] was one of the [[infinitesimal calculus]] inventors, [[Feynman]] invented the [[Feynman path integral]] using a combination of reasoning and physical insight, and today's [[string theory]] also inspires new mathematics. Some mathematics is only relevant in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. The remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematics often turns out to have practical applications is what [[Eugene Wigner]] has called "[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics]]." As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization in mathematics. One major distinction is between [[pure mathematics]] and [[applied mathematics]]. Within applied mathematics, two major areas have split off and become disciplines in their own right, [[statistics]] and [[computer science]]. Many mathematicians talk about the ''elegance'' of mathematics, its intrinsic [[aesthetics]] and inner [[beauty]]. [[Simplicity]] and [[generality]] are valued. There is beauty also in a clever proof, such as [[Euclid]]'s proof that there are infinitely many [[prime number]]s, and in a numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the [[fast Fourier transform]]. [[G. H. Hardy]] in ''[[A Mathematician's Apology]]'' expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. ==Notation, language, and rigor== [[Image:Pic79.png|right|thumb|In modern notation, simple expressions can describe complex concepts. This image is generated by a single [[equation]].]] Most of the mathematical notation we use today was not invented until the [[16th century]]. Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often find it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax and encodes information that would be difficult to write in any other way. Mathematical language also is hard for beginners. Words such as ''or'' or ''only'' have more precise meanings than in everyday speech. Also confusing to beginners, words such as ''[[open set|open]]'' and ''[[field (mathematics)|field]]'' have been given specialized mathematical meanings, and [[mathematical jargon]] includes technical terms such as ''[[homeomorphism]]'' and ''[[integrability|integrable]]''. It was said that [[Henri Poincaré]] was only elected to the [[Académie française]] so that he could tell them how to define ''[[automorphic|automorphe]]'' in their dictionary. But there is a reason for special notation and technical jargon: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as "rigor". Rigor is fundamentally a matter of [[mathematical proof]]. Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken "[[theorem]]s", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject (for example, in [[mathematical analysis]]). The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of [[Isaac Newton]] the methods employed were less rigorous. Problems inherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about [[computer-assisted proof]]s. Since large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be sufficiently rigorous. [[Axiom]]s in traditional thought were 'self-evident truths', but that conception is problematic. At a formal level, an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas of an [[axiomatic system]]. It was the goal of [[Hilbert's program]] to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] every (sufficiently powerful) axiomatic system has undecidable formulas; and so a final [[axiomatization]] of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to be (as far as its formal content) nothing but [[set theory]] in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory. ==Mathematics as science== [[Image:Carl Friedrich Gauss.jpg|right|thumb|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], while known as the "prince of mathematicians", did not believe that mathematics was worthy of study in its own right.]] [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".<ref>[[Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen|Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von]]: ''Gauss zum Gedächtniss'', 1856. (''Gauss zum Gedächtnis'' 1965 reprint by Sändig Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend: ISBN 3-253-01702-8, [http://www.amazon.de/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0000BN5SQ ASIN: B0000BN5SQ]).</ref> In the original Latin ''Regina Scientiarum'', as well as in {{lan|German}} ''Königin der Wissenschaften'', the word corresponding to ''science'' means (field of) knowledge. Indeed, this is also the original meaning in English, and there is no doubt that mathematics is in this sense a science. The specialization restricting the meaning to ''natural'' science is of later date. If one considers [[science]] to be strictly about the physical world, then mathematics, or at least [[pure mathematics]], is not a science. [[Karl Popper]] believed that mathematics was not experimentally [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]] and thus not a science.{{fact}} However, other thinkers, notably [[Imre Lakatos]], have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself. In his 2002 book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'', [[Stephen Wolfram]] argues that computational mathematics deserves to be explored empirically as a scientific field in its own right. An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as [[theoretical physics]]) are mathematics with axioms that are intended to correspond to reality. In fact, the theoretical physicist, J. M. Ziman, proposed that science is ''public knowledge'' and thus includes mathematics.<ref>{{cite paper|url=http://info.med.yale.edu/therarad/summers/ziman.htm|date=1968|title=Public Knowledge:An essay concerning the social dimension of science|author= Ziman, J.M., F.R.S.}}</ref> In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. [[intuition (knowledge)|Intuition]] and [[experiment|experimentation]] also play a role in the formulation of [[conjecture]]s in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. [[Experimental mathematics]] continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics, weakening the objection that mathematics does not utilize the [[scientific method]]. The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. While some in [[applied mathematics]] feel that they are scientists, those in pure mathematics often feel that they are working in an area more akin to [[logic]] and that they are, hence, fundamentally [[Philosophy|philosophers]]. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven [[liberal arts]]; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and [[engineering]] has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is ''created'' (as in art) or ''discovered'' (as in science). It is common to see [[University|universities]] divided into sections that include a division of ''Science and Mathematics'', indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the [[philosophy of mathematics]]. Mathematical awards are generally kept separate from their equivalents in science. The most prestigious award in mathematics is the [[Fields Medal]],<ref>"The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most influential award in mathematics."{{cite paper|url=http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_Monastyrsky.pdf|date=2001|title=Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal|author=Monastyrsky, Michael|publisher=Canadian Mathematical Society|accessdate=2006-07-28}}</ref> established in 1936 and now awarded every 4 years. It is usually considered the equivalent of science's [[Nobel prize]]. Another major international award, the [[Abel Prize]], was introduced in 2003. Both of these are awarded for a particular body of work, either innovation in a new area of mathematics or resolution of an outstanding problem in an established field. A famous list of 23 such open problems, called "[[Hilbert's problems]]", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician [[David Hilbert]]. This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the "[[Clay Mathematics Institute#The Millennium Prize problems|Millennium Prize Problems]]", was published in 2000. Solution of each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the [[Riemann hypothesis]]) is duplicated in Hilbert's problems. ==Fields of mathematics== [[Image:Abacus 6.png|right|thumb|Early mathematics was entirely concerned with the need to perform practical calculations, as reflected in this Chinese [[abacus]].]] As noted above, the major disciplines within mathematics first arose out of the need to do calculations in commerce, to understand the relationships between numbers, to measure land, and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical]] events. These four needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e., [[arithmetic]], [[algebra]], [[geometry]], and [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to [[Mathematical logic|logic]], to [[set theory]] ([[Foundations of mathematics|foundations]]), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences ([[applied mathematics]]), and more recently to the rigorous study of [[uncertainty]]. ===Quantity=== The study of quantity starts with [[number]]s, first the familiar [[natural number]]s and [[integer]]s ("whole numbers") and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in [[arithmetic]]. The deeper properties of integers are studied in [[number theory]], whence such popular results as [[Fermat's last theorem]]. Number theory also holds two widely-considered unsolved problems: the [[twin prime conjecture]] and [[Goldbach's conjecture]]. As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognised as a [[subset]] of the [[rational numbers]] ("fractions"). These, in turn, are contained within the [[real numbers]], which are used to represent continuous quantities. Real numbers are generalised to [[complex number]]s. These are the first steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include [[quarternions]] and [[octonions]]. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the [[transfinite numbers]], which formalise the concept of counting to infinite. Another area of study is size, which leads to the [[cardinal number]]s and then to another conception of infinity; the [[aleph number]]s, which allow meaningful comparison of the size of infinitely large sets. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1, 2, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\ldots, -1, 0, 1, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{1}{2}, \frac{2}{3}, 0.125,\ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{2}{3}, \pi, e, \sqrt{2},\ldots \,</math> || <math>5, i, 3i+2, e^{i\pi/3},\ldots \,</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s|| [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |} ===Structure=== Many mathematical objects, such as [[set]]s of numbers and [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, exhibit internal structure. The structural properties of these objects are investigated in the study of [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[field (mathematics)|fields]] and other abstract systems, which are themselves such objects. This is the field of [[abstract algebra]]. An important concept here is that of [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s, generalized to [[vector space]]s, and studied in [[linear algebra]]. The study of vectors combines three of the fundamental areas of mathematics; quantity, structure, and space. [[Vector calculus]] expands the field into a fourth fundamental area, that of change. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Elliptic curve simple.png|96px]] || [[Image:Rubik float.png|96px]] || [[Image:GroupDiagramD6.png|96px]] || [[Image:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Group theory]] || [[Order theory]] |} ===Space=== The study of space originates with [[geometry]] - in particular, [[Euclidean geometry]]. [[Trigonometry]] combines space and number, and encompasses the well-known [[Pythagorean theorem]]. The modern study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, [[Non-euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean geometries]] (which play a central role in [[general relativity]]) and [[topology]]. Quantity and space both play a role in [[analytic geometry]], [[differential geometry]], and [[algebraic geometry]]. Within differential geometry are the concepts of [[fiber bundles]] and calculus on [[manifold]]s. Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of [[polynomial]] equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of [[topological groups]], which combine structure and space. [[Lie group]]s are used to study space, structure, and change. [[Topology]] in all its many ramifications may have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics, and includes the long-standing [[Poincaré conjecture]] and the controversial [[four color theorem]], whose only proof, by computer, has never been verified by a human. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Pythagorean.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Taylorsine.svg|96px]] || [[Image:OsculatingCircle.png|96px]] || [[Image:Torus.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Koch curve.png|96px]] |- |[[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Topology]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} ===Change=== Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the [[natural science]]s, and [[calculus]] was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. [[function (mathematics)|Functions]] arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real numbers and real-valued functions is known as [[real analysis]], with [[complex analysis]] the equivalent field for the complex numbers. The [[Riemann hypothesis]], one of the most fundamental open questions in mathematics, is drawn from complex analysis. [[Functional analysis]] focuses attention on (typically infinite-dimensional) [[space#Mathematical spaces|space]]s of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is [[quantum mechanics]]. Many problems lead naturally to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as [[differential equation]]s. Many phenomena in nature can be described by [[dynamical system]]s; [[chaos theory]] makes precise the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still [[deterministic system (mathematics)|deterministic]] behavior. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | [[Image:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Vectorfield_jaredwf.png|96px]] || <math>\frac{d^2}{dx^2} y = \frac{d}{dx} y + c</math> || [[Image:Limitcycle.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:LorenzAttractor.png|96px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]]|| [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical system]]s || [[Chaos theory]] |} ===Foundations and philosophy=== In order to clarify the [[foundations of mathematics]], the fields of [[mathematical logic]] and [[set theory]] were developed. Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics on a rigid [[axiom]]atic framework, and studying the results of such a framework. As such, it is home to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems#Second incompleteness theorem|Gödel's second incompleteness theorem]], perhaps the most widely celebrated result in logic, which (informally) implies that there are always true theorems which cannot be proven. Modern logic is divided into [[recursion theory]], [[model theory]], and [[proof theory]], and is closely linked to [[theoretical computer science|theoretical]] [[computer science]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math> P \Rightarrow Q \,</math>|| [[Image:Venn_A_intersect_B.png|128px]] || [[Image:MorphismComposition-01.png|96px]] |- | [[Mathematical logic]] || [[Set theory]] || [[Category theory]] || |} ===Discrete mathematics=== [[Discrete mathematics]] is the common name for the fields of mathematics most generally useful in [[theoretical computer science]]. This includes [[Computability theory (computation)|computability theory]], [[computational complexity theory]], and [[information theory]]. Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most powerful known model - the [[Turing machine]]. Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems, although theoretically soluble by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to remain practically unfeasible, even with rapid advance of computer hardware. Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence concepts such as [[data compression|compression]] and [[Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory|entropy]]. As a relatively new field, discrete mathematics has a number of fundamental open problems. The most famous of these is the "[[Complexity classes P and NP|P=NP?]]" problem, one of the [[Millennium Prize Problems]]. It is widely believed that the answer to this problem is no. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math>\begin{matrix} (1,2,3) & (1,3,2) \\ (2,1,3) & (2,3,1) \\ (3,1,2) & (3,2,1) \end{matrix}</math> || [[Image:DFAexample.png|96px]] || [[Image:Caesar3.png|96px]] || [[Image:6n-graf.svg|96px]] |- | [[Combinatorics]] || [[Theory of computation]] || [[Cryptography]] || [[Graph theory]] |} ===Applied mathematics=== Applied mathematics considers the use of abstract mathematical tools in solving concrete problems in [[natural science]]. An important field in applied mathematics is [[statistics]], which uses [[probability theory]] as a tool and allows the description, analysis, and prediction of phenomena where chance plays a role. This is used in all the sciences. (Many statisticians, however, do not consider themselves to be mathematicians, but rather part of an allied group.) [[Numerical analysis]] investigates computational methods for efficiently solving a broad range of mathematical problems that are typically too large for human numerical capacity; it includes the study of [[rounding error]]s or other sources of error in computation. :[[Mathematical physics]] • [[Mechanics|Analytical mechanics]] • [[Fluid mechanics|Mathematical fluid dynamics]] • [[Numerical analysis]] • [[Optimization (mathematics)|Optimization]] • [[Probability]] • [[Statistics]] • [[Mathematical economics]] • [[Financial mathematics]] • [[Game theory]] • [[Mathematical biology]] • [[Cryptography]] • [[Operations research]] ==Common misconceptions== Mathematics is not a closed intellectual system, in which everything has already been worked out. There is no shortage of open problems. [[Pseudomathematics]] is a form of mathematics-like activity undertaken outside [[academia]], and occasionally by mathematicians themselves. It often consists of determined attacks on famous questions, consisting of proof-attempts made in an isolated way (that is, long papers not supported by previously published theory). The relationship to generally-accepted mathematics is similar to that between [[pseudoscience]] and real science. The misconceptions involved are normally based on: *misunderstanding of the implications of [[mathematical rigor]]; *attempts to circumvent the usual criteria for publication of [[mathematical paper]]s in a [[learned journal]] after [[peer review]], often in the belief that the journal is biased against the author; *lack of familiarity with, and therefore underestimation of, the existing literature. The case of [[Kurt Heegner]]'s work shows that the mathematical establishment is neither infallible, nor unwilling to admit error in assessing 'amateur' work. And like [[astronomy]], mathematics owes much to amateur contributors such as [[Pierre de Fermat|Fermat]] and [[Marin Mersenne|Mersenne]]. === Relationship between mathematics and physical reality === Mathematical concepts and theorems need not correspond to anything in the physical world. Insofar as a correspondence does exist, while mathematicians and physicists may select axioms and postulates that seem reasonable and intuitive, it is not necessary for the basic assumptions within an axiomatic system to be true in an empirical or physical sense. This leads to confusion on the part of those who assume that where mathematical concepts are named after or ostensibly correspond with aspects of reality (physics, economics, etc), they have a rigorous relationship with it. Such is simply not the case, and empirical testing of mathematical predictions is not a mathematical undertaking (see [[Mathematics#Mathematics as science|Mathematics as science]] above). Thus while most systems of axioms are derived from our perceptions and experiments, they are not dependent on them. Nevertheless, mathematics remains extremely useful for solving real-world problems. This fact led Eugene Wigner to write an essay, ''[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]''. === What mathematics is not === Mathematics is not about unrestricted [[theorem proving]], any more than [[literature]] is about the construction of [[grammar|grammatically correct]] [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s. Mathematics is not [[accountancy]]. Although arithmetic computation is crucial to accountants, their main concern is to verify that computations are correct through a system of doublechecks. Advances in abstract mathematics are mostly irrelevant to the efficiency of bookkeeping, but the use of computers clearly does matter. Mathematics is not [[numerology]]. Numerology uses [[modular arithmetic]] to reduce names and dates down to numbers, but assigns emotions or traits to these numbers intuitively or on the basis of traditions. ==References== <div class="references-small"> <references/> *[[Morris Kline|Kline, Morris]], ''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times'', Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0195061357. </div> ==Further reading== *Benson, Donald C., ''The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies'', Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0195139194. *[[Carl B. Boyer|Boyer, Carl B.]], ''A History of Mathematics'', Wiley; 2 edition (March 6, 1991). ISBN 0471543977. &mdash; A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number to contemporary Mathematics. *Courant, R. and H. Robbins, ''What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods'', Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (July 18, 1996). ISBN 0195105192. *[[Philip J. Davis|Davis, Philip J.]] and [[Reuben Hersh|Hersh, Reuben]], ''The Mathematical Experience''. Mariner Books; Reprint edition (January 14, 1999). ISBN 0395929687.&mdash; A gentle introduction to the world of mathematics. *Gullberg, Jan, ''Mathematics—From the Birth of Numbers''. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October 1997). ISBN 039304002X. &mdash; An encyclopedic overview of mathematics presented in clear, simple language. *Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), ''[[Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]]''. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000. &mdash; A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten (expensive) volumes, the most complete and authoritative work available. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online [http://eom.springer.de/default.htm]. *Pappas, Theoni, ''The Joy Of Mathematics'', Wide World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989). ISBN 0933174659. *{{cite book | last = Paulos | first = John Allen | authorlink = John Allen Paulos | year = 1996 | title = A Mathematician Reads the Newspaper | publisher = Anchor | id = ISBN 038548254X}} ==See also== * [[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics portal]] * [[Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[Mathematical game]] * [[Mathematical problem]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Mathematics}} {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Mathematics}} * Online [http://eom.springer.de/ "Encyclopaedia of Mathematics"] from Springer. Graduate-level reference work with over 8,000 entries, illuminating nearly 50,000 notions in mathematics. * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ ''Interactive Mathematics Miscellany and Puzzles''] &mdash; A collection of articles on various mathematical topics, with interactive [[Java applet|Java]] illustrations at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www-math.mit.edu/daimp Some mathematics applets, at MIT] * Rusin, Dave: [http://www.math-atlas.org/ ''The Mathematical Atlas'']. A guided tour through the various branches of modern mathematics. * Stefanov, Alexandre: [http://us.geocities.com/alex_stef/mylist.html ''Textbooks in Mathematics'']. A list of free online textbooks and lecture notes in mathematics. * Weisstein, Eric et al.: [http://www.mathworld.com/ ''MathWorld: World of Mathematics'']. An online encyclopedia of mathematics. * Polyanin, Andrei: [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/ ''EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations'']. An online resource focusing on algebraic, ordinary differential, partial differential ([[mathematical physics]]), integral, and other mathematical equations. * [http://planetmath.org/ ''Planet Math'']. An online mathematics encyclopedia under construction, focusing on modern mathematics. Uses the [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], allowing article exchange with Wikipedia. Uses [[TeX]] markup. * [http://www.mathforge.net/ ''Mathforge'']. A news-blog with topics ranging from popular mathematics to popular physics to computer science and education. * [http://www.youngmath.net/concerns ''Young Mathematicians Network (YMN)'']. A math-blog "Serving the Community of Young Mathematicians". Topics include: Mathematics News, Grad and Undergrad Life, Job Search, Career, Work & Family, Teaching, Research, Misc... * [http://metamath.org/ ''Metamath'']. A site and a language, that formalize mathematics from its foundations. * [http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/ Mathematician Biographies]. The [[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]] Extensive history and quotes from all famous mathematicians. * Cain, George: [http://www.math.gatech.edu/~cain/textbooks/onlinebooks.html Online Mathematics Textbooks] available free online. * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaVII.html Math & Logic: The history of formal mathematical, logical, linguistic and methodological ideas.] In ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas.'' * [http://www.nrich.maths.org/public/index.php nrich] Prize winning mathematics site for students from age five from [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] {{Mathematics-footer}} [[Category:Mathematics| ]] [[Category:School subjects]] {{Link FA|mk}} [[af:Wiskunde]] [[ar:رياضيات]] [[an:Matematicas]] [[ast:Matemátiques]] [[az:Riyaziyyat]] [[bn:গণিত]] [[zh-min-nan:Sò͘-ha̍k]] [[ba:Математика]] [[be:Матэматыка]] [[bs:Matematika]] [[br:Matematikoù]] [[bg:Математика]] [[ca:Matemàtiques]] [[ceb:Matematika]] [[cs:Matematika]] [[co:Matematica]] [[cy:Mathemateg]] [[da:Matematik]] [[de:Mathematik]] [[et:Matemaatika]] [[el:Μαθηματικά]] [[es:Matemáticas]] [[eo:Matematiko]] [[eu:Matematika]] [[fa:ریاضیات]] [[fo:Støddfrøði]] [[fr:Mathématiques]] [[fy:Wiskunde]] [[fur:Matematiche]] [[ga:Matamaitic]] [[gv:Maddaght]] [[gd:Matamataig]] [[gl:Matemáticas]] [[gu:ગણિત]] [[ko:수학]] [[hr:Matematika]] [[io:Matematiko]] [[id:Matematika]] [[ia:Mathematica]] [[is:Stærðfræði]] [[it:Matematica]] [[he:מתמטיקה]] [[ka:მათემატიკა]] [[csb:Matematika]] [[ky:Математика]] [[sw:Hisabati]] [[lad:Matematika]] [[la:Mathematica]] [[lv:Matemātika]] [[lb:Mathematik]] [[lt:Matematika]] [[li:Mathematik]] [[jbo:cmaci]] [[hu:Matematika]] [[mk:Математика]] [[ms:Matematik]] [[nl:Wiskunde]] [[ja:数学]] [[no:Matematikk]] [[nn:Matematikk]] [[nrm:Caltchul]] [[oc:Matematicas]] [[ug:ماتېماتىكا]] [[ps:شمېر پوهنه]] [[km:គណិតសាស្ត្រ]] [[nds:Mathematik]] [[pl:Matematyka]] [[pt:Matemática]] [[ro:Matematică]] [[ru:Математика]] [[sc:Matemàtica]] [[sco:Mathematics]] [[sq:Matematika]] [[scn:Matimàtica]] [[simple:Mathematics]] [[sk:Matematika]] [[sl:Matematika]] [[sr:Математика]] [[su:Matematika]] [[fi:Matematiikka]] [[sv:Matematik]] [[tl:Matematika]] [[ta:கணிதம்]] [[tt:Matematik]] [[tet:Matemátika]] [[th:คณิตศาสตร์]] [[vi:Toán học]] [[tr:Matematik]] [[uk:Математика]] [[uz:Matematika]] [[vec:Matematèga]] [[fiu-vro:Matõmaatiga]] [[zh-yue:數學]] [[zh:数学]] 3364 2006-12-10T08:27:31Z 203.173.138.159 /* External links */ [[Image:Euclid.jpg|right|thumb|220px|[[Euclid]], a famous Greek mathematician known as the father of geometry, is shown here in detail from ''[[The School of Athens]]'' by [[Raphael]].]] '''Mathematics''' is the discipline that deals with concepts such as [[quantity]], [[structure]], [[space]] and [[change]]. It evolved, through the use of [[abstraction (mathematics)|abstraction]] and [[logic|logical]] [[reasoning]], from [[counting]], [[calculation]], [[measurement]] and the study of the [[shape]]s and [[motion (physics)|motion]]s of physical objects. [[Mathematician]]s explore these and related concepts, aiming to formulate new [[conjecture]]s and establish their truth by [[Rigour|rigorous]] deduction from appropriately chosen [[axiom]]s and [[definition]]s. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics is widespread, as it has been throughout history. Refinements of basic ideas are visible in ancient mathematical texts originating in [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and [[ancient India]], with increased rigour introduced by the [[ancient Greeks]]. From this point on, the development continued in short bursts until the [[Renaissance]] period of the [[16th century]] where mathematical innovations interacted with new [[scientific discoveries]] leading to an acceleration in understanding that continues to the present day. Today, mathematics is used throughout the world in many fields, including [[science]], [[engineering]], [[medicine]] and [[economics]]. The application of mathematics to such fields, often dubbed [[applied mathematics]], inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and has sometimes led to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in [[pure mathematics]] for its own sake without having any practical application in mind, although others may discover such applications later. The word "mathematics" is often abbreviated '''math''' in the [[North American English|U.S. and Canada]] and '''maths''' in [[British English|Britain]], [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]] and many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. ==Etymology== The word "mathematics" (Greek: μαθηματικά) comes from the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] μάθημα (''máthēma''), which means ''learning'', ''study'', ''science'', and additionally came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study", even in Classical times. Its adjective is μαθηματικός (''mathēmatikós''), ''related to learning'', or ''studious'', which likewise further came to mean ''mathematical''. In particular, μαθηματική τέχνη (''mathēmatikḗ tékhnē''), in [[Latin]] ''ars mathematica'', meant ''the mathematical art''. The apparent plural form in {{lan|English}}, like the {{lan|French}} plural form ''les mathématiques'' (and the less commonly used singular derivative ''la mathématique''), goes back to the Latin neuter plural ''mathematica'' ([[Cicero]]), based on the Greek plural τα μαθηματικά (''ta mathēmatiká''), used by [[Aristotle]], and meaning roughly "all things mathematical". Despite the form and etymology, the word, like the names of arts and sciences in general, is used as a singular [[mass noun]] in English today.<ref>''[[The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology]]'', 1983 reprint. ISBN 0-19-8611129.</ref><ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]], second edition, ed. John Simpson and Edmund Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989, ISBN 0198611862.</ref> ==History== [[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|right|A [[quipu]], a counting device used by the [[Inca Empire|Inca]].]] The evolution of mathematics might be seen to be an ever-increasing series of [[abstraction]]s, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstraction was probably that of [[number]]s. The realization that two apples and two oranges have something in common was a breakthrough in human thought. In addition to recognizing how to [[Counting|count]] ''physical'' objects, [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] peoples also recognized how to count ''abstract'' quantities, like [[time]] — [[day]]s, [[season]]s, [[year]]s. [[Arithmetic]] ([[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]]), naturally followed. Monolithic monuments testify to knowledge of [[geometry]]. Further steps need [[writing]] or some other system for recording numbers such as [[Tally sticks|tallies]] or the knotted strings called [[quipu]] used by the [[Inca empire]] to store numerical data. [[Numeral system]]s have been many and diverse. From the beginnings of recorded history, the major disciplines within mathematics arose out of the need to do calculations relating to [[taxation]] and [[commerce]], to understand the relationships among numbers, to [[land measurement|measure land]], and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical events]]. These needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics, into the studies of ''quantity'', ''structure'', ''space'', and ''change''. Mathematics since has been much extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries have been made throughout history and continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]], "The number of papers and books included in the [[Mathematical Reviews]] database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical [[theorem]]s and their [[mathematical proof|proof]]s."<ref>{{cite journal| author = Mikhail B. Sevryuk| year = 2006| month = January| title = Book Reviews| journal = [[Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society]]| volume = 43| issue = 1| pages = 101-109| url = http://www.ams.org/bull/2006-43-01/S0273-0979-05-01069-4/S0273-0979-05-01069-4.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate = 2006-06-24}}</ref> ==Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics== [[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|right|thumb|Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1643-1727), an inventor of [[infinitesimal calculus]].]] Mathematics arises wherever there are difficult problems that involve quantity, structure, space, or change. At first these were found in [[commerce]], [[land measurement]] and later [[astronomy]]; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] was one of the [[infinitesimal calculus]] inventors, [[Feynman]] invented the [[Feynman path integral]] using a combination of reasoning and physical insight, and today's [[string theory]] also inspires new mathematics. Some mathematics is only relevant in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. The remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematics often turns out to have practical applications is what [[Eugene Wigner]] has called "[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics]]." As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization in mathematics. One major distinction is between [[pure mathematics]] and [[applied mathematics]]. Within applied mathematics, two major areas have split off and become disciplines in their own right, [[statistics]] and [[computer science]]. Many mathematicians talk about the ''elegance'' of mathematics, its intrinsic [[aesthetics]] and inner [[beauty]]. [[Simplicity]] and [[generality]] are valued. There is beauty also in a clever proof, such as [[Euclid]]'s proof that there are infinitely many [[prime number]]s, and in a numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the [[fast Fourier transform]]. [[G. H. Hardy]] in ''[[A Mathematician's Apology]]'' expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. ==Notation, language, and rigor== [[Image:Pic79.png|right|thumb|In modern notation, simple expressions can describe complex concepts. This image is generated by a single [[equation]].]] Most of the mathematical notation we use today was not invented until the [[16th century]]. Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often find it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation, modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax and encodes information that would be difficult to write in any other way. Mathematical language also is hard for beginners. Words such as ''or'' or ''only'' have more precise meanings than in everyday speech. Also confusing to beginners, words such as ''[[open set|open]]'' and ''[[field (mathematics)|field]]'' have been given specialized mathematical meanings, and [[mathematical jargon]] includes technical terms such as ''[[homeomorphism]]'' and ''[[integrability|integrable]]''. It was said that [[Henri Poincaré]] was only elected to the [[Académie française]] so that he could tell them how to define ''[[automorphic|automorphe]]'' in their dictionary. But there is a reason for special notation and technical jargon: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as "rigor". Rigor is fundamentally a matter of [[mathematical proof]]. Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken "[[theorem]]s", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject (for example, in [[mathematical analysis]]). The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of [[Isaac Newton]] the methods employed were less rigorous. Problems inherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about [[computer-assisted proof]]s. Since large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be sufficiently rigorous. [[Axiom]]s in traditional thought were 'self-evident truths', but that conception is problematic. At a formal level, an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas of an [[axiomatic system]]. It was the goal of [[Hilbert's program]] to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] every (sufficiently powerful) axiomatic system has undecidable formulas; and so a final [[axiomatization]] of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to be (as far as its formal content) nothing but [[set theory]] in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory. ==Mathematics as science== [[Image:Carl Friedrich Gauss.jpg|right|thumb|[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], while known as the "prince of mathematicians", did not believe that mathematics was worthy of study in its own right.]] [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".<ref>[[Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen|Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von]]: ''Gauss zum Gedächtniss'', 1856. (''Gauss zum Gedächtnis'' 1965 reprint by Sändig Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend: ISBN 3-253-01702-8, [http://www.amazon.de/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0000BN5SQ ASIN: B0000BN5SQ]).</ref> In the original Latin ''Regina Scientiarum'', as well as in {{lan|German}} ''Königin der Wissenschaften'', the word corresponding to ''science'' means (field of) knowledge. Indeed, this is also the original meaning in English, and there is no doubt that mathematics is in this sense a science. The specialization restricting the meaning to ''natural'' science is of later date. If one considers [[science]] to be strictly about the physical world, then mathematics, or at least [[pure mathematics]], is not a science. [[Karl Popper]] believed that mathematics was not experimentally [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]] and thus not a science.{{fact}} However, other thinkers, notably [[Imre Lakatos]], have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself. In his 2002 book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'', [[Stephen Wolfram]] argues that computational mathematics deserves to be explored empirically as a scientific field in its own right. An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as [[theoretical physics]]) are mathematics with axioms that are intended to correspond to reality. In fact, the theoretical physicist, J. M. Ziman, proposed that science is ''public knowledge'' and thus includes mathematics.<ref>{{cite paper|url=http://info.med.yale.edu/therarad/summers/ziman.htm|date=1968|title=Public Knowledge:An essay concerning the social dimension of science|author= Ziman, J.M., F.R.S.}}</ref> In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. [[intuition (knowledge)|Intuition]] and [[experiment|experimentation]] also play a role in the formulation of [[conjecture]]s in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. [[Experimental mathematics]] continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics, weakening the objection that mathematics does not utilize the [[scientific method]]. The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. While some in [[applied mathematics]] feel that they are scientists, those in pure mathematics often feel that they are working in an area more akin to [[logic]] and that they are, hence, fundamentally [[Philosophy|philosophers]]. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven [[liberal arts]]; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and [[engineering]] has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is ''created'' (as in art) or ''discovered'' (as in science). It is common to see [[University|universities]] divided into sections that include a division of ''Science and Mathematics'', indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the [[philosophy of mathematics]]. Mathematical awards are generally kept separate from their equivalents in science. The most prestigious award in mathematics is the [[Fields Medal]],<ref>"The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most influential award in mathematics."{{cite paper|url=http://www.fields.utoronto.ca/aboutus/FieldsMedal_Monastyrsky.pdf|date=2001|title=Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal|author=Monastyrsky, Michael|publisher=Canadian Mathematical Society|accessdate=2006-07-28}}</ref> established in 1936 and now awarded every 4 years. It is usually considered the equivalent of science's [[Nobel prize]]. Another major international award, the [[Abel Prize]], was introduced in 2003. Both of these are awarded for a particular body of work, either innovation in a new area of mathematics or resolution of an outstanding problem in an established field. A famous list of 23 such open problems, called "[[Hilbert's problems]]", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician [[David Hilbert]]. This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the "[[Clay Mathematics Institute#The Millennium Prize problems|Millennium Prize Problems]]", was published in 2000. Solution of each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the [[Riemann hypothesis]]) is duplicated in Hilbert's problems. ==Fields of mathematics== [[Image:Abacus 6.png|right|thumb|Early mathematics was entirely concerned with the need to perform practical calculations, as reflected in this Chinese [[abacus]].]] As noted above, the major disciplines within mathematics first arose out of the need to do calculations in commerce, to understand the relationships between numbers, to measure land, and to predict [[astronomy|astronomical]] events. These four needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematics into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e., [[arithmetic]], [[algebra]], [[geometry]], and [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to [[Mathematical logic|logic]], to [[set theory]] ([[Foundations of mathematics|foundations]]), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences ([[applied mathematics]]), and more recently to the rigorous study of [[uncertainty]]. ===Quantity=== The study of quantity starts with [[number]]s, first the familiar [[natural number]]s and [[integer]]s ("whole numbers") and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in [[arithmetic]]. The deeper properties of integers are studied in [[number theory]], whence such popular results as [[Fermat's last theorem]]. Number theory also holds two widely-considered unsolved problems: the [[twin prime conjecture]] and [[Goldbach's conjecture]]. As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognised as a [[subset]] of the [[rational numbers]] ("fractions"). These, in turn, are contained within the [[real numbers]], which are used to represent continuous quantities. Real numbers are generalised to [[complex number]]s. These are the first steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include [[quarternions]] and [[octonions]]. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the [[transfinite numbers]], which formalise the concept of counting to infinite. Another area of study is size, which leads to the [[cardinal number]]s and then to another conception of infinity; the [[aleph number]]s, which allow meaningful comparison of the size of infinitely large sets. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1, 2, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\ldots, -1, 0, 1, \ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{1}{2}, \frac{2}{3}, 0.125,\ldots \,</math> || <math>\frac{2}{3}, \pi, e, \sqrt{2},\ldots \,</math> || <math>5, i, 3i+2, e^{i\pi/3},\ldots \,</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s|| [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |} ===Structure=== Many mathematical objects, such as [[set]]s of numbers and [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, exhibit internal structure. The structural properties of these objects are investigated in the study of [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[field (mathematics)|fields]] and other abstract systems, which are themselves such objects. This is the field of [[abstract algebra]]. An important concept here is that of [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s, generalized to [[vector space]]s, and studied in [[linear algebra]]. The study of vectors combines three of the fundamental areas of mathematics; quantity, structure, and space. [[Vector calculus]] expands the field into a fourth fundamental area, that of change. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Elliptic curve simple.png|96px]] || [[Image:Rubik float.png|96px]] || [[Image:GroupDiagramD6.png|96px]] || [[Image:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Group theory]] || [[Order theory]] |} ===Space=== The study of space originates with [[geometry]] - in particular, [[Euclidean geometry]]. [[Trigonometry]] combines space and number, and encompasses the well-known [[Pythagorean theorem]]. The modern study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, [[Non-euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean geometries]] (which play a central role in [[general relativity]]) and [[topology]]. Quantity and space both play a role in [[analytic geometry]], [[differential geometry]], and [[algebraic geometry]]. Within differential geometry are the concepts of [[fiber bundles]] and calculus on [[manifold]]s. Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of [[polynomial]] equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of [[topological groups]], which combine structure and space. [[Lie group]]s are used to study space, structure, and change. [[Topology]] in all its many ramifications may have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics, and includes the long-standing [[Poincaré conjecture]] and the controversial [[four color theorem]], whose only proof, by computer, has never been verified by a human. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | [[Image:Pythagorean.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Taylorsine.svg|96px]] || [[Image:OsculatingCircle.png|96px]] || [[Image:Torus.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:Koch curve.png|96px]] |- |[[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Topology]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} ===Change=== Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the [[natural science]]s, and [[calculus]] was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. [[function (mathematics)|Functions]] arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real numbers and real-valued functions is known as [[real analysis]], with [[complex analysis]] the equivalent field for the complex numbers. The [[Riemann hypothesis]], one of the most fundamental open questions in mathematics, is drawn from complex analysis. [[Functional analysis]] focuses attention on (typically infinite-dimensional) [[space#Mathematical spaces|space]]s of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is [[quantum mechanics]]. Many problems lead naturally to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as [[differential equation]]s. Many phenomena in nature can be described by [[dynamical system]]s; [[chaos theory]] makes precise the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still [[deterministic system (mathematics)|deterministic]] behavior. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="20" | [[Image:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg|96px]] || [[Image:Vectorfield_jaredwf.png|96px]] || <math>\frac{d^2}{dx^2} y = \frac{d}{dx} y + c</math> || [[Image:Limitcycle.jpg|96px]] || [[Image:LorenzAttractor.png|96px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]]|| [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical system]]s || [[Chaos theory]] |} ===Foundations and philosophy=== In order to clarify the [[foundations of mathematics]], the fields of [[mathematical logic]] and [[set theory]] were developed. Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics on a rigid [[axiom]]atic framework, and studying the results of such a framework. As such, it is home to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems#Second incompleteness theorem|Gödel's second incompleteness theorem]], perhaps the most widely celebrated result in logic, which (informally) implies that there are always true theorems which cannot be proven. Modern logic is divided into [[recursion theory]], [[model theory]], and [[proof theory]], and is closely linked to [[theoretical computer science|theoretical]] [[computer science]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math> P \Rightarrow Q \,</math>|| [[Image:Venn_A_intersect_B.png|128px]] || [[Image:MorphismComposition-01.png|96px]] |- | [[Mathematical logic]] || [[Set theory]] || [[Category theory]] || |} ===Discrete mathematics=== [[Discrete mathematics]] is the common name for the fields of mathematics most generally useful in [[theoretical computer science]]. This includes [[Computability theory (computation)|computability theory]], [[computational complexity theory]], and [[information theory]]. Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most powerful known model - the [[Turing machine]]. Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems, although theoretically soluble by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to remain practically unfeasible, even with rapid advance of computer hardware. Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence concepts such as [[data compression|compression]] and [[Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory|entropy]]. As a relatively new field, discrete mathematics has a number of fundamental open problems. The most famous of these is the "[[Complexity classes P and NP|P=NP?]]" problem, one of the [[Millennium Prize Problems]]. It is widely believed that the answer to this problem is no. :{| style="border:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center; margin: auto;" cellspacing="15" | <math>\begin{matrix} (1,2,3) & (1,3,2) \\ (2,1,3) & (2,3,1) \\ (3,1,2) & (3,2,1) \end{matrix}</math> || [[Image:DFAexample.png|96px]] || [[Image:Caesar3.png|96px]] || [[Image:6n-graf.svg|96px]] |- | [[Combinatorics]] || [[Theory of computation]] || [[Cryptography]] || [[Graph theory]] |} ===Applied mathematics=== Applied mathematics considers the use of abstract mathematical tools in solving concrete problems in [[natural science]]. An important field in applied mathematics is [[statistics]], which uses [[probability theory]] as a tool and allows the description, analysis, and prediction of phenomena where chance plays a role. This is used in all the sciences. (Many statisticians, however, do not consider themselves to be mathematicians, but rather part of an allied group.) [[Numerical analysis]] investigates computational methods for efficiently solving a broad range of mathematical problems that are typically too large for human numerical capacity; it includes the study of [[rounding error]]s or other sources of error in computation. :[[Mathematical physics]] • [[Mechanics|Analytical mechanics]] • [[Fluid mechanics|Mathematical fluid dynamics]] • [[Numerical analysis]] • [[Optimization (mathematics)|Optimization]] • [[Probability]] • [[Statistics]] • [[Mathematical economics]] • [[Financial mathematics]] • [[Game theory]] • [[Mathematical biology]] • [[Cryptography]] • [[Operations research]] ==Common misconceptions== Mathematics is not a closed intellectual system, in which everything has already been worked out. There is no shortage of open problems. [[Pseudomathematics]] is a form of mathematics-like activity undertaken outside [[academia]], and occasionally by mathematicians themselves. It often consists of determined attacks on famous questions, consisting of proof-attempts made in an isolated way (that is, long papers not supported by previously published theory). The relationship to generally-accepted mathematics is similar to that between [[pseudoscience]] and real science. The misconceptions involved are normally based on: *misunderstanding of the implications of [[mathematical rigor]]; *attempts to circumvent the usual criteria for publication of [[mathematical paper]]s in a [[learned journal]] after [[peer review]], often in the belief that the journal is biased against the author; *lack of familiarity with, and therefore underestimation of, the existing literature. The case of [[Kurt Heegner]]'s work shows that the mathematical establishment is neither infallible, nor unwilling to admit error in assessing 'amateur' work. And like [[astronomy]], mathematics owes much to amateur contributors such as [[Pierre de Fermat|Fermat]] and [[Marin Mersenne|Mersenne]]. === Relationship between mathematics and physical reality === Mathematical concepts and theorems need not correspond to anything in the physical world. Insofar as a correspondence does exist, while mathematicians and physicists may select axioms and postulates that seem reasonable and intuitive, it is not necessary for the basic assumptions within an axiomatic system to be true in an empirical or physical sense. This leads to confusion on the part of those who assume that where mathematical concepts are named after or ostensibly correspond with aspects of reality (physics, economics, etc), they have a rigorous relationship with it. Such is simply not the case, and empirical testing of mathematical predictions is not a mathematical undertaking (see [[Mathematics#Mathematics as science|Mathematics as science]] above). Thus while most systems of axioms are derived from our perceptions and experiments, they are not dependent on them. Nevertheless, mathematics remains extremely useful for solving real-world problems. This fact led Eugene Wigner to write an essay, ''[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]''. === What mathematics is not === Mathematics is not about unrestricted [[theorem proving]], any more than [[literature]] is about the construction of [[grammar|grammatically correct]] [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s. Mathematics is not [[accountancy]]. Although arithmetic computation is crucial to accountants, their main concern is to verify that computations are correct through a system of doublechecks. Advances in abstract mathematics are mostly irrelevant to the efficiency of bookkeeping, but the use of computers clearly does matter. Mathematics is not [[numerology]]. Numerology uses [[modular arithmetic]] to reduce names and dates down to numbers, but assigns emotions or traits to these numbers intuitively or on the basis of traditions. ==References== <div class="references-small"> <references/> *[[Morris Kline|Kline, Morris]], ''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times'', Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN 0195061357. </div> ==Further reading== *Benson, Donald C., ''The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies'', Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (December 14, 2000). ISBN 0195139194. *[[Carl B. Boyer|Boyer, Carl B.]], ''A History of Mathematics'', Wiley; 2 edition (March 6, 1991). ISBN 0471543977. &mdash; A concise history of mathematics from the Concept of Number to contemporary Mathematics. *Courant, R. and H. Robbins, ''What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods'', Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (July 18, 1996). ISBN 0195105192. *[[Philip J. Davis|Davis, Philip J.]] and [[Reuben Hersh|Hersh, Reuben]], ''The Mathematical Experience''. Mariner Books; Reprint edition (January 14, 1999). ISBN 0395929687.&mdash; A gentle introduction to the world of mathematics. *Gullberg, Jan, ''Mathematics—From the Birth of Numbers''. W. W. Norton & Company; 1st edition (October 1997). ISBN 039304002X. &mdash; An encyclopedic overview of mathematics presented in clear, simple language. *Hazewinkel, Michiel (ed.), ''[[Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]]''. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000. &mdash; A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten (expensive) volumes, the most complete and authoritative work available. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online [http://eom.springer.de/default.htm]. *Pappas, Theoni, ''The Joy Of Mathematics'', Wide World Publishing; Revised edition (June 1989). ISBN 0933174659. *{{cite book | last = Paulos | first = John Allen | authorlink = John Allen Paulos | year = 1996 | title = A Mathematician Reads the Newspaper | publisher = Anchor | id = ISBN 038548254X}} ==See also== * [[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics portal]] * [[Philosophy of mathematics]] * [[Mathematical game]] * [[Mathematical problem]] 1681 3119 2006-08-11T21:24:48Z Eukesh 59 [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]] moved to [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]]: wrong word used #REDIRECT [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]] 3121 2006-08-11T21:29:35Z Eukesh 59 [[Image:Telephone-modele-W48.jpg|thumb|right|An old rotary telephone]] [[Image:Tphone2.jpg|right|thumb|A basic modern telephone]] The '''telephone''' or '''phone''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''tele'' = far away and ''phone'' = voice) is a [[telecommunication]]s device which is used to [[transmitter|transmit]] and receive [[sound]] (most commonly [[Human voice|voice]] and speech) across distance. Most telephones operate through transmission of [[Signal (information theory)|electric signals]] over a complex [[public switched telephone network|telephone network]] which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other. [[Image:ATTtelephone-large.jpg|thumb|right|Touch-tone telephone]] ==Introduction== [[Image:Phone numberpad.jpeg|thumb|right|A [[touch-tone]] telephone [[keypad]]<!---->]] An elementary telephone system would consist of three elements: * the equipment located at each subscriber which converts sound to electrical signals and back, and which allows the subscriber to answer or initiate a call, * a central switching facility which interconnects all the subscribers * wiring or other means to connect the subscriber to the central switching facility. There are three principal ways a subscriber may be connected to the telephone network: * Historically, and still very commonly, by dedicated physical wire connections run in overhead or underground cables; * By radio, as in a cordless, cellular, satellite or radiotelephone and * By [[voice over IP|voice over internet protocol]] (VoIP) telephones, which use [[Broadband Internet access|broadband internet]] connections. Between end users, transmissions across a network may be carried by [[fibre optic]] cable, land line cable, point to point [[microwave]] or [[satellite]] relay. Until relatively recently, a "telephone" generally referred only to landlines. [[Cordless telephone|Cordless]] and [[mobile phone]]s are now common in many places around the world, with mobile phones expected to gradually displace the conventional landline telephone. Unlike a mobile phone, a cordless telephone is considered to be landline because it is only useable within a short distance of a small personal or domestic [[base station]] connected to a fixed phone line. ==History== [[Image:CNAM-IMG 0564.jpg|thumb|Copy of the original phone of [[Graham Bell]] at the ''[[Musée des Arts et Métiers]]'' in Paris]] [[Image:1896 phone.jpg|thumb|1896 Telephone ([[Sweden]])]] [[Image:Phone handset.jpeg|thumb|A telephone [[handset]]]] The identity of the inventor of the electric telephone remains in dispute. [[Antonio Meucci]], [[Johann Philipp Reis]], and [[Alexander Graham Bell]], amongst others, have all been credited with the [[invention]]. The very early history of the telephone is a confusing morass of claim and counterclaim, which was not clarified by the huge mass of lawsuits which hoped to resolve the patent claims of individuals. Much money was expended, particularly in the [[Bell Telephone]] companies, and the aggressive defence of the Bell patents resulted in much confusion. Additionally, the earliest investigators preferred publication in the popular press and demonstration to investors instead of scientific publication and demonstration to fellow scientists. It is important to note that there is probably no single "inventor of the telephone". The modern telephone is the result of work done by many hands, all worthy of recognition of their addition to the field. Only in the last ten years, however, has the [[Great Britain|British]] government announced that it now recognises (primarily for educational purposes) [[Antonio Meucci]] (see below) as the 'first inventor' of the telephone.{{fact}} {{see|Timeline of the telephone |Invention of the telephone}} ===Early development=== The following is a brief summary of the history of the invention of the telephone: *[[1849]] [[Antonio Meucci]], an Italian living in [[Havana]], demonstrates a device he later called a telephone. (The demonstration involves direct electrical connections to people.) *[[1854]] [[Charles Bourseul]] publishes a description of a make-break telephone transmitter and receiver but does not construct a working instrument. *[[1854]] Meucci demonstrates an electric telephone in New York. [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html] *[[1860]] [[Johann Philipp Reis]] demonstrates a "telephon" using a pressure contact transmitter after the make-break design of Bourseul and a knitting needle receiver. Witnesses said they heard human voices being transmitted. *[[1860]] Meucci demonstrates his telephone on Staten Island. *[[1861]] Reis manages to transfer voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet, see [[Reis' telephone]]. *[[1864]] In an attempt to give his musical automaton a voice, [[Innocenzo Manzetti]] invents the 'Speaking telegraph'. He shows no interest in patenting his device, but it is reported in newspapers. *[[1865]] Meucci reads of Manzetti's invention and writes to the editors of two newspapers claiming priority and quoting his first experiment in 1849. He writes "I do not wish to deny Mr. Manzetti his invention, I only wish to observe that two thoughts could be found to contain the same discovery, and that by uniting the two ideas one can more easily reach the certainty about a thing this important." If he reads Meucci's offer of collaboration, Manzetti does not respond. *[[1871]] Meucci files a patent [[caveat]] (a statement of intention to patent). *[[1872]] [[Elisha Gray]] founds [[Western Electric]] Manufacturing Company. *1872 Prof Vanderwyde demonstrated Reis's telephone in New York. *July 1873 [[Thomas Edison]] notes variable resistance in carbon grains due to pressure and builds a rheostat based on the principle. *May 1874 Gray invents electromagnet device for transmitting musical tones. Some of his receivers use steel diaphragms. *December 1874 Gray demonstrates his musical tones device at the Presbyterian Church in Highland Park, Illinois and lectures on the possibility of transmitting speech. *[[2 June]] [[1875]] [[Alexander Graham Bell]] transmits the sound of plucked steel reeds using electromagnet instruments. *[[1 July]] [[1875]] Bell uses a bi-directional "gallows" telephone that was able to transmit "indistinct but voicelike sounds" but not clear speech. Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments. *1875 [[Thomas Edison]] experiments with [[acoustic telegraphy]] and in November builds an electro-dynamic receiver but does not exploit it. *[[11 February]] [[1876]] Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone, but does not build one. *[[14 February]] [[1876]] (about 9:30 am) Gray or his lawyer brings to the Patent Office Gray's caveat for the telephone. (A caveat was a notice of intention to file a patent application) *[[14 February]] [[1876]] (about 11:30am) Bell's lawyer brings to the Patent Office Bell's patent application for the telephone. Bell's lawyer requested that it be registered immediately in the cash blotter. **About two hours later Elisha Gray's caveat was registered in the cash blotter. Although Gray could have converted his caveat into a patent application, he did not do so. *[[7 March]] [[1876]] Bell's US patent 174,465 for the telephone is granted. *[[10 March]] [[1876]] Bell transmits speech "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you." using a liquid transmitter and an electromagnetic receiver. *[[16 May]] [[1876]] [[Thomas Edison]] files first patent application for [[acoustic telegraphy]]. *[[20 January]] [[1877]] Edison "first succeeded in transmitting over wires many articulated sentences" using carbon granules as a pressure sensitive variable resistance under the pressure of a diaphragm (Josephson, p143). *[[30 January]] [[1877]] Bell's US patent 186,787 is granted for an electro-magnetic telephone with transmitter and receiver using steel diaphrams and a call bell. *[[4 March]] [[1877]] [[Emile Berliner]] invents a [[microphone]] based on the "loose contact" between two metal electrodes, an improvement on the Reis telephone, and in April 1877 files a caveat of an invention in process. * [[27 April]] [[1877]] Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was granted May 3, 1892 after a 15 year delay due to litigation. In 1892 a federal court ruled Edison and not Berliner was the inventor of the carbon transmitter. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1979. Edison's carbon granules transmitter and Bell's electromagnetic receiver were used by the Bell system for many decades thereafter (Josephson, p 146). ===Later history=== [[Image:Ericofon.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Ericofon]] was a very futuristic handset when it was introduced in 1956.]] The history of additional inventions and improvements of the electrical telephone includes the [[carbon microphone]] (later replaced by the [[electret]] microphone now used in almost all telephone transmitters), the manual [[telephone switchboard|switchboard]], the [[rotary dial]], the [[automatic telephone exchange]], the computerized [[telephone switch]], Touch Tone® [[dialing]] ([[DTMF]]), and the digitization of sound using different coding techniques including pulse code modulation or [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] (which is also used for .[[WAV]], .AIF files and compact discs). Newer systems include [[Voice over IP|IP telephony]], [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]], [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], mobile [[cellular phone]] systems, [[cordless]] telephones, and the [[UMTS|third generation cell phone]] systems that promise to include high-speed [[Cellular digital packet data|packet data]] transfer. The industry has divided into telephone equipment manufacturers and telephone network operators (telcos). Operating companies often hold a national [[monopoly]]. In the United States, the [[Bell System]] was vertically integrated. It fully or partially owned the telephone companies that provided service to about 80% of the telephones in the country and also owned [[Western Electric]], which manufactured or purchased virtually all the equipment and supplies used by the local telephone companies. The Bell System divested itself of the local telephone companies in 1984 in order to settle an [[antitrust]] suit brought against it by the [[United States Department of Justice]]. In 1926 Bell Labs and the British Post Office engineered the first two-way conversation across the Atlantic. The first commercial transatlantic telephone call was between [[New York City]] and [[London]] and occurred on [[January 7]], [[1927]]. ==Digital Telephony== {{main|Digital Telephony}} The [[Public Switched Telephone Network]] (PSTN) has gradually evolved towards digital telephony which has improved the capacity and quality of the network. End-to-end [[Analog signal|analog]] telephone networks were first modified in the 1970s by upgrading long-haul transmission networks with [[SONET]] technology and [[fiber optic]] transmission methods. Digital transmission made it possible to carry multiple digitized [[switched circuit]]s on a single transmission medium (known as ''[[multiplexing]]''). While today the end instrument remains analog, the analog signals reaching the aggregation point ([[Serving Area Interface]] (SAI) or the [[central office]] (CO) ) are typically converted to [[digital signals]]. [[Digital loop carrier]]s (DLC) are often used, placing the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog [[local loop]] to legacy status. ==Wireless phone systems== While the term "[[wireless]]" means [[radio]] and can refer to any telephone that uses radio waves, it is primarily used for [[cell phone]]s. In the [[United States]] wireless companies tend to use the term wireless to refer to a wide range of services while the cell phone itself is called a mobile phone, mobile, [[Personal Communications Service|PCS phone]], cell phone or simply cell with the trend now moving towards [[mobile]]. The changes in terminology is partially due to providers using different terms in [[marketing]] to differentiate newer digital services from older analog systems and services of one company from another. ===Cordless telephone=== [[Image:CordlessUniden-large.jpg|right|thumb|125px|Cordless handset]] [[Cordless telephone]]s, invented by Teri Pall in 1965, consist of a base unit that connects to the land-line system and also communicates with remote [[handset]]s by low power [[radio]]. This permits use of the handset from any location within range of the base. Because of the power required to transmit to the handset, the base station is powered with an [[electronic power supply]]. Thus, cordless phones typically do not function during power outages. Initially, cordless phones used the 1.7 MHz frequency range to communicate between base and handset. Because of quality and range problems, these units were soon superseded by systems that used [[frequency modulation]] (FM) at higher frequency ranges (49 MHz, 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz). The 2.4 GHz cordless phones can interfere with certain [[wireless LAN]] protocols ([[IEEE 802.11|802.11b/g]]) due to the usage of the same frequencies. On the 2.4 GHz band, several "channels" are utilized in an attempt to guard against degradation in the quality of the voice signal due to crowding. The range of modern cordless phones is normally on the order of a few hundred [[meters]]. ===Mobile phones=== {{see|Mobile phone}} Most modern mobile phone systems are cell-structured. [[Radio]] is used to communicate between a handset and nearby [[cell site]]s. When a handset gets too far from a cell site, a computer system commands the handset and a closer cell site to take up the communications on a different channel without interrupting the call. Radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource. The higher frequencies used by cell phones have advantages over short distances. Connection distance is somewhat predictable and can be controlled by adjusting the power level. By only using enough power to connect to the "nearest" cell site phones using one cell site will cause almost no interference with phones using the same frequencies on another cell site. The higher frequencies also work well with various forms of [[multiplexing]] which allows more than one phone to connect to the same tower with the same set of frequencies. ====Satellite phones==== {{see|Satellite phone}} Some mobile telephones, especially those used in remote locations, where constructing a [[cell network]] would be too unprofitable or difficult, instead communicate directly with an orbiting [[satellite]]. Such devices tend to be bulkier than cell-based mobile phones, as they require a large [[antenna]] or [[satellite dish|dish]] for communicating with the satellite, but do not require ground based transmitters, making them useful for communicating from remote areas and disaster zones. ===Semi-Cordless Phone=== There are phones that work as a [[cordless]] phone when near their corresponding base station (and sometimes other base stations) and work as a [[wireless phone]] when in other locations but for a variety of reasons did not become popular. Some kinds of cordless phones work like cellular phones but only within a small private network covering a building or group of buildings. These kinds of systems using [[VoIP]] are popular in hospitals and factories where the same wireless network can be used for both data and voice. == VoIP Telephony== [[Image:voip-wifi.jpg|right|thumb|125px|A [[WiFi]]-based [[VoIP]] phone]] Also known as [[Internet]] telephony or [[Voice over IP]] (VoIP), digital telephony is a [[disruptive technology]] that is rapidly replacing traditional telephone networks. In [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]] up to 10% of subscribers, as of January [[2005]], have switched from analog to digital telephone service. A recent [[Newsweek]] article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing." [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6831938/site/newsweek/] There are many VoIP providers on the market (such as [[Packet8]], [[Vonage]], and [[Sunrocket]]) at the moment, and statistics suggest over 40% of the world population will have switched to VoIP by year 2010.{{fact}} Digital telephones use a [[broadband]] [[Internet]] connection to transmit conversations as [[data packet]]s. In addition to replacing the PSTN, digital telephony is also competing with [[mobile phone]] networks by offering free or lower cost connections via [[WiFi]] [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)|hotspot]]s. As mentioned above [[VoIP]] is also used on private wireless networks which may or may not have a connection to the outside telephone network. ==Telephone equipment research labs== [[Bell Labs]] is a noted telephone equipment research laboratory, amongst its other research fields.. ==Telephone operating companies== In some countries, many telephone operating companies (commonly abbreviated to ''[[Telephone company|telco]]'' in American English) are in competition to provide [[telephone]] services. Some of them include those in the following list. However, the list only includes providers of copper wires from the [[Telephone exchange|exchange]] to the user, not those who only supply "[[Voice over IP]]" or only transport voice signals between exchanges. <!-- Are there companies to whom this assertion does not apply? --> ''See also'': [[List of telephone operating companies]] ==Trivia== *The modern handset came into existence when a Swedish lineman tied a microphone and earphone to a stick so he could keep a hand free. *The folding portable phone was an intentional copy of the fictional futuristic communicators (which in use actually more closely resembled [[walkie-talkie]]s, [[Nextel]]-style) used in the television show [[Star Trek]], though similar devices were seen in other TV shows before that. *In [[Unicode]], telephones are depicted with the characters whose [[hexadecimal]] codes are 260E (☎), 260F (☏) and 2706 (✆), (but may not display properly in some browsers). == See also == <!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Note: the list got too long, and needed subject categories. Please add new links under the correct heading. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --> {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone equipment=== * [[431A]] * [[610 (telephone)|610]] * [[Answering machine]] * [[Cordless telephone]] * [[Cellular repeater]] * [[Emergency telephone]] * [[Modem]] * [[Payphone]] * [[Pen register]] * [[Photophone]] * [[Telautograph]] * [[Telecommunications Device for the Deaf]] (TDD or TTY) * [[Telegraphy|Telegraph]] * [[Telephone switchboard|Switchboard]] * [[Teleprinter#Telex|Telex]] * [[Teletype]] * [[Electronic Switching System]] {{col-break}} ===Telephone equipment manufacturers=== {{commons|Telephone}} Several manufacturers build telephones of all kinds. Some of these are: *[[Aastra Technologies]] *[[Advanced American Telephones]] (makers of [[AT&T]] Telephones) *[[Alcatel]] *[[Avaya]] *[[Clarity Products]] (makers of amplified telephones) *[[Conair]] (makers of [[Southwestern Bell]] Freedom Phone) *[[Convedia]] *[[Ericsson]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Kyocera]] *[[Marconi]] *[[Mitel]] *[[Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nortel]] *[[palmOne]] / [[Handspring]] *[[Philips]] *[[Samsung]] *[[Siemens AG]] *[[Sony Ericsson]] *[[Unical Enterprises]] (makers of [[Northwestern Bell]] Phones) *[[Uniden]] *[[US Electronics]] (makers of [[BellSouth]] Products) {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone technology=== * [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line]] (ADSL) * [[Automatic call distributor |Automatic Call Distribution]] * [[AIOD leads]] * [[ANAC]] * [[ANI]] * [[Assistive technology]] * [[Automatic redial]] * [[Call capture]] * [[Call forwarding]] * [[Call waiting]] * [[Caller ID]] * [[Call-through telecom]] * [[Computer telephony integration]] (CTI) * [[Customer premises equipment]] (CPE) * [[Dial tone]] * [[Digital subscriber line]] (DSL) * [[Direct dial]] * [[Direct distance dialing]] * [[Dual tone multi frequency]] (DTMF) * [[Interactive Voice Response]] (IVR) * [[Last Call Return]] (*69) * [[Telephone feature code]] (* code) * [[Party line (telephony)]] * [[Plain old telephone service]] (POTS) * [[Ringing signal]] * [[Signal strength]] * [[Videotex]] * [[Voice over Internet Protocol]] (VOIP) {{col-break}} ===Telephone system, organization, and structure=== * [[Area code]] * [[Office code]] * [[Basic exchange telecommunications radio service]] * [[Bell System]] * [[Call center]] * [[Competitive local exchange carrier]] (CLEC) * [[Foreign exchange service]] * [[Incumbent local exchange company]] (ILEC) * [[Key system]] * [[Local exchange company]] (LEC) * [[Public Switched Telephone Network]] (PSTN) * [[Regional Bell operating company]] (RBOC) * [[Post office]] * [[Private line]] * [[Private branch exchange]] (PBX) * [[Station set]] {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone hacking and exploitation=== * [[Blue box]] * [[Bomb threat]] * [[Prank call|Crank (or prank) call]] * [[Demon dialing]] * [[Phreaking|(Phone) phreaking]] * [[Speed dialer]] * [[Telephone fraud]] * [[War dialing]] {{col-break}} === Telephony in the USA === * [[Competitive local exchange carrier]] (CLEC) * [[Federal Standard 1037C]] * [[Interexchange carrier]] (IXC) * [[List of telephony terms]] * [[Local access and transport area]] (LATA) * [[Local exchange carrier]] (LEC) * [[Modification of Final Judgment]] * [[Part 68|Federal Regulations - Part 68]] * [[Regional Bell operating company]] (RBOC) === Telephony outside the USA === * [[Telecom]] * [[Telecommunications industry in China]] {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone terminology=== * [[Call originator]] * [[Call waiting]] * [[Called party]] * [[Caller (telecommunications)|Caller]] * [[Calling party]] * [[Circuit busy]] * [[payphone|COCOT]] * [[Deaf]] * [[Emergency telephone number]] * [[End instrument]] * [[Fax]] * [[Help desk]] * [[telephone hook|Hook]] * [[Hook Flash]] * [[Hunt Group]] * [[Infrastructure]] * [[Interactive voice response]] (IVR) * [[Telephone Line|Line]] * [[Local loop]] * [[Long-distance operator]] * [[Operator assistance]] * [[Person-to-person]] * [[Red telephone]], [[Red telephone box]], * [[Ringer equivalency number]] (REN) * [[Ringing signal]] * [[Rural radio service]] * [[Smartphone]] * [[Station-to-station]] * [[Telemarketing]] * [[Telephone booth]] * [[Telephone call]] * [[Telephone card]] * [[Telephone directory]] * [[Telephone exchange]] * [[Telephone tapping]] * [[Telephone User Interface]] (TUI) * [[Telephony Application Programming Interface]] (TAPI) * [[Trap and trace]] * [[TWX]] * [[Vertical service code]] * [[Visiophone]], [[vision]] telephone * [[Voicemail]] * [[Western Union]] * [[Wide Area Telephone Service]] (WATS) * [[WATS line]] * [[Wireless network]] * [[Wi-Fi]] * [[Zenith number]] {{col-break}} ===Telephone Standards=== ====Wired Standards==== * [[RJ-11, RJ-12, RJ-14, RJ-25|RJ-11]] * [[RJ-45]] * [[BS 6312]] ====Wireless Standards ==== There are many standards for common carrier wireless telephony, often with incompatible standards used in the same nation: * First generation - Analog ** [[marine and mobile radio telephony]] ** [[AMPS]] *** [[CDPD]] ** [[Nordic Mobile Telephone|NMT]] * Satellite systems- digital ** [[Inmarsat]] ** [[Iridium (satellite)]] * Second generation ([[2G]]) - Digital ** [[IS-95|CDMA IS-95A]] ** [[Global system for mobile communications|GSM]], (different frequencies for different continents: see GSM article) ** [[iDEN]] ** [[TDMA IS-136]] * [[2.5G]] ** [[IS-95|CDMA IS-95B]] ** [[GPRS]] ** [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] ** [[PDC-P]] * Third generation ([[3G]]) ** [[IS-2000|CDMA 2000]] ** [[UMTS]], also called [[W-CDMA]] ** [[TD-SCDMA]] ====Other ==== * [[Flat rate]] {{col-end}} == Patents == {{wiktionarypar|telephone}} * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0174465 US 174,465] -- ''Telegraphy'' (Bell's first telephone patent) -- Alexander Graham Bell * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0474230 US 474,230] -- ''Speaking Telegraph'' (graphite transmitter) -- Thomas Edison * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0203016 US 203,016] -- ''Speaking Telephone'' (carbon button transmitter) -- Thomas Edison * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0222390 US 222,390] -- ''Carbon Telephone'' (carbon granules transmitter) -- Thomas Edison {{wiktionarypar|cordless telephone}} * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3449750 US 3,449,750] -- ''Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Appartus'' -- G. H. Sweigert * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3663762 US 3,663,762] -- ''Cellular Mobile Communication System'' -- Amos Edward Joel (Bell Labs) == References == * Coe, Lewis (1995). ''The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History'', McFarland, North Carolina, 1995. ISBN 0-7864-0138-9 * Evenson, A. Edward (2000). ''The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray - Alexander Bell Controversy'', McFarland, North Carolina, 2000. ISBN 0-7864-0883-9 * Baker, Burton H. (2000). ''The Gray Matter: The Forgotten Story of the Telephone'', Telepress, St. Joseph, MI, 2000. ISBN 0-615-11329-X * Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). ''The Worldwide History of Telecommunications'', IEEE Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 2003. ISBN 0471205052 *Josephson, Matthew (1959) ''Edison: A Biography'' McGraw Hill, New York. ISBN 07-033046-8 ==Further reading== *[[Robert Sobel]] ''The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition'' (Weybright & Talley [[1974]]), ISBN 0-679-40064-8. <!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Wikipedia is not a collection of external links. Please don't add links to your company here - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --> == External links == * [http://runeberg.org/teleapp/index.htm 1906 telephones and equipment (Swedish)] ''Kungliga Telegrafverkets apparater'' (Royal Telegraph Administration apparatus) at Project Runeberg - digitized images of telephone and switchboard equipment * [http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/telephone.htm Howstuffworks.com article on telephones] * [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1139/science_technology/telephones/ CBC Digital Archives - Canada Says Hello: The First Century of the Telephone] [[Category:Telephony]] [[Category:Office equipment]] [[ang:Feorrspreca]] [[ar:هاتف]] [[ast:Teléfonu]] [[bs:Telefon]] [[bg:Телефон]] [[ca:Telèfon]] [[cs:Telefon]] [[da:Telefon]] [[de:Telefon]] [[el:Τηλέφωνο]] [[es:Teléfono]] [[eo:Telefono]] [[eu:Telefono]] [[fa:تلفن]] [[fr:Téléphone]] [[gl:Teléfono]] [[hr:Telefon]] [[id:Telepon]] [[it:Telefono]] [[he:טלפון]] [[sw:Simu]] [[lv:Telefons]] [[lt:Telefonas]] [[hu:Távbeszélő]] [[mr:दूरध्वनी]] [[ms:Telefon]] [[nl:Telefoon]] [[ja:電話]] [[no:Telefon]] [[pl:Telefon]] [[pt:Telefone]] [[ru:Телефон]] [[simple:Telephone]] [[sk:Telefón]] [[sl:Telefon]] [[sr:Телефон]] [[fi:Puhelin]] [[sv:Telefon]] [[tl:Telepono]] [[ta:தொலைபேசி]] [[th:โทรศัพท์]] [[vi:Điện thoại]] [[tr:Telefon]] [[uk:Телефон]] [[zh:电话]] [[zh-yue:電話]] 3206 2006-09-07T22:54:01Z 151.37.73.82 /* History */ [[Image:Telephone-modele-W48.jpg|thumb|right|An old rotary telephone]] [[Image:Tphone2.jpg|right|thumb|A basic modern telephone]] The '''telephone''' or '''phone''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''tele'' = far away and ''phone'' = voice) is a [[telecommunication]]s device which is used to [[transmitter|transmit]] and receive [[sound]] (most commonly [[Human voice|voice]] and speech) across distance. Most telephones operate through transmission of [[Signal (information theory)|electric signals]] over a complex [[public switched telephone network|telephone network]] which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other. [[Image:ATTtelephone-large.jpg|thumb|right|Touch-tone telephone]] ==Introduction== [[Image:Phone numberpad.jpeg|thumb|right|A [[touch-tone]] telephone [[keypad]]<!---->]] An elementary telephone system would consist of three elements: * the equipment located at each subscriber which converts sound to electrical signals and back, and which allows the subscriber to answer or initiate a call, * a central switching facility which interconnects all the subscribers * wiring or other means to connect the subscriber to the central switching facility. There are three principal ways a subscriber may be connected to the telephone network: * Historically, and still very commonly, by dedicated physical wire connections run in overhead or underground cables; * By radio, as in a cordless, cellular, satellite or radiotelephone and * By [[voice over IP|voice over internet protocol]] (VoIP) telephones, which use [[Broadband Internet access|broadband internet]] connections. Between end users, transmissions across a network may be carried by [[fibre optic]] cable, land line cable, point to point [[microwave]] or [[satellite]] relay. Until relatively recently, a "telephone" generally referred only to landlines. [[Cordless telephone|Cordless]] and [[mobile phone]]s are now common in many places around the world, with mobile phones expected to gradually displace the conventional landline telephone. Unlike a mobile phone, a cordless telephone is considered to be landline because it is only useable within a short distance of a small personal or domestic [[base station]] connected to a fixed phone line. ==History== [[Image:CNAM-IMG 0564.jpg|thumb|Copy of the original phone of [[Graham Bell]] at the ''[[Musée des Arts et Métiers]]'' in Paris]] [[Image:1896_telephone.jpg|thumb|1896 Telephone ([[Sweden]])]] [[Image:Phone handset.jpeg|thumb|A telephone [[handset]]]] The identity of the inventor of the electric telephone remains in dispute. [[Antonio Meucci]], [[Johann Philipp Reis]], and [[Alexander Graham Bell]], amongst others, have all been credited with the [[invention]]. The very early history of the telephone is a confusing morass of claim and counterclaim, which was not clarified by the huge mass of lawsuits which hoped to resolve the patent claims of individuals. Much money was expended, particularly in the [[Bell Telephone]] companies, and the aggressive defence of the Bell patents resulted in much confusion. Additionally, the earliest investigators preferred publication in the popular press and demonstration to investors instead of scientific publication and demonstration to fellow scientists. It is important to note that there is probably no single "inventor of the telephone". The modern telephone is the result of work done by many hands, all worthy of recognition of their addition to the field. Only in the last ten years, however, has the [[Great Britain|British]] government announced that it now recognises (primarily for educational purposes) [[Antonio Meucci]] (see below) as the 'first inventor' of the telephone.{{fact}} {{see|Timeline of the telephone |Invention of the telephone}} ===Early development=== The following is a brief summary of the history of the invention of the telephone: *[[1849]] [[Antonio Meucci]], an Italian living in [[Havana]], demonstrates a device he later called a telephone. (The demonstration involves direct electrical connections to people.) *[[1854]] [[Charles Bourseul]] publishes a description of a make-break telephone transmitter and receiver but does not construct a working instrument. *[[1854]] Meucci demonstrates an electric telephone in New York. [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html] *[[1860]] [[Johann Philipp Reis]] demonstrates a "telephon" using a pressure contact transmitter after the make-break design of Bourseul and a knitting needle receiver. Witnesses said they heard human voices being transmitted. *[[1860]] Meucci demonstrates his telephone on Staten Island. *[[1861]] Reis manages to transfer voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet, see [[Reis' telephone]]. *[[1864]] In an attempt to give his musical automaton a voice, [[Innocenzo Manzetti]] invents the 'Speaking telegraph'. He shows no interest in patenting his device, but it is reported in newspapers. *[[1865]] Meucci reads of Manzetti's invention and writes to the editors of two newspapers claiming priority and quoting his first experiment in 1849. He writes "I do not wish to deny Mr. Manzetti his invention, I only wish to observe that two thoughts could be found to contain the same discovery, and that by uniting the two ideas one can more easily reach the certainty about a thing this important." If he reads Meucci's offer of collaboration, Manzetti does not respond. *[[1871]] Meucci files a patent [[caveat]] (a statement of intention to patent). *[[1872]] [[Elisha Gray]] founds [[Western Electric]] Manufacturing Company. *1872 Prof Vanderwyde demonstrated Reis's telephone in New York. *July 1873 [[Thomas Edison]] notes variable resistance in carbon grains due to pressure and builds a rheostat based on the principle. *May 1874 Gray invents electromagnet device for transmitting musical tones. Some of his receivers use steel diaphragms. *December 1874 Gray demonstrates his musical tones device at the Presbyterian Church in Highland Park, Illinois and lectures on the possibility of transmitting speech. *[[2 June]] [[1875]] [[Alexander Graham Bell]] transmits the sound of plucked steel reeds using electromagnet instruments. *[[1 July]] [[1875]] Bell uses a bi-directional "gallows" telephone that was able to transmit "indistinct but voicelike sounds" but not clear speech. Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments. *1875 [[Thomas Edison]] experiments with [[acoustic telegraphy]] and in November builds an electro-dynamic receiver but does not exploit it. *[[11 February]] [[1876]] Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone, but does not build one. *[[14 February]] [[1876]] (about 9:30 am) Gray or his lawyer brings to the Patent Office Gray's caveat for the telephone. (A caveat was a notice of intention to file a patent application) *[[14 February]] [[1876]] (about 11:30am) Bell's lawyer brings to the Patent Office Bell's patent application for the telephone. Bell's lawyer requested that it be registered immediately in the cash blotter. **About two hours later Elisha Gray's caveat was registered in the cash blotter. Although Gray could have converted his caveat into a patent application, he did not do so. *[[7 March]] [[1876]] Bell's US patent 174,465 for the telephone is granted. *[[10 March]] [[1876]] Bell transmits speech "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you." using a liquid transmitter and an electromagnetic receiver. *[[16 May]] [[1876]] [[Thomas Edison]] files first patent application for [[acoustic telegraphy]]. *[[20 January]] [[1877]] Edison "first succeeded in transmitting over wires many articulated sentences" using carbon granules as a pressure sensitive variable resistance under the pressure of a diaphragm (Josephson, p143). *[[30 January]] [[1877]] Bell's US patent 186,787 is granted for an electro-magnetic telephone with transmitter and receiver using steel diaphrams and a call bell. *[[4 March]] [[1877]] [[Emile Berliner]] invents a [[microphone]] based on the "loose contact" between two metal electrodes, an improvement on the Reis telephone, and in April 1877 files a caveat of an invention in process. * [[27 April]] [[1877]] Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was granted May 3, 1892 after a 15 year delay due to litigation. In 1892 a federal court ruled Edison and not Berliner was the inventor of the carbon transmitter. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1979. Edison's carbon granules transmitter and Bell's electromagnetic receiver were used by the Bell system for many decades thereafter (Josephson, p 146). ===Later history=== [[Image:Ericofon.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Ericofon]] was a very futuristic handset when it was introduced in 1956.]] The history of additional inventions and improvements of the electrical telephone includes the [[carbon microphone]] (later replaced by the [[electret]] microphone now used in almost all telephone transmitters), the manual [[telephone switchboard|switchboard]], the [[rotary dial]], the [[automatic telephone exchange]], the computerized [[telephone switch]], Touch Tone® [[dialing]] ([[DTMF]]), and the digitization of sound using different coding techniques including pulse code modulation or [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] (which is also used for .[[WAV]], .AIF files and compact discs). Newer systems include [[Voice over IP|IP telephony]], [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]], [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], mobile [[cellular phone]] systems, [[cordless]] telephones, and the [[UMTS|third generation cell phone]] systems that promise to include high-speed [[Cellular digital packet data|packet data]] transfer. The industry has divided into telephone equipment manufacturers and telephone network operators (telcos). Operating companies often hold a national [[monopoly]]. In the United States, the [[Bell System]] was vertically integrated. It fully or partially owned the telephone companies that provided service to about 80% of the telephones in the country and also owned [[Western Electric]], which manufactured or purchased virtually all the equipment and supplies used by the local telephone companies. The Bell System divested itself of the local telephone companies in 1984 in order to settle an [[antitrust]] suit brought against it by the [[United States Department of Justice]]. In 1926 Bell Labs and the British Post Office engineered the first two-way conversation across the Atlantic. The first commercial transatlantic telephone call was between [[New York City]] and [[London]] and occurred on [[January 7]], [[1927]]. ==Digital Telephony== {{main|Digital Telephony}} The [[Public Switched Telephone Network]] (PSTN) has gradually evolved towards digital telephony which has improved the capacity and quality of the network. End-to-end [[Analog signal|analog]] telephone networks were first modified in the 1970s by upgrading long-haul transmission networks with [[SONET]] technology and [[fiber optic]] transmission methods. Digital transmission made it possible to carry multiple digitized [[switched circuit]]s on a single transmission medium (known as ''[[multiplexing]]''). While today the end instrument remains analog, the analog signals reaching the aggregation point ([[Serving Area Interface]] (SAI) or the [[central office]] (CO) ) are typically converted to [[digital signals]]. [[Digital loop carrier]]s (DLC) are often used, placing the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog [[local loop]] to legacy status. ==Wireless phone systems== While the term "[[wireless]]" means [[radio]] and can refer to any telephone that uses radio waves, it is primarily used for [[cell phone]]s. In the [[United States]] wireless companies tend to use the term wireless to refer to a wide range of services while the cell phone itself is called a mobile phone, mobile, [[Personal Communications Service|PCS phone]], cell phone or simply cell with the trend now moving towards [[mobile]]. The changes in terminology is partially due to providers using different terms in [[marketing]] to differentiate newer digital services from older analog systems and services of one company from another. ===Cordless telephone=== [[Image:CordlessUniden-large.jpg|right|thumb|125px|Cordless handset]] [[Cordless telephone]]s, invented by Teri Pall in 1965, consist of a base unit that connects to the land-line system and also communicates with remote [[handset]]s by low power [[radio]]. This permits use of the handset from any location within range of the base. Because of the power required to transmit to the handset, the base station is powered with an [[electronic power supply]]. Thus, cordless phones typically do not function during power outages. Initially, cordless phones used the 1.7 MHz frequency range to communicate between base and handset. Because of quality and range problems, these units were soon superseded by systems that used [[frequency modulation]] (FM) at higher frequency ranges (49 MHz, 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz). The 2.4 GHz cordless phones can interfere with certain [[wireless LAN]] protocols ([[IEEE 802.11|802.11b/g]]) due to the usage of the same frequencies. On the 2.4 GHz band, several "channels" are utilized in an attempt to guard against degradation in the quality of the voice signal due to crowding. The range of modern cordless phones is normally on the order of a few hundred [[meters]]. ===Mobile phones=== {{see|Mobile phone}} Most modern mobile phone systems are cell-structured. [[Radio]] is used to communicate between a handset and nearby [[cell site]]s. When a handset gets too far from a cell site, a computer system commands the handset and a closer cell site to take up the communications on a different channel without interrupting the call. Radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource. The higher frequencies used by cell phones have advantages over short distances. Connection distance is somewhat predictable and can be controlled by adjusting the power level. By only using enough power to connect to the "nearest" cell site phones using one cell site will cause almost no interference with phones using the same frequencies on another cell site. The higher frequencies also work well with various forms of [[multiplexing]] which allows more than one phone to connect to the same tower with the same set of frequencies. ====Satellite phones==== {{see|Satellite phone}} Some mobile telephones, especially those used in remote locations, where constructing a [[cell network]] would be too unprofitable or difficult, instead communicate directly with an orbiting [[satellite]]. Such devices tend to be bulkier than cell-based mobile phones, as they require a large [[antenna]] or [[satellite dish|dish]] for communicating with the satellite, but do not require ground based transmitters, making them useful for communicating from remote areas and disaster zones. ===Semi-Cordless Phone=== There are phones that work as a [[cordless]] phone when near their corresponding base station (and sometimes other base stations) and work as a [[wireless phone]] when in other locations but for a variety of reasons did not become popular. Some kinds of cordless phones work like cellular phones but only within a small private network covering a building or group of buildings. These kinds of systems using [[VoIP]] are popular in hospitals and factories where the same wireless network can be used for both data and voice. == VoIP Telephony== [[Image:voip-wifi.jpg|right|thumb|125px|A [[WiFi]]-based [[VoIP]] phone]] Also known as [[Internet]] telephony or [[Voice over IP]] (VoIP), digital telephony is a [[disruptive technology]] that is rapidly replacing traditional telephone networks. In [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]] up to 10% of subscribers, as of January [[2005]], have switched from analog to digital telephone service. A recent [[Newsweek]] article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing." [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6831938/site/newsweek/] There are many VoIP providers on the market (such as [[Packet8]], [[Vonage]], and [[Sunrocket]]) at the moment, and statistics suggest over 40% of the world population will have switched to VoIP by year 2010.{{fact}} Digital telephones use a [[broadband]] [[Internet]] connection to transmit conversations as [[data packet]]s. In addition to replacing the PSTN, digital telephony is also competing with [[mobile phone]] networks by offering free or lower cost connections via [[WiFi]] [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)|hotspot]]s. As mentioned above [[VoIP]] is also used on private wireless networks which may or may not have a connection to the outside telephone network. ==Telephone equipment research labs== [[Bell Labs]] is a noted telephone equipment research laboratory, amongst its other research fields.. ==Telephone operating companies== In some countries, many telephone operating companies (commonly abbreviated to ''[[Telephone company|telco]]'' in American English) are in competition to provide [[telephone]] services. Some of them include those in the following list. However, the list only includes providers of copper wires from the [[Telephone exchange|exchange]] to the user, not those who only supply "[[Voice over IP]]" or only transport voice signals between exchanges. <!-- Are there companies to whom this assertion does not apply? --> ''See also'': [[List of telephone operating companies]] ==Trivia== *The modern handset came into existence when a Swedish lineman tied a microphone and earphone to a stick so he could keep a hand free. *The folding portable phone was an intentional copy of the fictional futuristic communicators (which in use actually more closely resembled [[walkie-talkie]]s, [[Nextel]]-style) used in the television show [[Star Trek]], though similar devices were seen in other TV shows before that. *In [[Unicode]], telephones are depicted with the characters whose [[hexadecimal]] codes are 260E (☎), 260F (☏) and 2706 (✆), (but may not display properly in some browsers). == See also == <!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Note: the list got too long, and needed subject categories. Please add new links under the correct heading. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --> {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone equipment=== * [[431A]] * [[610 (telephone)|610]] * [[Answering machine]] * [[Cordless telephone]] * [[Cellular repeater]] * [[Emergency telephone]] * [[Modem]] * [[Payphone]] * [[Pen register]] * [[Photophone]] * [[Telautograph]] * [[Telecommunications Device for the Deaf]] (TDD or TTY) * [[Telegraphy|Telegraph]] * [[Telephone switchboard|Switchboard]] * [[Teleprinter#Telex|Telex]] * [[Teletype]] * [[Electronic Switching System]] {{col-break}} ===Telephone equipment manufacturers=== {{commons|Telephone}} Several manufacturers build telephones of all kinds. Some of these are: *[[Aastra Technologies]] *[[Advanced American Telephones]] (makers of [[AT&T]] Telephones) *[[Alcatel]] *[[Avaya]] *[[Clarity Products]] (makers of amplified telephones) *[[Conair]] (makers of [[Southwestern Bell]] Freedom Phone) *[[Convedia]] *[[Ericsson]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Kyocera]] *[[Marconi]] *[[Mitel]] *[[Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nortel]] *[[palmOne]] / [[Handspring]] *[[Philips]] *[[Samsung]] *[[Siemens AG]] *[[Sony Ericsson]] *[[Unical Enterprises]] (makers of [[Northwestern Bell]] Phones) *[[Uniden]] *[[US Electronics]] (makers of [[BellSouth]] Products) {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone technology=== * [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line]] (ADSL) * [[Automatic call distributor |Automatic Call Distribution]] * [[AIOD leads]] * [[ANAC]] * [[ANI]] * [[Assistive technology]] * [[Automatic redial]] * [[Call capture]] * [[Call forwarding]] * [[Call waiting]] * [[Caller ID]] * [[Call-through telecom]] * [[Computer telephony integration]] (CTI) * [[Customer premises equipment]] (CPE) * [[Dial tone]] * [[Digital subscriber line]] (DSL) * [[Direct dial]] * [[Direct distance dialing]] * [[Dual tone multi frequency]] (DTMF) * [[Interactive Voice Response]] (IVR) * [[Last Call Return]] (*69) * [[Telephone feature code]] (* code) * [[Party line (telephony)]] * [[Plain old telephone service]] (POTS) * [[Ringing signal]] * [[Signal strength]] * [[Videotex]] * [[Voice over Internet Protocol]] (VOIP) {{col-break}} ===Telephone system, organization, and structure=== * [[Area code]] * [[Office code]] * [[Basic exchange telecommunications radio service]] * [[Bell System]] * [[Call center]] * [[Competitive local exchange carrier]] (CLEC) * [[Foreign exchange service]] * [[Incumbent local exchange company]] (ILEC) * [[Key system]] * [[Local exchange company]] (LEC) * [[Public Switched Telephone Network]] (PSTN) * [[Regional Bell operating company]] (RBOC) * [[Post office]] * [[Private line]] * [[Private branch exchange]] (PBX) * [[Station set]] {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone hacking and exploitation=== * [[Blue box]] * [[Bomb threat]] * [[Prank call|Crank (or prank) call]] * [[Demon dialing]] * [[Phreaking|(Phone) phreaking]] * [[Speed dialer]] * [[Telephone fraud]] * [[War dialing]] {{col-break}} === Telephony in the USA === * [[Competitive local exchange carrier]] (CLEC) * [[Federal Standard 1037C]] * [[Interexchange carrier]] (IXC) * [[List of telephony terms]] * [[Local access and transport area]] (LATA) * [[Local exchange carrier]] (LEC) * [[Modification of Final Judgment]] * [[Part 68|Federal Regulations - Part 68]] * [[Regional Bell operating company]] (RBOC) === Telephony outside the USA === * [[Telecom]] * [[Telecommunications industry in China]] {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone terminology=== * [[Call originator]] * [[Call waiting]] * [[Called party]] * [[Caller (telecommunications)|Caller]] * [[Calling party]] * [[Circuit busy]] * [[payphone|COCOT]] * [[Deaf]] * [[Emergency telephone number]] * [[End instrument]] * [[Fax]] * [[Help desk]] * [[telephone hook|Hook]] * [[Hook Flash]] * [[Hunt Group]] * [[Infrastructure]] * [[Interactive voice response]] (IVR) * [[Telephone Line|Line]] * [[Local loop]] * [[Long-distance operator]] * [[Operator assistance]] * [[Person-to-person]] * [[Red telephone]], [[Red telephone box]], * [[Ringer equivalency number]] (REN) * [[Ringing signal]] * [[Rural radio service]] * [[Smartphone]] * [[Station-to-station]] * [[Telemarketing]] * [[Telephone booth]] * [[Telephone call]] * [[Telephone card]] * [[Telephone directory]] * [[Telephone exchange]] * [[Telephone tapping]] * [[Telephone User Interface]] (TUI) * [[Telephony Application Programming Interface]] (TAPI) * [[Trap and trace]] * [[TWX]] * [[Vertical service code]] * [[Visiophone]], [[vision]] telephone * [[Voicemail]] * [[Western Union]] * [[Wide Area Telephone Service]] (WATS) * [[WATS line]] * [[Wireless network]] * [[Wi-Fi]] * [[Zenith number]] {{col-break}} ===Telephone Standards=== ====Wired Standards==== * [[RJ-11, RJ-12, RJ-14, RJ-25|RJ-11]] * [[RJ-45]] * [[BS 6312]] ====Wireless Standards ==== There are many standards for common carrier wireless telephony, often with incompatible standards used in the same nation: * First generation - Analog ** [[marine and mobile radio telephony]] ** [[AMPS]] *** [[CDPD]] ** [[Nordic Mobile Telephone|NMT]] * Satellite systems- digital ** [[Inmarsat]] ** [[Iridium (satellite)]] * Second generation ([[2G]]) - Digital ** [[IS-95|CDMA IS-95A]] ** [[Global system for mobile communications|GSM]], (different frequencies for different continents: see GSM article) ** [[iDEN]] ** [[TDMA IS-136]] * [[2.5G]] ** [[IS-95|CDMA IS-95B]] ** [[GPRS]] ** [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] ** [[PDC-P]] * Third generation ([[3G]]) ** [[IS-2000|CDMA 2000]] ** [[UMTS]], also called [[W-CDMA]] ** [[TD-SCDMA]] ====Other ==== * [[Flat rate]] {{col-end}} == Patents == {{wiktionarypar|telephone}} * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0174465 US 174,465] -- ''Telegraphy'' (Bell's first telephone patent) -- Alexander Graham Bell * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0474230 US 474,230] -- ''Speaking Telegraph'' (graphite transmitter) -- Thomas Edison * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0203016 US 203,016] -- ''Speaking Telephone'' (carbon button transmitter) -- Thomas Edison * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0222390 US 222,390] -- ''Carbon Telephone'' (carbon granules transmitter) -- Thomas Edison {{wiktionarypar|cordless telephone}} * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3449750 US 3,449,750] -- ''Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Appartus'' -- G. H. Sweigert * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3663762 US 3,663,762] -- ''Cellular Mobile Communication System'' -- Amos Edward Joel (Bell Labs) == References == * Coe, Lewis (1995). ''The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History'', McFarland, North Carolina, 1995. ISBN 0-7864-0138-9 * Evenson, A. Edward (2000). ''The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray - Alexander Bell Controversy'', McFarland, North Carolina, 2000. ISBN 0-7864-0883-9 * Baker, Burton H. (2000). ''The Gray Matter: The Forgotten Story of the Telephone'', Telepress, St. Joseph, MI, 2000. ISBN 0-615-11329-X * Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). ''The Worldwide History of Telecommunications'', IEEE Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 2003. ISBN 0471205052 *Josephson, Matthew (1959) ''Edison: A Biography'' McGraw Hill, New York. ISBN 07-033046-8 ==Further reading== *[[Robert Sobel]] ''The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition'' (Weybright & Talley [[1974]]), ISBN 0-679-40064-8. <!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Wikipedia is not a collection of external links. Please don't add links to your company here - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --> == External links == * [http://runeberg.org/teleapp/index.htm 1906 telephones and equipment (Swedish)] ''Kungliga Telegrafverkets apparater'' (Royal Telegraph Administration apparatus) at Project Runeberg - digitized images of telephone and switchboard equipment * [http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/telephone.htm Howstuffworks.com article on telephones] * [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1139/science_technology/telephones/ CBC Digital Archives - Canada Says Hello: The First Century of the Telephone] [[Category:Telephony]] [[Category:Office equipment]] [[ang:Feorrspreca]] [[ar:هاتف]] [[ast:Teléfonu]] [[bs:Telefon]] [[bg:Телефон]] [[ca:Telèfon]] [[cs:Telefon]] [[da:Telefon]] [[de:Telefon]] [[el:Τηλέφωνο]] [[es:Teléfono]] [[eo:Telefono]] [[eu:Telefono]] [[fa:تلفن]] [[fr:Téléphone]] [[gl:Teléfono]] [[hr:Telefon]] [[id:Telepon]] [[it:Telefono]] [[he:טלפון]] [[sw:Simu]] [[lv:Telefons]] [[lt:Telefonas]] [[hu:Távbeszélő]] [[mr:दूरध्वनी]] [[ms:Telefon]] [[nl:Telefoon]] [[ja:電話]] [[no:Telefon]] [[pl:Telefon]] [[pt:Telefone]] [[ru:Телефон]] [[simple:Telephone]] [[sk:Telefón]] [[sl:Telefon]] [[sr:Телефон]] [[fi:Puhelin]] [[sv:Telefon]] [[tl:Telepono]] [[ta:தொலைபேசி]] [[th:โทรศัพท์]] [[vi:Điện thoại]] [[tr:Telefon]] [[uk:Телефон]] [[zh:电话]] [[zh-yue:電話]] 3312 2006-10-25T22:01:03Z 69.246.213.81 /* Introduction */ free [[Image:Telephone-modele-W48.jpg|thumb|right|An old rotary telephone]] [[Image:Tphone2.jpg|right|thumb|A basic modern telephone]] The '''telephone''' or '''phone''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''tele'' = far away and ''phone'' = voice) is a [[telecommunication]]s device which is used to [[transmitter|transmit]] and receive [[sound]] (most commonly [[Human voice|voice]] and speech) across distance. Most telephones operate through transmission of [[Signal (information theory)|electric signals]] over a complex [[public switched telephone network|telephone network]] which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other. [[Image:ATTtelephone-large.jpg|thumb|right|Touch-tone telephone]] ==Introduction== [[Image:Uniden EXAI3985 DTMF buttons.jpg|thumb|right|A [[touch-tone]] telephone [[keypad]]<!---->]] An elementary telephone system would consist of three elements: * the equipment located at each subscriber which converts sound to electrical signals and back, and which allows the subscriber to answer or initiate a call, * a central switching facility which interconnects all the subscribers * wiring or other means to connect the subscriber to the central switching facility. There are three principal ways a subscriber may be connected to the telephone network: * Historically, and still very commonly, by dedicated physical wire connections run in overhead or underground cables; * By radio, as in a cordless, cellular, satellite or radiotelephone and * By [[voice over IP|voice over internet protocol]] (VoIP) telephones, which use [[Broadband Internet access|broadband internet]] connections. Between end users, transmissions across a network may be carried by [[fibre optic]] cable, land line cable, point to point [[microwave]] or [[satellite]] relay. Until relatively recently, a "telephone" generally referred only to landlines. [[Cordless telephone|Cordless]] and [[mobile phone]]s are now common in many places around the world, with mobile phones expected to gradually displace the conventional landline telephone. Unlike a mobile phone, a cordless telephone is considered to be landline because it is only useable within a short distance of a small personal or domestic [[base station]] connected to a fixed phone line. ==History== [[Image:CNAM-IMG 0564.jpg|thumb|Copy of the original phone of [[Graham Bell]] at the ''[[Musée des Arts et Métiers]]'' in Paris]] [[Image:1896_telephone.jpg|thumb|1896 Telephone ([[Sweden]])]] [[Image:Phone handset.jpeg|thumb|A telephone [[handset]]]] The identity of the inventor of the electric telephone remains in dispute. [[Antonio Meucci]], [[Johann Philipp Reis]], and [[Alexander Graham Bell]], amongst others, have all been credited with the [[invention]]. The very early history of the telephone is a confusing morass of claim and counterclaim, which was not clarified by the huge mass of lawsuits which hoped to resolve the patent claims of individuals. Much money was expended, particularly in the [[Bell Telephone]] companies, and the aggressive defence of the Bell patents resulted in much confusion. Additionally, the earliest investigators preferred publication in the popular press and demonstration to investors instead of scientific publication and demonstration to fellow scientists. It is important to note that there is probably no single "inventor of the telephone". The modern telephone is the result of work done by many hands, all worthy of recognition of their addition to the field. Only in the last ten years, however, has the [[Great Britain|British]] government announced that it now recognises (primarily for educational purposes) [[Antonio Meucci]] (see below) as the 'first inventor' of the telephone.{{fact}} {{see|Timeline of the telephone |Invention of the telephone}} ===Early development=== The following is a brief summary of the history of the invention of the telephone: *[[1849]] [[Antonio Meucci]], an Italian living in [[Havana]], demonstrates a device he later called a telephone. (The demonstration involves direct electrical connections to people.) *[[1854]] [[Charles Bourseul]] publishes a description of a make-break telephone transmitter and receiver but does not construct a working instrument. *[[1854]] Meucci demonstrates an electric telephone in New York. [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/meucci.html] *[[1860]] [[Johann Philipp Reis]] demonstrates a "telephon" using a pressure contact transmitter after the make-break design of Bourseul and a knitting needle receiver. Witnesses said they heard human voices being transmitted. *[[1860]] Meucci demonstrates his telephone on Staten Island. *[[1861]] Reis manages to transfer voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet, see [[Reis' telephone]]. *[[1864]] In an attempt to give his musical automaton a voice, [[Innocenzo Manzetti]] invents the 'Speaking telegraph'. He shows no interest in patenting his device, but it is reported in newspapers. *[[1865]] Meucci reads of Manzetti's invention and writes to the editors of two newspapers claiming priority and quoting his first experiment in 1849. He writes "I do not wish to deny Mr. Manzetti his invention, I only wish to observe that two thoughts could be found to contain the same discovery, and that by uniting the two ideas one can more easily reach the certainty about a thing this important." If he reads Meucci's offer of collaboration, Manzetti does not respond. *[[1871]] Meucci files a patent [[caveat]] (a statement of intention to patent). *[[1872]] [[Elisha Gray]] founds [[Western Electric]] Manufacturing Company. *1872 Prof Vanderwyde demonstrated Reis's telephone in New York. *July 1873 [[Thomas Edison]] notes variable resistance in carbon grains due to pressure and builds a rheostat based on the principle. *May 1874 Gray invents electromagnet device for transmitting musical tones. Some of his receivers use steel diaphragms. *December 1874 Gray demonstrates his musical tones device at the Presbyterian Church in Highland Park, Illinois and lectures on the possibility of transmitting speech. *[[2 June]] [[1875]] [[Alexander Graham Bell]] transmits the sound of plucked steel reeds using electromagnet instruments. *[[1 July]] [[1875]] Bell uses a bi-directional "gallows" telephone that was able to transmit "indistinct but voicelike sounds" but not clear speech. Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments. *1875 [[Thomas Edison]] experiments with [[acoustic telegraphy]] and in November builds an electro-dynamic receiver but does not exploit it. *[[11 February]] [[1876]] Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone, but does not build one. *[[14 February]] [[1876]] (about 9:30 am) Gray or his lawyer brings to the Patent Office Gray's caveat for the telephone. (A caveat was a notice of intention to file a patent application) *[[14 February]] [[1876]] (about 11:30am) Bell's lawyer brings to the Patent Office Bell's patent application for the telephone. Bell's lawyer requested that it be registered immediately in the cash blotter. **About two hours later Elisha Gray's caveat was registered in the cash blotter. Although Gray could have converted his caveat into a patent application, he did not do so. *[[7 March]] [[1876]] Bell's US patent 174,465 for the telephone is granted. *[[10 March]] [[1876]] Bell transmits speech "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you." using a liquid transmitter and an electromagnetic receiver. *[[16 May]] [[1876]] [[Thomas Edison]] files first patent application for [[acoustic telegraphy]]. *[[20 January]] [[1877]] Edison "first succeeded in transmitting over wires many articulated sentences" using carbon granules as a pressure sensitive variable resistance under the pressure of a diaphragm (Josephson, p143). *[[30 January]] [[1877]] Bell's US patent 186,787 is granted for an electro-magnetic telephone with transmitter and receiver using steel diaphrams and a call bell. *[[4 March]] [[1877]] [[Emile Berliner]] invents a [[microphone]] based on the "loose contact" between two metal electrodes, an improvement on the Reis telephone, and in April 1877 files a caveat of an invention in process. * [[27 April]] [[1877]] Edison files for a patent on a carbon (graphite) transmitter. The patent 474,230 was granted May 3, 1892 after a 15 year delay due to litigation. In 1892 a federal court ruled Edison and not Berliner was the inventor of the carbon transmitter. Edison was granted patent 222,390 for a carbon granules transmitter in 1979. Edison's carbon granules transmitter and Bell's electromagnetic receiver were used by the Bell system for many decades thereafter (Josephson, p 146). ===Later history=== [[Image:Ericofon.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Ericofon]] was a very futuristic handset when it was introduced in 1956.]] The history of additional inventions and improvements of the electrical telephone includes the [[carbon microphone]] (later replaced by the [[electret]] microphone now used in almost all telephone transmitters), the manual [[telephone switchboard|switchboard]], the [[rotary dial]], the [[automatic telephone exchange]], the computerized [[telephone switch]], Touch Tone® [[dialing]] ([[DTMF]]), and the digitization of sound using different coding techniques including pulse code modulation or [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] (which is also used for .[[WAV]], .AIF files and compact discs). Newer systems include [[Voice over IP|IP telephony]], [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]], [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], mobile [[cellular phone]] systems, [[cordless]] telephones, and the [[UMTS|third generation cell phone]] systems that promise to include high-speed [[Cellular digital packet data|packet data]] transfer. The industry has divided into telephone equipment manufacturers and telephone network operators (telcos). Operating companies often hold a national [[monopoly]]. In the United States, the [[Bell System]] was vertically integrated. It fully or partially owned the telephone companies that provided service to about 80% of the telephones in the country and also owned [[Western Electric]], which manufactured or purchased virtually all the equipment and supplies used by the local telephone companies. The Bell System divested itself of the local telephone companies in 1984 in order to settle an [[antitrust]] suit brought against it by the [[United States Department of Justice]]. In 1926 Bell Labs and the British Post Office engineered the first two-way conversation across the Atlantic. The first commercial transatlantic telephone call was between [[New York City]] and [[London]] and occurred on [[January 7]], [[1927]]. ==Digital Telephony== {{main|Digital Telephony}} The [[Public Switched Telephone Network]] (PSTN) has gradually evolved towards digital telephony which has improved the capacity and quality of the network. End-to-end [[Analog signal|analog]] telephone networks were first modified in the 1970s by upgrading long-haul transmission networks with [[SONET]] technology and [[fiber optic]] transmission methods. Digital transmission made it possible to carry multiple digitized [[switched circuit]]s on a single transmission medium (known as ''[[multiplexing]]''). While today the end instrument remains analog, the analog signals reaching the aggregation point ([[Serving Area Interface]] (SAI) or the [[central office]] (CO) ) are typically converted to [[digital signals]]. [[Digital loop carrier]]s (DLC) are often used, placing the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog [[local loop]] to legacy status. ==Wireless phone systems== While the term "[[wireless]]" means [[radio]] and can refer to any telephone that uses radio waves, it is primarily used for [[cell phone]]s. In the [[United States]] wireless companies tend to use the term wireless to refer to a wide range of services while the cell phone itself is called a mobile phone, mobile, [[Personal Communications Service|PCS phone]], cell phone or simply cell with the trend now moving towards [[mobile]]. The changes in terminology is partially due to providers using different terms in [[marketing]] to differentiate newer digital services from older analog systems and services of one company from another. ===Cordless telephone=== [[Image:CordlessUniden-large.jpg|right|thumb|125px|Cordless handset]] [[Cordless telephone]]s, invented by Teri Pall in 1965, consist of a base unit that connects to the land-line system and also communicates with remote [[handset]]s by low power [[radio]]. This permits use of the handset from any location within range of the base. Because of the power required to transmit to the handset, the base station is powered with an [[electronic power supply]]. Thus, cordless phones typically do not function during power outages. Initially, cordless phones used the 1.7 MHz frequency range to communicate between base and handset. Because of quality and range problems, these units were soon superseded by systems that used [[frequency modulation]] (FM) at higher frequency ranges (49 MHz, 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8 GHz). The 2.4 GHz cordless phones can interfere with certain [[wireless LAN]] protocols ([[IEEE 802.11|802.11b/g]]) due to the usage of the same frequencies. On the 2.4 GHz band, several "channels" are utilized in an attempt to guard against degradation in the quality of the voice signal due to crowding. The range of modern cordless phones is normally on the order of a few hundred [[meters]]. ===Mobile phones=== {{see|Mobile phone}} Most modern mobile phone systems are cell-structured. [[Radio]] is used to communicate between a handset and nearby [[cell site]]s. When a handset gets too far from a cell site, a computer system commands the handset and a closer cell site to take up the communications on a different channel without interrupting the call. Radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource. The higher frequencies used by cell phones have advantages over short distances. Connection distance is somewhat predictable and can be controlled by adjusting the power level. By only using enough power to connect to the "nearest" cell site phones using one cell site will cause almost no interference with phones using the same frequencies on another cell site. The higher frequencies also work well with various forms of [[multiplexing]] which allows more than one phone to connect to the same tower with the same set of frequencies. ====Satellite phones==== {{see|Satellite phone}} Some mobile telephones, especially those used in remote locations, where constructing a [[cell network]] would be too unprofitable or difficult, instead communicate directly with an orbiting [[satellite]]. Such devices tend to be bulkier than cell-based mobile phones, as they require a large [[antenna]] or [[satellite dish|dish]] for communicating with the satellite, but do not require ground based transmitters, making them useful for communicating from remote areas and disaster zones. ===Semi-Cordless Phone=== There are phones that work as a [[cordless]] phone when near their corresponding base station (and sometimes other base stations) and work as a [[wireless phone]] when in other locations but for a variety of reasons did not become popular. Some kinds of cordless phones work like cellular phones but only within a small private network covering a building or group of buildings. These kinds of systems using [[VoIP]] are popular in hospitals and factories where the same wireless network can be used for both data and voice. == VoIP Telephony== [[Image:voip-wifi.jpg|right|thumb|125px|A [[WiFi]]-based [[VoIP]] phone]] Also known as [[Internet]] telephony or [[Voice over IP]] (VoIP), digital telephony is a [[disruptive technology]] that is rapidly replacing traditional telephone networks. In [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]] up to 10% of subscribers, as of January [[2005]], have switched from analog to digital telephone service. A recent [[Newsweek]] article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing." [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6831938/site/newsweek/] There are many VoIP providers on the market (such as [[Packet8]], [[Vonage]], and [[Sunrocket]]) at the moment, and statistics suggest over 40% of the world population will have switched to VoIP by year 2010.{{fact}} Digital telephones use a [[broadband]] [[Internet]] connection to transmit conversations as [[data packet]]s. In addition to replacing the PSTN, digital telephony is also competing with [[mobile phone]] networks by offering free or lower cost connections via [[WiFi]] [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)|hotspot]]s. As mentioned above [[VoIP]] is also used on private wireless networks which may or may not have a connection to the outside telephone network. ==Telephone equipment research labs== [[Bell Labs]] is a noted telephone equipment research laboratory, amongst its other research fields.. ==Telephone operating companies== In some countries, many telephone operating companies (commonly abbreviated to ''[[Telephone company|telco]]'' in American English) are in competition to provide [[telephone]] services. Some of them include those in the following list. However, the list only includes providers of copper wires from the [[Telephone exchange|exchange]] to the user, not those who only supply "[[Voice over IP]]" or only transport voice signals between exchanges. <!-- Are there companies to whom this assertion does not apply? --> ''See also'': [[List of telephone operating companies]] ==Trivia== *The modern handset came into existence when a Swedish lineman tied a microphone and earphone to a stick so he could keep a hand free. *The folding portable phone was an intentional copy of the fictional futuristic communicators (which in use actually more closely resembled [[walkie-talkie]]s, [[Nextel]]-style) used in the television show [[Star Trek]], though similar devices were seen in other TV shows before that. *In [[Unicode]], telephones are depicted with the characters whose [[hexadecimal]] codes are 260E (☎), 260F (☏) and 2706 (✆), (but may not display properly in some browsers). == See also == <!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Note: the list got too long, and needed subject categories. Please add new links under the correct heading. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --> {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone equipment=== * [[431A]] * [[610 (telephone)|610]] * [[Answering machine]] * [[Cordless telephone]] * [[Cellular repeater]] * [[Emergency telephone]] * [[Modem]] * [[Payphone]] * [[Pen register]] * [[Photophone]] * [[Telautograph]] * [[Telecommunications Device for the Deaf]] (TDD or TTY) * [[Telegraphy|Telegraph]] * [[Telephone switchboard|Switchboard]] * [[Teleprinter#Telex|Telex]] * [[Teletype]] * [[Electronic Switching System]] {{col-break}} ===Telephone equipment manufacturers=== {{commons|Telephone}} Several manufacturers build telephones of all kinds. Some of these are: *[[Aastra Technologies]] *[[Advanced American Telephones]] (makers of [[AT&T]] Telephones) *[[Alcatel]] *[[Avaya]] *[[Clarity Products]] (makers of amplified telephones) *[[Conair]] (makers of [[Southwestern Bell]] Freedom Phone) *[[Convedia]] *[[Ericsson]] *[[Huawei]] *[[Kyocera]] *[[Marconi]] *[[Mitel]] *[[Motorola]] *[[Nokia]] *[[Nortel]] *[[palmOne]] / [[Handspring]] *[[Philips]] *[[Samsung]] *[[Siemens AG]] *[[Sony Ericsson]] *[[Unical Enterprises]] (makers of [[Northwestern Bell]] Phones) *[[Uniden]] *[[US Electronics]] (makers of [[BellSouth]] Products) {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone technology=== * [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line]] (ADSL) * [[Automatic call distributor |Automatic Call Distribution]] * [[AIOD leads]] * [[ANAC]] * [[ANI]] * [[Assistive technology]] * [[Automatic redial]] * [[Call capture]] * [[Call forwarding]] * [[Call waiting]] * [[Caller ID]] * [[Call-through telecom]] * [[Computer telephony integration]] (CTI) * [[Customer premises equipment]] (CPE) * [[Dial tone]] * [[Digital subscriber line]] (DSL) * [[Direct dial]] * [[Direct distance dialing]] * [[Dual tone multi frequency]] (DTMF) * [[Interactive Voice Response]] (IVR) * [[Last Call Return]] (*69) * [[Telephone feature code]] (* code) * [[Party line (telephony)]] * [[Plain old telephone service]] (POTS) * [[Ringing signal]] * [[Signal strength]] * [[Videotex]] * [[Voice over Internet Protocol]] (VOIP) {{col-break}} ===Telephone system, organization, and structure=== * [[Area code]] * [[Office code]] * [[Basic exchange telecommunications radio service]] * [[Bell System]] * [[Call center]] * [[Competitive local exchange carrier]] (CLEC) * [[Foreign exchange service]] * [[Incumbent local exchange company]] (ILEC) * [[Key system]] * [[Local exchange company]] (LEC) * [[Public Switched Telephone Network]] (PSTN) * [[Regional Bell operating company]] (RBOC) * [[Post office]] * [[Private line]] * [[Private branch exchange]] (PBX) * [[Station set]] {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone hacking and exploitation=== * [[Blue box]] * [[Bomb threat]] * [[Prank call|Crank (or prank) call]] * [[Demon dialing]] * [[Phreaking|(Phone) phreaking]] * [[Speed dialer]] * [[Telephone fraud]] * [[War dialing]] {{col-break}} === Telephony in the USA === * [[Competitive local exchange carrier]] (CLEC) * [[Federal Standard 1037C]] * [[Interexchange carrier]] (IXC) * [[List of telephony terms]] * [[Local access and transport area]] (LATA) * [[Local exchange carrier]] (LEC) * [[Modification of Final Judgment]] * [[Part 68|Federal Regulations - Part 68]] * [[Regional Bell operating company]] (RBOC) === Telephony outside the USA === * [[Telecom]] * [[Telecommunications industry in China]] {{col-end}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Telephone terminology=== * [[Call originator]] * [[Call waiting]] * [[Called party]] * [[Caller (telecommunications)|Caller]] * [[Calling party]] * [[Circuit busy]] * [[payphone|COCOT]] * [[Deaf]] * [[Emergency telephone number]] * [[End instrument]] * [[Fax]] * [[Help desk]] * [[telephone hook|Hook]] * [[Hook Flash]] * [[Hunt Group]] * [[Infrastructure]] * [[Interactive voice response]] (IVR) * [[Telephone Line|Line]] * [[Local loop]] * [[Long-distance operator]] * [[Operator assistance]] * [[Person-to-person]] * [[Red telephone]], [[Red telephone box]], * [[Ringer equivalency number]] (REN) * [[Ringing signal]] * [[Rural radio service]] * [[Smartphone]] * [[Station-to-station]] * [[Telemarketing]] * [[Telephone booth]] * [[Telephone call]] * [[Telephone card]] * [[Telephone directory]] * [[Telephone exchange]] * [[Telephone tapping]] * [[Telephone User Interface]] (TUI) * [[Telephony Application Programming Interface]] (TAPI) * [[Trap and trace]] * [[TWX]] * [[Vertical service code]] * [[Visiophone]], [[vision]] telephone * [[Voicemail]] * [[Western Union]] * [[Wide Area Telephone Service]] (WATS) * [[WATS line]] * [[Wireless network]] * [[Wi-Fi]] * [[Zenith number]] {{col-break}} ===Telephone Standards=== ====Wired Standards==== * [[RJ-11, RJ-12, RJ-14, RJ-25|RJ-11]] * [[RJ-45]] * [[BS 6312]] ====Wireless Standards ==== There are many standards for common carrier wireless telephony, often with incompatible standards used in the same nation: * First generation - Analog ** [[marine and mobile radio telephony]] ** [[AMPS]] *** [[CDPD]] ** [[Nordic Mobile Telephone|NMT]] * Satellite systems- digital ** [[Inmarsat]] ** [[Iridium (satellite)]] * Second generation ([[2G]]) - Digital ** [[IS-95|CDMA IS-95A]] ** [[Global system for mobile communications|GSM]], (different frequencies for different continents: see GSM article) ** [[iDEN]] ** [[TDMA IS-136]] * [[2.5G]] ** [[IS-95|CDMA IS-95B]] ** [[GPRS]] ** [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] ** [[PDC-P]] * Third generation ([[3G]]) ** [[IS-2000|CDMA 2000]] ** [[UMTS]], also called [[W-CDMA]] ** [[TD-SCDMA]] ====Other ==== * [[Flat rate]] {{col-end}} == Patents == {{wiktionarypar|telephone}} * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0174465 US 174,465] -- ''Telegraphy'' (Bell's first telephone patent) -- Alexander Graham Bell * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0474230 US 474,230] -- ''Speaking Telegraph'' (graphite transmitter) -- Thomas Edison * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0203016 US 203,016] -- ''Speaking Telephone'' (carbon button transmitter) -- Thomas Edison * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0222390 US 222,390] -- ''Carbon Telephone'' (carbon granules transmitter) -- Thomas Edison {{wiktionarypar|cordless telephone}} * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3449750 US 3,449,750] -- ''Duplex Radio Communication and Signalling Appartus'' -- G. H. Sweigert * [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=3663762 US 3,663,762] -- ''Cellular Mobile Communication System'' -- Amos Edward Joel (Bell Labs) == References == * Coe, Lewis (1995). ''The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History'', McFarland, North Carolina, 1995. ISBN 0-7864-0138-9 * Evenson, A. Edward (2000). ''The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray - Alexander Bell Controversy'', McFarland, North Carolina, 2000. ISBN 0-7864-0883-9 * Baker, Burton H. (2000). ''The Gray Matter: The Forgotten Story of the Telephone'', Telepress, St. Joseph, MI, 2000. ISBN 0-615-11329-X * Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). ''The Worldwide History of Telecommunications'', IEEE Press and J. Wiley & Sons, 2003. ISBN 0471205052 *Josephson, Matthew (1959) ''Edison: A Biography'' McGraw Hill, New York. ISBN 07-033046-8 ==Further reading== *[[Robert Sobel]] ''The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition'' (Weybright & Talley [[1974]]), ISBN 0-679-40064-8. <!-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Wikipedia is not a collection of external links. Please don't add links to your company here - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --> == External links == * [http://runeberg.org/teleapp/index.htm 1906 telephones and equipment (Swedish)] ''Kungliga Telegrafverkets apparater'' (Royal Telegraph Administration apparatus) at Project Runeberg - digitized images of telephone and switchboard equipment * [http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/telephone.htm Howstuffworks.com article on telephones] * [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1139/science_technology/telephones/ CBC Digital Archives - Canada Says Hello: The First Century of the Telephone] [[Category:Telephony]] [[Category:Office equipment]] [[ang:Feorrspreca]] [[ar:هاتف]] [[ast:Teléfonu]] [[bs:Telefon]] [[bg:Телефон]] [[ca:Telèfon]] [[cs:Telefon]] [[da:Telefon]] [[de:Telefon]] [[el:Τηλέφωνο]] [[es:Teléfono]] [[eo:Telefono]] [[eu:Telefono]] [[fa:تلفن]] [[fr:Téléphone]] [[gl:Teléfono]] [[hr:Telefon]] [[id:Telepon]] [[it:Telefono]] [[he:טלפון]] [[sw:Simu]] [[lv:Telefons]] [[lt:Telefonas]] [[hu:Távbeszélő]] [[mr:दूरध्वनी]] [[ms:Telefon]] [[nl:Telefoon]] [[ja:電話]] [[no:Telefon]] [[pl:Telefon]] [[pt:Telefone]] [[ru:Телефон]] [[simple:Telephone]] [[sk:Telefón]] [[sl:Telefon]] [[sr:Телефон]] [[fi:Puhelin]] [[sv:Telefon]] [[tl:Telepono]] [[ta:தொலைபேசி]] [[th:โทรศัพท์]] [[vi:Điện thoại]] [[tr:Telefon]] [[uk:Телефон]] [[zh:电话]] [[zh-yue:電話]] 1682 3122 2006-08-12T07:22:18Z Eukesh 59 {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" ! align="center" bgcolor="#ECE5CA"|<big>''' Learn Pali '''</big> |- bgcolor="#FAF9EC" valign="top" | style="border-top:1px solid #996600; padding-right:10px;" align="justify" | * [http://www.pali.dk/ Pali.dk] - A newly started project aimed at creating free online Pāli dictionaries and educational resources. * [http://www.palitext.com/ Pali Text Society] * [http://www.pratyeka.org/narada/ A basic Pāli language textbook (free) in Unicode PDF format] * [http://www.pratyeka.org/pali/ Resources for reading & writing Pāli in indigenous scripts: Burmese, Sri Lankan, & Cambodian] * [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=50 Pāli Discussion Forum] * [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ Pāli-English dictionary] * [http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/ Complete Pāli Canon in romanized Pali and Sinhala, mostly also in English translation] * [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/index.html Pāli Canon selection] * [http://accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bullitt/learningpali.html A guide to learning the Pāli language] * [http://www.vri.dhamma.org/publications/pali/primer/ "Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (requires installation of special fonts)] * [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/uni/u-palicb/e00.htm "Pali Primer" by Lily De Silva (UTF-8 encoded)] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/ele_pali.pdf Free/Public-Domain Elementary Pāli Course--PDF format] * [http://www.orunla.org/tm/pali/htpali/pcourse.html Free/Public-Domain Pāli Course--html format] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/paligram.pdf Free/Public-Domain Pāli Grammar (in PDF file)] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/palidict.pdf Free/Public-Domain Pāli Buddhist Dictionary (in PDF file)] * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Pali Yahoo discussion group on Pāli] * [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=50 E-Sangha Pāli Discussion Forum: for experts and students] * [http://ca.geocities.com/palistudy/ Geocities discussion group on Pāli (homepage)] * [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Pali Comprehensive list of Pāli texts on Wikisource] * [http://www.metta.lk/pali-utils/Pali-Proper-Names/index.html Buddhist Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names], HTML version of the book by G.P. Malalasekera, 1937-8 * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/palireader Pāli Text Reader (software)] *[http://www.jainworld.com/scriptures/ Jain Scriptures] |} 1683 3125 2006-08-16T15:51:34Z Eukesh 59 * [[बुद्ध]] 1684 3126 2006-08-16T15:54:03Z Eukesh 59 [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|A stone image of the Buddha.]] In [[Buddhism]], a '''Buddha''' ([[Sanskrit]], [[Pāli]]) is any being who has become fully awakened or [[Bodhi|enlightened]], has permanently overcome [[anger]], [[greed]], and [[ignorance]], and has achieved complete liberation from [[suffering]], better known as [[Nirvana]]. It is commonly used to refer to [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhartha Gautama]], the historical founder of [[Buddhism]]. ''Buddha'' literally means "awakened" or "that which has become aware". It is the [[past participle]] of the [[Sanskrit]] root ''budh'', i.e. "to awaken", "to know", or "to become aware". The word ''Buddha'' is simply a title that means 'The Awakened One'. A typical misconception tends to link Buddha as the Buddhist counterpart of the entity known as [[God]]; however, Buddhism is non-theistic, in the sense of not generally teaching the existence of a supreme Creator God (see [[God in Buddhism]]) or depending on any supreme being for enlightenment, in Buddhism, Buddha is a guide and teacher who points the way. The commonly accepted definition of the term "God" refers to a being who not only rules but actually created the Universe in the [[Origin belief|Beginning]]. Such ideas and concepts are disputed by Buddha and Buddhists in many of his discourses. The supreme origin and creator of our world and universe isn't God in Buddhism, but [[Avidya]] or ignorance. Buddhists try to dispel this darkness through constant practice, wisdom and compassion known as [[prajna]]. In the [[Pali Canon]] Buddha refers to anyone who has become Enlightened (i.e. having awakened to the truth, or ''[[Dharma]]'') on their own, without a teacher to point out the [[Dhamma|Dharma]], in a time when the teachings on the [[Four Noble Truths]] or the [[Eightfold Path]] do not exist in the world. Generally, Buddhists do not consider [[Siddhartha Gautama]] to have been the only Buddha. In the [[Pali Canon]] there is a mention of Gautama Buddha as being the 28th Buddha (see [[List of the 28 Buddhas]]). A common buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named [[Maitreya]]. Buddhism teaches that anyone can become awakened and experience [[Nirvana]]. [[Theravada]] Buddhism teaches that one doesn't need to become a Buddha to become awakened and experience Nirvana, since an [[Arahant]] also has those qualities. Some Buddhist texts such as the [[Lotus Sutra]] imply that all beings will become Buddhas at some point in time. == Types of Buddhas == {{main|Types of Buddhas}} In the [[Pali Canon]], there are considered to be two types of Buddhas: [[Samyaksambuddha]] (Sammasambuddha) and [[Pratyekabuddha|Pratyeka Buddha]] (Paccekabuddha). 1. [[Samyaksambuddha]]s (Pali: ''Sammasambuddha'') attains Buddhahood and decides to teach others the truth that he has discovered. They lead others to awakening by teaching the [[Dharma]] in a time or world where it has been forgotten or has not been taught before. The Historical Buddha, [[Siddhartha Gautama]], is considered a Samyak-sambuddha. See also the [[List of the 28 Buddhas|list of 28 sammasambuddhas]] 2. [[Pratyekabuddha]]s (Pali: ''Paccekabuddha''), sometimes called Silent Buddhas) are similar to Samyaksambuddhas in that they attain [[Nirvana]] and acquire the same powers as a Sammasambuddha does, but they choose not to teach what they have discovered. They are second to the Buddhas in their spiritual development. They do ordain others; their admonition is only in reference to good and proper conduct (abhisamācārikasikkhā). In some texts, the Paccekabuddha is described as one who understands the Dharma by his own efforts, but does not obtain omniscience nor mastery over the Fruits (phalesu vasībhāvam).[http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/pa/pacceka_buddha.htm] One 12th century Theravadin commentary uses the term Savakabuddha to describe the enlightened disciple. According to this scripture there are 3 types of Buddhas. In this case, however, the common definition of the meaning of the word Buddha (as one who discovers the Dhamma without a teacher) does not apply any more. Mainstream Theravadin and Mahayana scriptures do not recognize this term and state there are only two kinds of Buddha. Disciples of a Sammasambuddha are called [[Savaka]]s (hearers or followers) or [[Arahants]] (Noble One). These terms have slightly varied meanings but can all be used to describe the enlightened disciple. ''Anubuddha'' is a rarely used term, but was used by the Buddha in the ''Khuddakapatha''<ref> Ratanasutta:56</ref> as to those who become Buddha's after being given instruction. Enlightened disciples attain Nirvana and Parinirvana as the two types of Buddhas do. The most generally used term for them is [[Arahant]]. ==Characteristics of a Buddha== ===Nine characteristics=== Buddhists meditate on (or contemplate) the Buddha as having nine characteristics: :"The Blessed One is: :#a worthy one :#perfectly self enlightened :#stays in perfect knowledge :#well gone :#unsurpassed knower of the world :#unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed :#teacher of the Divine Gods and humans :#the Enlightened One :#the Blessed One or fortunate one These 9 characteristics are frequently mentioned in the [[Pali Canon]], and are chanted daily in many Buddhist monasteries. ===Spiritual realizations=== All traditions hold that a Buddha has completely purified his mind of greed, aversion and ignorance, and that he has put an end to [[samsara]]. A Buddha is fully awakened and has realized the ultimate truth of life ([[Dharma]]), and thus ended (for himself) the [[suffering]] which unawakened people experience in life. Also, a Buddha is complete in all spiritual powers that a human being can develop, and posesses them in the highest degree possible. ===The Nature of Buddha=== {{see|Buddhology}} The various buddhist schools hold some varying interpretations on the nature of Buddha. ====Pali Canon: Buddha was human==== {{main|Buddha - God or Man}} From the [[Pali Canon]] emerges the view that Buddha was human, endowed with the greatest psychic powers ([[Kevatta Sutta]]). The body and mind (the five [[khandha]]s) of a Buddha are impermanent and changing, just like the body and mind of ordinary people. However, a Buddha recognizes the unchanging nature of the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]], which is an eternal principle and an unconditioned and timeless phenomenon. This view is common in the Theravada school, and the other [[early Buddhist schools]]. ====Eternal Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism==== {{main|Eternal Buddha}} Some schools of Mahayana Buddhism believe that the Buddha is no longer essentially a human being but has become a being of a different order altogether and that the Buddha, in his ultimate transcendental "body/mind" mode as [[Dharmakaya]], has an eternal and infinite life (see [[eternal Buddha]]) and is possessed of great and immeasurable qualities. In the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]] the Buddha declares: "Nirvana is stated to be eternally abiding. The Tathagata [Buddha] is also thus, eternally abiding, without change." This is a particularly important metaphysical and soteriological doctrine in the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Tathagatagarbha]] sutras. According to the Tathagatagarbha sutras, failure to recognise the Buddha's eternity and - even worse - outright denial of that eternity is deemed a major obstacle to the attainment of complete Awakening ([[bodhi]]). == Depictions of the Buddha in art == [[Image:ShwedagonIMG 7662.JPG|thumb|Buddha statues at Shwedagon Paya]] [[Image:ShwedagonIMG 7656.JPG|thumb|Jade Buddha statue at Shwedagon Paya]] Buddhas are frequently represented in the form of statues and paintings. Commonly seen designs include: * Seated Buddha * Reclining Buddha * Standing Buddha *''[[Hotei]]'', the obese, [[Laughing Buddha]], usually seen in [[China]]. This figure is believed to be a representation of a medieval Chinese monk who is associated with Maitreya, the future Buddha, and it is therefore not technically a Buddha image. * The 'Emaciated Buddha', which shows Siddartha Gautama during his extreme ascetic practice of starvation. The Buddha statue shown calling for rain is a pose common in [[Laos]]. ===Markings=== Most depictions of Buddha contain a certain number of ''markings'', which are considered the signs of his enlightenment. These signs vary regionally, but two are common: * A protuberance on the top of the head (denoting superb mental accuity) * Long earlobes (denoting superb perception) In the [[Pali Canon]] there is frequent mention of a list of [[Thirty-two marks of the Buddha|32 physical marks of Buddha]]. ===Hand-gestures=== The poses and hand-gestures of these statues, known respectively as [[asana]]s and [[mudra]]s, are significant to their overall meaning. The popularity of any particular mudra or asana tends to be region-specific, such as the ''[[Vajra]]'' (or ''Chi Ken-in'') mudra, which is popular in [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] but rarely seen in [[India]]. Others are more universally common, for example, the ''Varada'' (Wish Granting) mudra is common among standing statues of the Buddha, particularly when coupled with the ''Abhaya'' (Fearlessness and Protection) mudra. ==Sources== <references/> *''What the Buddha Taught'' (Grove Press, Revised edition July 1974), by Walpola Rahula *''Buddha - The Compassionate Teacher'' (2002), by K.M.M.Swe ==See also== {{sisterlinks|Buddha}} *[[Gautama Buddha]] *[[List of the 28 Buddhas]] *[[Maitreya|Maitreya Buddha]] *[[Amitabha|Amitabha Buddha]] *[[Vairocana|Vairocana Buddha]] *[[Buddha-nature]] *[[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]] *[[Eternal Buddha]] *[[Buddha as an Avatara of Vishnu]] *[[List of Buddha claimants]] *[[Thirty-two marks of the Buddha]] *[[Fourteen unanswerable questions]] ==External links== * [http://www.aboutbuddha.org About Buddha] - Excerpts about the life of Buddha from ''Introduction to Buddhism'' * [http://www.accesstoinsight.org Very extensive database of sutras and other Buddhist articles] * [http://www.buddhaslists.com Information on Buddha's lists] * [http://www.gautamabuddha.org Mahamevnawa Buddhist Monastery - Sri Lanka] * [http://www.mettaforest.org/ Free dhamma talks and articles] * [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/ The Buddha and His Dhamma] * [http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and a huge forum.] * [http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/index.htm Buddhist Studies] * [http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal] * [http://www.meditateinlondon.org.uk/about-buddha.php About Buddha - the Founder of Buddhism] * [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/burmese/cooler/80Scenes/80_scenes_of_buddhas_life.htm The Life of the Buddha in 80 Scenes from the Ananda Temple,Bagan,Myanmar] * [http://www.buddhanature.com Songs and Meditations of the Tibetan Dhyani Buddhas] * [http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk The Complete Text of the Mahaparinirvana Sutra], on the eternal nature of the Buddha * [http://www.vri.dhamma.org/publications/buddha.html Gotama the Buddha] - Info from the website of the vipassana meditation technique as taught by [[S. N. Goenka]]. * [http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism.html Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]- Worldwide Non-Sectarian Buddhist Community. * [http://www.lensculture.com/buddha.html Images of Buddha] - worldwide submitted photos [[Category:Buddha]] [[Category:Buddha|*]] [[Category:Buddhism]] [[ar:بوذا]] [[ba:Будда]] [[bg:Буда]] [[cs:Buddha]] [[da:Buddha]] [[de:Buddha]] [[es:Buda]] [[eo:Budho]] [[fr:Bouddha]] [[ko:부처]] [[id:Buddha]] [[zu:uBudha]] [[it:Buddha]] [[he:גאוטמה בודהא]] [[jv:Buddha]] [[kn:ಬುಧ್ದ]] [[hu:Buddha]] [[ms:Buddha]] [[nl:Boeddha]] [[ja:仏陀]] [[nn:Buddha]] [[nds:Buddha]] [[pl:Budda]] [[pt:Buda]] [[ro:Buddha]] [[ru:Будда]] [[simple:Buddha]] [[sk:Budha]] [[sl:Buda]] [[sr:Буда]] [[fi:Buddha]] [[sv:Buddha]] [[th:พระพุทธเจ้า]] [[vi:Bụt]] [[tpi:Buda]] [[uk:Сиддхартха Гаутама Будда]] [[zh:佛]] 1758 3210 2006-09-25T20:35:27Z 202.161.131.76 {{चिकित्सा}} 1759 3211 2006-09-25T20:36:38Z 202.161.131.76 <br clear=all /> {| style="margin:0 auto;" align=center width="80%" class="toccolours" !style="background:#ccccff"|<big>[[स्वास्थ्य विज्ञान]] – [[चिकित्साशास्त्र]]</big> |- |align=center|[[मूर्छाशास्त्र]](Anesthesiology)&nbsp;| [[चर्मशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[आकस्मिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[साधारण चिकित्सक]]&nbsp;| [[आन्तरिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[स्नायुशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[प्रसवशास्त्र]] व [[महिलारोग शास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[कार्यव्याधि चिकित्सा]](Occupational Medicine)&nbsp;| [[रोगशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[बालरोगशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[भौतिक चिकित्सा र पूनर्स्थापना]]&nbsp;| [[मानसिक चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[सामाजिक स्वास्थ्य]]&nbsp;| [[चिकित्सा विकिरणशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[शल्यचिकित्सा]] |- !style="background:#ccccff"| [[आन्तरिक चिकित्सा]] क्षेत्रा |- |align=center| [[हृदयशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ग्रन्थिशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ग्यास्त्रोएन्टेरोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[रक्तशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[कम्युनिकेबल रोग चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[ईन्टेन्सिभ केयर चिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[मृगौलाशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[ओन्कोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[फोक्सोशास्त्र]]&nbsp;| [[रिउम्याटोलोजी]] |- !style="background:#ccccff"| [[शल्यचिकित्सा]] क्षेत्रा |- |align=center| [[हृदयछाती शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[चार्मिक शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[साधारण शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[महिला शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[स्नायुशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[नेत्रशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[मुख व अनुहार शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[अंग प्रत्यारोपण]]&nbsp;| [[हाडजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[ओटोल्यारिंजियोलोजी]]&nbsp;<small>(ENT)</small>&nbsp;| [[बाल्यशल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[प्लास्टिक शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[क्यान्सर शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[चोट शल्यचिकित्सा]]&nbsp;| [[युरोलोजी]]&nbsp;| [[धमनी शल्यचिकित्सा]] |} 1760 3212 2006-09-25T20:39:09Z 202.161.131.76 {{चिकित्सा}} 1762 3220 2006-09-30T11:07:59Z Xandi 69 +iw '''><(((*>''' [[pt:User:Xandi]] [[aa:User:Xandi]] [[af:Gebruiker:Xandi]] [[ak:User:Xandi]] [[als:Benutzer:Xandi]] [[am:User:Xandi]] [[an:Usuario:Xandi]] [[ang:User:Xandi]] [[ar:مستخدم:Xandi]] [[arc:User:Xandi]] [[as:User:Xandi]] [[ast:Usuariu:Xandi]] [[ay:Utilisateur:Xandi]] [[av:Участник:Xandi]] [[az:İstifadəçi:Xandi]] [[ba:Ҡатнашыусы:Xandi]] [[be:Удзельнік:Xandi]] [[bg:Потребител:Xandi]] [[bm:Utilisateur:Xandi]] [[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Xandi]] [[bo:User:Xandi]] [[br:Implijer:Xandi]] [[bs:User:Xandi]] [[ca:Usuari:Xandi]] [[ch:User:Xandi]] [[chr:User:Xandi]] [[co:User:Xandi]] [[ceb:User:Xandi]] [[cs:Wikipedista:Xandi]] [[csb:Brëkòwnik:Xandi]] [[cy:Defnyddiwr:Xandi]] [[cv:Хутшăнакан:Xandi]] [[da:Bruger:Xandi]] [[dv:User:Xandi]] [[dz:User:Xandi]] [[ee:User:Xandi]] [[el:Χρήστης:Xandi]] [[en:User:Xandi]] [[eo:Vikipediisto:Xandi]] [[es:Usuario:Xandi]] [[et:Kasutaja:Xandi]] [[eu:user:Xandi]] [[fa:کاربر:Xandi]] [[ff:User:Xandi]] [[fi:Käyttäjä:Xandi]] [[fiu-vro:User:Xandi]] [[fj:User:Xandi]] [[fo:Brúkari:Xandi]] [[fr:Utilisateur:Xandi]] [[frp:User:Xandi]] [[fur:Utent:Xandi]] [[fy:Meidogger:Xandi]] [[ga:Úsáideoir:Xandi]] [[gd:User:Xandi]] [[gl:User:Xandi]] [[got:User:Xandi]] [[gu:User:Xandi]] [[haw:User:Xandi]] [[he:משתמש:Xandi]] [[hi:सदस्य:Xandi]] [[kj:User:Xandi]] [[hr:Suradnik:Xandi]] [[hu:User:Xandi]] [[hz:User:Xandi]] [[ia:Usator:Xandi]] [[id:user:Xandi]] [[ig:User:Xandi]] [[ii:User:Xandi]] [[ilo:User:Xandi]] [[io:User:Xandi]] [[is:User:Xandi]] [[it:Utente:Xandi]] [[iu:User:Xandi]] [[ja:利用者:Xandi]] [[jv:Panganggo:Xandi]] [[ka:მომხმარებელი:Xandi]] [[kg:User:Xandi]] [[ki:User:Xandi]] [[kj:User:Xandi]] [[kk:User:Xandi]] [[km:User:Xandi]] [[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Xandi]] [[kr:User:Xandi]] [[ks:User:Xandi]] [[ksh:Medmaacher:Xandi]] [[ku:Bikarhêner:Xandi]] [[kv:Участник:Xandi]] [[kw:User:Xandi]] [[la:Usor:Xandi]] [[lad:User:Xandi]] [[lb:user:Xandi]] [[lg:User:Xandi]] [[li:Gebroeker:Xandi]] [[lij:User:Xandi]] [[lmo:User:Xandi]] [[ln:User:Xandi]] [[lo:User:Xandi]] [[lt:Naudotojas:Xandi]] [[lv:Lietotājs:Xandi]] [[mg:User:Xandi]] [[mi:user:Xandi]] [[mk:Корисник:Xandi]] [[ml:User:Xandi]] [[mo:User:Xandi]] [[mr:User:Xandi]] [[ms:User:Xandi]] [[mt:User:Xandi]] [[nah:Usuario:Xandi]] [[nap:User:Xandi]] [[nds:Bruker:Xandi]] [[nds-nl:Gebruker:Xandi]] [[ng:User:Xandi]] [[nl:Gebruiker:Xandi]] [[nn:User:Xandi]] [[no:Bruker:Xandi]] [[nrm:User:Xandi]] [[ny:User:Xandi]] [[nv:User:Xandi]] [[oc:User:Xandi]] [[om:User:Xandi]] [[or:User:Xandi]] [[os:Архайæг:Xandi]] [[pa:ਮੈਂਬਰ:Xandi]] [[pam:User:Xandi]] [[pap:User:Xandi]] [[pdc:User:Xandi]] [[pl:Wikipedysta:Xandi]] [[pms:Ciaciarade:Xandi]] [[ps:User:Xandi]] [[qu:Usuario:Xandi]] [[rm:User:Xandi]] [[rn:User:Xandi]] [[ro:Utilizator:Xandi]] [[ru:Участник:Xandi]] [[rw:User:Xandi]] [[sa:User:Xandi]] [[sc:Utente:Xandi]] [[scn:User:Xandi]] [[sco:User:Xandi]] [[sd:User:Xandi]] [[se:User:Xandi]] [[sg:User:Xandi]] [[sh:User:Xandi]] [[si:User:Xandi]] [[simple:User:Xandi]] [[sk:Redaktor:Xandi]] [[sl:Uporabnik:Xandi]] [[sn:User:Xandi]] [[sq:User:Xandi]] [[sr:Корисник:Xandi]] [[ss:User:Xandi]] [[st:User:Xandi]] [[su:Pamaké:Xandi]] [[sv:Användare:Xandi]] [[sw:User:Xandi]] [[ta:பயனர்:Xandi]] [[te:సభ్యుడు:Xandi]] [[tet:User:Xandi]] [[tg:Корбар:Xandi]] [[th:ผู้ใช้:Xandi]] [[ti:User:Xandi]] [[tk:User:Xandi]] [[tl:User:Xandi]] [[tn:User:Xandi]] [[tpi:User:Xandi]] [[tr:Kullanıcı:Xandi]] [[tt:Äğzä:Xandi]] [[tum:User:Xandi]] [[ty:User:Xandi]] [[tw:User:Xandi]] [[udm:Викиавтор:Xandi]] [[uk:Користувач:Xandi]] [[ur:صارف:Xandi]] [[uz:User:Xandi]] [[ve:User:Xandi]] [[vec:Utente:Xandi]] [[vi:user:Xandi]] [[vls:User:Xandi]] [[xal:Орлцач:Xandi]] [[xh:User:Xandi]] [[yi:באַניצער:Xandi]] [[yo:User:Xandi]] [[wa:Uzeu:Xandi]] [[war:User:Xandi]] [[wo:User:Xandi]] [[za:User:Xandi]] [[zh:User:Xandi]] [[zh-min-nan:User:Xandi]] [[zh-yue:User:Xandi]] [[zu:User:Xandi]] 1763 3227 2006-10-07T05:57:46Z Eukesh 59 {{हिन्दू धम्म}} 1764 3228 2006-10-07T06:01:09Z Eukesh 59 {| align="left" class="toccolours" style="clear:both;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | {| style="background:orange; border: 0px; padding: 0px; spacing:0px;width:100%;" |- | width="60%"; style="text-align:center; font-size:100%;" | '''[[हिन्दू धम्म]]''' |} {| |align="right" style="font-size: 90%; " |'''[[श्रुति(हिन्दू धम्म)|श्रुति]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[वेद]] · [[उपनिषद]] · [[श्रुत]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[स्मृति(हिन्दू धम्म)|स्मृति]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ईतिहास (हिन्दू धम्म)|ईतिहास]] ([[रामायण]], [[महाभारत]], [[श्रीमदभागवत गीता]]) · [[पुराण]] · [[सुत्र]] · [[आगम(धम्म)|आगम]] ([[तन्त्र]], [[यन्त्र]]) · [[वेदान्त]] |- |valign="top" align=right style="font-size: 90%;" |'''विचार''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[अवतार]] · [[आत्मा (हिन्दू धर्म)|आत्मा]] · [[ब्राह्मन]] · [[कोसस]] · [[धम्म(हिन्दू धम्म)|धम्म]] · [[कर्म (हिन्दू धम्म)|कर्म]] · [[मोक्ष]] · [[माया (हिन्दू धम्म)|माया]] · [[इष्ट-देव]] · [[मुर्ति]] · [[पूनर्जन्म(हिन्दू धम्म)|पूनर्जन्म]] · [[संसार(हिन्दू धम्म)|संसार]] · [[तत्त्व(हिन्दू धम्म)|तत्त्व]] · [[त्रिमुर्ति]] · [[कतुर्थ]];· [[गुरु-शिष्य परम्परा|गुरु]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[हिन्दू दर्शन|दर्शन]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[हिन्दू मान्यता|मान्यता]] · [[प्राचीन हिन्दू धम्म]] · [[साँख्य(हिन्दू धर्म)|साँख्य]] · [[न्याय(हिन्दू धम्म)|न्याय]] · [[वैशेषिक]] · [[योग]] · [[मीमांसा]] · [[वेदान्त]] · [[तन्त्र]] · [[भक्ति योग|भक्ति]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[परम्परा(हिन्दू धम्म)|परम्परा]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ज्योतिष]] · [[आयुर्वेद]] · [[आरति]] · [[भजन]] · [[दर्शन(हिन्दू धम्म)|दर्शन]] · [[दिक्षा]] · [[मन्त्र|मन्त्र]] · [[पुजा]] · [[सत्संग]] · [[स्तोत्र]] · [[हिन्दू विवाह|विवाह]] · [[यज्ञ]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" | '''[[गुरु]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[आदि शंकर|शंकर]] · [[रामानुज]] · [[श्री माधवाचार्य|माधवाचार्य]] · [[रामकृष्ण परमहंस|रामकृष्ण]] · [[शारदा देवी|शारदा देवी]] · [[स्वमी विवेकानन्द|विवेकानन्द]] · [[नारायण गुरु]] · [[श्री औरोबिन्दो|औरोबिन्दो]] · [[रमन महार्षि]] · [[स्वामी शिवानन्द सरस्वती|शिवानन्द]] · [[स्‍वामी चिन्‍मयानन्‍द|चिन्‍मयानन्‍द]] · [[सत्गुरु शिवाय शुब्रमुनियस्वमी|शुब्रमुनियस्वमी]] · [[स्वामीनारायण]] · [[ए सी भक्तिवेदान्त स्वमी प्रभुपद|प्रभुपद]] · [[लोकेनाथ]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"| '''[[हिन्दू विभाजन|विभाजन]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[वैष्णभ]] · [[शैव]] · [[शक्ति]] · [[स्मृति]] · [[हिन्दू पूनरुत्थान]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"|'''[[हिन्दू देवता|देवता]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[हिन्दू देवता नाम]] · [[हिन्दू कथा]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"|'''[[युग]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[सत्य युग]] · [[त्रेता युग]] · [[द्वापर युग]] · [[कलि युग]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[हिन्दू वर्ण व्यवस्था|वर्ण]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ब्राह्मन]] · [[क्षत्रीय]] · [[वैश्य]] · [[शुद्र]] · [[दलित]] · [[वर्णाश्रम धर्म]] | |} </div> </div> <noinclude> [[en:Hinduism]] [[new:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[pt:Predefinição:Hinduísmo]] </noinclude> 3229 2006-10-07T06:02:44Z Eukesh 59 {| align="left" class="toccolours" style="clear:both;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | {| style="background:orange; border: 0px; padding: 0px; spacing:0px;width:100%;" |- | width="60%"; style="text-align:center; font-size:100%;" | '''[[हिन्दू धम्म]]''' |} {| |align="right" style="font-size: 90%; " |'''[[श्रुति(हिन्दू धम्म)|श्रुति]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[वेद]] · [[उपनिषद]] · [[श्रुत]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[स्मृति(हिन्दू धम्म)|स्मृति]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ईतिहास (हिन्दू धम्म)|ईतिहास]] ([[रामायण]], [[महाभारत]], [[श्रीमदभागवत गीता]]) · [[पुराण]] · [[सुत्र]] · [[आगम(धम्म)|आगम]] ([[तन्त्र]], [[यन्त्र]]) · [[वेदान्त]] |- |valign="top" align=right style="font-size: 90%;" |'''विचार''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[अवतार]] · [[आत्मा (हिन्दू धर्म)|आत्मा]] · [[ब्राह्मन]] · [[कोसस]] · [[धम्म(हिन्दू धम्म)|धम्म]] · [[कर्म (हिन्दू धम्म)|कर्म]] · [[मोक्ष]] · [[माया (हिन्दू धम्म)|माया]] · [[इष्ट-देव]] · [[मुर्ति]] · [[पूनर्जन्म(हिन्दू धम्म)|पूनर्जन्म]] · [[संसार(हिन्दू धम्म)|संसार]] · [[तत्त्व(हिन्दू धम्म)|तत्त्व]] · [[त्रिमुर्ति]] · [[कतुर्थ]];· [[गुरु-शिष्य परम्परा|गुरु]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[हिन्दू दर्शन|दर्शन]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[हिन्दू मान्यता|मान्यता]] · [[प्राचीन हिन्दू धम्म]] · [[साँख्य(हिन्दू धर्म)|साँख्य]] · [[न्याय(हिन्दू धम्म)|न्याय]] · [[वैशेषिक]] · [[योग]] · [[मीमांसा]] · [[वेदान्त]] · [[तन्त्र]] · [[भक्ति योग|भक्ति]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[परम्परा(हिन्दू धम्म)|परम्परा]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ज्योतिष]] · [[आयुर्वेद]] · [[आरति]] · [[भजन]] · [[दर्शन(हिन्दू धम्म)|दर्शन]] · [[दिक्षा]] · [[मन्त्र|मन्त्र]] · [[पुजा]] · [[सत्संग]] · [[स्तोत्र]] · [[हिन्दू विवाह|विवाह]] · [[यज्ञ]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" | '''[[गुरु]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[आदि शंकर|शंकर]] · [[रामानुज]] · [[श्री माधवाचार्य|माधवाचार्य]] · [[रामकृष्ण परमहंस|रामकृष्ण]] · [[शारदा देवी|शारदा देवी]] · [[स्वमी विवेकानन्द|विवेकानन्द]] · [[नारायण गुरु]] · [[श्री औरोबिन्दो|औरोबिन्दो]] · [[रमन महार्षि]] · [[स्वामी शिवानन्द सरस्वती|शिवानन्द]] · [[स्‍वामी चिन्‍मयानन्‍द|चिन्‍मयानन्‍द]] · [[सत्गुरु शिवाय शुब्रमुनियस्वमी|शुब्रमुनियस्वमी]] · [[स्वामीनारायण]] · [[ए सी भक्तिवेदान्त स्वमी प्रभुपद|प्रभुपद]] · [[लोकेनाथ]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"| '''[[हिन्दू विभाजन|विभाजन]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[वैष्णभ]] · [[शैव]] · [[शक्ति]] · [[स्मृति]] · [[हिन्दू पूनरुत्थान]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"|'''[[हिन्दू देवता|देवता]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[हिन्दू देवता नाम]] · [[हिन्दू कथा]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;"|'''[[युग]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[सत्य युग]] · [[त्रेता युग]] · [[द्वापर युग]] · [[कलि युग]] |- |align="right" style="font-size: 90%;" |'''[[हिन्दू वर्ण व्यवस्था|वर्ण]]:''' |style="font-size: 90%;"|[[ब्राह्मन]] · [[क्षत्रीय]] · [[वैश्य]] · [[शुद्र]] · [[दलित]] · [[वर्णाश्रम धम्म]] | |} </div> </div> <noinclude> [[en:Hinduism]] [[new:हिन्दू धर्म]] [[pt:Predefinição:Hinduísmo]] </noinclude> 1765 3231 2006-10-14T10:21:44Z Eukesh 59 {|align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style="border:2px solid #e1eaee; border-collapse:separate;font-size:120%" |- |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/०|०-९]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; 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line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ए|ए]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ऐ|ऐ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ओ|ओ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/औ|औ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/अं|अं]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/क|क]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ख|ख]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ग|ग]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/घ|घ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ङ|ङ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/च|च]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid 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5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ठ|ठ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ड|ड]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ढ|ढ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-right:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ण|ण]] |- |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Categories|श्रेणी]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/त|त]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid 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#C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/फ|फ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ब|ब]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/भ|भ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/म|म]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/य|य]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; 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border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/स|स]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ह|ह]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/क्ष|क्ष]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/त्र|त्र]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ज्ञ|ज्ञ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ऋ|ऋ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ॠ়|ॠ]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/ॐ|ॐ]] |style="background:#F1FAFF; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/श्र|श्र]] |style="background:#EAF6FD; line-height:120%; border:1px solid #C6E4F2;border:1px solid #C6E4F2; border-left:0; border-top:0; border-bottom:0; padding:0px 5px 0px 5px;"|[[Special:Allpages/अः|अः]] |} <!-- * <span style="font-size:120%"> [[Special:Allpages/Category:!|!]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:०|०-९]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अ|अ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:आ|आ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:इ|इ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ई|ई]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:उ|उ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऊ|ऊ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ए|ए]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऐ|ऐ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ओ|ओ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:औ|औ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अं|अं]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:अः|अः]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:क|क]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ख|ख]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ग|ग]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:घ|घ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ङ|ङ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:च|च]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:छ|छ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ज|ज]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:झ|झ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ञ|ञ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ट|ट]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ठ|ठ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ड|ड]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ढ|ढ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ण|ण]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:त|त]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:थ|थ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:द|द]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ध|ध]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:न|न]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:प|प]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:फ|फ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ब|ब]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:भ|भ]][[Special:Allpages/Category:म|म]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:य|य]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:र|र]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ल|ल]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:व|व]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:श|श]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ष|ष]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ह|ह]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:क्ष|क्ष]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:त्र|त्र]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ज्ञ|ज्ञ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ऋ|ऋ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ॠ|ॠ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:ॐ|ॐ]] [[Special:Allpages/Category:श्र|श्र]]</span> --> 1766 3232 2006-10-15T10:53:20Z Vargenau 70 Bonjour, Je suis un Wikipédien français. Merci de me contacter sur [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hello, I am a French Wikipedian. Please contact me on [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hallo, Ich bin ein französischer Wikipedia Benutzer. Bitte gehen Sie zu : [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. 1768 3234 2006-10-15T10:55:32Z Escarbot 71 {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot en cours de test''' |- | Ce robot en cours de test est destiné à faire des interwikis. |- | Dresseur : [[:fr:Utilisateur:Vargenau|Vargenau]] |- | Laissez vos commentaires sur [[:fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Vargenau|ma page de discussion]]. Merci. |} {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot currently under test''' |- | This robot currently under test will only be used to make interwiki links. |- | Owner: [[:fr:Utilisateur:Vargenau|Vargenau]] |- | Please leave your comments (in French or English) on [[:fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Vargenau|my French talk page]]. Thank you. |} 1826 3314 2006-11-05T18:55:24Z Eukesh 59 [http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Eukesh Please contact me here if you need to] 1827 3315 2006-11-19T06:47:51Z 59.183.21.162 translation request [[image:flag of India.svg|thumb]] '''India''' (Devanagari: भारत Bhārat), officially the Republic of India (Bhārata Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country, and the most populous liberal democracy in the world. India has a coastline of over seven thousand kilometres, bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east. India borders Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, Maldives and Indonesia. [[en:India]] 3347 2006-12-10T08:21:17Z 203.173.138.159 Replacing page with '{{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}}' {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} 3366 2006-12-10T13:27:49Z Escarbot 71 robot Adding: aa, ab, af, ak, als, am, an, ang, ar, arc, as, ast, av, ay, az, ba, bat-smg, be, bg, bh, bi, bm, bn, bo, bpy, br, bs, bug, ca, cbk-zam, ce, ceb, ch, cho, chr, chy, co, cr, cs, csb, cv, cy, da, de, diq, dv, dz, ee, el, en, eo, es, et, e {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[aa:India]] [[ab:India]] [[af:Indië]] [[ak:India]] [[als:Indien]] [[am:ህንድ]] [[an:India]] [[ang:India]] [[ar:الهند]] [[arc:India]] [[as:ভারত]] [[ast:India]] [[av:India]] [[ay:India]] [[az:Hindistan]] [[ba:India]] [[bat-smg:India]] [[be:Індыя]] [[bg:Индия]] [[bh:भारत]] [[bi:India]] [[bm:India]] [[bn:ভারত]] [[bo:India]] [[bpy:ভারত]] [[br:India]] [[bs:Indija]] [[bug:India]] [[ca:Índia]] [[cbk-zam:India]] [[ce:India]] [[ceb:Indiya]] [[ch:India]] [[cho:India]] [[chr:India]] [[chy:India]] [[co:India]] [[cr:India]] [[cs:Indie]] [[csb:Indie]] [[cv:Инди]] [[cy:India]] [[da:Indien]] [[de:Indien]] [[diq:Hindıstan]] [[dv:ހިންދުސްތާން]] [[dz:India]] [[ee:India]] [[el:Ινδία]] [[en:India]] [[eo:Barato]] [[es:India]] [[et:India]] [[eu:India]] [[fa:هند]] [[fi:Intia]] [[fiu-vro:India]] [[fj:India]] [[fo:India]] [[fr:Inde]] [[frp:Ende]] [[fur:Indie]] [[fy:Yndia]] [[ga:An India]] [[gd:Na h-Innseachan]] [[gl:India - भारत]] [[gn:India]] [[got:𐌹𐌽𐌳𐌹𐌰]] [[gu:ભારત]] [[gv:Yn Injey]] [[ha:India]] [[haw:ʻInia]] [[he:הודו]] [[hi:भारत]] [[ho:India]] [[hr:Indija]] [[ht:End]] [[hu:India]] [[hy:Հնդկաստան]] [[hz:India]] [[ia:India]] [[id:India]] [[ie:India]] [[ig:India]] [[ilo:India]] [[io:India]] [[is:Indland]] [[it:India]] [[iu:ᐃᓐᑎᐊ]] [[ja:インド]] [[jbo:xingu'e]] [[jv:India]] [[ka:ინდოეთი]] [[kg:India]] [[ki:India]] [[kj:India]] [[kk:Үндістан]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌា]] [[kn:ಭಾರತ]] [[ko:인도]] [[ks:ہِندوستان]] [[ksh:Inndije]] [[ku:Hindistan]] [[kv:India]] [[kw:Eynda]] [[ky:India]] [[la:India]] [[lb:Indien]] [[li:India]] [[lij:India]] [[lmo:India]] [[ln:India]] [[lo:India]] [[lt:Indija]] [[lv:Indija]] [[map-bms:India]] [[mg:India]] [[mh:India]] [[mi:Inia (whenua)]] [[mk:Индија]] [[ml:ഇന്ത്യ]] [[mn:Энэтхэг]] [[mo:Индия]] [[mr:भारत]] [[ms:India]] [[mt:Indja]] [[mus:India]] [[my:India]] [[na:India]] [[nah:Indiyān]] [[nap:Innia]] [[nds:Indien]] [[nds-nl:India]] [[ne:भारत]] [[ng:India]] [[nl:India]] [[nn:India]] [[no:India]] [[nov:India]] [[nrm:Înde]] [[nv:India]] [[ny:India]] [[oc:Índia]] [[om:India]] [[or:ଭାରତ]] [[os:Инди]] [[pa:ਭਾਰਤ]] [[pam:India]] [[pap:India]] [[pdc:India]] [[pih:India]] [[pl:Indie]] [[pms:India]] [[ps:هند]] [[pt:Índia]] [[qu:Indiya]] [[rm:India]] [[rmy:Indiya (Bharat)]] [[rn:India]] [[ro:India]] [[roa-rup:India]] [[ru:Индия]] [[ru-sib:Индия]] [[sa:भारत]] [[sc:Ìndia]] [[scn:Innia]] [[sco:Indie]] [[sd:India]] [[se:India]] [[sg:India]] [[sh:Indija]] [[si:ඉන්දියාව]] [[simple:India]] [[sk:India]] [[sl:Indija]] [[sm:India]] [[sn:India]] [[so:Hindiya]] [[sq:India]] [[sr:Индија]] [[ss:India]] [[st:India]] [[su:India]] [[sv:Indien]] [[sw:Uhindi]] [[ta:இந்தியா]] [[te:భారత దేశము]] [[tet:Índia]] [[tg:Ҳиндустон]] [[th:ประเทศอินเดีย]] [[ti:India]] [[tk:Hindistan]] [[tl:India]] [[to:ʻInitia]] [[tpi:India]] [[tr:Hindistan]] [[ts:India]] [[tt:Hindstan]] [[tum:India]] [[tw:India]] [[ty:’Inītia]] [[udm:Индия]] [[ug:ھىندىستان]] [[uk:Індія]] [[ur:بھارت]] [[uz:Hindiston]] [[ve:India]] [[vec:India]] [[vi:Ấn Độ]] [[vo:India]] [[wa:Inde]] [[war:India]] [[wo:India]] [[wuu:印度]] [[xal:India]] [[xh:India]] [[yi:אינדיע]] [[za:India]] [[zh:印度]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō͘]] [[zh-yue:印度]] [[zu:India]] 3620 2007-01-08T15:17:35Z Thijs!bot 79 robot Modifying: [[ba:Һиндостан]], [[bat-smg:Indėjė]], [[qu:Barat]] {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[aa:India]] [[ab:India]] [[af:Indië]] [[ak:India]] [[als:Indien]] [[am:ህንድ]] [[an:India]] [[ang:India]] [[ar:الهند]] [[arc:India]] [[as:ভারত]] [[ast:India]] [[av:India]] [[ay:India]] [[az:Hindistan]] [[ba:Һиндостан]] [[bat-smg:Indėjė]] [[be:Індыя]] [[bg:Индия]] [[bh:भारत]] [[bi:India]] [[bm:India]] [[bn:ভারত]] [[bo:India]] [[bpy:ভারত]] [[br:India]] [[bs:Indija]] [[bug:India]] [[ca:Índia]] [[cbk-zam:India]] [[ce:India]] [[ceb:Indiya]] [[ch:India]] [[cho:India]] [[chr:India]] [[chy:India]] [[co:India]] [[cr:India]] [[cs:Indie]] [[csb:Indie]] [[cv:Инди]] [[cy:India]] [[da:Indien]] [[de:Indien]] [[diq:Hindıstan]] [[dv:ހިންދުސްތާން]] [[dz:India]] [[ee:India]] [[el:Ινδία]] [[en:India]] [[eo:Barato]] [[es:India]] [[et:India]] [[eu:India]] [[fa:هند]] [[fi:Intia]] [[fiu-vro:India]] [[fj:India]] [[fo:India]] [[fr:Inde]] [[frp:Ende]] [[fur:Indie]] [[fy:Yndia]] [[ga:An India]] [[gd:Na h-Innseachan]] [[gl:India - भारत]] [[gn:India]] [[got:𐌹𐌽𐌳𐌹𐌰]] [[gu:ભારત]] [[gv:Yn Injey]] [[ha:India]] [[haw:ʻInia]] [[he:הודו]] [[hi:भारत]] [[ho:India]] [[hr:Indija]] [[ht:End]] [[hu:India]] [[hy:Հնդկաստան]] [[hz:India]] [[ia:India]] [[id:India]] [[ie:India]] [[ig:India]] [[ilo:India]] [[io:India]] [[is:Indland]] [[it:India]] [[iu:ᐃᓐᑎᐊ]] [[ja:インド]] [[jbo:xingu'e]] [[jv:India]] [[ka:ინდოეთი]] [[kg:India]] [[ki:India]] [[kj:India]] [[kk:Үндістан]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌា]] [[kn:ಭಾರತ]] [[ko:인도]] [[ks:ہِندوستان]] [[ksh:Inndije]] [[ku:Hindistan]] [[kv:India]] [[kw:Eynda]] [[ky:India]] [[la:India]] [[lb:Indien]] [[li:India]] [[lij:India]] [[lmo:India]] [[ln:India]] [[lo:India]] [[lt:Indija]] [[lv:Indija]] [[map-bms:India]] [[mg:India]] [[mh:India]] [[mi:Inia (whenua)]] [[mk:Индија]] [[ml:ഇന്ത്യ]] [[mn:Энэтхэг]] [[mo:Индия]] [[mr:भारत]] [[ms:India]] [[mt:Indja]] [[mus:India]] [[my:India]] [[na:India]] [[nah:Indiyān]] [[nap:Innia]] [[nds:Indien]] [[nds-nl:India]] [[ne:भारत]] [[ng:India]] [[nl:India]] [[nn:India]] [[no:India]] [[nov:India]] [[nrm:Înde]] [[nv:India]] [[ny:India]] [[oc:Índia]] [[om:India]] [[or:ଭାରତ]] [[os:Инди]] [[pa:ਭਾਰਤ]] [[pam:India]] [[pap:India]] [[pdc:India]] [[pih:India]] [[pl:Indie]] [[pms:India]] [[ps:هند]] [[pt:Índia]] [[qu:Barat]] [[rm:India]] [[rmy:Indiya (Bharat)]] [[rn:India]] [[ro:India]] [[roa-rup:India]] [[ru:Индия]] [[ru-sib:Индия]] [[sa:भारत]] [[sc:Ìndia]] [[scn:Innia]] [[sco:Indie]] [[sd:India]] [[se:India]] [[sg:India]] [[sh:Indija]] [[si:ඉන්දියාව]] [[simple:India]] [[sk:India]] [[sl:Indija]] [[sm:India]] [[sn:India]] [[so:Hindiya]] [[sq:India]] [[sr:Индија]] [[ss:India]] [[st:India]] [[su:India]] [[sv:Indien]] [[sw:Uhindi]] [[ta:இந்தியா]] [[te:భారత దేశము]] [[tet:Índia]] [[tg:Ҳиндустон]] [[th:ประเทศอินเดีย]] [[ti:India]] [[tk:Hindistan]] [[tl:India]] [[to:ʻInitia]] [[tpi:India]] [[tr:Hindistan]] [[ts:India]] [[tt:Hindstan]] [[tum:India]] [[tw:India]] [[ty:’Inītia]] [[udm:Индия]] [[ug:ھىندىستان]] [[uk:Індія]] [[ur:بھارت]] [[uz:Hindiston]] [[ve:India]] [[vec:India]] [[vi:Ấn Độ]] [[vo:India]] [[wa:Inde]] [[war:India]] [[wo:India]] [[wuu:印度]] [[xal:India]] [[xh:India]] [[yi:אינדיע]] [[za:India]] [[zh:印度]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō͘]] [[zh-yue:印度]] [[zu:India]] 3625 2007-01-19T00:21:41Z Thijs!bot 79 robot Removing: arc, chr, hz, ky, ps, sm, ts, ve {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[aa:India]] [[ab:India]] [[af:Indië]] [[ak:India]] [[als:Indien]] [[am:ህንድ]] [[an:India]] [[ang:India]] [[ar:الهند]] [[as:ভারত]] [[ast:India]] [[av:India]] [[ay:India]] [[az:Hindistan]] [[ba:Һиндостан]] [[bat-smg:Indėjė]] [[be:Індыя]] [[bg:Индия]] [[bh:भारत]] [[bi:India]] [[bm:India]] [[bn:ভারত]] [[bo:India]] [[bpy:ভারত]] [[br:India]] [[bs:Indija]] [[bug:India]] [[ca:Índia]] [[cbk-zam:India]] [[ce:India]] [[ceb:Indiya]] [[ch:India]] [[cho:India]] [[chy:India]] [[co:India]] [[cr:India]] [[cs:Indie]] [[csb:Indie]] [[cv:Инди]] [[cy:India]] [[da:Indien]] [[de:Indien]] [[diq:Hindıstan]] [[dv:ހިންދުސްތާން]] [[dz:India]] [[ee:India]] [[el:Ινδία]] [[en:India]] [[eo:Barato]] [[es:India]] [[et:India]] [[eu:India]] [[fa:هند]] [[fi:Intia]] [[fiu-vro:India]] [[fj:India]] [[fo:India]] [[fr:Inde]] [[frp:Ende]] [[fur:Indie]] [[fy:Yndia]] [[ga:An India]] [[gd:Na h-Innseachan]] [[gl:India - भारत]] [[gn:India]] [[got:𐌹𐌽𐌳𐌹𐌰]] [[gu:ભારત]] [[gv:Yn Injey]] [[ha:India]] [[haw:ʻInia]] [[he:הודו]] [[hi:भारत]] [[ho:India]] [[hr:Indija]] [[ht:End]] [[hu:India]] [[hy:Հնդկաստան]] [[ia:India]] [[id:India]] [[ie:India]] [[ig:India]] [[ilo:India]] [[io:India]] [[is:Indland]] [[it:India]] [[iu:ᐃᓐᑎᐊ]] [[ja:インド]] [[jbo:xingu'e]] [[jv:India]] [[ka:ინდოეთი]] [[kg:India]] [[ki:India]] [[kj:India]] [[kk:Үндістан]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌា]] [[kn:ಭಾರತ]] [[ko:인도]] [[ks:ہِندوستان]] [[ksh:Inndije]] [[ku:Hindistan]] [[kv:India]] [[kw:Eynda]] [[la:India]] [[lb:Indien]] [[li:India]] [[lij:India]] [[lmo:India]] [[ln:India]] [[lo:India]] [[lt:Indija]] [[lv:Indija]] [[map-bms:India]] [[mg:India]] [[mh:India]] [[mi:Inia (whenua)]] [[mk:Индија]] [[ml:ഇന്ത്യ]] [[mn:Энэтхэг]] [[mo:Индия]] [[mr:भारत]] [[ms:India]] [[mt:Indja]] [[mus:India]] [[my:India]] [[na:India]] [[nah:Indiyān]] [[nap:Innia]] [[nds:Indien]] [[nds-nl:India]] [[ne:भारत]] [[ng:India]] [[nl:India]] [[nn:India]] [[no:India]] [[nov:India]] [[nrm:Înde]] [[nv:India]] [[ny:India]] [[oc:Índia]] [[om:India]] [[or:ଭାରତ]] [[os:Инди]] [[pa:ਭਾਰਤ]] [[pam:India]] [[pap:India]] [[pdc:India]] [[pih:India]] [[pl:Indie]] [[pms:India]] [[pt:Índia]] [[qu:Barat]] [[rm:India]] [[rmy:Indiya (Bharat)]] [[rn:India]] [[ro:India]] [[roa-rup:India]] [[ru:Индия]] [[ru-sib:Индия]] [[sa:भारत]] [[sc:Ìndia]] [[scn:Innia]] [[sco:Indie]] [[sd:India]] [[se:India]] [[sg:India]] [[sh:Indija]] [[si:ඉන්දියාව]] [[simple:India]] [[sk:India]] [[sl:Indija]] [[sn:India]] [[so:Hindiya]] [[sq:India]] [[sr:Индија]] [[ss:India]] [[st:India]] [[su:India]] [[sv:Indien]] [[sw:Uhindi]] [[ta:இந்தியா]] [[te:భారత దేశము]] [[tet:Índia]] [[tg:Ҳиндустон]] [[th:ประเทศอินเดีย]] [[ti:India]] [[tk:Hindistan]] [[tl:India]] [[to:ʻInitia]] [[tpi:India]] [[tr:Hindistan]] [[tt:Hindstan]] [[tum:India]] [[tw:India]] [[ty:’Inītia]] [[udm:Индия]] [[ug:ھىندىستان]] [[uk:Індія]] [[ur:بھارت]] [[uz:Hindiston]] [[vec:India]] [[vi:Ấn Độ]] [[vo:India]] [[wa:Inde]] [[war:India]] [[wo:India]] [[wuu:印度]] [[xal:India]] [[xh:India]] [[yi:אינדיע]] [[za:India]] [[zh:印度]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō͘]] [[zh-yue:印度]] [[zu:India]] 3632 2007-01-24T23:39:19Z Thijs!bot 79 robot Adding: [[hsb:Indiska]] {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[aa:India]] [[ab:India]] [[af:Indië]] [[ak:India]] [[als:Indien]] [[am:ህንድ]] [[an:India]] [[ang:India]] [[ar:الهند]] [[as:ভারত]] [[ast:India]] [[av:India]] [[ay:India]] [[az:Hindistan]] [[ba:Һиндостан]] [[bat-smg:Indėjė]] [[be:Індыя]] [[bg:Индия]] [[bh:भारत]] [[bi:India]] [[bm:India]] [[bn:ভারত]] [[bo:India]] [[bpy:ভারত]] [[br:India]] [[bs:Indija]] [[bug:India]] [[ca:Índia]] [[cbk-zam:India]] [[ce:India]] [[ceb:Indiya]] [[ch:India]] [[cho:India]] [[chy:India]] [[co:India]] [[cr:India]] [[cs:Indie]] [[csb:Indie]] [[cv:Инди]] [[cy:India]] [[da:Indien]] [[de:Indien]] [[diq:Hindıstan]] [[dv:ހިންދުސްތާން]] [[dz:India]] [[ee:India]] [[el:Ινδία]] [[en:India]] [[eo:Barato]] [[es:India]] [[et:India]] [[eu:India]] [[fa:هند]] [[fi:Intia]] [[fiu-vro:India]] [[fj:India]] [[fo:India]] [[fr:Inde]] [[frp:Ende]] [[fur:Indie]] [[fy:Yndia]] [[ga:An India]] [[gd:Na h-Innseachan]] [[gl:India - भारत]] [[gn:India]] [[got:𐌹𐌽𐌳𐌹𐌰]] [[gu:ભારત]] [[gv:Yn Injey]] [[ha:India]] [[haw:ʻInia]] [[he:הודו]] [[hi:भारत]] [[ho:India]] [[hr:Indija]] [[hsb:Indiska]] [[ht:End]] [[hu:India]] [[hy:Հնդկաստան]] [[ia:India]] [[id:India]] [[ie:India]] [[ig:India]] [[ilo:India]] [[io:India]] [[is:Indland]] [[it:India]] [[iu:ᐃᓐᑎᐊ]] [[ja:インド]] [[jbo:xingu'e]] [[jv:India]] [[ka:ინდოეთი]] [[kg:India]] [[ki:India]] [[kj:India]] [[kk:Үндістан]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌា]] [[kn:ಭಾರತ]] [[ko:인도]] [[ks:ہِندوستان]] [[ksh:Inndije]] [[ku:Hindistan]] [[kv:India]] [[kw:Eynda]] [[la:India]] [[lb:Indien]] [[li:India]] [[lij:India]] [[lmo:India]] [[ln:India]] [[lo:India]] [[lt:Indija]] [[lv:Indija]] [[map-bms:India]] [[mg:India]] [[mh:India]] [[mi:Inia (whenua)]] [[mk:Индија]] [[ml:ഇന്ത്യ]] [[mn:Энэтхэг]] [[mo:Индия]] [[mr:भारत]] [[ms:India]] [[mt:Indja]] [[mus:India]] [[my:India]] [[na:India]] [[nah:Indiyān]] [[nap:Innia]] [[nds:Indien]] [[nds-nl:India]] [[ne:भारत]] [[ng:India]] [[nl:India]] [[nn:India]] [[no:India]] [[nov:India]] [[nrm:Înde]] [[nv:India]] [[ny:India]] [[oc:Índia]] [[om:India]] [[or:ଭାରତ]] [[os:Инди]] [[pa:ਭਾਰਤ]] [[pam:India]] [[pap:India]] [[pdc:India]] [[pih:India]] [[pl:Indie]] [[pms:India]] [[pt:Índia]] [[qu:Barat]] [[rm:India]] [[rmy:Indiya (Bharat)]] [[rn:India]] [[ro:India]] [[roa-rup:India]] [[ru:Индия]] [[ru-sib:Индия]] [[sa:भारत]] [[sc:Ìndia]] [[scn:Innia]] [[sco:Indie]] [[sd:India]] [[se:India]] [[sg:India]] [[sh:Indija]] [[si:ඉන්දියාව]] [[simple:India]] [[sk:India]] [[sl:Indija]] [[sn:India]] [[so:Hindiya]] [[sq:India]] [[sr:Индија]] [[ss:India]] [[st:India]] [[su:India]] [[sv:Indien]] [[sw:Uhindi]] [[ta:இந்தியா]] [[te:భారత దేశము]] [[tet:Índia]] [[tg:Ҳиндустон]] [[th:ประเทศอินเดีย]] [[ti:India]] [[tk:Hindistan]] [[tl:India]] [[to:ʻInitia]] [[tpi:India]] [[tr:Hindistan]] [[tt:Hindstan]] [[tum:India]] [[tw:India]] [[ty:’Inītia]] [[udm:Индия]] [[ug:ھىندىستان]] [[uk:Індія]] [[ur:بھارت]] [[uz:Hindiston]] [[vec:India]] [[vi:Ấn Độ]] [[vo:India]] [[wa:Inde]] [[war:India]] [[wo:India]] [[wuu:印度]] [[xal:India]] [[xh:India]] [[yi:אינדיע]] [[za:India]] [[zh:印度]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō͘]] [[zh-yue:印度]] [[zu:India]] 3634 2007-01-26T11:34:18Z TXiKiBoT 81 robot Removing: aa, ab, ak, av, ay, bi, bm, bo, bug, ce, ch, cho, chy, cr, dz, ee, fj, gn, ha, ho, ig, ki, kj, lo, mg, mh, mus, my, ng, nv, ny, om, pih, rn, sd, sg, sn, ss, st, ti, tum, tw, vo, xal, xh, zu {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[af:Indië]] [[als:Indien]] [[am:ህንድ]] [[an:India]] [[ang:India]] [[ar:الهند]] [[as:ভারত]] [[ast:India]] [[az:Hindistan]] [[ba:Һиндостан]] [[bat-smg:Indėjė]] [[be:Індыя]] [[bg:Индия]] [[bh:भारत]] [[bn:ভারত]] [[bpy:ভারত]] [[br:India]] [[bs:Indija]] [[ca:Índia]] [[cbk-zam:India]] [[ceb:Indiya]] [[co:India]] [[cs:Indie]] [[csb:Indie]] [[cv:Инди]] [[cy:India]] [[da:Indien]] [[de:Indien]] [[diq:Hindıstan]] [[dv:ހިންދުސްތާން]] [[el:Ινδία]] [[en:India]] [[eo:Barato]] [[es:India]] [[et:India]] [[eu:India]] [[fa:هند]] [[fi:Intia]] [[fiu-vro:India]] [[fo:India]] [[fr:Inde]] [[frp:Ende]] [[fur:Indie]] [[fy:Yndia]] [[ga:An India]] [[gd:Na h-Innseachan]] [[gl:India - भारत]] [[got:𐌹𐌽𐌳𐌹𐌰]] [[gu:ભારત]] [[gv:Yn Injey]] [[haw:ʻInia]] [[he:הודו]] [[hi:भारत]] [[hr:Indija]] [[hsb:Indiska]] [[ht:End]] [[hu:India]] [[hy:Հնդկաստան]] [[ia:India]] [[id:India]] [[ie:India]] [[ilo:India]] [[io:India]] [[is:Indland]] [[it:India]] [[iu:ᐃᓐᑎᐊ]] [[ja:インド]] [[jbo:xingu'e]] [[jv:India]] [[ka:ინდოეთი]] [[kg:India]] [[kk:Үндістан]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌា]] [[kn:ಭಾರತ]] [[ko:인도]] [[ks:ہِندوستان]] [[ksh:Inndije]] [[ku:Hindistan]] [[kv:India]] [[kw:Eynda]] [[la:India]] [[lb:Indien]] [[li:India]] [[lij:India]] [[lmo:India]] [[ln:India]] [[lt:Indija]] [[lv:Indija]] [[map-bms:India]] [[mi:Inia (whenua)]] [[mk:Индија]] [[ml:ഇന്ത്യ]] [[mn:Энэтхэг]] [[mo:Индия]] [[mr:भारत]] [[ms:India]] [[mt:Indja]] [[na:India]] [[nah:Indiyān]] [[nap:Innia]] [[nds:Indien]] [[nds-nl:India]] [[ne:भारत]] [[nl:India]] [[nn:India]] [[no:India]] [[nov:India]] [[nrm:Înde]] [[oc:Índia]] [[or:ଭାରତ]] [[os:Инди]] [[pa:ਭਾਰਤ]] [[pam:India]] [[pap:India]] [[pdc:India]] [[pl:Indie]] [[pms:India]] [[pt:Índia]] [[qu:Barat]] [[rm:India]] [[rmy:Indiya (Bharat)]] [[ro:India]] [[roa-rup:India]] [[ru:Индия]] [[ru-sib:Индия]] [[sa:भारत]] [[sc:Ìndia]] [[scn:Innia]] [[sco:Indie]] [[se:India]] [[sh:Indija]] [[si:ඉන්දියාව]] [[simple:India]] [[sk:India]] [[sl:Indija]] [[so:Hindiya]] [[sq:India]] [[sr:Индија]] [[su:India]] [[sv:Indien]] [[sw:Uhindi]] [[ta:இந்தியா]] [[te:భారత దేశము]] [[tet:Índia]] [[tg:Ҳиндустон]] [[th:ประเทศอินเดีย]] [[tk:Hindistan]] [[tl:India]] [[to:ʻInitia]] [[tpi:India]] [[tr:Hindistan]] [[tt:Hindstan]] [[ty:’Inītia]] [[udm:Индия]] [[ug:ھىندىستان]] [[uk:Індія]] [[ur:بھارت]] [[uz:Hindiston]] [[vec:India]] [[vi:Ấn Độ]] [[wa:Inde]] [[war:India]] [[wo:India]] [[wuu:印度]] [[yi:אינדיע]] [[za:India]] [[zh:印度]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō͘]] [[zh-yue:印度]] 3635 2007-01-27T15:48:55Z Thijs!bot 79 robot Adding: ab, ay, bi, bm, bo, bug, ce, ch, cho, chy, cr, dz, ee, fj, gn, ha, ho, ki, kj, lo, mus, my, ny, pih, rn, sd, sg, ss, st, ti, tum, tw, vo, xal, xh, zu {{delete|Irrelevant content not in Pali}} [[ab:India]] [[af:Indië]] [[als:Indien]] [[am:ህንድ]] [[an:India]] [[ang:India]] [[ar:الهند]] [[as:ভারত]] [[ast:India]] [[ay:India]] [[az:Hindistan]] [[ba:Һиндостан]] [[bat-smg:Indėjė]] [[be:Індыя]] [[bg:Индия]] [[bh:भारत]] [[bi:India]] [[bm:India]] [[bn:ভারত]] [[bo:India]] [[bpy:ভারত]] [[br:India]] [[bs:Indija]] [[bug:India]] [[ca:Índia]] [[cbk-zam:India]] [[ce:India]] [[ceb:Indiya]] [[ch:India]] [[cho:India]] [[chy:India]] [[co:India]] [[cr:India]] [[cs:Indie]] [[csb:Indie]] [[cv:Инди]] [[cy:India]] [[da:Indien]] [[de:Indien]] [[diq:Hindıstan]] [[dv:ހިންދުސްތާން]] [[dz:India]] [[ee:India]] [[el:Ινδία]] [[en:India]] [[eo:Barato]] [[es:India]] [[et:India]] [[eu:India]] [[fa:هند]] [[fi:Intia]] [[fiu-vro:India]] [[fj:India]] [[fo:India]] [[fr:Inde]] [[frp:Ende]] [[fur:Indie]] [[fy:Yndia]] [[ga:An India]] [[gd:Na h-Innseachan]] [[gl:India - भारत]] [[gn:India]] [[got:𐌹𐌽𐌳𐌹𐌰]] [[gu:ભારત]] [[gv:Yn Injey]] [[ha:India]] [[haw:ʻInia]] [[he:הודו]] [[hi:भारत]] [[ho:India]] [[hr:Indija]] [[hsb:Indiska]] [[ht:End]] [[hu:India]] [[hy:Հնդկաստան]] [[ia:India]] [[id:India]] [[ie:India]] [[ilo:India]] [[io:India]] [[is:Indland]] [[it:India]] [[iu:ᐃᓐᑎᐊ]] [[ja:インド]] [[jbo:xingu'e]] [[jv:India]] [[ka:ინდოეთი]] [[kg:India]] [[ki:India]] [[kj:India]] [[kk:Үндістан]] [[km:ឥណ្ឌា]] [[kn:ಭಾರತ]] [[ko:인도]] [[ks:ہِندوستان]] [[ksh:Inndije]] [[ku:Hindistan]] [[kv:India]] [[kw:Eynda]] [[la:India]] [[lb:Indien]] [[li:India]] [[lij:India]] [[lmo:India]] [[ln:India]] [[lo:India]] [[lt:Indija]] [[lv:Indija]] [[map-bms:India]] [[mi:Inia (whenua)]] [[mk:Индија]] [[ml:ഇന്ത്യ]] [[mn:Энэтхэг]] [[mo:Индия]] [[mr:भारत]] [[ms:India]] [[mt:Indja]] [[mus:India]] [[my:India]] [[na:India]] [[nah:Indiyān]] [[nap:Innia]] [[nds:Indien]] [[nds-nl:India]] [[ne:भारत]] [[nl:India]] [[nn:India]] [[no:India]] [[nov:India]] [[nrm:Înde]] [[ny:India]] [[oc:Índia]] [[or:ଭାରତ]] [[os:Инди]] [[pa:ਭਾਰਤ]] [[pam:India]] [[pap:India]] [[pdc:India]] [[pih:India]] [[pl:Indie]] [[pms:India]] [[pt:Índia]] [[qu:Barat]] [[rm:India]] [[rmy:Indiya (Bharat)]] [[rn:India]] [[ro:India]] [[roa-rup:India]] [[ru:Индия]] [[ru-sib:Индия]] [[sa:भारत]] [[sc:Ìndia]] [[scn:Innia]] [[sco:Indie]] [[sd:India]] [[se:India]] [[sg:India]] [[sh:Indija]] [[si:ඉන්දියාව]] [[simple:India]] [[sk:India]] [[sl:Indija]] [[so:Hindiya]] [[sq:India]] [[sr:Индија]] [[ss:India]] [[st:India]] [[su:India]] [[sv:Indien]] [[sw:Uhindi]] [[ta:இந்தியா]] [[te:భారత దేశము]] [[tet:Índia]] [[tg:Ҳиндустон]] [[th:ประเทศอินเดีย]] [[ti:India]] [[tk:Hindistan]] [[tl:India]] [[to:ʻInitia]] [[tpi:India]] [[tr:Hindistan]] [[tt:Hindstan]] [[tum:India]] [[tw:India]] [[ty:’Inītia]] [[udm:Индия]] [[ug:ھىندىستان]] [[uk:Індія]] [[ur:بھارت]] [[uz:Hindiston]] [[vec:India]] [[vi:Ấn Độ]] [[vo:India]] [[wa:Inde]] [[war:India]] [[wo:India]] [[wuu:印度]] [[xal:India]] [[xh:India]] [[yi:אינדיע]] [[za:India]] [[zh:印度]] [[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō͘]] [[zh-yue:印度]] [[zu:India]] 1828 3321 2006-11-29T17:25:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{एलेमेन्ट}} {{एलेमेन्ट}} 1829 3322 2006-11-29T17:26:11Z Eukesh 59 New page: <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[एलेमेन्ट(रसायनशास्त्र)|ए... <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[एलेमेन्ट(रसायनशास्त्र)|एलेमेन्ट]]([[रसायनशास्त्र]])'''</div> <div class="NavContent"> {| | align="center" style="font-size: 110%;"| [[हाइड्रोजन]]-[[हेलियम]]-[[लिथियम]]-[[बेरिलियम]]-[[बोरोन]]-[[कार्बोन]]-[[नाइट्रोजन]]-[[अक्सिजन]]-[[फ्लोरिन]]-[[नियोन]]-[[सोडियम]]-[[म्याग्नेजियम]]-[[एलुमिनियम]]-[[सिलिकन]]-[[फस्फोरस]]-[[सल्फर]]-[[क्लोरिन]]-[[आर्गन]]-[[पोटासियम]]-[[क्याल्सियम]]-[[स्क्यान्डियम]]-[[टाइटानियम]]-[[भ्यानडियम]]-[[क्रोमियम]]-[[म्याङ्यानिज]]-[[आइरन]]-[[कोबाल्ट]]-[[निकेल]]-[[कपर]]-[[जिंक]]-[[ग्यालियम]]-[[जर्मेनियम]]-[[आर्सेनिक]]-[[सेलेनियम]]-[[ब्रोमिन]]-[[कृप्टन]]-[[रुबिडियम]]-[[स्ट्रोन्सियम]]-[[यितृयम]]-[[जर्कोनियम]]-[[नायोबियम]]-[[मोलिब्डेनम]]-[[टेक्नेसियम]]-[[रुथेनियम]] -[[रोडियम]]-[[प्यालिडियम]]-[[सिल्भर]]-[[क्याड्मियम]]-[[इन्डियम]]-[[टिन]]-[[एन्टिमोनी]]-[[टेलुरियम]]-[[आयोडिन]]-[[जेनन]]-[[सेसियम]]-[[बेरियम]]-[[ल्यान्थानम]]-[[सेरियम]]-[[प्रासियोडाइमियम]]-[[नियोडाइमियम]]-[[प्रोमेथियम]]-[[समारियम]]-[[युरोपियम]]-[[ग्याडोलिनियम]]-[[टर्बियम]]-[[डिस्प्रोसियम]]-[[होल्मियम]]-[[अर्बियम]]-[[थुलियम]]-[[यिट्टरबियम]]-[[लुटेटियम]]-[[हाफ्नियम]]-[[टान्टालम]]-[[टंग्स्टेन]]-[[रेनियम]]-[[अस्मियम]]-[[इरिडियम]]-[[प्लाटिनम]]-[[औरियम]]-[[मर्करी]]-[[थ्यालियम]]-[[लिड]]-[[बिस्मुथ]]-[[पोलोनियम]]-[[एस्टाटिन]]-[[रेडन]]-[[फ्रान्सियम]]-[[रेडियम]]-[[एक्टिनियम]]-[[थोरियम]]-[[प्रोट्याक्टिनियम]]-[[युर्यानियम]]-[[नेप्टुनियम]]-[[प्लुटोनियम]]-[[अमेरिसियम]]-[[क्युरियम]]-[[बर्केलियम]]-[[क्यालिफोर्नियम]]-[[आइन्स्टाइनियम]]-[[फर्मियम]]-[[मेन्डेलेभियम]]-[[नोबेलियम]]-[[लरेन्सियम]]-[[रुथरफोर्डियम]]-[[डब्नियम]]-[[सीबोर्गियम]]-[[बोरियम]]-[[ह्यासियम]]-[[मेइट्नेरियम]]-[[उनउननिलियम]]-[[उनउनउनियम]]-[[उनउनबियम]]-[[उनउनक्वाडृयम]]-[[उनउनहेक्जियम]] |} </div> </div> [[Category:रसायनशास्त्र]] 3330 2006-12-04T17:18:14Z Eukesh 59 [[Template:एलेमेन्ट]] moved to [[Template:तत्त्व]] <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[एलेमेन्ट(रसायनशास्त्र)|एलेमेन्ट]]([[रसायनशास्त्र]])'''</div> <div class="NavContent"> {| | align="center" style="font-size: 110%;"| [[हाइड्रोजन]]-[[हेलियम]]-[[लिथियम]]-[[बेरिलियम]]-[[बोरोन]]-[[कार्बोन]]-[[नाइट्रोजन]]-[[अक्सिजन]]-[[फ्लोरिन]]-[[नियोन]]-[[सोडियम]]-[[म्याग्नेजियम]]-[[एलुमिनियम]]-[[सिलिकन]]-[[फस्फोरस]]-[[सल्फर]]-[[क्लोरिन]]-[[आर्गन]]-[[पोटासियम]]-[[क्याल्सियम]]-[[स्क्यान्डियम]]-[[टाइटानियम]]-[[भ्यानडियम]]-[[क्रोमियम]]-[[म्याङ्यानिज]]-[[आइरन]]-[[कोबाल्ट]]-[[निकेल]]-[[कपर]]-[[जिंक]]-[[ग्यालियम]]-[[जर्मेनियम]]-[[आर्सेनिक]]-[[सेलेनियम]]-[[ब्रोमिन]]-[[कृप्टन]]-[[रुबिडियम]]-[[स्ट्रोन्सियम]]-[[यितृयम]]-[[जर्कोनियम]]-[[नायोबियम]]-[[मोलिब्डेनम]]-[[टेक्नेसियम]]-[[रुथेनियम]] -[[रोडियम]]-[[प्यालिडियम]]-[[सिल्भर]]-[[क्याड्मियम]]-[[इन्डियम]]-[[टिन]]-[[एन्टिमोनी]]-[[टेलुरियम]]-[[आयोडिन]]-[[जेनन]]-[[सेसियम]]-[[बेरियम]]-[[ल्यान्थानम]]-[[सेरियम]]-[[प्रासियोडाइमियम]]-[[नियोडाइमियम]]-[[प्रोमेथियम]]-[[समारियम]]-[[युरोपियम]]-[[ग्याडोलिनियम]]-[[टर्बियम]]-[[डिस्प्रोसियम]]-[[होल्मियम]]-[[अर्बियम]]-[[थुलियम]]-[[यिट्टरबियम]]-[[लुटेटियम]]-[[हाफ्नियम]]-[[टान्टालम]]-[[टंग्स्टेन]]-[[रेनियम]]-[[अस्मियम]]-[[इरिडियम]]-[[प्लाटिनम]]-[[औरियम]]-[[मर्करी]]-[[थ्यालियम]]-[[लिड]]-[[बिस्मुथ]]-[[पोलोनियम]]-[[एस्टाटिन]]-[[रेडन]]-[[फ्रान्सियम]]-[[रेडियम]]-[[एक्टिनियम]]-[[थोरियम]]-[[प्रोट्याक्टिनियम]]-[[युर्यानियम]]-[[नेप्टुनियम]]-[[प्लुटोनियम]]-[[अमेरिसियम]]-[[क्युरियम]]-[[बर्केलियम]]-[[क्यालिफोर्नियम]]-[[आइन्स्टाइनियम]]-[[फर्मियम]]-[[मेन्डेलेभियम]]-[[नोबेलियम]]-[[लरेन्सियम]]-[[रुथरफोर्डियम]]-[[डब्नियम]]-[[सीबोर्गियम]]-[[बोरियम]]-[[ह्यासियम]]-[[मेइट्नेरियम]]-[[उनउननिलियम]]-[[उनउनउनियम]]-[[उनउनबियम]]-[[उनउनक्वाडृयम]]-[[उनउनहेक्जियम]] |} </div> </div> [[Category:रसायनशास्त्र]] 1830 3326 2006-12-03T23:13:13Z 213.6.153.94 Who listens to what music? Hello. Good day Who listens to what music? I Love songs Justin Timberlake and Paris Hilton 3327 2006-12-04T17:09:58Z Eukesh 59 Vandalism deletion 1831 3329 2006-12-04T17:16:53Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{एलेमेन्ट}} {{एलेमेन्ट}} 3332 2006-12-04T17:18:54Z Eukesh 59 '''हाइड्रोजन''' एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} 3484 2006-12-16T00:11:29Z Eukesh 59 '''हाइड्रोजन''' एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1832 3331 2006-12-04T17:18:14Z Eukesh 59 [[Template:एलेमेन्ट]] moved to [[Template:तत्त्व]] #REDIRECT [[Template:तत्त्व]] 1833 3333 2006-12-04T17:20:13Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 3489 2006-12-16T00:16:20Z Eukesh 59 एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1834 3334 2006-12-04T17:28:03Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 3488 2006-12-16T00:16:15Z Eukesh 59 एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1835 3335 2006-12-04T17:38:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1836 3336 2006-12-04T17:44:57Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1837 3337 2006-12-04T17:48:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1838 3338 2006-12-04T17:52:11Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1839 3339 2006-12-04T17:54:52Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1840 3340 2006-12-04T17:58:23Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1841 3341 2006-12-04T17:58:50Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1842 3342 2006-12-04T17:59:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 1843 3343 2006-12-04T18:02:24Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} 3491 2006-12-16T00:16:58Z Eukesh 59 एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1844 3348 2006-12-10T08:22:15Z 203.173.138.159 New page: [[Image:Icono aviso borrar.png|80px|left]] '''This page is a candidate for speedy deletion!''' If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedi... [[Image:Icono aviso borrar.png|80px|left]] '''This page is a candidate for speedy deletion!''' If you disagree with its speedy deletion, please explain why on its talk page or at Wikipedia:Speedy deletions. If this page obviously does not meet the criteria for speedy deletion, or you intend to fix it, please remove this notice, but do not remove this notice from articles that you have created yourself. 1860 3391 2006-12-14T00:38:21Z Eukesh 59 [[Āngalabhāsā]] moved to [[आंगलभाषा]] #REDIRECT [[आंगलभाषा]] 1861 3395 2006-12-14T16:26:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]स्... <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]स्य राज्या व राजधानी'''</div> <div class="NavContent"> {| | align="center" style="font-size: 110%;"| [[अलाबामा]] ([[मोन्टगोमरी]]) | [[अलास्का]] ([[जुन्यु]]) | [[अराइजोना]] ([[फिनिक्स]]) | [[आर्कान्स:]] ([[लिटिल रक]]) | [[क्यालिफोर्निया]] ([[सेक्रामेन्टो]]) | [[कोलोर्याडो]] ([[डेन्भर]]) | [[कनेक्टिकट]] ([[हार्टफोर्ड]]) | [[डेलावेर]] ([[डोभर]]) | [[डिस्ट्रिक्ट अफ कोलम्बिया]] ([[वासिंगटन डि सि]]) | [[फ्लोरिडा]] ([[टालाहासे]]) | [[ज्योर्जिया]] ([[एट्लान्टा]]) | [[हवाई]] ([[होनालुलु]]) | [[आइडाहो]] ([[बोइज]]) | [[इलिनोइ]] ([[स्प्रिंगफिल्ड]]) | [[इन्डियाना]] ([[इन्डियानापोलिस]]) | [[आयोवा]] ([[डेस् म्वाने]]) | [[कान्सास्]] ([[टोपेका]]) | [[केन्चकी]] ([[फ्र्यांकफोर्ट]]) | [[लुइजियाना]] ([[बेटन रु]]) | [[मेइन]] ([[अगस्टा]]) | [[मेरील्यान्ड]] ([[एनापोलिस]]) | [[म्यासेच्युसेट्स]] ([[बोस्टन]]) | [[मिसिगन]] ([[ल्यान्सिंग]]) | [[मिनेसोटा]] ([[सन्त पल]]) | [[मिसिसिप्पी]] ([[ज्याकसन]]) | [[मिसौरी]] ([[जेफर्सन सिटी]]) | [[मोन्टाना]] ([[हेलेना]]) | [[नेब्रास्का]] ([[लिंकन]]) | [[नेभेदा]] ([[कार्सन सिटी]]) | [[न्हु ह्याम्प्शायर]] ([[कन्कर्ड]]) | [[न्हु जर्सी]] ([[ट्रेन्टन]]) | [[न्हु मेक्सिको]] ([[सान्ता फे]]) | [[न्हु यर्क]] ([[अल्बानी]]) | [[उत्तर क्यारोलिना]] ([[र्यालेइ]]) | [[उत्तर डेकोटा]] ([[बिस्मार्क]]) | [[ओहायो]] ([[कोलम्बस]]) | [[ओक्लाहोमा]] ([[ओक्लाहोमा सिटी]]) | [[ओरेगन]] ([[सालेम]]) | [[पेन्सिल्भेनिया]] ([[ह्यारिसबर्ग]]) | [[रोड टापू]] ([[प्रोभिडेन्स]]) | [[दक्षिण क्यारोलिना]] ([[कोलम्बिया]]) | [[दक्षिण ड्याकोटा]] ([[पियेरे]]) | [[टेनिसी]] ([[न्यास्भिल्ल]]) | [[टेक्सास]] ([[अस्टिन]]) | [[उटाह]] ([[साल्ट लेक सिटी]]) | [[भर्मोन्ट]] ([[मोन्टपेलियर]]) |[[भर्जिनिया]] ([[रिचमन्ड]]) | [[वासिंगटन]] ([[ओलम्पिया]]) | [[पश्चिम भर्जिनिया]] ([[चार्ल्सटन]]) | [[विन्कोसिन]] ([[मेडिसन]]) | [[वायोमिंग]] ([[चेइनी]]) |} </div> </div> [[Category:संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]] 3396 2006-12-14T16:28:08Z Eukesh 59 Replacing page with '{{अमेरिका}}' {{अमेरिका}} 1862 3397 2006-12-14T16:28:25Z Eukesh 59 New page: <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]स्... <div class="NavFrame" > <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:130%; background:#ccccff" align="center" width="100%">'''[[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]स्य राज्या व राजधानी'''</div> <div class="NavContent"> {| | align="center" style="font-size: 110%;"| [[अलाबामा]] ([[मोन्टगोमरी]]) | [[अलास्का]] ([[जुन्यु]]) | [[अराइजोना]] ([[फिनिक्स]]) | [[आर्कान्स:]] ([[लिटिल रक]]) | [[क्यालिफोर्निया]] ([[सेक्रामेन्टो]]) | [[कोलोर्याडो]] ([[डेन्भर]]) | [[कनेक्टिकट]] ([[हार्टफोर्ड]]) | [[डेलावेर]] ([[डोभर]]) | [[डिस्ट्रिक्ट अफ कोलम्बिया]] ([[वासिंगटन डि सि]]) | [[फ्लोरिडा]] ([[टालाहासे]]) | [[ज्योर्जिया]] ([[एट्लान्टा]]) | [[हवाई]] ([[होनालुलु]]) | [[आइडाहो]] ([[बोइज]]) | [[इलिनोइ]] ([[स्प्रिंगफिल्ड]]) | [[इन्डियाना]] ([[इन्डियानापोलिस]]) | [[आयोवा]] ([[डेस् म्वाने]]) | [[कान्सास्]] ([[टोपेका]]) | [[केन्चकी]] ([[फ्र्यांकफोर्ट]]) | [[लुइजियाना]] ([[बेटन रु]]) | [[मेइन]] ([[अगस्टा]]) | [[मेरील्यान्ड]] ([[एनापोलिस]]) | [[म्यासेच्युसेट्स]] ([[बोस्टन]]) | [[मिसिगन]] ([[ल्यान्सिंग]]) | [[मिनेसोटा]] ([[सन्त पल]]) | [[मिसिसिप्पी]] ([[ज्याकसन]]) | [[मिसौरी]] ([[जेफर्सन सिटी]]) | [[मोन्टाना]] ([[हेलेना]]) | [[नेब्रास्का]] ([[लिंकन]]) | [[नेभेदा]] ([[कार्सन सिटी]]) | [[न्हु ह्याम्प्शायर]] ([[कन्कर्ड]]) | [[न्हु जर्सी]] ([[ट्रेन्टन]]) | [[न्हु मेक्सिको]] ([[सान्ता फे]]) | [[न्हु यर्क]] ([[अल्बानी]]) | [[उत्तर क्यारोलिना]] ([[र्यालेइ]]) | [[उत्तर डेकोटा]] ([[बिस्मार्क]]) | [[ओहायो]] ([[कोलम्बस]]) | [[ओक्लाहोमा]] ([[ओक्लाहोमा सिटी]]) | [[ओरेगन]] ([[सालेम]]) | [[पेन्सिल्भेनिया]] ([[ह्यारिसबर्ग]]) | [[रोड टापू]] ([[प्रोभिडेन्स]]) | [[दक्षिण क्यारोलिना]] ([[कोलम्बिया]]) | [[दक्षिण ड्याकोटा]] ([[पियेरे]]) | [[टेनिसी]] ([[न्यास्भिल्ल]]) | [[टेक्सास]] ([[अस्टिन]]) | [[उटाह]] ([[साल्ट लेक सिटी]]) | [[भर्मोन्ट]] ([[मोन्टपेलियर]]) |[[भर्जिनिया]] ([[रिचमन्ड]]) | [[वासिंगटन]] ([[ओलम्पिया]]) | [[पश्चिम भर्जिनिया]] ([[चार्ल्सटन]]) | [[विन्कोसिन]] ([[मेडिसन]]) | [[वायोमिंग]] ([[चेइनी]]) |} </div> </div> [[Category:संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]] 1863 3398 2006-12-14T16:28:49Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1864 3399 2006-12-14T16:29:06Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1865 3400 2006-12-14T16:29:23Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1866 3401 2006-12-14T16:29:55Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1867 3402 2006-12-14T16:30:13Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1868 3403 2006-12-14T16:30:36Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1869 3404 2006-12-14T16:30:53Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1870 3405 2006-12-14T16:31:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1871 3406 2006-12-14T16:31:28Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1872 3407 2006-12-14T16:31:45Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1873 3408 2006-12-14T16:32:07Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1874 3409 2006-12-14T16:32:51Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1875 3410 2006-12-14T16:33:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1876 3411 2006-12-14T16:33:35Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1877 3412 2006-12-14T16:33:58Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1878 3413 2006-12-14T16:34:14Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1879 3414 2006-12-14T16:34:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1880 3415 2006-12-14T16:34:51Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1881 3416 2006-12-14T16:35:08Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1882 3417 2006-12-14T16:35:24Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1883 3418 2006-12-14T16:35:41Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1884 3419 2006-12-14T16:35:57Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1885 3420 2006-12-14T16:36:14Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1886 3421 2006-12-14T16:36:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1887 3422 2006-12-14T16:36:53Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1888 3423 2006-12-14T16:37:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1889 3424 2006-12-14T16:37:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1890 3425 2006-12-14T16:37:49Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1891 3426 2006-12-14T16:38:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1892 3427 2006-12-14T16:38:22Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1893 3428 2006-12-14T16:38:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1894 3429 2006-12-14T16:38:55Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1895 3430 2006-12-14T16:39:11Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1896 3431 2006-12-14T16:39:28Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1897 3432 2006-12-14T16:39:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1898 3433 2006-12-14T16:40:01Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1899 3434 2006-12-14T16:40:17Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1900 3435 2006-12-14T16:40:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1901 3436 2006-12-14T16:40:56Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1902 3437 2006-12-14T16:41:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1903 3438 2006-12-14T16:41:57Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1904 3439 2006-12-14T16:42:15Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1905 3440 2006-12-14T16:42:31Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1906 3441 2006-12-14T16:42:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1907 3442 2006-12-14T16:43:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1908 3443 2006-12-14T16:43:20Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1909 3444 2006-12-14T16:43:38Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1910 3445 2006-12-14T16:43:56Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1911 3446 2006-12-14T16:44:13Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1912 3447 2006-12-14T16:44:30Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1913 3448 2006-12-14T16:44:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1914 3449 2006-12-14T16:45:02Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1915 3450 2006-12-14T16:45:18Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1916 3451 2006-12-14T16:45:37Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1917 3452 2006-12-14T16:45:54Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1918 3453 2006-12-14T16:46:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1919 3454 2006-12-14T16:46:27Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1920 3455 2006-12-14T16:46:45Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1921 3456 2006-12-14T16:47:32Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1922 3457 2006-12-14T16:47:57Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1923 3458 2006-12-14T16:48:12Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1924 3459 2006-12-14T16:48:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1925 3460 2006-12-14T16:48:46Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1926 3461 2006-12-14T16:49:01Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1927 3462 2006-12-14T16:49:19Z Eukesh 59 New page: {{अमेरिका}} {{अमेरिका}} 1928 3465 2006-12-14T17:28:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa ... <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पालि] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devanagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {{Index}} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिफोन) - [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (বাংলা)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 3577 2006-12-16T00:31:59Z Eukesh 59 <div style="background-color:#FFFBF0; padding:10px; "> <p style="text-align: center"> <big>''' पाली भाषा विकिनिखिलकोषो '''</big> ('''Pali Bhasa Wikipedia''') </p> <p style="text-align: center"> [[Image:Flag of Buddhism.svg |130px]] </p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0 0 3%; text-align: center; font-size: 125%; line-height: 1.3"> सागत:! विकिकोष (निखिलकोष - आङ्गलभाषा: Wikipedia)| इमम् सद्दकोसो समानकिक्को होति, अबद्ध निखिलकोस करेतु। विखिसद्दकोसो इमस्स विखि-निखिलकोसस्स (http://pi.wiktionary.org) अक्खरपदिको सहायो। तुवम्पि इमस्मि सद्दकोसे वत्थुनि लिखेय्य! उपकारो:[http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/dict-ep/ āngalabhāsā-pāli आङलभाषा-पाली] इमम् निखिलकोसम् आरद्धकतो फुस्समासे १६, २५४९। इतिरचि [[Special:Statistics|<font color="green" size="+1">'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''</font>]] भाथुनि लिखित: होन्ति| अपी च खो सब्बे भाथुनि आबध्दा भबेतब्बा| (GNU)। अभ्यासार्थाय [[Wikipedia:Help|सहायता]] च [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|प्रयोगस्थले]] गच्छन्तु । अधस्तात् लेखनाय सुविधाय स्थलानि सन्ति - </p> <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #996600; margin-bottom: 10px;" | width="60%" valign="top" bgcolor="#EAF5FB" style="border-bottom:1px solid #006699; border-right:1px solid #006699;"| {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #006699;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#D0E2EE"|<big>''' देवनागरी(युनिकोड) लेखन साधन '''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #006699; padding-right:10px" align="justify" bgcolor="#EAF5FB"| * [http://www.niu.edu/~deepak/roman2unicode/release/ Roman to Devanagari converter] * [http://www.indiver.com/nepali.php इन्दीवर नेपाली सम्पादक] * [http://www.aksharamala.com अक्षरमाला] खुला, सरल [[युनिकोड]] [[देवनागरी]] [[सफ्टवेर]] * [[:en:Unicode | युनिकोड अङ्ग्रेजी विकिपीडिया]] ([[युनिकोड]]) * [[:en:Devanagari | देवनागरी (अङ्ग्रेजी)]] ([[:sa:देवनागरी|संस्‍कृतं अनुवाद]]) * [http://www.aksharamala.com/download/free/ अक्षरमाला डाउनलोड (खुला)] * [http://www.aczone.com/itrans/ ITRANS] * [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode/ छहारी नेपाली / देवनागरी टाईपराइटर] |} |} {{Index}} {| === विषय सुची === |- | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|50px|Zienziah Naturaleh]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[गणित]] , [[प्रकृति]] व [[विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[खगोल विज्ञान]] - [[जीव विज्ञान]] - [[रसायन विज्ञान]] - [[सुशांख्य यन्त्र विज्ञान]](कम्प्युटर विज्ञान) - [[वातावरण विज्ञान]] - [[रेखा विज्ञान]](ज्यामिति) - [[गणित]] - [[भौतिक विज्ञान]] - [[पशु विज्ञान]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps browser.png|50px|Zienziah Zozialeh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[मनुष्य]] व [[सामाजिक विज्ञान]] '''<br/><font color="green"> [[मनुष्य विज्ञान]](एन्थ्रोपोलोजी) - [[पूरातत्त्व शास्त्र]] - [[भूगोल]] - [[अध्ययन शास्त्र]] - [[ईतिहास]] - [[भाषा]] - [[दर्शन विज्ञान]] - [[चिन्तनशास्त्र]](साइकोलोजी) - [[धम्म]] - [[समाज विज्ञान]]</font> '''</big><br/> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps mycomputer.png|50px|Teknolohía]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कार्य विज्ञान]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कृषि विज्ञान]] - [[गृह विज्ञान]] - [[संचार]] - [[ऋणाणु विज्ञान (ईलेक्त्रोनिक)]] - [[यन्त्रशास्त्र]](ईन्जिन्यरिङ) - [[स्वास्थ्य]] - [[उध्योग]] - [[चिकित्सा विज्ञान]] - [[परिवहन]] - [[मौसम]]</font> |} | width="50%" valign="top" | {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" | width="10%" | [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|50px|Arte i Kurtura]] | width="90%" style="font-family: unicode; font-size:medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[कला]] व [[संस्कृति]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[कला]] - [[पुस्तक]] - [[पकवान]] - [[संस्कृति]] - [[नृत्य]] - [[चलचित्र]] - [[संगीत]] - [[रेडियो]] - [[क्रीडा]] - [[नाटक]] - [[सयल (विहार)]] - [[दूरसंचार यन्त्र]](टेलिफोन) - [[दूरदर्शन यन्त्र]](टेलिभिजन) </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps atlantik.png|50px|Entretenimientoh]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[अन्य]]'''<br/> <font color="green"> [[नेपाल]] - [[पाली भाषा]] - [[जीवनी]] - [[बुध्दो]] </font> |- | [[Image:Nuvola apps kwrite.png|50px|Index]] | style="font-family: unicode; font-size: medium; border-top: 1px dashed #AAAAAA;" | '''[[संविधान]] व [[राज्य]]'''<br/><font color="green"> [[लेखाधिकार]] - [[देश]] - [[अर्थतन्त्र]] - [[मनुष्य अधिकार]] - [[विधान]]- [[सेना]] - [[राज्यनीति]] - [[व्यापार]] </font> |} |} </div> <br> ---- <br> {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-left:1px solid #991066; border-right:1px solid #991066;" | width="100%" valign="top" bgcolor="#FBEAF5" style="border-bottom:1px solid #991066;"| {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border-top:1px solid #991066;" ! align="center" bgcolor="#EEE0E2" |<big>''' अन्य भाषासु विकिपीडिया'''</big> |- | style="border-top:1px solid #991066; font-size:85%; padding:5px 20px" align="justify" bgcolor="#FBFAF5"| <small> [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination| विकिपिडिया भाषासुची]] - [http://af.wikipedia.org अफ्रीकांस (Afrikaans)] - [http://ar.wikipedia.com العربية अरबी(Araby)] - [[:ay:|Aymar aru (Aymara)]] - [http://as.wikipedia.org असमिया (Asamiya)] - [http://be.wikipedia.org/ Belarus] - [http://bn.wikipedia.org बांग्ला (বাংলা)] -[http://cs.wikipedia.org चेस्क (Česká)] - [http://de.wikipedia.org डोइच (Deutsch)] - [http://el.wikipedia.org Ελλ&eta;&nu;&iota;&kappa;ά यूनानी (Ellenika)] - [http://en.wikipedia.org अंग्रेजी (English)] - [http://eo.wikipedia.org Esperanto] - [http://es.wikipedia.org एस्पन्योल (Español)] - [http://fi.wikipedia.com Suomi] - [http://fr.wikipedia.org फ्रांसी (Fran&ccedil;ais)] - [http://gu.wikipedia.org गुजराती (Gujarati)] - [http://hi.wikipedia.org हिन्दी (Hindi)] - [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido] - [http://id.wikipedia.org भाषा इंदोनेशिया (Indonesia)] - [http://it.wikipedia.com इतालियन (Italiano)] - [http://ja.wikipedia.org 日本語 निहंग (Nihongo)] - [http://km.wikipedia.org ख्मेर (Khmer)] - [http://kn.wikipedia.org कन्‍नड (Kannada)] - [http://ko.wikipedia.org 한국어 (Hangukeo)] - [http://ks.wikipedia.org कश्मीरी (Kashmiri)] - [http://ku.wikipedia.org कुर्दी (Kurdish)] - [http://la.wikipedia.com Latina] - [http://lo.wikipedia.org लाओ (Lao)] - [http://hu.wikipedia.org Magyar] - [http://mi.wikipedia.org M&acirc;ori] - [http://ml.wikipedia.org मलयाल (Malayalam)] - [http://mn.wikipedia.org मंगोल (Mongolian)] - [http://mr.wikipedia.org मराठी (Marathi)] - [http://ms.wikipedia.org भाषा मलय (Bahasa Melayu)] - [http://my.wikipedia.org Myanmar] - [http://nah.wikipedia.org Nahuatl] - [http://ne.wikipedia.org नेपाली (Nepali)] - [http://nl.wikipedia.org Nederlands] - [http://or.wikipedia.org Oriya] - [http://pa.wikipedia.org पंजाबी (Punjabi)] - [http://pl.wikipedia.org Polska] - [http://fa.wikipedia.org फारसी (Persian)] - [http://pt.wikipedia.com Portugu&ecirc;s] - [http://qu.wikipedia.org Runa Simi (Quechua)] - [http://ro.wikipedia.org Română] - [http://ru.wikipedia.org Русский रूसी (Russkiy)] - [http://sd.wikipedia.org सिन्धी(Sindhi)] - [http://si.wikipedia.org सिंहली (Singhalese)] - [http://sl.wikipedia.com Slovenščina] - [http://sv.wikipedia.org Svenska] - [http://sw.wikipedia.org Swahili] - [http://ta.wikipedia.org द्रमिड (Tamil)] - [http://te.wikipedia.org तेलुगु (Telugu)] - [http://th.wikipedia.org थै/स्याम (Thai/Siam)] - [http://tl.wikipedia.org तगालोग (Tagalog)] - [http://tr.wikipedia.org तुर्की (Türkçe)] - [http://ur.wikipedia.org उर्दू (Urdu)] - [http://vi.wikipedia.org Tiếng Việt] - [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ 中文 (Chinese)] - [http://zu.wikipedia.org जूलू (Zulu)] </small> |} |} <div class="MainPageBG" style="border: 1px solid #bfbfbf; padding: .5em 1em 1em; font-size: 100%; color: #000; background-color: #fff; margin: 3px;"> <h3 id="sister">विकिपिडिया भातृ कृयाकलाप </h3> {| align="center" cellpadding="2" width="100%" |- valign="top" | colspan="3" | '''भातृ परियोजना''' |- | [[Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[m:Main Page|'''मेटा-विकि''']]<br /> सकल विकिपिडिया परियोजना समन्वय | [[Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikt:|'''विकिशब्दकोष''']]<br />शब्दकोष | [[Image:Commons-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[commons:|'''विकिमीडिया कमन्स''']]<br /> | [[Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[b:|'''विकिपुस्तक''']]<br />पुस्तकालय |- | [[Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[q:|'''विकिउवाक''']]<br />उवाक | [[Image:Wikisource-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[wikisource:|'''विकिश्रोत''']]<br />श्रोत कागजात | [[Image:Wikispecies-logo.png|35px|Wikispecies]] | [[Wikispecies:|'''विकिप्रजाती''']]<br />प्रजाती डाइरेक्त्री | [[Image:Wikinews-logo.png|35px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] | [[n:|'''विकिसमाचार''']]<br />समाचार |} [[af:]] [[als:]] [[ang:]] [[as:]] [[bh:]] [[bn:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[en:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[fo:]] [[fr:]] [[he:]] [[got:]] [[gu:]] [[hi:]] [[io:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[kn:]] [[ks:]] [[la:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[nn:]] [[nds:]] [[or:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sd:]] [[sv:]] [[sco:]] [[simple:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[ur:]] 1929 3469 2006-12-15T13:27:54Z Pill 73 New page: <div style="border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; margin: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-top:0.8em;"> {| width=100% border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" s... <div style="border-top:1px solid #AAAAAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAAAAA; margin: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.8em; margin-top:0.8em;"> {| width=100% border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:#F9F9F9;" |- valign="top" | width="100%" style="text-align:center" | [[:w:de:User:Pill|German Wikipedia user page]] | [[User talk:Pill|talk page]] | [[User:Pill/monobook.js|monobook]] |} </div> I am [[:m:User:Pill|Pill]]. :''Please use my [[:m:User talk:Pill|Meta talk page]] to leave me messages.'' 1930 3470 2006-12-15T13:28:06Z Pill 73 New page: document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="' + 'http://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=User:Pill/monobook.js' + '&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript... document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="' + 'http://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=User:Pill/monobook.js' + '&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript&dontcountme=s"></script>'); 1931 3478 2006-12-15T15:13:27Z Eukesh 59 Restoring the content before vandalism '''Please note:''' I speak [[:en:English language|English]]. - [[User:Dcljr|dcljr]] ---- 1932 3479 2006-12-15T15:18:12Z Eukesh 59 New page: Bonjour, Je suis un Wikipédien français. Merci de me contacter sur [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hello, I am a French Wikipedian. Please contact me on [[:fr:Discussion_Util... Bonjour, Je suis un Wikipédien français. Merci de me contacter sur [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hello, I am a French Wikipedian. Please contact me on [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. Hallo, Ich bin ein französischer Wikipedia Benutzer. Bitte gehen Sie zu : [[:fr:Discussion_Utilisateur:Vargenau]]. 1933 3480 2006-12-15T15:19:32Z Eukesh 59 New page: {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot en cours de test''' |- | Ce robot en ... {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot en cours de test''' |- | Ce robot en cours de test est destiné à faire des interwikis. |- | Dresseur : [[:fr:Utilisateur:Vargenau|Vargenau]] |- | Laissez vos commentaires sur [[:fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Vargenau|ma page de discussion]]. Merci. |} {|width="60%" align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 3px solid orange; background-color: #FFFFCC; margin-bottom: 6px;" |align="center"|'''Robot currently under test''' |- | This robot currently under test will only be used to make interwiki links. |- | Owner: [[:fr:Utilisateur:Vargenau|Vargenau]] |- | Please leave your comments (in French or English) on [[:fr:Discussion Utilisateur:Vargenau|my French talk page]]. Thank you. |} 1934 edit=sysop:move=sysop 3481 2006-12-15T15:25:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: This user has been blocked infinitely for deliberate vandalism with obscene content. This user has been blocked infinitely for deliberate vandalism with obscene content. 3482 2006-12-15T15:25:28Z Eukesh 59 Protected "[[User:Porrokan]]" [edit=sysop:move=sysop] This user has been blocked infinitely for deliberate vandalism with obscene content. 1935 3485 2006-12-16T00:13:26Z Eukesh 59 New page: '''हाइड्रोजन''' एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] '''हाइड्रोजन''' एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 3490 2006-12-16T00:16:39Z Eukesh 59 एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1936 3486 2006-12-16T00:15:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1937 3487 2006-12-16T00:15:19Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1938 3492 2006-12-16T00:17:20Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1939 3493 2006-12-16T00:17:24Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1940 3494 2006-12-16T00:17:54Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1942 3496 2006-12-16T00:18:09Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1943 3497 2006-12-16T00:18:14Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1944 3498 2006-12-16T00:18:36Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1945 3499 2006-12-16T00:18:40Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1946 3500 2006-12-16T00:18:56Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1947 3501 2006-12-16T00:18:59Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1948 3502 2006-12-16T00:19:13Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1949 3503 2006-12-16T00:19:16Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1950 3504 2006-12-16T00:19:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1951 3505 2006-12-16T00:19:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1952 3506 2006-12-16T00:19:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1953 3507 2006-12-16T00:19:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1954 3508 2006-12-16T00:20:00Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1955 3509 2006-12-16T00:20:03Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1956 3510 2006-12-16T00:20:15Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1957 3511 2006-12-16T00:20:18Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु:। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1958 3512 2006-12-16T00:20:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1959 3513 2006-12-16T00:20:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1960 3514 2006-12-16T00:21:06Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1961 3515 2006-12-16T00:21:28Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1962 3516 2006-12-16T00:21:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1963 3517 2006-12-16T00:21:45Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1964 3518 2006-12-16T00:21:49Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1965 3519 2006-12-16T00:22:02Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1966 3520 2006-12-16T00:22:06Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1967 3521 2006-12-16T00:22:17Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1968 3522 2006-12-16T00:22:21Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1969 3523 2006-12-16T00:22:32Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1970 3524 2006-12-16T00:22:35Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1971 3525 2006-12-16T00:22:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1972 3526 2006-12-16T00:22:50Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1973 3527 2006-12-16T00:23:04Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1974 3528 2006-12-16T00:23:07Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1975 3529 2006-12-16T00:23:19Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1976 3530 2006-12-16T00:23:22Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1977 3531 2006-12-16T00:23:35Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1978 3532 2006-12-16T00:23:38Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1979 3533 2006-12-16T00:23:50Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1980 3534 2006-12-16T00:24:03Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1981 3535 2006-12-16T00:24:08Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1982 3536 2006-12-16T00:24:21Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1983 3537 2006-12-16T00:24:25Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1984 3538 2006-12-16T00:24:37Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1985 3539 2006-12-16T00:24:41Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1986 3540 2006-12-16T00:24:59Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1987 3541 2006-12-16T00:25:05Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1988 3542 2006-12-16T00:25:17Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1989 3543 2006-12-16T00:25:20Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1990 3544 2006-12-16T00:25:32Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1991 3545 2006-12-16T00:25:36Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1992 3546 2006-12-16T00:25:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1993 3547 2006-12-16T00:25:52Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1994 3548 2006-12-16T00:26:04Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1995 3549 2006-12-16T00:26:08Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1996 3550 2006-12-16T00:26:20Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1997 3551 2006-12-16T00:26:24Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1998 3552 2006-12-16T00:26:36Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 1999 3553 2006-12-16T00:26:40Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2000 3554 2006-12-16T00:26:51Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2001 3555 2006-12-16T00:26:55Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2002 3556 2006-12-16T00:27:08Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2003 3557 2006-12-16T00:27:11Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2004 3558 2006-12-16T00:27:23Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2005 3559 2006-12-16T00:27:26Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2006 3560 2006-12-16T00:27:39Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2007 3561 2006-12-16T00:27:42Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2008 3562 2006-12-16T00:27:54Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2009 3563 2006-12-16T00:27:58Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2010 3564 2006-12-16T00:28:10Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2011 3565 2006-12-16T00:28:14Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2012 3566 2006-12-16T00:28:25Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2013 3567 2006-12-16T00:28:29Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2014 3568 2006-12-16T00:28:41Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2015 3569 2006-12-16T00:28:47Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2016 3570 2006-12-16T00:29:00Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2017 3571 2006-12-16T00:29:04Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2018 3572 2006-12-16T00:29:22Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2019 3573 2006-12-16T00:29:31Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2020 3574 2006-12-16T00:29:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2021 3575 2006-12-16T00:29:48Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2022 3576 2006-12-16T00:30:01Z Eukesh 59 New page: एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] एकस्य तत्त्व अस्तु। {{तत्त्व}} [[Category:तत्त्व]] 2023 3578 2006-12-16T14:53:48Z Tiyoringo 76 New page: == バベル == <table style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; width: 242px; border: #99B3FF solid 1px"> <tr><td><center>'''[[Wikipedia:Babel]]'''</center></td></tr> <... == バベル == <table style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; width: 242px; border: #99B3FF solid 1px"> <tr><td><center>'''[[Wikipedia:Babel]]'''</center></td></tr> <tr><td>{{User ja}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User en-2}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User de-1}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User zh-1}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User es-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User fr-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User it-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User nl-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User pt-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User ru-0}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User simple-2}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User BirthdayYear|1|9|7|X}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User windows}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User browser:Microsoft Internet Explorer}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User inclusionist}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User 歴検 2級世界史}}</td></tr> <!--<tr><td>{{User death-expand}}</td></tr>--> <tr><td>{{User Hutu}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User Yahoo! JAPAN}}</td></tr> <tr><td>{{User Google}}</td></tr> </table> == 他言語版リンク == *[[aa:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[ab:Участник:Tiyoringo|アブハズ語（アブハジア共和国）]] *[[af:Gebruiker:Tiyoringo|アフリカーンス語（南アフリカなど）]] *[[ak:User:Tiyoringo|アカン語（ガーナ、コートジボアール）]] *[[als:Benutzer:Tiyoringo|アレマン語（スイス、高地ドイツ）]] *[[am:User:Tiyoringo|アムハラ語（エチオピア）]] *[[an:Usuario:Tiyoringo|アラゴン語（スペインの一部）]] *[[ang:User:Tiyoringo|古英語]] *[[ar:مستخدم:Tiyoringo|アラビア語]] *[[arc:User:Tiyoringo|現代アッシリア語]] *[[as:User:Tiyoringo|アッサム語（インド・アッサム地方）]] *[[ast:Usuariu:Tiyoringo|アストゥーリア語（ポルトガルの方言）]] *[[av:Участник:Tiyoringo|アヴァル語（ダゲスタン共和国）]] *[[ay:User:Tiyoringo|アイマラ語（ボリビア・ペルー）]] *[[az:İstifadəçi:Tiyoringo|アゼルバイジャン語]] *[[ba:Ҡатнашыусы:Tiyoringo|バシキール語（バシコルトスタン）]] *[[bar:User:Tiyoringo|ババリア語]] *[[bat-smg:User:Tiyoringo|（リトアニアの一部）]] *[[be:Удзельнік:Tiyoringo|ベラルーシ語]] *[[bg:Потребител:Tiyoringo|ブルガリア語]] *[[bh:User:Tiyoringo|ビハリ語（インド・ビハール州）]] *[[bi:User:Tiyoringo|ビスラマ語（バヌアツ、ニューカレドニア）]] *[[bm:Utilisateur:Tiyoringo|バンバラ語（マリ、ブルキナファソ、コートジボアール、ガンビア）]] *[[bn:ব্যবহারকারী:Tiyoringo|ベンガル語（バングラデシュ）]] *[[bo:User:Tiyoringo|チベット語]] *[[bpy:User:Tiyoringo|（バングラデシュ・ミャンマー国境地方）]] *[[br:Implijer:Tiyoringo|ブルトン語（ブルターニュ地方）]] *[[bs:Korisnik:Tiyoringo|ボスニア語]] *[[bug:User:Tiyoringo|ブギス語（スラウェシ島南部）]] *[[bxr:User:Tiyoringo|（ブリヤート語（ブリヤート共和国）]] *[[ca:Usuari:Tiyoringo|カタルーニャ語（カタロニア地方）]] *[[cbk-zam:User:Tiyoringo|スペイン語系言語（フィリピン南部）]] *[[cdo:User:Tiyoringo|閩東語]] *[[ce:User:Tiyoringo|チェチェン語]] *[[ceb:User:Tiyoringo|セブアノ語（セブ島ほか）]] *[[ch:User:Tiyoringo|チャモロ語（グアム、マリアナ諸島）]] *[[cho:User:Tiyoringo|チョクト語（アメリカ先住民）]] *[[chr:User:Tiyoringo|チェロキー語（アメリカ先住民の一部）]] *[[chy:User:Tiyoringo|（アメリカ先住民）]] *[[co:User:Tiyoringo|コルシカ語]] *[[cr:User:Tiyoringo|クリー語（カナダ、アルバータ州/ラブラドル州）]] *[[cs:Wikipedista:Tiyoringo|チェコ語]] *[[csb:Brëkòwnik:Tiyoringo|カシューブ語（ポーランドの一部など）]] *[[cu:User:Tiyoringo|古代教会スラヴ語（東ヨーロッパ）]] *[[cv:Хутшăнакан:Tiyoringo|チュヴァシ語（ヴォルガ川周辺の一部]] *[[cy:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[da:Bruger:Tiyoringo|デンマーク語]] *[[de:Benutzer:Tiyoringo|ドイツ語]] *[[diq:User:Tiyoringo|（トルコ東部）]] *[[dv:User:Tiyoringo|ディベヒ語（モルディブ）]] *[[dz:User:Tiyoringo|ゾンカ語（ブータン）]] *[[el:Χρήστης:Tiyoringo|ギリシャ語]] *[[eml:User:Tiyoringo|（サンマリノ）]] *[[en:User:Tiyoringo|英語]] *[[eo:Vikipediisto:Tiyoringo|エスペラント語（人工言語）]] *[[es:Usuario:Tiyoringo|スペイン語]] *[[et:Kasutaja:Tiyoringo|エストニア語]] *[[eu:Lankide:Tiyoringo|バスク語（バスク地方）]] *[[ewe:User:Tiyoringo|エウェ語（ガーナ、トーゴ）]] *[[fa:کاربر:Tiyoringo|ペルシア語（イラン、タジキスタン、アフガニスタン）]] *[[ff:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[fi:Käyttäjä:Tiyoringo|フィンランド語]] *[[fiu-vro:User:Tiyoringo|ヴォロ語（エストニア南東部）]] *[[fj:User:Tiyoringo|フィジー語（フィジー）]] *[[fo:Brúkari:Tiyoringo|フェロー語（フェロー諸島）]] *[[fr:Utilisateur:Tiyoringo|フランス語]] *[[frp:User:Tiyoringo|アルピタン語（フランス、イタリア、スイス国境地帯）]] *[[fur:Utent:Tiyoringo|フリウリ語（イタリア、スロベニア国境地帯）]] *[[fy:Meidogger:Tiyoringo|フリジア語（北海沿岸など）]] *[[ga:Úsáideoir:Tiyoringo|アイルランド語]] *[[gd:User:Tiyoringo|スコットランド・ゲール語]] *[[gl:User:Tiyoringo|ガリシア語]] *[[glk:User:Tiyoringo|（イラン・カスピ海沿岸）]] *[[gn:User:Tiyoringo|グアラニー語（パラグアイ、ボリビア）]] *[[got:User:Tiyoringo|ゴート語（ほぼ死語）]] <!-- *[[gsw:User:Tiyoringo]](als:Benutzer:Tiyoringo) --> *[[gu:User:Tiyoringo|グジャラート語（インド、グジャラート州）]] *[[gv:User:Tiyoringo|マン島語]] *[[ha:User:Tiyoringo|ハウサ語（ナイジェリア北部など）]] *[[haw:User:Tiyorinho|ハワイ語]] *[[he:משתמש:Tiyoringo|ヘブライ語]] *[[hi:सदस्य:Tiyoringo|ヒンディー語（インドの大部分）]] *[[ho:User:Tiyoringo|（パプアニューギニアの一部）]] *[[hr:Suradnik:Tiyoringo|クロアチア語]] *[[hsb:User:Tiyoringo|（ザクセン）]] *[[ht:User:Tiyoringo|ハイチ語]] *[[hu:User:Tiyoringo|ハンガリー語]] *[[hy:User:Tiyoringo|アルメニア語]] *[[hz:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[ia:Usator:Tiyoringo|インターリングア（国際補助語）]] *[[id:Pengguna:Tiyoringo|イド語（人工言語）]] *[[ie:User:Tiyoringo|インターリングア（国際補助語）]] *[[ig:User:Tiyoringo|イボ語（ナイジェリア、赤道ギニア）]] *[[ii:User:Tiyoringo|彝語（四川省、雲南省少数民族）]] *[[ik:User:Tiyoringo|イヌイット語（アラスカなど）]] *[[ilo:User:Tiyoringo|イロカノ語（ルソン島北部）]] *[[io:User:Tiyoringo|イド語（人工言語）]] *[[is:Pengguna:Tiyoringo|アイスランド語]] *[[it:Utente:Tiyoringo|イタリア語]] *[[iu:User:Tiyoringo|イヌクティトゥット語（カナダ北極海沿岸地方）]] *[[ja:利用者:Tiyoringo|日本語]] *[[jbo:User:Tiyoringo|ロジバン（人工言語）]] *[[jv:Panganggo:Tiyoringo|ジャワ語（ジャワ島中部、東部）]] *[[ka:მომხმარებელი:Tiyoringo|グルジア語]] <!-- *[[kaa:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] --> *[[kg:User:Tiyoringo|コンゴ語（コンゴ共和国、コンゴ民主共和国、アンゴラ]] *[[ki:User:Tiyoringo|（ケニアの一部）]] *[[kj:User:Tiyoringo|（ナミビア、アンゴラ）]] *[[kk:Қатысушы:Tiyoringo|カザフ語]] <!-- *[[kk-cn:User:Tiyoringo]] *[[kk-kz:User:Tiyoringo]] *[[kk-tr:User:Tiyoringo]] --> *[[kl:User:Tiyoringo|グリーンランド語]] *[[km:User:Tiyoringo|クメール語（カンボジア）]] *[[kn:ಸದಸ್ಯ:Tiyoringo|カンナダ語（インド南部）]] *[[ko:사용자:Tiyoringo|朝鮮語]] *[[kr:User:Tiyoringo|（ナイジェリア、チャド、ニジェール、カメルーン）]] *[[ks:User:Tiyoringo|カシミール語（カシミール地方）]] *[[ksh:Medmaacher:Tiyoringo|リプアーリ語（ラインラント、ベルギー東部）]] *[[ku:Bikarhêner:Tiyoringo|クルド語]] *[[kv:Участник:Tiyoringo|コミ語（ロシア・コミ共和国）]] *[[kw:User:Tiyoringo|コーンウォル語（イギリス、コーンウォル地方）]] *[[ky:User:Tiyoringo|キルギス語]] *[[la:Usor:Tiyoringo|ラテン語]] *[[lad:User:Tiyoringo|ジュデズモ語（スペイン系ユダヤ人）]] *[[lb:User:Tiyoringo|ルクセンブルク語]] *[[lbe:User:Tiyoringo|（ダゲスタン共和国南部）]] *[[lg:User:Tiyoringo|ガンダ語（ウガンダ）]] *[[li:Gebroeker:Tiyoringo|リンブルグ語（低地ドイツ語）]] *[[lij:User:Tiyoringo|リグリア語]] *[[lmo:User:Tiyoringo|ロンバルド語（ロンバルディア地方）]] *[[ln:User:Tiyoringo|リンガラ語（コンゴ民主共和国、コンゴ共和国）]] *[[lo:User:Tiyoringo|ラーオ語（ラオス）]] *[[lt:Naudotojas:Tiyoringo|リトアニア語]] *[[lv:Lietotājs:Tiyoringo|ラトビア語]] *[[map-bms:User:Tiyoringo|バニュマス語（ジャワ島中部ほか）]] *[[mg:User:Tiyoringo|マダガスカル語]] *[[mh:User:Tiyoringo|マーシャル語（マーシャル諸島、ナウル）]] *[[mi:User:Tiyoringo|マオリ語（ニュージーランド先住民）]] *[[mk:Корисник:Tiyoringo|マケドニア語]] *[[ml:User:Tiyoringo|マラヤラム語（インド南部）]] *[[mn:User:Tiyoringo|モンゴル語]] *[[mo:User:Tiyoringo|モルドバ語]] *[[mr:User:Tiyoringo|マラーティー語（インド西部）]] *[[ms:Pengguna:Tiyoringo|マレー語]] *[[mt:User:Tiyoringo|マルタ語]] *[[mus:User:Tiyoringo|（アメリカ先住民）]] *[[my:User:Tiyoringo|ビルマ語（ミャンマー）]] *[[mzn:User:Tiyoringo|マザーンダラン語（イラン・カスピ海沿岸）]] *[[na:User:Tiyoringo|ナウル語]] *[[nah:Usuario:Tiyoringo|ナワトル語（メキシコ先住民）]] *[[nap:Utente:Tiyoringo|ナポリ語]] *[[nds:Bruker:Tiyoringo|低ザクセン語（ドイツ北部）]] *[[nds-nl:Gebruker:Tiyoringo|オランダ低ザクセン語（オランダ北部）]] *[[ne:User:Tiyoringo|ネパール語（ネパール）]] *[[new:User:Tiyoringo|ネパール語（ネパール）]] *[[ng:User:Tiyoringo|（ナミビア、アンゴラ南部）]] *[[nl:Gebruiker:Tiyoringo|オランダ語]] *[[nn:Brukar:Tiyoringo|ニーノシュク（ノルウェーの方言）]] *[[no:Bruker:Tiyoringo|ノルウェー語]] <!-- *[[non:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] --> *[[nov:User:Tiyoringo|ノヴィアル（人工言語）]] *[[nrm:User:Tiyoringo|ノルマン語（ノルマンディー地方）]] *[[nv:User:Tiyoringo|ナバホ語（ニューメキシコ州、ユタ州先住民族）]] *[[ny:User:Tiyoringo|チェワ語（マラウイ）]] *[[oc:Utilizaire:Tiyoringo|オック語（ガスコーニュ地方など）]] *[[om:User:Tiyoringo|オロモ語（エチオピア、ケニア）]] *[[or:User:Tiyoringo|オリヤー語（インド・オリッサ州）]] *[[os:Архайæг:Tiyoringo|オセット語（北オセチア共和国）]] *[[pa:User:Tiyoringo|パンジャブ語（インド・パンジャブ州、パキスタン）]] *[[pag:User:Tiyoringo|（ルソン島中部）]] *[[pam:User:Tiyoringo|パンパンガ語（フィリピン北部の一部）]] *[[pap:User:Tiyoringo|ポルトガル語系言語（オランダ領アンチル諸島及びアルバ）]] *[[pdc:User:Tiyoringo|ペンシルバニア・ドイツ語（ペンシルバニア州、カナダ・アメリカ国境）]] *[[pi:User:Tiyoringo|パーリ語（上座仏教教典）]] *[[pih:User:Tiyoringo|ノーフォーク語（オーストラリア領ノーフォーク島）]] *[[pl:Wikipedysta:Tiyoringo|ポーランド語]] *[[pms:Utent:Tiyoringo|ピエモンテ語（ピエモンテ地方）]] *[[ps:User:Tiyoringo|パシュトー語（アフガニスタンの一部）]] *[[pt:Usuário:Tiyoringo|ポルトガル語]] <!-- *[[pt-br:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] --> *[[qu:Usuario:Tiyoringo|ケチュア語（インカ帝国）]] *[[rm:User:Tiyoringo|ロマンシュ語（スイス）]] *[[rmy:Jeno:Tiyoringo|ロマ語（ジプシー）]] *[[rn:User:Tiyoringo|ルンディ語（ブルンジ）]] *[[ro:Utilizator:Tiyoringo|ルーマニア語]] *[[roa-rup:User:Tiyoringo|アルーマニア語（ルーマニア語の流れを持つ）]] *[[roa-tar:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[ru:Участник:Tiyoringo|ロシア語]] *[[ru-sib:User:Tiyoringo|（シベリア）]] *[[rw:User:Tiyoringo|（ルワンダ）]] *[[sa:User:Tiyoringo|サンスクリット語（インドの古典言語）]] *[[sc:Utente:Tiyoringo|サルディーニャ語（サルディーニャ島）]] *[[scn:User:Tiyoringo|シチリア語（シチリア島）]] *[[sco:User:Tiyoringo|スコットランド語]] *[[sd:User:Tiyoringo|シンディー語（パキスタン、シンド州）]] *[[se:User:Tiyoringo|北部サーミ語（ラップランド）]] *[[sg:User:Tiyoringo|サンゴ語（中央アフリカ共和国）]] *[[sh:User:Tiyoringo|セルビア・クロアチア語]] *[[si:User:Tiyoringo|シンハラ語（スリランカ）]] *[[simple:User:Tiyoringo|シンプル英語]] *[[sk:Redaktor:Tiyoringo|スロバキア語]] *[[sl:Uporabnik:Tiyoringo|スロベニア語]] *[[sm:User:Tiyoringo|サモア語]] *[[sn:User:Tiyoringo|ショナ語（ジンバブエなど）]] *[[so:User:Tiyoringo|ソマリ語（ソマリア）]] *[[sq:Përdoruesi:Tiyoringo|アルバニア語]] *[[sr:Корисник:Tiyoringo|セルビア語]] <!-- *[[sr-ec:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[sr-el:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[sr-jc:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[sr-jl:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] --> *[[ss:User:Tiyoringo|スワジ語（スワジランド）]] *[[st:User:Tiyoringo|ソト語（レソト）]] *[[su:Pamaké:Tiyoringo|スンダ語]] *[[sv:Användare:Tiyoringo|スウェーデン語]] *[[sw:User:Tiyoringo|スワヒリ語（ケニア、タンザニア）]] *[[ta:பயனர்:Tiyoringo|タミル語（スリランカ）]] *[[te:సభ్యుడు:Tiyoringo|テルグ語（インド南東部）]] *[[tet:User:Tiyoringo|テトゥン語（東ティモール）]] *[[tg:User:Tiyoringo|タジク語]] *[[th:ผู้ใช้:Tiyoringo|タイ語]] *[[ti:User:Tiyoringo|ティグリヤ語]] *[[tk:User:Tiyoringo|トルクメン語（トルクメニスタン）]] *[[tl:User:Tiyoringo|タガログ語（フィリピン）]] *[[tlh:User:Tiyoringo|クリンゴン語（スタートレック）]] *[[tn:User:Tiyoringo|ツワナ語（ボツワナ）]] *[[to:User:Tiyoringo|トンガ語]] *[[tokipona:User:Tiyoringo|トキポナ（人工言語）]] *[[tpi:User:Tiyoringo|トク・ピジン（パプア・ニューギニア、ソロモン諸島、バヌアツ）]] *[[tr:Kullanıcı:Tiyoringo|トルコ語]] *[[ts:User:Tiyoringo|（モザンビーク、スワジランドなど）]] *[[tt:Äğzä:Tiyoringo|タタール語（北アジア）]] *[[tum:User:Tiyoringo|トゥンブカ語（マラウイなど）]] *[[tw:User:Tiyoringo|トウィ語（ガーナ）]] *[[ty:User:Tiyoringo|タヒチ語]] <!-- *[[tyv:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] ---> *[[udm:Викиавтор:Tiyoringo|ウドムルト語（ロシアの一部）]] *[[ug:User:Tiyoringo|ウィグル語]] *[[uk:Користувач:Tiyoringo|ウクライナ語]] *[[ur:صارف:Tiyoringo|ウルドゥー語（パキスタン、インドなど）]] *[[uz:User:Tiyoringo|ウズベク語（ウズベキスタン）]] *[[ve:User:Tiyoringo|（南アフリカ、ジンバブエ）]] *[[vec:Utente:Tiyoringo|ヴェネツィア語]] *[[vi:Thành viên:Tiyoringo|ベトナム語]] *[[vls:Gebruker:Tiyoringo|フラマン語]] *[[vo:User:Tiyoringo|不明]] *[[wa:Uzeu:Tiyoringo|ワロン語（ベルギー南部）]] *[[war:User:Tiyoringo|ワライワライ語（フィリピン中部）]] *[[wo:User:Tiyoringo|ウォロフ語（セネガル、ガンビア、モーリタニア）]] *[[wuu:User:Tiyoringo|呉語（上海ほか）]] *[[xal:Орлцач:Tiyoringo|オイラト語（モンゴル西部など）]] *[[xh:User:Tiyoringo|（南アフリカ共和国）]] *[[yi:באַניצער:Tiyoringo|イディッシュ語（ユダヤ人、主に中欧、東欧）]] *[[yo:User:Tiyoringo|ヨルバ語（ナイジェリア）]] *[[za:User:Tiyoringo|チワン語（広西省少数民族など）]] *[[zea:User:Tiyoringo|オランダ南西部北海沿岸地方]] *[[zh:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] *[[zh-classical:User:Tiyoringo|古文/文言文（漢文）]] <!-- *[[zh-cn:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] *[[zh-hk:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] --> *[[zh-min-nan:User:Tiyoringo|閩南語（福建省南部）]] <!-- *[[zh-sg:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] *[[zh-tw:User:Tiyoringo|中国語]] --> *[[zh-yue:User:Tiyoringo|広東語]] *[[zu:User:Tiyoringo|ズールー語（南アフリカ、ズールー族）]] == プロフィール(PROFILE) == *[[:ja:Wikipedia:善意にとる]] === BASKETBALL === *[[NBA]]、[[w:New York Knics|ニューヨーク・ニックス]]のファン。 *[[2006年バスケットボール世界選手権]]のうち、[[さいたまスーパーアリーナ]]で行なわれた20試合中、12試合を観戦した。 **決勝戦（[[スペイン]]対[[ギリシャ]]）7位8位決定戦（[[リトアニア]]対[[ドイツ]]）(4階席より観戦,仕事のため7位8位決定戦は第2Qぐらいから)[[画像:20060903 2157~001.jpg]] **3位から6位決定戦（[[アメリカ]]対[[アルゼンチン]]）、（[[フランス]]対[[トルコ]]）スタンドS席より観戦 **5位から8位戦（フランス対ドイツ）、（トルコ対リトアニア）、アリーナS席(ゴール裏2列目)より観戦 **準々決勝2日目（アメリカ対ドイツ）、（ギリシャ対フランス）、アリーナS席より観戦 **ベスト8決定戦2日目（アメリカ対[[ニュージーランド]]）、（ドイツ対[[ナイジェリア]]）、（フランス対[[アンゴラ]]）、（ギリシャ対[[中国]]）、午前午後は観客入替（1日4試合スタンドS席より観戦、午後は最後列） *購入したグッズ **ピンバッジ（観戦したほぼ全ての試合、スペイン優勝、その他多数） **[[タオル]][[マフラー]]（ギリシャ（中国戦後）、トルコ（フランス戦後）ドイツ（ナイジェリア戦後？）） **Tシャツ（予選Bグループのもの2種類（黒、白）、ギリシャ、トルコ、北海道の絵柄入りの記念Tシャツ（[[札幌]]ラウンドのもの、ただしXXXサイズ、[[北海道]]出身の職場の人へプレゼント） **お菓子3種類 **タイピン（優勝カップ） **ボールペン（[[バツマル]]） **シャーペン（バツマル） *購入したグッズ（公式以外） **[[携帯ストラップ]]（キティ）部活動シリーズ *購入予定グッズ（DVD全てのセット） *:さすがに30,000円のトーナメントピンバッジ限定200か300セットは購入しませんでした。何年か前だったり、10,000円くらいなら買ってました。 === OTHER SPORTS === *[[NFL]]、[[Chicago Bears|シカゴ・ベアーズ]]のファン。 *[[Jリーグ]]、[[ジェフ千葉]]（[[古河電工]]のときより）のファン。 *天皇杯（サッカー）に出場したことのある大学の出身。J1のチームとの試合には応援に出かけました。 == リンク(LINK) == *[[利用者:Tiyoringo/立ち上げ記事]] *[http://www.nba.com/hawks/ アトランタ・ホークス] *[http://www.nba.com/celtics/ ボストンセルティックス] *[http://www.nba.com/bobcats/index_main.html シャーロット・ボブキャッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/bulls/ シカゴ・ブルズ] *[http://www.nba.com/cavaliers/ クリーブランド・キャバリアーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/mavericks/ ダラス・マーベリックス] *[http://www.nba.com/nuggets/ デンバー・ナゲッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/pistons/index_main.html デトロイト・ピストンズ] *[http://www.nba.com/warriors/index_main.html ゴールデンステート・ウォリアーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/rockets/index_main.html ヒューストン・ロケッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/pacers/ インディアナ・ペイサーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/clippers/index_main.html ロサンゼルス・クリッパーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/lakers/ ロサンゼルス・レイカーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/grizzlies/ メンフィス・グリズリーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/heat/ マイアミ・ヒート] *[http://www.nba.com/bucks/ ミルウォーキー・バックス] *[http://www.nba.com/timberwolves/ ミネソタ・ティンバーウルブズ] *[http://www.nba.com/nets/ ニュージャージー・ネッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/hornets/ ニューオーリンズ・ホーネッツ] *[http://www.nba.com/knicks/ ニューヨーク・ニックス] *[http://www.nba.com/magic/index_main.html オーランド・マジック] *[http://www.nba.com/sixers/index_main.html フィラデルフィア・セブンティシクサーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/suns/index_main.html フェニックス・サンズ] *[http://www.nba.com/blazers/ ポートランド・トレイルブレイザーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/kings/ サクラメント･キングス] *[http://www.nba.com/spurs/ サンアントニオ・スパーズ] *[http://www.nba.com/sonics/ シアトル・スーパーソニックス] *[http://www.nba.com/raptors/ トロント・ラプターズ] *[http://www.nba.com/jazz/ ユタ・ジャズ] *[http://www.nba.com/wizards/index_main.html ワシントン･ウィザーズ] 2024 3581 2006-12-17T16:33:51Z Eukesh 59 New page: '''नेपाल स्काउट''' [[नेपाल]]स्यः स्काउटिंग व गाइडिंग संस्था अस्तु। [[Category:स्का... '''नेपाल स्काउट''' [[नेपाल]]स्यः स्काउटिंग व गाइडिंग संस्था अस्तु। [[Category:स्काउट]] 2025 3582 2006-12-17T22:54:49Z Ev 77 New page: I don't speak Pali. I speak English. Hablo castellano. Ich spreche Deutsch. {{Babel-5|pi-0|en-3|es|de-2|fr-1}} [[meta:User:Ev]] *You can leave me a message on [[m:User talk:Ev|my talk ... I don't speak Pali. I speak English. Hablo castellano. Ich spreche Deutsch. {{Babel-5|pi-0|en-3|es|de-2|fr-1}} [[meta:User:Ev]] *You can leave me a message on [[m:User talk:Ev|my talk page on meta]]. *Vous pouvez me laisser un message sur [[m:User talk:Ev|ma page de discussion sur méta]]. *Puede dejarme un mensaje en [[m:User talk:Ev|mi página de discusión en meta]]. *Puoi lasciarmi un messaggio nella [[m:User talk:Ev|mia pagina di discussione su meta]]. *Sie können mir eine Nachricht auf [[m:User talk:Ev|meiner Diskussionsseite im meta]] hinterlassen. ( Please, help me by adding a similar message in Pali at the top of the list, and removing this petition at the same time. Thanks :-) 2029 3594 2006-12-24T17:53:26Z Eukesh 59 New page: सागत!Welcome to Pali bhasa wikipedia. If you have any suggestions or queries, please feel free to contact me.--~~~~ सागत!Welcome to Pali bhasa wikipedia. If you have any suggestions or queries, please feel free to contact me.--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 17:53, 24 December 2006 (UTC) 2030 3596 2006-12-27T17:20:16Z Eukesh 59 [[बुद्धो धम्म]] moved to [[बुद्ध धम्म]] #REDIRECT [[बुद्ध धम्म]] 2031 3599 2006-12-27T18:30:41Z Eukesh 59 New page: <span class="Unicode">{{{1}}}</span> <span class="Unicode">{{{1}}}</span> 2032 3600 2006-12-29T22:38:37Z Eukesh 59 New page: '''तिपितक''' एकस्य '''धाम्मिक ग्रन्थ''' अस्तु। तिपितक ३ भाग विभाजिता: *[[सुत्तप... '''तिपितक''' एकस्य '''धाम्मिक ग्रन्थ''' अस्तु। तिपितक ३ भाग विभाजिता: *[[सुत्तपित्तक]] *[[विनयपित्तक]] *[[अभिधम्मपित्तक]] [[Category:बौद्ध धम्म]] 2033 3601 2006-12-29T22:43:16Z Eukesh 59 New page: :<div class="noprint">''मू पौ{{#if:{{{2|}}}|s}}&#58; [[{{{1}}}|{{{l1|{{{1}}}}}}]]{{#if:{{{2| }}} |{{#if:{{{3|}}}|,&#32;|&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{2}}}|{{{l2|{{{2}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{3|}}... :<div class="noprint">''मू पौ{{#if:{{{2|}}}|s}}&#58; [[{{{1}}}|{{{l1|{{{1}}}}}}]]{{#if:{{{2| }}} |{{#if:{{{3|}}}|,&#32;|&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{2}}}|{{{l2|{{{2}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{3|}}} |{{#if:{{{4|}}}|,&#32;|,&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{3}}}|{{{l3|{{{3}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{4|}}} |{{#if:{{{5|}}}|,&#32;|,&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{4}}}|{{{l4|{{{4}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{5|}}} |, and [[{{{5}}}|{{{l5|{{{5}}}}}}]]}}''{{#if:{{{6| }}}|&#32; (too many parameters in &#123;&#123;[[Template:main|main]]&#125;&#125;)}}</div> 3602 2006-12-29T22:45:09Z Eukesh 59 :<div class="noprint">''मूल पत्त{{#if:{{{2|}}}|s}}&#58; [[{{{1}}}|{{{l1|{{{1}}}}}}]]{{#if:{{{2| }}} |{{#if:{{{3|}}}|,&#32;|&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{2}}}|{{{l2|{{{2}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{3|}}} |{{#if:{{{4|}}}|,&#32;|,&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{3}}}|{{{l3|{{{3}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{4|}}} |{{#if:{{{5|}}}|,&#32;|,&#32;and&#32;}}[[{{{4}}}|{{{l4|{{{4}}}}}}]]}}{{#if:{{{5|}}} |, and [[{{{5}}}|{{{l5|{{{5}}}}}}]]}}''{{#if:{{{6| }}}|&#32; (too many parameters in &#123;&#123;[[Template:main|main]]&#125;&#125;)}}</div> 2034 3603 2006-12-29T22:47:33Z Eukesh 59 New page: '''एल्भिस प्रेस्ली''' एकस्य गायक व "रक एन्ड रोल" संगीत विधास्यः राजन अस्तु। ... '''एल्भिस प्रेस्ली''' एकस्य गायक व "रक एन्ड रोल" संगीत विधास्यः राजन अस्तु। [[Category:रक एन्ड रोल]] [[en:Elvis Presley]] 2035 3604 2006-12-29T22:49:01Z Eukesh 59 New page: [[Category:संस्कृति]] [[Category:संस्कृति]] 2036 3605 2006-12-29T22:50:11Z Eukesh 59 New page: [[Category:सब्ब श्रेणी]] [[Category:सब्ब श्रेणी]] 2037 3606 2006-12-31T00:45:13Z 84.25.103.17 New page: ==External links== *[http://www.conniefrancis.nl Connie Francis Site] ==External links== *[http://www.conniefrancis.nl Connie Francis Site] 3607 2006-12-31T17:46:53Z Eukesh 59 [[Connie Francis]] moved to [[कन्नी फ्रान्सिस]] ==External links== *[http://www.conniefrancis.nl Connie Francis Site] 3615 2006-12-31T18:11:18Z Eukesh 59 {{Infobox musical artist |Name = कन्नी फ्रान्सिस |Img = Connie3.jpg|240px]] |Img_capt = 1965 [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|M-G-M]] promotional photo of Connie Francis |Background = solo_singer |Birth_name = Concetta Rosa Maria Franconero |Born = {{birth date and age|1938|12|12}}, [[Newark, New Jersey]], [[United States]] |Genre = [[Traditional pop music|Traditional Pop]] |Years_active = 1955-present |Associated_acts = [[Bobby Darin]], [[Brenda Lee]], [[Patti Page]], [[Neil Sedaka]], [[Lesley Gore]], [[Ricky Nelson]] |Label = [[MGM Records|MGM]] |URL = [http://www.conniefrancis.com Official Site] }} ==बाह्य सम्पर्क== *[http://www.conniefrancis.nl Connie Francis Site] 2038 3608 2006-12-31T17:46:53Z Eukesh 59 [[Connie Francis]] moved to [[कन्नी फ्रान्सिस]] #REDIRECT [[कन्नी फ्रान्सिस]] 2039 3609 2006-12-31T17:58:19Z Eukesh 59 New page: <includeonly> {| class="infobox" style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! style="text-align: center; background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3"... <includeonly> {| class="infobox" style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! style="text-align: center; background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" |<big>{{{Name}}}</big> {{#if:{{{Img|}}} |<tr style="text-align: center;"><td colspan="3">[[Image:{{{Img}}}|{{#ifeq:{{lc:{{{Landscape|}}}}}|yes|{{min|300|{{{Img_size|}}}}}x200|{{min|220|{{{Img_size|}}}}}}}px|{{{Img_capt|}}}]] <br /><div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">{{{Img_capt|}}}</div></td></tr> }} |- ! style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" | विवरण {{#if:{{{Birth_name|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Birth_name}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Alias|}}} |<tr><td>'''अन्य नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Alias}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Born|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Born}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Origin|}}} |<tr><td>'''मूल'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Origin}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Died|}}} |<tr><td>'''मृत्यु'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Died}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Genre|}}} |<tr><td>'''[[विधा]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Genre}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Occupation|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''कार्य'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Occupation}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Instrument|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''[[वाद्यसाधन]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Instrument}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Years_active|}}} |<tr><td>'''क्रियाशील वर्ष'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Years_active}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Label|}}} |<tr><td style="padding-right: 1em;">'''[[रेकर्ड लेबल]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Label}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Associated_acts|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''सम्बन्धित'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Associated_acts}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Influences|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''प्रभाव'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Influences}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{URL|}}} |<tr><td>'''वेबस्थान'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{URL}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Current_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Current_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Past_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">भूतपूर्व सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Past_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Notable_instruments|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">वाद्यवादन</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Notable_instruments}}}</td></tr> }} |}</includeonly> 3611 2006-12-31T18:08:47Z Eukesh 59 <includeonly> {| class="infobox bordered" border=1; style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%; align:right" |- ! style="text-align: center; background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" |<big>{{{Name}}}</big> {{#if:{{{Img|}}} |<tr style="text-align: center;"><td colspan="3">[[Image:{{{Img}}}|{{#ifeq:{{lc:{{{Landscape|}}}}}|yes|{{min|300|{{{Img_size|}}}}}x200|{{min|220|{{{Img_size|}}}}}}}px|{{{Img_capt|}}}]] <br /><div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">{{{Img_capt|}}}</div></td></tr> }} |- ! style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" | विवरण {{#if:{{{Birth_name|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Birth_name}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Alias|}}} |<tr><td>'''अन्य नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Alias}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Born|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Born}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Origin|}}} |<tr><td>'''मूल'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Origin}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Died|}}} |<tr><td>'''मृत्यु'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Died}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Genre|}}} |<tr><td>'''[[विधा]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Genre}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Occupation|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''कार्य'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Occupation}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Instrument|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''[[वाद्यसाधन]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Instrument}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Years_active|}}} |<tr><td>'''क्रियाशील वर्ष'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Years_active}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Label|}}} |<tr><td style="padding-right: 1em;">'''[[रेकर्ड लेबल]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Label}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Associated_acts|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''सम्बन्धित'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Associated_acts}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Influences|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''प्रभाव'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Influences}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{URL|}}} |<tr><td>'''वेबस्थान'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{URL}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Current_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Current_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Past_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">भूतपूर्व सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Past_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Notable_instruments|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">वाद्यवादन</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Notable_instruments}}}</td></tr> }} |}</includeonly> 3612 2006-12-31T18:09:28Z Eukesh 59 <includeonly> {| class="infobox bordered" border=1; style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%; align=right" |- ! style="text-align: center; background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" |<big>{{{Name}}}</big> {{#if:{{{Img|}}} |<tr style="text-align: center;"><td colspan="3">[[Image:{{{Img}}}|{{#ifeq:{{lc:{{{Landscape|}}}}}|yes|{{min|300|{{{Img_size|}}}}}x200|{{min|220|{{{Img_size|}}}}}}}px|{{{Img_capt|}}}]] <br /><div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">{{{Img_capt|}}}</div></td></tr> }} |- ! style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" | विवरण {{#if:{{{Birth_name|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Birth_name}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Alias|}}} |<tr><td>'''अन्य नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Alias}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Born|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Born}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Origin|}}} |<tr><td>'''मूल'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Origin}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Died|}}} |<tr><td>'''मृत्यु'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Died}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Genre|}}} |<tr><td>'''[[विधा]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Genre}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Occupation|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''कार्य'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Occupation}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Instrument|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''[[वाद्यसाधन]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Instrument}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Years_active|}}} |<tr><td>'''क्रियाशील वर्ष'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Years_active}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Label|}}} |<tr><td style="padding-right: 1em;">'''[[रेकर्ड लेबल]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Label}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Associated_acts|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''सम्बन्धित'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Associated_acts}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Influences|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''प्रभाव'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Influences}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{URL|}}} |<tr><td>'''वेबस्थान'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{URL}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Current_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Current_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Past_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">भूतपूर्व सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Past_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Notable_instruments|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">वाद्यवादन</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Notable_instruments}}}</td></tr> }} |}</includeonly> 3613 2006-12-31T18:10:15Z Eukesh 59 <includeonly> {| class="infobox bordered" align=right; border=1; style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! style="text-align: center; background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" |<big>{{{Name}}}</big> {{#if:{{{Img|}}} |<tr style="text-align: center;"><td colspan="3">[[Image:{{{Img}}}|{{#ifeq:{{lc:{{{Landscape|}}}}}|yes|{{min|300|{{{Img_size|}}}}}x200|{{min|220|{{{Img_size|}}}}}}}px|{{{Img_capt|}}}]] <br /><div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">{{{Img_capt|}}}</div></td></tr> }} |- ! style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" | विवरण {{#if:{{{Birth_name|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Birth_name}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Alias|}}} |<tr><td>'''अन्य नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Alias}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Born|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Born}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Origin|}}} |<tr><td>'''मूल'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Origin}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Died|}}} |<tr><td>'''मृत्यु'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Died}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Genre|}}} |<tr><td>'''[[विधा]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Genre}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Occupation|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''कार्य'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Occupation}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Instrument|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''[[वाद्यसाधन]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Instrument}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Years_active|}}} |<tr><td>'''क्रियाशील वर्ष'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Years_active}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Label|}}} |<tr><td style="padding-right: 1em;">'''[[रेकर्ड लेबल]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Label}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Associated_acts|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''सम्बन्धित'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Associated_acts}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Influences|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''प्रभाव'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Influences}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{URL|}}} |<tr><td>'''वेबस्थान'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{URL}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Current_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Current_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Past_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">भूतपूर्व सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Past_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Notable_instruments|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">वाद्यवादन</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Notable_instruments}}}</td></tr> }} |}</includeonly> 3614 2006-12-31T18:10:59Z Eukesh 59 <includeonly> {| class="infobox bordered" border=1; style="width: 21em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! style="text-align: center; background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" |<big>{{{Name}}}</big> {{#if:{{{Img|}}} |<tr style="text-align: center;"><td colspan="3">[[Image:{{{Img}}}|{{#ifeq:{{lc:{{{Landscape|}}}}}|yes|{{min|300|{{{Img_size|}}}}}x200|{{min|220|{{{Img_size|}}}}}}}px|{{{Img_capt|}}}]] <br /><div style="font-size: 90%; line-height: 15px;">{{{Img_capt|}}}</div></td></tr> }} |- ! style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3" | विवरण {{#if:{{{Birth_name|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Birth_name}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Alias|}}} |<tr><td>'''अन्य नाम'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Alias}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Born|}}} |<tr><td>'''जन्म'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Born}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Origin|}}} |<tr><td>'''मूल'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Origin}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Died|}}} |<tr><td>'''मृत्यु'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Died}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Genre|}}} |<tr><td>'''[[विधा]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Genre}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Occupation|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''कार्य'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Occupation}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Instrument|}}} |<tr><td style="white-space:nowrap;">'''[[वाद्यसाधन]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Instrument}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Years_active|}}} |<tr><td>'''क्रियाशील वर्ष'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Years_active}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Label|}}} |<tr><td style="padding-right: 1em;">'''[[रेकर्ड लेबल]]'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Label}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Associated_acts|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''सम्बन्धित'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Associated_acts}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Influences|}}} |<tr><td textalign="top" style="padding-right: 1em;">'''प्रभाव'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{Influences}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{URL|}}} |<tr><td>'''वेबस्थान'''</td><td colspan="2">{{{URL}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Current_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Current_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Past_members|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">भूतपूर्व सदस्या</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Past_members}}}</td></tr> }}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{Notable_instruments|}}} |<tr><th style="background: {{Infobox musical artist/color selector|{{{Background|}}} }};" colspan="3">वाद्यवादन</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3">{{{Notable_instruments}}}</td></tr> }} |}</includeonly> 2040 3610 2006-12-31T18:02:44Z Eukesh 59 New page: <includeonly>{{#switch: {{{1|}}} | solo_singer = &#35;f0e68c <!-- khaki --> | non_vocal_instrumentalist = &#35;f4bf92 <!-- unnamed pale orange --> | non_performing_personnel ... <includeonly>{{#switch: {{{1|}}} | solo_singer = &#35;f0e68c <!-- khaki --> | non_vocal_instrumentalist = &#35;f4bf92 <!-- unnamed pale orange --> | non_performing_personnel = &#35;bfe0bf <!-- unnamed pale green --> | group_or_band = &#35;b0c4de <!-- lightsteelblue --> | cover_band = &#35;d8bfd8 <!-- Thistle --> | classical_ensemble = &#35;b0e0e6 <!-- PowderBlue --> | temporary = &#35;d3d3d3 <!-- LightGrey --> | {{{1|&#35;a9a9a9}}} }}</includeonly> 2041 3618 2007-01-07T13:57:34Z Thijs!bot 79 New page: Thijs!bot is a bot of [[:nl:User:Thijs!|Thijs!]] creating interwiki-links on many languages. It mostly works on articles that have not been interlinked at all. It uses pywikipedia. It's co... Thijs!bot is a bot of [[:nl:User:Thijs!|Thijs!]] creating interwiki-links on many languages. It mostly works on articles that have not been interlinked at all. It uses pywikipedia. It's controller speaks and writes English, German and Dutch and understands the basics of Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Spanish and Italian, on a level sufficiently high to control this bot responsibly. If you have any question to the controller of this bot, please put them on [[:nl:User:Thijs!|his Dutch user page]]. 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Hi, Great work! however, I just translated this page into english and noticed that there is a serious omission concerning Foucault's concept of power that tends to present an incorrect rendition of his view of power. Under the title "Postmodern conception of power" (or similar) it states that Foucault analizes the prisons, psych institutions, hospitals etc to show the REPRESSIVE expressions of power. In reality most of Foucault's genealogy of power was developed to REFUTE the REPRESSIVE HYPOTHESIS which this site's reading has recreated. The page should read that Foucault shows that although power SOMETIMES acts in repressive ways (and please note that Foucalt saw the repressive ways as the exception to the norm that only occur in extreme cases and due to frustration) power MOST OFTEN ACTS IN PRODUCTIVE ways, HENSE his theory of BIO-POWER, where power acts on the body and the population as a whole (operates on 'life itself') to initiate social action. Also keep in mind how power is related to the subject in that power is a constitutive factor of the subject. Another key thing to note is the relationship between power and knowledge as well as the relationship between power and resistance. All of these points I make above are what make Foucault's theory of power, novel and importance, and explain why it has gotten so much attention. I apologize for not including references as I am writing this from the top of my head only and it is to late to look for them 3am where I am. For references you would have to see his History of Sexuality and Discipline and Punishment works or Paul Rainbow's great intro "The Foucault Reader" where the index I'm sure would bring you to appropriate quotations. cheers 3624 2007-01-13T16:21:51Z Eukesh 59 Hi, Great work! however, I just translated this page into english and noticed that there is a serious omission concerning Foucault's concept of power that tends to present an incorrect rendition of his view of power. Under the title "Postmodern conception of power" (or similar) it states that Foucault analizes the prisons, psych institutions, hospitals etc to show the REPRESSIVE expressions of power. In reality most of Foucault's genealogy of power was developed to REFUTE the REPRESSIVE HYPOTHESIS which this site's reading has recreated. The page should read that Foucault shows that although power SOMETIMES acts in repressive ways (and please note that Foucalt saw the repressive ways as the exception to the norm that only occur in extreme cases and due to frustration) power MOST OFTEN ACTS IN PRODUCTIVE ways, HENSE his theory of BIO-POWER, where power acts on the body and the population as a whole (operates on 'life itself') to initiate social action. Also keep in mind how power is related to the subject in that power is a constitutive factor of the subject. Another key thing to note is the relationship between power and knowledge as well as the relationship between power and resistance. All of these points I make above are what make Foucault's theory of power, novel and importance, and explain why it has gotten so much attention. I apologize for not including references as I am writing this from the top of my head only and it is to late to look for them 3am where I am. For references you would have to see his History of Sexuality and Discipline and Punishment works or Paul Rainbow's great intro "The Foucault Reader" where the index I'm sure would bring you to appropriate quotations. cheers *Thanks for the response. This page is just a copy of the English version. It was simply copied and pasted and has been translated slowly. I hope that once the completion of a significant part is achieved, a revision is done. Thanks for your interest in the article. Thank you.--[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]] 16:21, 13 January 2007 (UTC) 2045 3633 2007-01-26T11:14:41Z TXiKiBoT 81 New page: This is a bot account, run by [[:eu:Lankide:TXiKi|eu:TXiKi]]. If you want to contact me, please visit [[:eu:Lankide eztabaida:TXiKi|my talk page]]. Thank you! This is a bot account, run by [[:eu:Lankide:TXiKi|eu:TXiKi]]. If you want to contact me, please visit [[:eu:Lankide eztabaida:TXiKi|my talk page]]. Thank you!