Web Design/CSS challenges

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      <comment>/* Challenge 1: Fonts and Colours */</comment>
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      <text bytes="19316" sha1="n0p1sjop1sykwsb0cqg54ktpfzgpq8r" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--

READ ME BEFORE EDITING

If you're trying to solve one of these challenges, please copy the text of the challenge to an HTML file on your own computer and work on it there. Don't solve the challenges by editing the wiki page; that spoils the challenge for everyone who comes to this page after you.

--&gt;
{{Web design/header}}
{{TOC center|limit=2}}

These challenges are here to help you flex your CSS skills, and see where you need to practice more! Copy the text of the challenge to an HTML file on your own computer and add CSS in a &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;style&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; block to get the desired appearance.

If you can't remember what CSS properties are available, refer to the [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS MDN CSS Reference].

== Challenge 1: Fonts and Colours  ==
[[Image:Css challenges 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 1 ]]This first challenge only involves changing your fonts and colours - no layout or other more advanced CSS here! Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like!

Hints: 
* You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet.
* You can use the following fonts list for help: http://www.w3.org/Style/Examples/007/fonts
* Don't worry if your text doesn't wrap at the same word -- it will depend on the size of your browser window.

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html&quot; line=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;Challenge 1&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;style&gt;
    h1{
      font-family:Trattatello, fantasy;
      font-weight: bold;
    }
    p,ul li{
      font-family:Arial, Helvetica, San-serif;
    }
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body &gt;
   &lt;h1&gt;Shakespeare's Sonnet #18&lt;/h1&gt;
    &lt;p&gt;
       This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced
       in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The
       Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds
       of May. Read it and weep!
    &lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;ul&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;Thou art more lovely and more temperate:&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;And summer's lease hath all too short a date:&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;And every fair from fair sometime declines,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;But thy eternal summer shall not fade,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;li&gt;So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.&lt;/li&gt;
    &lt;/ul&gt;
      
    &lt;i&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;copyright&quot;&gt;See the 
    &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets&quot;&gt;
    Shakespeare's sonnets&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia article for more information
    &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/i&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{-}}

== Challenge 2: Shakespeare's Sonnet ==
[[Image:Css1_1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2 ]]
[[Image:Cssthingy.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2-A ]]

This second challenge will help you to re-cap your CSS text formatting skills, as well as start using margins and padding. Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like!

You can also try to get your page to look like the page from the image on the right (challenge 2-A), which uses a few more advanced (though not too hard) CSS techniques.

If you can improve on the design (shouldn't be too hard!) without increasing the difficulty of this challenge, great! I'll happily replace the image!

Hints:
* The thumbnails are not very representative, but this challenge requires you to create a '''fixed-width''' layout that is centred in the browser window. Click on an image for a closer view.
* To get the wrap division to stay centred, you'll need to set the left and right margins to a_t_ (you've got to fill in the blanks).

&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html&quot; line=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;Challenge 2&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;div id=&quot;wrap&quot;&gt;
      &lt;h1&gt;Shakespeare's Sonnet #18&lt;/h1&gt;
      &lt;p&gt;
         This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced
         in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The
         Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds
         of May. Read it and weep!
      &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;ul&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Thou art more lovely and more temperate:&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;And summer's lease hath all too short a date:&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;And every fair from fair sometime declines,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;But thy eternal summer shall not fade,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;li&gt;So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.&lt;/li&gt;
      &lt;/ul&gt;
      
      &lt;p class=&quot;copyright&quot;&gt;See the 
      &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets&quot;&gt;
      Shakespeare's sonnets&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia article for more information
      &lt;/p&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{-}}

== Challenge 3: 2-column layout==
[[Image:Css 3 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 3 ]]

This one will get you fiddling with margins and padding!

Hints:
* You'll need to set a fixed width for your wrap, and then float the navigation &lt;code&gt;div&lt;/code&gt;.
* You may also want to fiddle with widths/margins of the navigation and content divisions!
* For this and the next few challenges, you may want to first look through MaxDesign's [https://web.archive.org/web/20150117111031/http://www.maxdesign.com.au/articles/two-columns/ Two columns with colour] tutorial.

&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html&quot; line=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;Challenge 3&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;div id=&quot;wrap&quot;&gt;
      &lt;div id=&quot;nav&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h2&gt;Sonnet Index&lt;/h2&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #11&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #15&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #18&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
      &lt;div id=&quot;content&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h1&gt;Shakespeare's Sonnet #18&lt;/h1&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced
           in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The
           Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds
           of May. Read it and weep!&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Thou art more lovely and more temperate:&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;And summer's lease hath all too short a date:&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;And every fair from fair sometime declines,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;But thy eternal summer shall not fade,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
        
        &lt;p class=&quot;copyright&quot;&gt;See the 
        &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets&quot;&gt;
        Shakespeare's sonnets&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia article for more information
        &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{-}}

== Challenge 4: 2 Columns with a header and footer ==
[[Image:csschallenge4.png|thumb|right|Challenge 4 ]]

This time you've got an extra header and horizontal navigation to worry about!

Hints: 
* For some ideas for styling the horizontal nav bar, see [http://css.maxdesign.com.au/listamatic/ listamatic].
* You'll need to fiddle with paddings/margins to get the divs bumped up against each other.
* If you get stuck, try following [http://www.456bereastreet.com/lab/developing_with_web_standards/csslayout/2-col/ 456BereaStreet's 2-column layout tutorial].

&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html&quot; line=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;
&lt;html &gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;Challenge 4&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;meta lang=“en”&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;div id=&quot;wrap&quot;&gt;
      &lt;div id=&quot;header&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h1&gt;Shakespear.net&lt;/h1&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
      &lt;div id=&quot;nav&quot;&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Home&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Writings&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnets&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Life Story&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;About Shakespear.net&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
      &lt;div id=&quot;sidebar&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h2&gt;Sonnet Index&lt;/h2&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #11&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #15&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot;&gt;Sonnet #18&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
      &lt;div id=&quot;content&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h1&gt;Shakespeare's Sonnet #18&lt;/h1&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced
            in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The
            Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds
            of May. Read it and weep!&lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;ul&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Thou art more lovely and more temperate:&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;And summer's lease hath all too short a date:&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;And every fair from fair sometime declines,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;But thy eternal summer shall not fade,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,&lt;/li&gt;
          &lt;li&gt;So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.&lt;/li&gt;
        &lt;/ul&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
      &lt;div id=&quot;footer&quot;&gt;
        &lt;p class=&quot;copyright&quot;&gt;See the 
        &lt;a href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets&quot;&gt;
        Shakespeare's sonnets&lt;/a&gt; Wikipedia article for more information
        &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{-}}

== Challenge 5: Gimme some whitespace ==
[[Image:csschallenge5.png|thumb|left|Challenge 5 ]]
[[Image:csschallenge5.jpg|thumb|right|Logo for Challenge 5 ]]

This one's inspired by the design of [http://clearleft.com clearleft]. A nice clean look with lots of whitespace. Have fun!

Hints:
* You'll need to hide the h1 somehow! (for some good tips on the best and most appropriate way to do this, you might like to read through [http://webaim.org/techniques/css/invisiblecontent/ WebAIM's Invisible Content page]).

&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html&quot; line=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;
&lt;html lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;live and let learn&lt;/title&gt;
    &lt;meta http-equiv=&quot;Content-Type&quot; content=&quot;text/html; charset=utf-8&quot;&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
  
    &lt;div id=&quot;header&quot;&gt;
      &lt;blockquote&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;Learning is not a privilege, it's a right.&lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;/blockquote&gt;	  
      &lt;div id=&quot;logo&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h1&gt;live and let learn&lt;/h1&gt;
        &lt;img src=&quot;csschallenge5.jpg&quot; alt=&quot;live and let learn&quot;&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
  
    &lt;/div&gt;
    
    &lt;div id=&quot;content&quot;&gt;
      &lt;div id=&quot;content-side&quot;&gt;
        &lt;dl&gt;
          &lt;dt&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;services/&quot;&gt;Services&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/dt&gt;
          &lt;dd&gt;Learning and facilitation through TAFE WSI&lt;/dd&gt;
          
          &lt;dt&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;learning/&quot;&gt;Personal Learning&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/dt&gt;
          &lt;dd&gt;Learning from the network&lt;/dd&gt;
          
          &lt;dt&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;resources/&quot;&gt;Resources&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/dt&gt;
          &lt;dd&gt;Browse through resources ...&lt;/dd&gt;
          
          &lt;dt&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;about/&quot;&gt;About&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/dt&gt;
          &lt;dd&gt;What am I about? Personal interests and other stuff&lt;/dd&gt;
        &lt;/dl&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt; &lt;!-- content-side --&gt;
      
      &lt;div id=&quot;content-main&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h2&gt;Please update your links!&lt;/h2&gt;
        &lt;small&gt;Wednesday, October 12th, 2005&lt;/small&gt;
        
        &lt;p&gt;New blog address: &lt;a href=&quot;http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/&quot;&gt;
          http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/&lt;/a&gt;
        &lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;During the last holidays I've been busy moving my blog from 
          &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.absoludity.net/blog/&quot;&gt;absoludity.net&lt;/a&gt; to 
          &lt;a href=&quot;http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/&quot;&gt;liveandletlearn.net&lt;/a&gt;
          ... why? Good question! Part of the Web Design course that I 
          facilitate is a client project where participants are required to 
          develop a site from start to finish - and i'd been a while since 
          I'd been through that process myself - so what better a project 
          for the holidays (next to my gardening project to get me &lt;em&gt;away&lt;/em&gt; 
          from the computer)! 
        &lt;/p&gt;
        
        &lt;p&gt;You'll notice that the site itself is still in prototype stage,
          but the blog is all up and running so I'm going to be using 
          liveandletlearn from now on. &lt;strong&gt;Please update your 
          bookmarks/feeds&lt;/strong&gt;! And please give me any feedback 
          you've got time for at 
          &lt;a href=&quot;http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/&quot;&gt;liveandletlearn.net&lt;/a&gt;!
        &lt;/p&gt;      
    &lt;/div&gt; &lt;!-- content-main --&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;  &lt;!-- content --&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{-}}

== Challenge 6: The Headline Challenge ==

This time you'll be working with a chunk of HTML similar to a blog post, but now you're in charge of the design. Create a colour scheme and layout that has a look and feel related to one of the following words:

* Passion
* Love
* Funky
* Creative
* Elegant
* Industrial
* Gothic

Try using a background image that fits the aesthetic of your design, but remember to keep your text readable!

If you've started experimenting with [http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2008/10/embedded-web-fonts.ars CSS Web Fonts], this is a perfect place to use them. [http://www.fontsquirrel.com/ Font Squirrel] and [http://www.google.com/webfonts Google Web Fonts] are excellent resources for finding decorative heading and body text fonts that are free to use.

For some inspiration, checkout the collection of [http://www.smileycat.com/miaow/archives/typography-for-headlines-2.html Typography for Headlines]

Hints: 
* You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet.
* Add some more content paragraphs if you like.
* Try to use the HTML structure as-is, but add some extra &amp;lt;div&amp;gt;s if you really need to.

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html&quot; line=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;
&lt;html lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;
  &lt;head&gt;
    &lt;title&gt;Headline Challenge&lt;/title&gt;
  &lt;/head&gt;
  &lt;body&gt;
    &lt;div id=&quot;wrap&quot;&gt;
      &lt;div class=&quot;thepost&quot;&gt;
        &lt;h1 class=&quot;posttitle&quot;&gt;CSS Layout&lt;/h1&gt;
        &lt;h2 class=&quot;dateheader&quot;&gt;Monday, May 29, 2006&lt;/h2&gt;
        &lt;p&gt;
          Wonder when CSS layout techniques will be less of an art and more of a science.  
        &lt;/p&gt;
        &lt;p class=&quot;postfooter&quot;&gt;
          &lt;em&gt;Posted by Robin.&lt;/em&gt;
        &lt;/p&gt;
      &lt;/div&gt;
    &lt;/div&gt;
  &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{-}}

== Challenge 7: Cutting the code ==
[[Image:RedTie_-_OSWD.png|thumb|350px|A small website design called [http://www.oswd.org/design/preview/id/3699 Red Tie] from OpenSource Web Design]]This challenge is designed to help you build your process for producing a CSS-based layout from scratch. The idea is to choose a design from [http://www.oswd.org/ Open Source Web Design] (or otherwise) that:
# you like!
# is a little beyond your current skills
# is not too far beyond your current skills (so you don't get overwhelmed!)

Without looking at the HTML/CSS of the chosen design, you'll then work together or on your own to code the HTML and CSS for the layout using the steps below.

This challenge is designed so that you can do it multiple times at different levels of difficulty if you find it helpful!

=== Steps: ===
* Choose and print off a design from [http://www.opendesigns.org/view-designs/ Open Designs] (or a website of your choice). Make sure you choose a design that is within your grasp - a little beyond your current skills, but not too far beyond so as to overwhelm you!
* Use your printout to decide on your HTML structure (what divs you'll use etc.)
* Create your HTML code with a DOCTYPE, head, title, body and your divs that you've decided on and link it to a stylesheet.
* At this point, you might want to use a strategy such as [http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/process/ Russ Weakley's coloured boxes] to give your divs some colour so you can see where they are!
* Add some content such as headings, navigation etc. If you need paragraphs of text, you might want to try the [http://www.lipsum.com/ Lorum Ipsum generator]
* Get started styling your page! As you work, you might choose to just focus on the layout and not worry about the images. On the other hand, you might also choose to use the images for your chosen design and add them to your stylesheet.

If you get stuck, chat with the people around you to get ideas rather than looking at a solution. Only look at the solution if you're really really stuck and there's no one to talk with!

When you're happy with your design (and only then!), print out your HTML and CSS as well as the HTML and CSS that was used by the original author of your chosen design. Looking at the differences, work out the pro's and con's of your code versus the original.

== Challenge 8: A CSS Zen Garden entry ==
The [http://www.csszengarden.com/ CSS Zen Garden site] is a collection of unique designs that all use exactly the same HTML, with only the CSS changing between them. It's intended to show how powerful CSS can be in changing the site's style and appeal.

Your challenge is to create a simple CSS Zen Garden design. You'll find a link to the HTML and a simple starter CSS under the &quot;Participation&quot; heading on the front page. Download these files and work on your local computer to build something beautiful! If you're so inclined, you're welcome to contact the Zen Garden owners to get your design listed!

== Challenge 9: CSSBattle targets ==
[https://cssbattle.dev/ CSSBattle] is an online code-golfing game where players have to visually replicate given targets using HTML/CSS. It's not only limited to code golfing but can also be used by developers starting to learn CSS to practice CSS properties.

There are plenty of targets there to practice your CSS skills there.


{{Web design}}
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      <text bytes="1266" sha1="dtzkz4r3plh5y0hycea6cltrh3oncq5" xml:space="preserve">{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}
Swedish (or ''svenska'') is a [[w:North Germanic languages|North Germanic language]], closely related to English and even more closely related to Danish and Norwegian. It is spoken primarily in Sweden but also in parts of Finland as well as isolated parts of Russia and Ukraine. The purpose of this course is to teach the basics of Swedish grammar as well as some vocabulary. 

==Lesson list==
[[File:Vinga.jpg|[[w:Vinga_Lighthouse|Vinga]] island in the archipelago of Göteborg.|thumb]]

Lesson 1:
*[[/Common phrases/]]

Lesson 2:
*[[/Alphabet/]]

Lesson 3:
*[[/Nouns and pronouns/]]

Lesson 4:
*[[/Verb tenses/]]

Lesson 5:
*[[/Adjectives/]]

Lesson 6:
*[[/Numbers and plurals/]]

Lesson 7:
*[[/Spelling/]]

Lesson 8:
*[[/Definite forms/]]

Lesson 9:
*[[/Time and dates/]]

Lesson 10:
*[[/Possessive forms/]]

Lesson 11:
*[[/Agreement of forms/]]

Lesson 12:
*[[/Traveling/]]

==Vocabulary==
*[[/English–Swedish vocabulary/]]
*[[/Swedish–English vocabulary/]]

==Answers==
*[[/Answers to exercises/]]

==Test==
*[[/Test|Test (Quiz)]]

==Continuation course==
* [[Intermediate Swedish 1]]

{{hitcounter}}

[[Category:Swedish]]
[[Category:Language introductions]]

{{tertiary}}
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{{swedish}}
{{ready}}
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{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}
----
[[File:Sv-alphabet.ogg|The Swedish alphabet.|right|thumb]]
The Swedish alphabet contains 29 letters: 

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz Åå Ää Öö

The last three letters, Å, Ä, and Ö, are regarded as distinct letters, separate from A and O. Whereas in English you might use the term &quot;A - Z&quot;, in Swedish it would be &quot;A - Ö&quot;. Unlike in English, Y is always a vowel, except in the case of some loanwords. W has not been included in the Swedish alphabet for a long time, but since 2006 the Swedish Academy considers W as a separate letter. However, this is not fully accepted in dictionaries and other instances yet.

==The Vowels==
Vowels are divided into short and long vowels, similarly to English. Just as in English, when reading new words you should pay attention to whether the vowels are short or long. The basic rule is that a vowel is short if it is followed by more than one consonant, similar to English. Unlike English, short vowels are more generous.

===Long Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|iː}} || {{Audio|sv-sil.ogg|listen}} ''sil'', {{IPA|/siːl/}}, &quot;sieve&quot; 
|-
| {{IPA|eː}} || {{Audio|sv-hel.ogg|listen}} ''hel'', {{IPA|/heːl/}}, &quot;whole&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{Audio|sv-häl.ogg|listen}} ''häl'', {{IPA|/hɛːl/}}, &quot;heel&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{Audio|sv-mat.ogg|listen}} ''mat'', {{IPA|/mɑːt/}}, &quot;food&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|oː}} || {{Audio|sv-mål.ogg|listen}} ''mål'', {{IPA|/moːl/}}, &quot;goal&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|uː}} || {{Audio|sv-bot.ogg|listen}} ''bot'', {{IPA|/buːt/}}, &quot;penance&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ʉ̟ː}} || {{Audio|sv-ful.ogg|listen}} ''ful'', {{IPA|/fʉ̟ːl/}}, &quot;ugly&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|yː}} || {{Audio|sv-syl.ogg|listen}} ''syl'', {{IPA|/syːl/}}, &quot;[[wikt:awl|awl]]&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|øː}} || {{Audio|sv-nöt.ogg|listen}} ''nöt,'' {{IPA|/nøːt/}}, &quot;nut&quot;
|}

===Short Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|ɪ}} || {{Audio|sv-sill.ogg|listen}} ''sill'', {{IPA|/sɪl/}}, &quot;herring&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{Audio|sv-häll.ogg|listen}} ''häll'', {{IPA|/hɛl/}}, &quot;flat rock&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || {{Audio|sv-matt.ogg|listen}} ''matt'', {{IPA|/mat/}}, &quot;listless; matte&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɔ}} || {{Audio|sv-moll.ogg|listen}} ''moll'', {{IPA|/mɔl/}}, &quot;minor&quot; (music)
|-
| {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{Audio|sv-bott.ogg|listen}} ''bott'', {{IPA|/bʊt/}}, &quot;lived&quot; ([[w:perfect tense|perfect tense]])
|-
| {{IPA|ɵ}} || {{Audio|sv-full.ogg|listen}} ''full'', {{IPA|/fɵl/}}, &quot;full&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ʏ}} || {{Audio|sv-syll.ogg|listen}} ''syll'', {{IPA|/sʏl/}}, &quot;[[w:railroad tie|sleeper]]&quot; (railroad)
|-
| {{IPA|œ}} || {{Audio|sv-nött.ogg|listen}} ''nött'', {{IPA|/nœt/}}, &quot;worn&quot;
|}

==The Consonants==

Most consonants can be doubled. The letter ''k'' can be doubled with ''c'' (like in ''rock n' roll''.)
The consonant ''c'' sounds like ''s'' when not combined with ''k'' (like the first ''c'' in ''bicycle''). 
The letters ''z'', ''q'', and ''w'' are very uncommon but are used in family and company names.
The letter ''m'' is not doubled at end of words with two exceptions, ''lamm'' and ''damm''.

'''Examples of words with doubled consonants:'''

''flabb, ledd, klaff, ragg, back, pall, damm, spinn, kupp, pirr, triss, titt''

'''Initial ''g'' and ''k'' '''&lt;br&gt;
If the first letter in a word is ''g'' and if the next letter is a soft vowel then the ''g'' is pronounced as a ''j'' .&lt;br&gt;
If the first letter in a word is ''k'' and if the next letter is a soft vowel then the ''k'' is pronounced as an ''sh'' .&lt;br&gt;

===Plosives===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{Audio|sv-pol.ogg|listen}} ''pol'', {{IPA|/puːl/}}, &quot;pole&quot; (of axis)
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{Audio|sv-bok.ogg|listen}} ''bok'', {{IPA|/buːk/}}, &quot;book&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|t}} || {{Audio|sv-tok.ogg|listen}} ''tok'', {{IPA|/tuːk/}}, &quot;fool&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|d}} || {{Audio|sv-dop.ogg|listen}} ''dop'', {{IPA|/duːp/}}, &quot;christening&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|k}} || {{Audio|sv-kon.ogg|listen}} ''kon'', {{IPA|/kuːn/}}, &quot;cone&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{Audio|sv-god.ogg|listen}} ''god'', {{IPA|/ɡuːd/}}, &quot;good&quot;
|}

===Fricative===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|f}} || {{Audio|sv-fot.ogg|listen}} ''fot'', {{IPA|/fuːt/}}, &quot;foot&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|v}} || {{Audio|Sv-våt.ogg|listen}} ''våt'', {{IPA|/voːt/}}, &quot;wet&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|s}} || {{Audio|sv-sot.ogg|listen}} ''sot'', {{IPA|/suːt/}}, &quot;soot&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɧ}} || {{Audio|sv-sjok.ogg|listen}} ''sjok'', {{IPA|/ɧuːk/}}, &quot;chunk&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɕ}} || {{Audio|sv-kjol.ogg|listen}} ''kjol'', {{IPA|/ɕuːl/}}, &quot;skirt&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|j}} || {{Audio|sv-jord.ogg|listen}} ''jord'', {{IPA|/juːrd/}}, &quot;soil, earth&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|h}} || {{Audio|sv-hot.ogg|listen}} ''hot'', {{IPA|/huːt/}}, &quot;threat&quot;
|}

===/r/ and Retroflex Assimilations===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|r}} || {{Audio|sv-rov.ogg|listen}} ''rov'', {{IPA|/ruːv/}}, &quot;prey; loot&quot;
|-
|}

===Laterals===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|l}} || {{Audio|sv-lov.ogg|listen}} ''lov'', {{IPA|/luːv/}}, &quot;[[w:Tack (sailing)|tack (sailing maneuver)]]&quot;
|-
|}

===Nasals===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{Audio|sv-mod.ogg|listen}} ''mod'', {{IPA|/muːd/}}, &quot;courage&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|n}} || {{Audio|sv-nod.ogg|listen}} ''nod'', {{IPA|/nuːd/}}, &quot;node&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{Audio|sv-lång.ogg|listen}} ''lång'', {{IPA|/lɔŋ/}}, &quot;long&quot;
|}

==Stress==
Normally the stress is put on the first vowel. The tonality is more important in Swedish.

==Tonality==
Both ''nita'' and ''niten'' have the stress on the vowel ''i''. However, the tonality differs. This is often a situational difference that varies from one word to the next. For more information on tone you can try the Wikipedia article on [[w:tone (linguistics)|tone]].

==Typing Special Characters==
[[Image:Lange Jan.jpg|The light house &quot;Långe Jan&quot; at the south end of Öland island.|thumb]]
'''On a PC:'''

Alt+0229 = å&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0197 = Å&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0228 = ä&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0196 = Ä&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0246 = ö&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0214 = Ö

'''On a Mac:'''

Option+a = å&lt;br&gt;
Option+A = Å&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type a = ä&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type A = Ä&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type o = ö&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type O = Ö&lt;br&gt;

If you don't manage to get these characters, the standard way is to substitute '''å''' with '''aa''', '''ä''' with '''ae''', and '''ö''' with '''oe'''.

==More Information on Pronunciation==

For more detailed information on Swedish pronunciations read the Wikipedia article on [[w:swedish phonology|Swedish phonology]].

==Exercise==

Pronounce the following Swedish words.

1. ''skal, sno, tur, kår, ven, mil, syl, när, bör''

2. ''stall, stopp, lupp, sådd, ett, stins, skyll, ärr, börs''

3. ''vara, bliva, heta, kallas, äta, dricka, festa, leka''

4. ''bilen, vägen, äpplet, trädet, smaken, tiken''

5. ''kal, kotte, kul, kål, gam, gott, gurka, gås''

6. ''ge, gick, gylf, Gävle, gök, kedja, kil, kyl, käk, kök''

[[Category:Swedish]]
[[Category:Alphabets]]

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{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}
----
[[File:Sv-alphabet.ogg|The Swedish alphabet.|right|thumb]]
The Swedish alphabet contains 29 letters: 

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz Åå Ää Öö

The last three letters, Å, Ä, and Ö, are regarded as distinct letters, separate from A and O. Whereas in English you might use the term &quot;A - Z&quot;, in Swedish it would be &quot;A - Ö&quot;. Unlike in English, Y is always a vowel, except in the case of some loanwords. W has not been included in the Swedish alphabet for a long time, but since 2006 the Swedish Academy considers W as a separate letter. However, this is not fully accepted in dictionaries and other instances yet.

==The Vowels==
Vowels are divided into short and long vowels, similarly to English. Just as in English, the short and long versions of vowels are pronounced differently. When reading new words you should pay attention to whether the vowels are short or long. The basic rule is that a vowel is short if it is followed by more than one consonant, similar to English. Much like English, though, there will be exceptions to the rule.

===Long Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
!Letter
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
!English equivalent
|-
|a
| {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{Audio|sv-mat.ogg|listen}} ''mat'', {{IPA|/mɑːt/}}, &quot;food&quot;
|''ar'' in ''start'' (British English)
|-
|e
| {{IPA|eː}} || {{Audio|sv-hel.ogg|listen}} ''hel'', {{IPA|/heːl/}}, &quot;whole&quot;
|Like ''ea'' in ''yeah,'' but with wide lips
|-
|i
| {{IPA|iː}} || {{Audio|sv-sil.ogg|listen}} ''sil'', {{IPA|/siːl/}}, &quot;sieve&quot; 
|''ee'' in ''sheet'' (British English)
|-
|o
| {{IPA|uː}} || {{Audio|sv-bot.ogg|listen}} ''bot'', {{IPA|/buːt/}}, &quot;penance&quot;
|''oo'' in ''pool'' (British English)
|-
|u
| {{IPA|ʉ̟ː}} || {{Audio|sv-ful.ogg|listen}} ''ful'', {{IPA|/fʉ̟ːl/}}, &quot;ugly&quot;
|''oo'' in ''pool'' (Australian English)
|-
|y
| {{IPA|yː}} || {{Audio|sv-syl.ogg|listen}} ''syl'', {{IPA|/syːl/}}, &quot;[[wikt:awl|awl]]&quot;
|Like ''ee'' in ''sheet'', but with circular lips
|-
|å
| {{IPA|oː}} || {{Audio|sv-mål.ogg|listen}} ''mål'', {{IPA|/moːl/}}, &quot;goal&quot;
|''aw'' in ''law'' (British English)
|-
|ä
| {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{Audio|sv-häl.ogg|listen}} ''häl'', {{IPA|/hɛːl/}}, &quot;heel&quot;
|''ea'' in ''yeah''
|-
|ö
| {{IPA|øː}} || {{Audio|sv-nöt.ogg|listen}} ''nöt,'' {{IPA|/nøːt/}}, &quot;nut&quot;
|''or'' in ''work'' (British English)
|}

===Short Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
!Letter
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
!English equivalent
|-
|
| {{IPA|a}} || {{Audio|sv-matt.ogg|listen}} ''matt'', {{IPA|/mat/}}, &quot;listless; matte&quot;
|None
|-
|
| {{IPA|ɪ}} || {{Audio|sv-sill.ogg|listen}} ''sill'', {{IPA|/sɪl/}}, &quot;herring&quot;
|''i'' in ''sit''
|-
|
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || {{Audio|sv-häll.ogg|listen}} ''häll'', {{IPA|/hɛl/}}, &quot;flat rock&quot;
|''e'' in ''bed''
|-
|
| {{IPA|ɔ}} || {{Audio|sv-moll.ogg|listen}} ''moll'', {{IPA|/mɔl/}}, &quot;minor&quot; (music)
|''o'' in ''toll'' (British English)
|-
|
| {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{Audio|sv-bott.ogg|listen}} ''bott'', {{IPA|/bʊt/}}, &quot;lived&quot; ([[w:perfect tense|perfect tense]])
|''oo'' in ''look''
|-
|
| {{IPA|ɵ}} || {{Audio|sv-full.ogg|listen}} ''full'', {{IPA|/fɵl/}}, &quot;full&quot;
|Similar to ''Nevad'''&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;'''''
|-
|
| {{IPA|ʏ}} || {{Audio|sv-syll.ogg|listen}} ''syll'', {{IPA|/sʏl/}}, &quot;[[w:railroad tie|sleeper]]&quot; (railroad)
|Like ''i'' in ''sit'', but with circular lips
|-
|
| {{IPA|œ}} || {{Audio|sv-nött.ogg|listen}} ''nött'', {{IPA|/nœt/}}, &quot;worn&quot;
|Like ''or'' in ''work,'' but shorter
|}

==The Consonants==

The consonants are mostly similar to English. 
The letters ''z'', ''q'', and ''w'' are very uncommon but are used in family and company names.
The most obvious differences for English speakers will be that ''y'' is never a consonant, and ''j'' is pronounced like English's consonantal ''y''.

'''Long Consonants'''

As in English, and as demonstrated in the previous section, consonants may be doubled. However, if this happens in the middle of the word (such as ''erkänna''), then the doubled consonant is pronounced with double the length. This is similar to how the word ''night-time'' in English is spoken with a doubly long ''t''.

'''Initial ''g'' and ''k'' '''

There is a similar concept to how ''g'' is pronounced differently in the English words ''general'' and ''game'', only with slightly different rules and a different pronunciation. The letter ''k'' also changes pronunciation in Swedish based on the following vowel.

Generally, if the first letter in a word is ''g'' and if the next letter is an ''e'', ''i'', ''ä'', ''ö'', or ''y'', then the ''g'' is pronounced as an English ''y''.&lt;br&gt;
Generally, if the first letter in a word is ''k'' and if the next letter is an e, ''i'', ''ä'', ''ö'', or ''y'', then the ''k'' is pronounced as an English ''sh''.

'''Digraphs'''

Digraphs are when multiple letters are used in writing to represent a single spoken sound. This also occurs in English (consider ''sh'').
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Digraph
!English equivalent
|-
|dj, gj, hj, lj
|y
|-
|sj, skj, stj
|Sounds like ''wh'' in old-fashioned southern US accents
|-
|kj, tj
|sh
|-
|hv
|v
|-
|ng
|ng
|-
|gn
|ng (''gn'' is not a digraph if at the beginning of a word, where it would be pronounced like ''a'''gn'''ostic'')
|}

===Plosives===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{Audio|sv-pol.ogg|listen}} ''pol'', {{IPA|/puːl/}}, &quot;pole&quot; (of axis)
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{Audio|sv-bok.ogg|listen}} ''bok'', {{IPA|/buːk/}}, &quot;book&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|t}} || {{Audio|sv-tok.ogg|listen}} ''tok'', {{IPA|/tuːk/}}, &quot;fool&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|d}} || {{Audio|sv-dop.ogg|listen}} ''dop'', {{IPA|/duːp/}}, &quot;christening&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|k}} || {{Audio|sv-kon.ogg|listen}} ''kon'', {{IPA|/kuːn/}}, &quot;cone&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{Audio|sv-god.ogg|listen}} ''god'', {{IPA|/ɡuːd/}}, &quot;good&quot;
|}

===Fricative===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|f}} || {{Audio|sv-fot.ogg|listen}} ''fot'', {{IPA|/fuːt/}}, &quot;foot&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|v}} || {{Audio|Sv-våt.ogg|listen}} ''våt'', {{IPA|/voːt/}}, &quot;wet&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|s}} || {{Audio|sv-sot.ogg|listen}} ''sot'', {{IPA|/suːt/}}, &quot;soot&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɧ}} || {{Audio|sv-sjok.ogg|listen}} ''sjok'', {{IPA|/ɧuːk/}}, &quot;chunk&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɕ}} || {{Audio|sv-kjol.ogg|listen}} ''kjol'', {{IPA|/ɕuːl/}}, &quot;skirt&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|j}} || {{Audio|sv-jord.ogg|listen}} ''jord'', {{IPA|/juːrd/}}, &quot;soil, earth&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|h}} || {{Audio|sv-hot.ogg|listen}} ''hot'', {{IPA|/huːt/}}, &quot;threat&quot;
|}

===/r/ and Retroflex Assimilations===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|r}} || {{Audio|sv-rov.ogg|listen}} ''rov'', {{IPA|/ruːv/}}, &quot;prey; loot&quot;
|-
|}

===Laterals===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|l}} || {{Audio|sv-lov.ogg|listen}} ''lov'', {{IPA|/luːv/}}, &quot;[[w:Tack (sailing)|tack (sailing maneuver)]]&quot;
|-
|}

===Nasals===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{Audio|sv-mod.ogg|listen}} ''mod'', {{IPA|/muːd/}}, &quot;courage&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|n}} || {{Audio|sv-nod.ogg|listen}} ''nod'', {{IPA|/nuːd/}}, &quot;node&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{Audio|sv-lång.ogg|listen}} ''lång'', {{IPA|/lɔŋ/}}, &quot;long&quot;
|}

==Stress==
Normally the stress is put on the first vowel. The tonality is more important in some Swedish dialects.

==Tonality==
Both ''nita'' and ''niten'' have the stress on the vowel ''i''. However, in some accents the tonality/pitch differs. This is often a situational difference that varies from one word to the next. For more information on tone you can try the Wikipedia article on [[w:tone (linguistics)|tone]].

==Typing Special Characters==
[[Image:Lange Jan.jpg|The light house &quot;Långe Jan&quot; at the south end of Öland island.|thumb]]
'''On a PC:'''

Alt+0229 = å&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0197 = Å&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0228 = ä&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0196 = Ä&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0246 = ö&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0214 = Ö

'''On a Mac:'''

Option+a = å&lt;br&gt;
Option+A = Å&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type a = ä&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type A = Ä&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type o = ö&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type O = Ö&lt;br&gt;

If you don't manage to get these characters, the standard way is to substitute '''å''' with '''aa''', '''ä''' with '''ae''', and '''ö''' with '''oe'''.

==More Information on Pronunciation==

For more detailed information on Swedish pronunciations read the Wikipedia article on [[w:swedish phonology|Swedish phonology]].

==Exercise==

Pronounce the following Swedish words.

1. ''skal, sno, tur, kår, ven, mil, syl, när, bör''

2. ''stall, stopp, lupp, sådd, ett, stins, skyll, ärr, börs''

3. ''vara, bliva, heta, kallas, äta, dricka, festa, leka''

4. ''bilen, vägen, äpplet, trädet, smaken, tiken''

5. ''kal, kotte, kul, kål, gam, gott, gurka, gås''

6. ''ge, gick, gylf, Gävle, gök, kedja, kil, kyl, käk, kök''

[[Category:Swedish]]
[[Category:Alphabets]]

[[el:Σουηδικό αλφάβητο]]</text>
      <sha1>sg70n1i60z1ukj5p4wk3tysc70w5nvn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681251</id>
      <parentid>2681250</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T17:26:54Z</timestamp>
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        <id>2993392</id>
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      <text bytes="11550" sha1="6wwu3by0y4kia1ez1ev7pwhq2hr38xf" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--A pronunciation guide has been added, but may be to complicated. If someone could organize it so that it lists the pronunciations by letter it would be greatly appreciated.--&gt;
{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}
----
[[File:Sv-alphabet.ogg|The Swedish alphabet.|right|thumb]]
The Swedish alphabet contains 29 letters: 

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz Åå Ää Öö

The last three letters, Å, Ä, and Ö, are regarded as distinct letters, separate from A and O. Whereas in English you might use the term &quot;A - Z&quot;, in Swedish it would be &quot;A - Ö&quot;. Unlike in English, Y is always a vowel, except in the case of some loanwords. W has not been included in the Swedish alphabet for a long time, but since 2006 the Swedish Academy considers W as a separate letter. However, this is not fully accepted in dictionaries and other instances yet.

==The Vowels==
Vowels are divided into short and long vowels, similarly to English. Just as in English, the short and long versions of vowels are pronounced differently. When reading new words you should pay attention to whether the vowels are short or long. The basic rule is that a vowel is short if it is followed by more than one consonant, similar to English. Much like English, though, there will be exceptions to the rule.

===Long Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
!Letter
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
!English equivalent
|-
|A
| {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{Audio|sv-mat.ogg|listen}} ''mat'', {{IPA|/mɑːt/}}, &quot;food&quot;
|''ar'' in ''start'' (British English)
|-
|E
| {{IPA|eː}} || {{Audio|sv-hel.ogg|listen}} ''hel'', {{IPA|/heːl/}}, &quot;whole&quot;
|Like ''ea'' in ''yeah,'' but with wide lips
|-
|I
| {{IPA|iː}} || {{Audio|sv-sil.ogg|listen}} ''sil'', {{IPA|/siːl/}}, &quot;sieve&quot; 
|''ee'' in ''sheet'' (British English)
|-
|O
| {{IPA|uː}} || {{Audio|sv-bot.ogg|listen}} ''bot'', {{IPA|/buːt/}}, &quot;penance&quot;
|''oo'' in ''pool'' (British English)
|-
|U
| {{IPA|ʉ̟ː}} || {{Audio|sv-ful.ogg|listen}} ''ful'', {{IPA|/fʉ̟ːl/}}, &quot;ugly&quot;
|''oo'' in ''pool'' (Australian English)
|-
|Y
| {{IPA|yː}} || {{Audio|sv-syl.ogg|listen}} ''syl'', {{IPA|/syːl/}}, &quot;[[wikt:awl|awl]]&quot;
|Like ''ee'' in ''sheet'', but with circular lips
|-
|Å
| {{IPA|oː}} || {{Audio|sv-mål.ogg|listen}} ''mål'', {{IPA|/moːl/}}, &quot;goal&quot;
|''aw'' in ''law'' (British English)
|-
|Ä
| {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{Audio|sv-häl.ogg|listen}} ''häl'', {{IPA|/hɛːl/}}, &quot;heel&quot;
|''ea'' in ''yeah''
|-
|Ö
| {{IPA|øː}} || {{Audio|sv-nöt.ogg|listen}} ''nöt,'' {{IPA|/nøːt/}}, &quot;nut&quot;
|''or'' in ''work'' (British English)
|}

===Short Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
!Letter
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
!English equivalent
|-
|A
| {{IPA|a}} || {{Audio|sv-matt.ogg|listen}} ''matt'', {{IPA|/mat/}}, &quot;listless; matte&quot;
|None
|-
|E, Ä
| {{IPA|ɛ}}|| {{Audio|sv-häll.ogg|listen}} ''häll'', {{IPA|/hɛl/}}, &quot;flat rock&quot;
|''e'' in ''bed''
|-
|I
| {{IPA|ɪ}}|| {{Audio|sv-sill.ogg|listen}} ''sill'', {{IPA|/sɪl/}}, &quot;herring&quot;
|''i'' in ''sit''
|-
|O
| {{IPA|ɔ}} || {{Audio|sv-moll.ogg|listen}} ''moll'', {{IPA|/mɔl/}}, &quot;minor&quot; (music)
|''o'' in ''toll'' (British English)
|-
|O
| {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{Audio|sv-bott.ogg|listen}} ''bott'', {{IPA|/bʊt/}}, &quot;lived&quot; ([[w:perfect tense|perfect tense]])
|''oo'' in ''look''
|-
|U
| {{IPA|ɵ}} || {{Audio|sv-full.ogg|listen}} ''full'', {{IPA|/fɵl/}}, &quot;full&quot;
|Similar to ''Nevad'''&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;'''''
|-
|Y
| {{IPA|ʏ}} || {{Audio|sv-syll.ogg|listen}} ''syll'', {{IPA|/sʏl/}}, &quot;[[w:railroad tie|sleeper]]&quot; (railroad)
|Like ''i'' in ''sit'', but with circular lips
|-
|Ö
| {{IPA|œ}} || {{Audio|sv-nött.ogg|listen}} ''nött'', {{IPA|/nœt/}}, &quot;worn&quot;
|Like ''or'' in ''work,'' but shorter
|}

=== Influence of R ===
''e'' and ''ä'' are pronounced like the ''a'' in English ''tr'''a'''p'' if before an r. This means ''ärt'' is pronounced similarly to English ''at''.

==The Consonants==

The consonants are mostly similar to English. Most Swedes do not roll the ''r'', which makes Swedish more comfortable for English speakers compared to other European languages. 
The letters ''z'', ''q'', and ''w'' are very uncommon but are used in family and company names.
The most obvious differences for English speakers will be that ''y'' is never a consonant, and ''j'' is pronounced like English's consonantal ''y''.

'''Long Consonants'''

As in English, and as demonstrated in the previous section, consonants may be doubled. However, if this happens in the middle of the word (such as ''erkänna''), then the doubled consonant is pronounced with double the length. This is similar to how the word ''night-time'' in English is spoken with a doubly long ''t''.

'''Initial ''g'' and ''k'' '''

There is a similar concept to how ''g'' is pronounced differently in the English words ''general'' and ''game'', only with slightly different rules and a different pronunciation. The letter ''k'' also changes pronunciation in Swedish based on the following vowel.

Generally, if the first letter in a word is ''g'' and if the next letter is an ''e'', ''i'', ''ä'', ''ö'', or ''y'', then the ''g'' is pronounced as an English ''y''.&lt;br&gt;
Generally, if the first letter in a word is ''k'' and if the next letter is an e, ''i'', ''ä'', ''ö'', or ''y'', then the ''k'' is pronounced as an English ''sh''.

'''Digraphs'''

Digraphs are when multiple letters are used in writing to represent a single spoken sound. This also occurs in English (consider ''sh'').
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Digraph
!English equivalent
|-
|dj, gj, hj, lj
|y
|-
|sj, skj, stj
|Sounds like ''wh'' in old-fashioned southern US accents
|-
|kj, tj
|sh
|-
|hv
|v
|-
|ng
|ng
|-
|gn
|ng (''gn'' is not a digraph if at the beginning of a word, where it would be pronounced like ''a'''gn'''ostic'')
|}

===Plosives===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{Audio|sv-pol.ogg|listen}} ''pol'', {{IPA|/puːl/}}, &quot;pole&quot; (of axis)
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{Audio|sv-bok.ogg|listen}} ''bok'', {{IPA|/buːk/}}, &quot;book&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|t}} || {{Audio|sv-tok.ogg|listen}} ''tok'', {{IPA|/tuːk/}}, &quot;fool&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|d}} || {{Audio|sv-dop.ogg|listen}} ''dop'', {{IPA|/duːp/}}, &quot;christening&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|k}} || {{Audio|sv-kon.ogg|listen}} ''kon'', {{IPA|/kuːn/}}, &quot;cone&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{Audio|sv-god.ogg|listen}} ''god'', {{IPA|/ɡuːd/}}, &quot;good&quot;
|}

===Fricative===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|f}} || {{Audio|sv-fot.ogg|listen}} ''fot'', {{IPA|/fuːt/}}, &quot;foot&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|v}} || {{Audio|Sv-våt.ogg|listen}} ''våt'', {{IPA|/voːt/}}, &quot;wet&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|s}} || {{Audio|sv-sot.ogg|listen}} ''sot'', {{IPA|/suːt/}}, &quot;soot&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɧ}} || {{Audio|sv-sjok.ogg|listen}} ''sjok'', {{IPA|/ɧuːk/}}, &quot;chunk&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɕ}} || {{Audio|sv-kjol.ogg|listen}} ''kjol'', {{IPA|/ɕuːl/}}, &quot;skirt&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|j}} || {{Audio|sv-jord.ogg|listen}} ''jord'', {{IPA|/juːrd/}}, &quot;soil, earth&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|h}} || {{Audio|sv-hot.ogg|listen}} ''hot'', {{IPA|/huːt/}}, &quot;threat&quot;
|}

===/r/ and Retroflex Assimilations===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|r}} || {{Audio|sv-rov.ogg|listen}} ''rov'', {{IPA|/ruːv/}}, &quot;prey; loot&quot;
|-
|}

===Laterals===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|l}} || {{Audio|sv-lov.ogg|listen}} ''lov'', {{IPA|/luːv/}}, &quot;[[w:Tack (sailing)|tack (sailing maneuver)]]&quot;
|-
|}

===Nasals===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{Audio|sv-mod.ogg|listen}} ''mod'', {{IPA|/muːd/}}, &quot;courage&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|n}} || {{Audio|sv-nod.ogg|listen}} ''nod'', {{IPA|/nuːd/}}, &quot;node&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{Audio|sv-lång.ogg|listen}} ''lång'', {{IPA|/lɔŋ/}}, &quot;long&quot;
|}

==Stress==
Normally the stress is put on the first vowel. The tonality/pitch is more important in some Swedish dialects.

==Tonality==
Both ''nita'' and ''niten'' have the stress on the vowel ''i''. However, in some accents the tonality/pitch differs. This is often a situational difference that varies from one word to the next. For more information on tone you can try the Wikipedia article on [[w:tone (linguistics)|tone]].

==Typing Special Characters==
[[Image:Lange Jan.jpg|The light house &quot;Långe Jan&quot; at the south end of Öland island.|thumb]]
'''On a PC:'''

Alt+0229 = å&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0197 = Å&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0228 = ä&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0196 = Ä&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0246 = ö&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0214 = Ö

'''On a Mac:'''

Option+a = å&lt;br&gt;
Option+A = Å&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type a = ä&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type A = Ä&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type o = ö&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type O = Ö&lt;br&gt;

If you don't manage to get these characters, the standard way is to substitute '''å''' with '''aa''', '''ä''' with '''ae''', and '''ö''' with '''oe'''.

==More Information on Pronunciation==

For more detailed information on Swedish pronunciations read the Wikipedia article on [[w:swedish phonology|Swedish phonology]].

==Exercise==

Pronounce the following Swedish words.

1. ''skal, sno, tur, kår, ven, mil, syl, när, bör''

2. ''stall, stopp, lupp, sådd, ett, stins, skyll, ärr, börs''

3. ''vara, bliva, heta, kallas, äta, dricka, festa, leka''

4. ''bilen, vägen, äpplet, trädet, smaken, tiken''

5. ''kal, kotte, kul, kål, gam, gott, gurka, gås''

6. ''ge, gick, gylf, Gävle, gök, kedja, kil, kyl, käk, kök''

[[Category:Swedish]]
[[Category:Alphabets]]

[[el:Σουηδικό αλφάβητο]]</text>
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      <text bytes="11568" sha1="038gvo50g4kab8wtkxenhfhgs2m76yj" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--A pronunciation guide has been added, but may be to complicated. If someone could organize it so that it lists the pronunciations by letter it would be greatly appreciated.--&gt;
{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}
----
[[File:Sv-alphabet.ogg|The Swedish alphabet.|right|thumb]]
The Swedish alphabet contains 29 letters: 

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz Åå Ää Öö

The last three letters, Å, Ä, and Ö, are regarded as distinct letters, separate from A and O. Whereas in English you might use the term &quot;A - Z&quot;, in Swedish it would be &quot;A - Ö&quot;. Unlike in English, Y is always a vowel, except in the case of some loanwords. W has not been included in the Swedish alphabet for a long time, but since 2006 the Swedish Academy considers W as a separate letter. However, this is not fully accepted in dictionaries and other instances yet.

==The Vowels==
Vowels are divided into short and long vowels, similarly to English. Just as in English, the short and long versions of vowels are pronounced differently. When reading new words you should pay attention to whether the vowels are short or long. The basic rule is that a vowel is short if it is followed by more than one consonant, similar to English. Much like English, though, there will be exceptions to the rule.

===Long Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
!Letter
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
!English equivalent
|-
|A
| {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{Audio|sv-mat.ogg|listen}} ''mat'', {{IPA|/mɑːt/}}, &quot;food&quot;
|''ar'' in ''start'' (British English)
|-
|E
| {{IPA|eː}} || {{Audio|sv-hel.ogg|listen}} ''hel'', {{IPA|/heːl/}}, &quot;whole&quot;
|Like ''ea'' in ''yeah,'' but with wide lips
|-
|I
| {{IPA|iː}} || {{Audio|sv-sil.ogg|listen}} ''sil'', {{IPA|/siːl/}}, &quot;sieve&quot; 
|''ee'' in ''sheet'' (British English)
|-
|O
| {{IPA|uː}} || {{Audio|sv-bot.ogg|listen}} ''bot'', {{IPA|/buːt/}}, &quot;penance&quot;
|''oo'' in ''pool'' (British English)
|-
|U
| {{IPA|ʉ̟ː}} || {{Audio|sv-ful.ogg|listen}} ''ful'', {{IPA|/fʉ̟ːl/}}, &quot;ugly&quot;
|''oo'' in ''pool'' (Australian English)
|-
|Y
| {{IPA|yː}} || {{Audio|sv-syl.ogg|listen}} ''syl'', {{IPA|/syːl/}}, &quot;[[wikt:awl|awl]]&quot;
|Like ''ee'' in ''sheet'', but with circular lips (British English)
|-
|Å
| {{IPA|oː}} || {{Audio|sv-mål.ogg|listen}} ''mål'', {{IPA|/moːl/}}, &quot;goal&quot;
|''aw'' in ''law'' (British English)
|-
|Ä
| {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{Audio|sv-häl.ogg|listen}} ''häl'', {{IPA|/hɛːl/}}, &quot;heel&quot;
|''ea'' in ''yeah''
|-
|Ö
| {{IPA|øː}} || {{Audio|sv-nöt.ogg|listen}} ''nöt,'' {{IPA|/nøːt/}}, &quot;nut&quot;
|''or'' in ''work'' (British English)
|}

===Short Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
!Letter
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
!English equivalent
|-
|A
| {{IPA|a}} || {{Audio|sv-matt.ogg|listen}} ''matt'', {{IPA|/mat/}}, &quot;listless; matte&quot;
|None
|-
|E, Ä
| {{IPA|ɛ}}|| {{Audio|sv-häll.ogg|listen}} ''häll'', {{IPA|/hɛl/}}, &quot;flat rock&quot;
|''e'' in ''bed''
|-
|I
| {{IPA|ɪ}}|| {{Audio|sv-sill.ogg|listen}} ''sill'', {{IPA|/sɪl/}}, &quot;herring&quot;
|''i'' in ''sit''
|-
|O
| {{IPA|ɔ}} || {{Audio|sv-moll.ogg|listen}} ''moll'', {{IPA|/mɔl/}}, &quot;minor&quot; (music)
|''o'' in ''toll'' (British English)
|-
|O
| {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{Audio|sv-bott.ogg|listen}} ''bott'', {{IPA|/bʊt/}}, &quot;lived&quot; ([[w:perfect tense|perfect tense]])
|''oo'' in ''look''
|-
|U
| {{IPA|ɵ}} || {{Audio|sv-full.ogg|listen}} ''full'', {{IPA|/fɵl/}}, &quot;full&quot;
|Similar to ''Nevad'''&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;'''''
|-
|Y
| {{IPA|ʏ}} || {{Audio|sv-syll.ogg|listen}} ''syll'', {{IPA|/sʏl/}}, &quot;[[w:railroad tie|sleeper]]&quot; (railroad)
|Like ''i'' in ''sit'', but with circular lips
|-
|Ö
| {{IPA|œ}} || {{Audio|sv-nött.ogg|listen}} ''nött'', {{IPA|/nœt/}}, &quot;worn&quot;
|Like ''or'' in ''work,'' but shorter
|}

=== Influence of R ===
''e'' and ''ä'' are pronounced like the ''a'' in English ''tr'''a'''p'' if before an r. This means ''ärt'' is pronounced similarly to English ''at''.

==The Consonants==

The consonants are mostly similar to English. Most Swedes do not roll the ''r'', which makes Swedish more comfortable for English speakers compared to other European languages. 
The letters ''z'', ''q'', and ''w'' are very uncommon but are used in family and company names.
The most obvious differences for English speakers will be that ''y'' is never a consonant, and ''j'' is pronounced like English's consonantal ''y''.

'''Long Consonants'''

As in English, and as demonstrated in the previous section, consonants may be doubled. However, if this happens in the middle of the word (such as ''erkänna''), then the doubled consonant is pronounced with double the length. This is similar to how the word ''night-time'' in English is spoken with a doubly long ''t''.

'''Initial ''g'' and ''k'' '''

There is a similar concept to how ''g'' is pronounced differently in the English words ''general'' and ''game'', only with slightly different rules and a different pronunciation. The letter ''k'' also changes pronunciation in Swedish based on the following vowel.

Generally, if the first letter in a word is ''g'' and if the next letter is an ''e'', ''i'', ''ä'', ''ö'', or ''y'', then the ''g'' is pronounced as an English ''y''.&lt;br&gt;
Generally, if the first letter in a word is ''k'' and if the next letter is an e, ''i'', ''ä'', ''ö'', or ''y'', then the ''k'' is pronounced as an English ''sh''.

'''Digraphs'''

Digraphs are when multiple letters are used in writing to represent a single spoken sound. This also occurs in English (consider ''sh'').
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Digraph
!English equivalent
|-
|dj, gj, hj, lj
|y
|-
|sj, skj, stj
|Sounds like ''wh'' in old-fashioned southern US accents
|-
|kj, tj
|sh
|-
|hv
|v
|-
|ng
|ng
|-
|gn
|ng (''gn'' is not a digraph if at the beginning of a word, where it would be pronounced like ''a'''gn'''ostic'')
|}

===Plosives===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || {{Audio|sv-pol.ogg|listen}} ''pol'', {{IPA|/puːl/}}, &quot;pole&quot; (of axis)
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || {{Audio|sv-bok.ogg|listen}} ''bok'', {{IPA|/buːk/}}, &quot;book&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|t}} || {{Audio|sv-tok.ogg|listen}} ''tok'', {{IPA|/tuːk/}}, &quot;fool&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|d}} || {{Audio|sv-dop.ogg|listen}} ''dop'', {{IPA|/duːp/}}, &quot;christening&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|k}} || {{Audio|sv-kon.ogg|listen}} ''kon'', {{IPA|/kuːn/}}, &quot;cone&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{Audio|sv-god.ogg|listen}} ''god'', {{IPA|/ɡuːd/}}, &quot;good&quot;
|}

===Fricative===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|f}} || {{Audio|sv-fot.ogg|listen}} ''fot'', {{IPA|/fuːt/}}, &quot;foot&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|v}} || {{Audio|Sv-våt.ogg|listen}} ''våt'', {{IPA|/voːt/}}, &quot;wet&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|s}} || {{Audio|sv-sot.ogg|listen}} ''sot'', {{IPA|/suːt/}}, &quot;soot&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɧ}} || {{Audio|sv-sjok.ogg|listen}} ''sjok'', {{IPA|/ɧuːk/}}, &quot;chunk&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ɕ}} || {{Audio|sv-kjol.ogg|listen}} ''kjol'', {{IPA|/ɕuːl/}}, &quot;skirt&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|j}} || {{Audio|sv-jord.ogg|listen}} ''jord'', {{IPA|/juːrd/}}, &quot;soil, earth&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|h}} || {{Audio|sv-hot.ogg|listen}} ''hot'', {{IPA|/huːt/}}, &quot;threat&quot;
|}

===/r/ and Retroflex Assimilations===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|r}} || {{Audio|sv-rov.ogg|listen}} ''rov'', {{IPA|/ruːv/}}, &quot;prey; loot&quot;
|-
|}

===Laterals===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|l}} || {{Audio|sv-lov.ogg|listen}} ''lov'', {{IPA|/luːv/}}, &quot;[[w:Tack (sailing)|tack (sailing maneuver)]]&quot;
|-
|}

===Nasals===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[w:phoneme|Phoneme]]&lt;br&gt;([[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Pronunciation sample, phonemic transcription and translation
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || {{Audio|sv-mod.ogg|listen}} ''mod'', {{IPA|/muːd/}}, &quot;courage&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|n}} || {{Audio|sv-nod.ogg|listen}} ''nod'', {{IPA|/nuːd/}}, &quot;node&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{Audio|sv-lång.ogg|listen}} ''lång'', {{IPA|/lɔŋ/}}, &quot;long&quot;
|}

==Stress==
Normally the stress is put on the first vowel. The tonality/pitch is more important in some Swedish dialects.

==Tonality==
Both ''nita'' and ''niten'' have the stress on the vowel ''i''. However, in some accents the tonality/pitch differs. This is often a situational difference that varies from one word to the next. For more information on tone you can try the Wikipedia article on [[w:tone (linguistics)|tone]].

==Typing Special Characters==
[[Image:Lange Jan.jpg|The light house &quot;Långe Jan&quot; at the south end of Öland island.|thumb]]
'''On a PC:'''

Alt+0229 = å&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0197 = Å&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0228 = ä&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0196 = Ä&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0246 = ö&lt;br&gt;
Alt+0214 = Ö

'''On a Mac:'''

Option+a = å&lt;br&gt;
Option+A = Å&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type a = ä&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type A = Ä&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type o = ö&lt;br&gt;
Option+u to get ¨ then type O = Ö&lt;br&gt;

If you don't manage to get these characters, the standard way is to substitute '''å''' with '''aa''', '''ä''' with '''ae''', and '''ö''' with '''oe'''.

==More Information on Pronunciation==

For more detailed information on Swedish pronunciations read the Wikipedia article on [[w:swedish phonology|Swedish phonology]].

==Exercise==

Pronounce the following Swedish words.

1. ''skal, sno, tur, kår, ven, mil, syl, när, bör''

2. ''stall, stopp, lupp, sådd, ett, stins, skyll, ärr, börs''

3. ''vara, bliva, heta, kallas, äta, dricka, festa, leka''

4. ''bilen, vägen, äpplet, trädet, smaken, tiken''

5. ''kal, kotte, kul, kål, gam, gott, gurka, gås''

6. ''ge, gick, gylf, Gävle, gök, kedja, kil, kyl, käk, kök''

[[Category:Swedish]]
[[Category:Alphabets]]

[[el:Σουηδικό αλφάβητο]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Science</title>
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      <text bytes="770" sha1="9tu5k0uwk6b6kwtpyryj2n7avwyoz5b" xml:space="preserve">'''Science''' is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Science]]&lt;/ref&gt;

According to [[w:Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein]], arguably the most famous scientist, &quot;the whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking&quot; (p. 349)&lt;ref&gt;Einstein, A. (1936). ''Physics and reality''. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/34651272/Physics_and_Reality_by_Albert_Einstein-libre.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Resources ==
* [[WikiJournal of Science]]

== Science categories ==
&lt;categorytree mode=&quot;categories&quot; showcount=&quot;on&quot;&gt;Science&lt;/categorytree&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Portal: Science]]
* [[Wikipedia: Science]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Science| ]]</text>
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      <comment>Updated the definitions on the four forces on an airplane</comment>
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      <text bytes="2515" sha1="n4lp1ue8hk4grg1gl4iuuwo7zyv34ex" xml:space="preserve">== Airplane Parts ==
The main parts of an aircraft are: 
* the fuselage, 
* the wings, 
* the horizontal stabilizer,
* the vertical stabilizer,
* the landing gear, and 
* of course the engine(s)
Control Surfaces: Right and Left Aileron, Elevator, Rudder, and Trim Tabs  
__NOTOC__

== Aircraft Forces ==
=== Four Forces on an Airplane ===
The four forces which act upon an aircraft in flight are: 
# '''Lift'''
# '''Drag'''
# '''Thrust'''
# '''Weight'''

:'''Lift''' acts upwards at right angles to the airflow through the center of pressure. In simple terms, Lift is perpendicular to the Relative Wind.
:'''Weight''' is the total weight which acts vertically downwards through the center of gravity. Weight opposes lift.
:'''Thrust''' is the forward propulsive force provided by the engines.
:'''Drag''' is the backward force opposing the forward motion of the aircraft. It acts parallel and in the reverse direction of the aircraft's movement. Drag opposes thrust.

== Aerodynamics ==
=== Pressure ===

== Resources ==
[http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/bga.html NASA's Beginners Guide to Aerodynamics] - Supplement your of study aerodynamics at your own pace and to your own level of interest. Some of the topics included are: Newton's basic equations of motion; the motion of a free falling object, that neglects the effects of aerodynamics; the terminal velocity of a falling object subject to both weight and air resistance; the three forces (lift, drag, and weight) that act on a glider; and finally, the four forces that act on a powered airplane. There are many interactive pages designed to illustrate aerodynamics. 

[http://www.flightcentral.net/gs-lessons/aerodynamics/player.html Aerodynamics Lesson] - Gold Seal Master CFI trainer Robert Still video presents basics of Aerodynamics in an easy to understand format.

[http://www.av8n.com/how/ See How It Flies] - Free online book (in HTML format) running through aerodynamics and techniques for flight.

[[w:Aircraft|Wikipedia Aircraft]] - A definition of Aircraft and examples of various types of aircraft.

[[w:Aerodynamics|Wikipedia Aerodynamics]] - Technical overview of aerodynamics and the physics of flight.

[http://www.faa.gov/aircraft/ FAA Aircraft] - FAA information on Registration and Certification of Aircraft, Advisories and Guidance, Regulations and Policy, Forms, and Technical Information.  Includes a searchable database of aircraft registered in the US.

[[Category:Physics]]
[[Category:Aviation]]
[[Category:Aerodynamics]]</text>
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    <title>Aviation Weather</title>
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      <comment>/* The pilot's weather tools */</comment>
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      <text bytes="9773" sha1="gteo17uweud2grmbtpz9eodtljwc246" xml:space="preserve">== Online Courses ==

[http://www.flightcentral.net/gs-lessons/wxtheory/player.html Aviation Weather Theory]

==The pilot's weather tools==
To accurately gather [[weather data]] to ensure a successful [[flight]], pilots have access to many different resources that inform them of what the [[weather]] is up to.

=== METARs ===
Every pilot and even student for that matter has been exposed to a [http://www.pilotpedia.com/wiki/index.php/METAR METAR]. Roughly translated from the French as METeorlogical Aviation Routine weather Reports, a METAR is the hourly surface weather observation issued 5 minutes before the hour. It is available to the aviation community and used by the National Weather Service to determine an airport's flying conditions ([[Instrument Flight Rules|IFR]], [[Marginal Visual Flight Rules|MVFR]], [[Visual Flight Rules|VFR]]). You can obtain these from a variety of places both online and by phone. 

This is the basic knowledge of what ground school consists of on this topic other than deciphering its acronyms. Although as a pilot, sometimes its nice to know a little about how these services came to be without going too much into detail. Funny enough, the change to our current acronym of METAR is fairly recent. 

====[[History]]====
Before the current interpretation of weather data, there were two formats, and, in rough terms, it was &quot;us and them&quot; or rather, to be more precise, the North American countries reported weather differently from the rest of the world. North Americans were using SAO or &quot;Surface Aviation Observation&quot; (which was adopted in the 1950s), while the rest of the world was using the currently known METAR or &quot;METeorological Aviation Routine weather reports&quot;. The FAA, which determines aviation requirements in the US, became increasingly aware that expanding numbers of international flights and pilots alike was creating a strong need to standardize weather report interpretations internationally. 

The [[National Weather Service]] standardized the weather reports into what we now know as METARs. To reduce the stress on US aviation citizens, the metric system was kept to a minimum: for example, the winds were kept in knots instead of meters per second, visibility in miles, altimeter settings in inches of mercury instead of hectoPascals, and RVR continued in feet. Temperatures, however, are converted to Celsius to allow for better conversions. The biggest change is simply the order in which elements are reported.

====Translating METARs====
So in a sense, although the attempt at standardizing weather code from SAO to METAR is apparent, the actual translation is not substantial. Oh and for those of you who are students or pilots that don’t like translating code, there is a reason and a cure. First off do realize that METARs are always originated in code and probably will be for a while. The reason seems to be that with the vast amount of changes and updates to weather reports would overload the system. The great news is that now it is possible to translate the code online either through request from sites such as NOAA or by looking up the code yourself which will put it in simple English. Sometimes this helps those who are new to learn the code and not miss anything during preflight weather preparations. 

====A closer look at the METAR====
The following example is a METAR taken from Vancouver International Airport ([[ICAO airport code|CYVR]]) in Vancouver, British Columbia:

METAR CYVR 120200Z 14021G27KT 20SM -SHRA FEW030 BKN058 OVC090 10/06 
A2982 RMK SC2SC5AC2 PCPN VRY LGT SLP098= 

Like mentioned above, METARs are observed and posted on an hourly basis. An airport can also issue an METAR that is not on the hour, this observation is called a SPECI. SPECI is abbreviated for special because the report was issued based on a significant change in conditions such as a violent temperature change, cloud layer movement, precipitaion, visibility, ect. Looking back at the Vancouver METAR, the observation can be translated as such.


'''METAR''': Simply indicated that the observation is a METAR observation.

'''CYVR''': This is the aerodrome ident of which the observation originates, in this case, the aerodrome is Vancouver International.

'''120200Z''': This is the time of which the METAR was issued, the first two numbers are the date, so ''12'' would mean the twelfth day of the month. The ''0200Z'' is the time indicated in UTC, in aviation, it is indicated as Zulu time hence the Z on the end. The time 0200 can be translated to 2:00.

'''14021G27''': This is the current wind observation. The first three numbers indicate the wind direction '''''in degrees true''''' while the following numbers indicate the wind speed measured in knots. From this figure we gather that the wind is at 140 degrees true and is at 21 knots gusting to 27 knots.

'''20SM''': Indicates the visibility at the airport; in this case, the visibility is 20 Statute Miles.

'''-SHRA''': Means that there is rain showers at the airport, the negative sign at the begining indicates the severity of the precipitation, a negative sign meaning light, no sign at all meaning moderate, a positive(+) sign meaning heavy.

'''FEW030 BKN058 OVC090''': These are the current cloud layers observed. ''FEW030'' is few clouds at 3000 feet ASL, ''BKN058'' is broken clouds at 5800 feet ASL, and ''OVC090'' is overcast clouds at 9000 feet ASL. ''ASL'' is abbreviated for above sea level, and you add two zeros on the end of the numbers to receive the actual altitude of the clouds.

'''10/06''': Current temperature and dewpoint, Temperature is 10 degrees celsius while the dewpoint is 6 degrees celsius.

'''A2982''': Altimeter setting observed, in this case 29.82 Hg/m 

'''RMK SC2SC5AC2 PCPN VRY LGT''': Any remarks which the observation has. ''SC2SC5AC2'' indicates that in respect to the observed cloud layers, the clouds are composed of 2 ocatas of strato cumulus clouds, 5 octas of stratocumulus clouds, and 2 octas of alto-cumulus clouds. ''PCPN VRY LGT'' indicates that precipitation is very light.

'''SLP098''': Indicates sea level pressure.

== quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{METARs are roughly translated from the French as _________. 
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}

+ METeorological Aviation Routine weather Reports 
|| Correct! This is the accurate translation of METAR from French.
- METeorological Airline Regular weather Reports 
|| Incorrect. Remember, METAR stands for METeorological Aviation Routine weather Reports.
- METeorological Airport Regular weather Reports 
|| Incorrect. The correct translation is METeorological Aviation Routine weather Reports.

{Before the current interpretation of weather data, North Americans were using _________ while the rest of the world was using METAR. 
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}

+ SAO or Surface Aviation Observation 
|| Correct! SAO stands for Surface Aviation Observation.
- Surface Aircraft Observation 
|| Incorrect. The correct term is Surface Aviation Observation.
- Standard Aviation Observation 
|| Incorrect. Remember, it's Surface Aviation Observation.

{The FAA became increasingly aware that expanding numbers of international flights and pilots was creating a need to _________. 
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}

+ standardize weather report interpretations internationally 
|| Correct! The FAA aimed to standardize weather report interpretations on an international scale.
- localize weather report interpretations 
|| Incorrect. The FAA's goal was to standardize, not localize, weather report interpretations.
- diversify weather report interpretations 
|| Incorrect. The aim was to standardize, not diversify, the interpretations.

{METARs are always originated in code because _________. 
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}

+ the vast amount of changes and updates to weather reports would overload the system 
|| Correct! Using code for METARs prevents the system from being overwhelmed by frequent changes and updates.
- it's easier for pilots to read 
|| Incorrect. The primary reason is to prevent system overload, not ease of reading.
- it's an international standard 
|| Incorrect. While METARs are standardized, the main reason for using code is to prevent system overloading.

{In the METAR example from Vancouver International Airport, &quot;14021G27&quot; indicates _________. 
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}

+ the wind is at 140 degrees true and is at 21 knots gusting to 27 knots 
|| Correct! The wind direction is 140 degrees true, with a speed of 21 knots and gusts up to 27 knots.
- the wind is at 140 knots and is gusting from 21 to 27 degrees 
|| Incorrect. The first three numbers indicate wind direction, and the following numbers indicate wind speed and gusts.
- the wind is at 21 degrees true and is at 140 knots gusting to 27 knots 
|| Incorrect. The wind direction is given first, followed by speed and gusts.

{In the METAR example, &quot;FEW030 BKN058 OVC090&quot; refers to _________. 
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}

+ the current cloud layers observed 
|| Correct! FEW030 means few clouds at 3000 feet, BKN058 means broken clouds at 5800 feet, and OVC090 means overcast clouds at 9000 feet.
- the visibility range in miles 
|| Incorrect. These codes specifically refer to cloud layers, not visibility.
- the temperature and dewpoint 
|| Incorrect. These codes describe cloud layers, not temperature or dewpoint.

&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Resources ==

{{Wikisource|Aviation Weather AC 00-6A}}
*http://www.nws.noaa.gov/oso/oso1/oso12/overview.htm - National Weather Services 
*http://www.alaska.faa.gov/fai/afss/metar%20taf/metintro.htm (Also a good source for additional info and abbreviation translations.)
*http://www.nwstc.noaa.gov/METEOR/AvnOps/aoc_webpage.htm NOAA National Weather Service Training Center.
*http://adds.aviationweather.noaa.gov Aviaition Digital Data Service Aviation Weather Center

[[Category:Aviation]]
[[Category:Meteorology]]</text>
      <sha1>gteo17uweud2grmbtpz9eodtljwc246</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Introduction to Swedish/Verb tenses</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>50676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681376</id>
      <parentid>2591564</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T19:10:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yatatatatatata</username>
        <id>2993392</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2681376</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9807" sha1="ihznj7tsroo7pxjtdi9mxacybt08yfx" xml:space="preserve">{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}

==Grammar==

Just like in English, Swedish verbs have two inflected tenses: present and past. 
'''Verb forms: example ''arbeta'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
!Form
!English
!Swedish
!Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''----!''
| ----!
|Stem
|-
|Infinitive
|''(to) ----''
|(att) ----
|stem + ''-a,'' or no change
|-
|Present
|''(I) ----''
|(jag) ''----'''''r'''
|stem + ''-r, -er''
|-
|Past
|''(I) ----ed''
|Jag ''----'''''de'''
|stem + ''-de, -te''
|-
|Supine
|''(I have/had) ----ed''
|Jag har ''----'''''t'''
|stem + ''-t, -tt, -it''
|}
'''1st conjugation tenses: example ''arbeta'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|''Work!''
|Arbeta!
|stem
|-
| Present
| ''I work''
| Jag arbeta'''r'''
| stem + ''-r''
|-
| Past
| ''I worked''
| Jag arbeta'''de'''
| stem + ''-de''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have worked''
| Jag har arbeta'''t'''
| ''har +'' supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had worked''
|Jag hade arbeta'''t'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will work''
| Jag ska arbeta
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}

'''2nd conjugation: example ''bränna'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|''Burn!''
|Bränn!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I burn''
| Jag bränn'''er'''
| stem + ''-er''
|-
| Past
| ''I burned''
| Jag brän'''de'''
| stem + ''-de, -te''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have burned''
| Jag har brän'''t'''
| ''har'' + supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had burned''
|Jag hade brän'''t'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will burn''
| Jag ska bränn'''a'''
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}
'''3rd conjugation: example ''tro'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|Believe!
|Tro!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I believe''
| Jag tro'''r'''
| stem + ''-r''
|-
| Past
| ''I believed''
| Jag tro'''dde'''
| stem + ''-dde''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have believed''
| Jag har tro'''tt'''
| ''har'' + supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had believed''
|Jag hade tro'''tt'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will believe''
| Jag ska tro
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}


'''Irregular verbs'''

Like English, Swedish also has irregular verbs (past tense is shown through a vowel change). Most verbs that are irregular in English are also irregular when translated to Swedish. 

 {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Form
! English
! Swedish
! Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''eat!''
|äta!
|Stem
|-
| Infinitive
| ''(to) eat''
| (att) äta!
| stem + ''-a,'' or no change
|-
| Present
| ''(I) eat''
| (jag) äter
| stem + ''-r, -er''
|-
| Simple past
| ''ate''
| åt
| vowel change
|-
|Past participle
|''eaten''
|ätit
|stem + ''-t, -tt, -it''
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
|-
| Imperative
| ''Walk!''
| Gå!
|-
| Present
| ''I walk''
| Jag gå'''r'''
|-
| Past
| ''I walked''
| Jag gick
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have walked''
| Jag har gått
|-
| Past perfect
| ''I had walked''
| Jag hade gått
|-
|Simple future
|''I will walk''
|Jag ska gå
|}

Some irregular verbs combine a vowel change with word endings:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''Find!''
|Finn!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I find''
| Jag finn'''er'''
| stem + ''-er''
|-
| Past
| ''I found''
| Jag fann
| Stem + vowel change
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have found''
| Jag har funn'''it'''
| ''har'' + vowel change + ''-it''
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had found''
|Jag hade funn'''it'''
|''hade'' + vowel change + ''-it''
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will find''
| Jag ska finna
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}


''The irregular verbs '''har/hade''' and '''ska/skulle''' are used in complex verb tenses in much the same way as '''have/had''' and '''will/would''' are used in English.''

'''har &amp; hade'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;(att) ha&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''to have''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag hade&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I had''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag har haft&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I have had''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag har&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I have''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''ska &amp; skulle'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag ska&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I will''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag skulle&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I would''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


''Note that Swedish does not have a correlate to the English continuous/progressive forms. In '''extremely''' formal language, you could use a noun form to express this concept: Jag är i arbete''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!English
!Swedish
|-
|''I work''
|Jag arbetar
|-
|''I am working''
|Jag arbetar
|-
|''I worked''
|Jag arbetade
|-
|''I was working''
|Jag arbetade
|}

== Participles ==

=== Past participles ===
In English, the supine and past participle forms of verbs are the same. In Swedish however, the past participle form is separate from the supine, and is only used for adjectivialising the verb. For instance:
{|
&lt;TD&gt;''det '''gångna''' året''.
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''the '''past''' year''&lt;/TD&gt;
|}
'''Regular verb past participle:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed by adding -d to the stem. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is instead formed with -t. All plural forms of the regular past participle are formed with -de.

'''Irregular verb past participle when verb stem ends with a:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed with -en. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is formed with -et instead. All plural forms are formed with -na.

'''Irregular verb part participles when verb stem ends with any other vowel:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed with -ngen. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is formed with -nget instead. All plural forms are formed with -ngna.

=== Present participles ===
In Swedish, present participles are formed with -ande, unless the verb stem ends with any vowel other than a, in which case it is formed with -ende. Like in English, present participles can be used adjectivially, adverbially/to make another verb in the sentence more specific, and as a noun. ''Unlike'' in English, as mentioned previously, past participles '''cannot''' be used as continuous/progressive forms.

'''Adjectivially'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Klara har ett '''lysande''' leende&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''Klara has a '''beeming''' smile''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;'''Adverbially'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Carl kom '''hoppande'''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''Carl came '''hopping'''''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
{|
&lt;TD&gt;Jag ringer '''angående''' din annons
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I'm calling '''in regards to''' your ad''&lt;/TD&gt;
|}
'''Nounally'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;ett '''meddelande'''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''a '''message'''''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Example sentences==
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetade igår.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I worked yesterday.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Det har gått ett år.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''One year has passed.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Ni ska arbeta i morgon.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''You will work tomorrow.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;De gick och arbetade i parken.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''They went for work in the park.'' (or ''They walked and worked in the park.'')&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;De arbetade och gick i parken.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''They worked and walked in the park.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Vi skulle ha gått dit.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''We should have gone there.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag hade tur.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I was lucky.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetar (nu).&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I am working (right now).''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetar två dagar i veckan.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I work two days a week.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Example text==
'''Kalles väg till arbetet''' 

Det var morgon. Kalle gick ut på gatan. Han skulle gå vägen till arbetet. Den här vägen hade han gått många gånger förut. &quot;När jag har arbetat klart ska jag gå hem igen.&quot;, sa Kalle. &quot;Fast då går jag nog en annan väg!&quot;

'''Kalle's way to his work.'''

''It was morning. Kalle entered the street. He would walk the road to his work. This road he had walked many times before. &quot;When I've finished work I will walk home again.&quot;, Kalle said. &quot;But then I'll probably walk another route!&quot;''

==Exercises==
''Please translate into English:''

1. De har gått en annan väg.

2. Erik och Lina gick ut på puben.

3. Det var många i parken.

4. Hon har varit duktig.

5. Jag arbetade förut.

''Please translate into Swedish:''

6. Per, you are lucky!

7. He has another car.

8. She is exiting now.

9. Once upon a time mummy was lucky.  

10. What is the meaning of this?


[[../Answers to exercises/]]

==Glossary==
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;annan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''another, other''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;den här/det här&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''this''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;då&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''then''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;fast&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''but (in spoken language)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;förut&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''previously''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;att arbeta klart&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to finish work''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett arbete&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a work''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en gata&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a street''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to walk''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå dit&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to walk there''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå ut&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to exit''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå ut på&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to enter [a street], to go to [the pub], to mean something''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en gång&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''one time''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) ha&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to have''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) ha tur&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to be lucky''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett hem&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a home''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en morgon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a morning''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;nu&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''now''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;många&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''many''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;nog&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''probably, enough''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;när&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''when''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en pub&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a pub''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) säga&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to say''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;vad&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''what''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en väg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a road, way, route''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
[[Category:Language introductions]]
[[Category:Swedish]]
[[Category:Verbs]]
[[Category:Grammatical tenses]]</text>
      <sha1>ihznj7tsroo7pxjtdi9mxacybt08yfx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681379</id>
      <parentid>2681376</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T19:11:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yatatatatatata</username>
        <id>2993392</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2681379</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9890" sha1="ii7vkzf5e80uxzsnxdt4hb6uz6xjsjw" xml:space="preserve">{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}

==Grammar==

Just like in English, Swedish verbs have two inflected tenses: present and past. 
'''Verb forms: example ''arbeta'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
!Form
!English
!Swedish
!Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''----!''
| ----!
|Stem
|-
|Infinitive
|''(to) ----''
|(att) ----
|stem + ''-a,'' or no change
|-
|Present
|''(I) ----''
|(jag) ''----'''''r'''
|stem + ''-r, -er''
|-
|Past
|''(I) ----ed''
|Jag ''----'''''de'''
|stem + ''-de, -te''
|-
|Supine
|''(I have/had) ----ed''
|Jag har ''----'''''t'''
|stem + ''-t, -tt, -it''
|}
'''1st conjugation tenses: example ''arbeta'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|''Work!''
|Arbeta!
|stem
|-
| Present
| ''I work''
| Jag arbeta'''r'''
| stem + ''-r''
|-
| Past
| ''I worked''
| Jag arbeta'''de'''
| stem + ''-de''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have worked''
| Jag har arbeta'''t'''
| ''har +'' supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had worked''
|Jag hade arbeta'''t'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will work''
| Jag ska arbeta
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}

'''2nd conjugation: example ''bränna'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|''Burn!''
|Bränn!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I burn''
| Jag bränn'''er'''
| stem + ''-er''
|-
| Past
| ''I burned''
| Jag brän'''de'''
| stem + ''-de, -te''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have burned''
| Jag har brän'''t'''
| ''har'' + supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had burned''
|Jag hade brän'''t'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will burn''
| Jag ska bränn'''a'''
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}
'''3rd conjugation: example ''tro'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|Believe!
|Tro!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I believe''
| Jag tro'''r'''
| stem + ''-r''
|-
| Past
| ''I believed''
| Jag tro'''dde'''
| stem + ''-dde''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have believed''
| Jag har tro'''tt'''
| ''har'' + supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had believed''
|Jag hade tro'''tt'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will believe''
| Jag ska tro
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}


'''Irregular verbs'''

Like English, Swedish also has irregular verbs (past tense is shown through a vowel change). Most verbs that are irregular in English are also irregular when translated to Swedish. 

 {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Form
! English
! Swedish
! Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''eat!''
|äta!
|Stem
|-
| Infinitive
| ''(to) eat''
| (att) äta!
| stem + ''-a,'' or no change
|-
| Present
| ''(I) eat''
| (jag) äter
| stem + ''-r, -er''
|-
| Simple past
| ''ate''
| åt
| vowel change
|-
|Past participle
|''eaten''
|ätit
|stem + ''-t, -tt, -it''
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
|-
| Imperative
| ''Walk!''
| Gå!
|-
| Present
| ''I walk''
| Jag gå'''r'''
|-
| Past
| ''I walked''
| Jag gick
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have walked''
| Jag har gått
|-
| Past perfect
| ''I had walked''
| Jag hade gått
|-
|Simple future
|''I will walk''
|Jag ska gå
|}

Some irregular verbs combine a vowel change with word endings:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''Find!''
|Finn!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I find''
| Jag finn'''er'''
| stem + ''-er''
|-
| Past
| ''I found''
| Jag fann
| Stem + vowel change
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have found''
| Jag har funn'''it'''
| ''har'' + vowel change + ''-it''
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had found''
|Jag hade funn'''it'''
|''hade'' + vowel change + ''-it''
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will find''
| Jag ska finna
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}


''The irregular verbs '''har/hade''' and '''ska/skulle''' are used in complex verb tenses in much the same way as '''have/had''' and '''will/would''' are used in English.''

'''har &amp; hade'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;(att) ha&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''to have''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag hade&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I had''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag har haft&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I have had''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag har&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I have''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''ska &amp; skulle'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag ska&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I will''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag skulle&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I would''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


''Note that Swedish does not have a correlate to the English continuous/progressive forms. In '''extremely''' formal language, you could use a noun form to express this concept: Jag är i arbete''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!English
!Swedish
|-
|''I work''
|Jag arbetar
|-
|''I am working''
|Jag arbetar
|-
|''I worked''
|Jag arbetade
|-
|''I was working''
|Jag arbetade
|}

== Participles ==

=== Past participles ===
In English, the supine and past participle forms of verbs are the same. In Swedish however, the past participle form is separate from the supine, and is only used for adjectivialising the verb. For instance:
{|
&lt;TD&gt;''det '''gångna''' året''.
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''the '''past''' year''&lt;/TD&gt;
|}
'''Regular verb past participle:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed by adding -d to the stem. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is instead formed with -t. All plural forms of the regular past participle are formed with -de.

'''Irregular verb past participle when verb stem ends with a:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed with -en. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is formed with -et instead. All plural forms are formed with -na.

'''Irregular verb part participles when verb stem ends with any other vowel:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed with -ngen. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is formed with -nget instead. All plural forms are formed with -ngna.

=== Present participles ===
In Swedish, present participles are formed with -ande, unless the verb stem ends with any vowel other than a, in which case it is formed with -ende. Like in English, present participles can be used adjectivially, adverbially/to make another verb in the sentence more specific, and as a noun. ''Unlike'' in English, as mentioned previously, past participles '''cannot''' be used as continuous/progressive forms.

'''Adjectivially'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Klara har ett '''lysande''' leende&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''Klara has a '''beeming''' smile''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;'''Adverbially'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Carl kom '''hoppande'''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''Carl came '''hopping'''''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
{|
&lt;TD&gt;Jag ringer '''angående''' din annons
&lt;/TD&gt;
|&lt;TD&gt;''I'm calling '''in regards to''' your ad''&lt;/TD&gt;
|}
'''Nounally'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;ett '''meddelande'''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''a '''message'''''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Example sentences==
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetade igår.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I worked yesterday.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Det har gått ett år.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''One year has passed.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Ni ska arbeta i morgon.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''You will work tomorrow.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;De gick och arbetade i parken.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''They went for work in the park.'' (or ''They walked and worked in the park.'')&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;De arbetade och gick i parken.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''They worked and walked in the park.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Vi skulle ha gått dit.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''We should have gone there.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag hade tur.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I was lucky.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetar (nu).&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I am working (right now).''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetar två dagar i veckan.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I work two days a week.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Example text==
'''Kalles väg till arbetet''' 

Det var morgon. Kalle gick ut på gatan. Han skulle gå vägen till arbetet. Den här vägen hade han gått många gånger förut. &quot;När jag har arbetat klart ska jag gå hem igen.&quot;, sa Kalle. &quot;Fast då går jag nog en annan väg!&quot;

'''Kalle's way to his work.'''

''It was morning. Kalle entered the street. He would walk the road to his work. This road he had walked many times before. &quot;When I've finished work I will walk home again.&quot;, Kalle said. &quot;But then I'll probably walk another route!&quot;''

==Exercises==
''Please translate into English:''

1. De har gått en annan väg.

2. Erik och Lina gick ut på puben.

3. Det var många i parken.

4. Hon har varit duktig.

5. Jag arbetade förut.

''Please translate into Swedish:''

6. Per, you are lucky!

7. He has another car.

8. She is exiting now.

9. Once upon a time mummy was lucky.  

10. What is the meaning of this?


[[../Answers to exercises/]]

==Glossary==
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;annan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''another, other''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;den här/det här&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''this''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;då&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''then''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;fast&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''but (in spoken language)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;förut&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''previously''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;att arbeta klart&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to finish work''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett arbete&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a work''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en gata&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a street''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to walk''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå dit&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to walk there''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå ut&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to exit''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå ut på&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to enter [a street], to go to [the pub], to mean something''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en gång&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''one time''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) ha&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to have''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) ha tur&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to be lucky''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett hem&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a home''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en morgon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a morning''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;nu&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''now''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;många&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''many''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;nog&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''probably, enough''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;när&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''when''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en pub&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a pub''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) säga&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to say''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;vad&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''what''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en väg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a road, way, route''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
[[Category:Language introductions]]
[[Category:Swedish]]
[[Category:Verbs]]
[[Category:Grammatical tenses]]</text>
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      <id>2681381</id>
      <parentid>2681379</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T19:12:01Z</timestamp>
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      <text bytes="9807" sha1="ihznj7tsroo7pxjtdi9mxacybt08yfx" xml:space="preserve">{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}

==Grammar==

Just like in English, Swedish verbs have two inflected tenses: present and past. 
'''Verb forms: example ''arbeta'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
!Form
!English
!Swedish
!Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''----!''
| ----!
|Stem
|-
|Infinitive
|''(to) ----''
|(att) ----
|stem + ''-a,'' or no change
|-
|Present
|''(I) ----''
|(jag) ''----'''''r'''
|stem + ''-r, -er''
|-
|Past
|''(I) ----ed''
|Jag ''----'''''de'''
|stem + ''-de, -te''
|-
|Supine
|''(I have/had) ----ed''
|Jag har ''----'''''t'''
|stem + ''-t, -tt, -it''
|}
'''1st conjugation tenses: example ''arbeta'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|''Work!''
|Arbeta!
|stem
|-
| Present
| ''I work''
| Jag arbeta'''r'''
| stem + ''-r''
|-
| Past
| ''I worked''
| Jag arbeta'''de'''
| stem + ''-de''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have worked''
| Jag har arbeta'''t'''
| ''har +'' supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had worked''
|Jag hade arbeta'''t'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will work''
| Jag ska arbeta
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}

'''2nd conjugation: example ''bränna'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|''Burn!''
|Bränn!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I burn''
| Jag bränn'''er'''
| stem + ''-er''
|-
| Past
| ''I burned''
| Jag brän'''de'''
| stem + ''-de, -te''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have burned''
| Jag har brän'''t'''
| ''har'' + supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had burned''
|Jag hade brän'''t'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will burn''
| Jag ska bränn'''a'''
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}
'''3rd conjugation: example ''tro'''''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Form of verb
|-
|Imperative
|Believe!
|Tro!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I believe''
| Jag tro'''r'''
| stem + ''-r''
|-
| Past
| ''I believed''
| Jag tro'''dde'''
| stem + ''-dde''
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have believed''
| Jag har tro'''tt'''
| ''har'' + supine
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had believed''
|Jag hade tro'''tt'''
|''hade'' + supine
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will believe''
| Jag ska tro
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}


'''Irregular verbs'''

Like English, Swedish also has irregular verbs (past tense is shown through a vowel change). Most verbs that are irregular in English are also irregular when translated to Swedish. 

 {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Form
! English
! Swedish
! Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''eat!''
|äta!
|Stem
|-
| Infinitive
| ''(to) eat''
| (att) äta!
| stem + ''-a,'' or no change
|-
| Present
| ''(I) eat''
| (jag) äter
| stem + ''-r, -er''
|-
| Simple past
| ''ate''
| åt
| vowel change
|-
|Past participle
|''eaten''
|ätit
|stem + ''-t, -tt, -it''
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
|-
| Imperative
| ''Walk!''
| Gå!
|-
| Present
| ''I walk''
| Jag gå'''r'''
|-
| Past
| ''I walked''
| Jag gick
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have walked''
| Jag har gått
|-
| Past perfect
| ''I had walked''
| Jag hade gått
|-
|Simple future
|''I will walk''
|Jag ska gå
|}

Some irregular verbs combine a vowel change with word endings:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Tense
! English
! Swedish
! Formation
|-
|Imperative
|''Find!''
|Finn!
|Stem
|-
| Present
| ''I find''
| Jag finn'''er'''
| stem + ''-er''
|-
| Past
| ''I found''
| Jag fann
| Stem + vowel change
|-
| Simple perfect
| ''I have found''
| Jag har funn'''it'''
| ''har'' + vowel change + ''-it''
|-
|Past perfect
|''I had found''
|Jag hade funn'''it'''
|''hade'' + vowel change + ''-it''
|-
| Simple future
| ''I will find''
| Jag ska finna
| ''ska'' + infinitive
|}


''The irregular verbs '''har/hade''' and '''ska/skulle''' are used in complex verb tenses in much the same way as '''have/had''' and '''will/would''' are used in English.''

'''har &amp; hade'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;(att) ha&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''to have''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag hade&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I had''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag har haft&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I have had''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag har&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I have''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''ska &amp; skulle'''
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag ska&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I will''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;jag skulle&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I would''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


''Note that Swedish does not have a correlate to the English continuous/progressive forms. In '''extremely''' formal language, you could use a noun form to express this concept: Jag är i arbete''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!English
!Swedish
|-
|''I work''
|Jag arbetar
|-
|''I am working''
|Jag arbetar
|-
|''I worked''
|Jag arbetade
|-
|''I was working''
|Jag arbetade
|}

== Participles ==

=== Past participles ===
In English, the supine and past participle forms of verbs are the same. In Swedish however, the past participle form is separate from the supine, and is only used for adjectivialising the verb. For instance:
{|
&lt;TD&gt;''det '''gångna''' året''.
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''the '''past''' year''&lt;/TD&gt;
|}
'''Regular verb past participle:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed by adding -d to the stem. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is instead formed with -t. All plural forms of the regular past participle are formed with -de.

'''Irregular verb past participle when verb stem ends with a:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed with -en. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is formed with -et instead. All plural forms are formed with -na.

'''Irregular verb part participles when verb stem ends with any other vowel:'''

If the following noun is in the singular common gender, then the past participle is formed with -ngen. If it is in the singular neuter gender, it is formed with -nget instead. All plural forms are formed with -ngna.

=== Present participles ===
In Swedish, present participles are formed with -ande, unless the verb stem ends with any vowel other than a, in which case it is formed with -ende. Like in English, present participles can be used adjectivially, adverbially/to make another verb in the sentence more specific, and as a noun. ''Unlike'' in English, as mentioned previously, past participles '''cannot''' be used as continuous/progressive forms.

'''Adjectivially'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Klara har ett '''lysande''' leende&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''Klara has a '''beeming''' smile''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;'''Adverbially'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Carl kom '''hoppande'''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''Carl came '''hopping'''''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
{|
&lt;TD&gt;Jag ringer '''angående''' din annons
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I'm calling '''in regards to''' your ad''&lt;/TD&gt;
|}
'''Nounally'''&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;ett '''meddelande'''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''a '''message'''''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Example sentences==
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetade igår.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I worked yesterday.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Det har gått ett år.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''One year has passed.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Ni ska arbeta i morgon.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''You will work tomorrow.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;De gick och arbetade i parken.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''They went for work in the park.'' (or ''They walked and worked in the park.'')&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;De arbetade och gick i parken.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''They worked and walked in the park.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Vi skulle ha gått dit.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''We should have gone there.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag hade tur.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I was lucky.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetar (nu).&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I am working (right now).''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Jag arbetar två dagar i veckan.&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;''I work two days a week.''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Example text==
'''Kalles väg till arbetet''' 

Det var morgon. Kalle gick ut på gatan. Han skulle gå vägen till arbetet. Den här vägen hade han gått många gånger förut. &quot;När jag har arbetat klart ska jag gå hem igen.&quot;, sa Kalle. &quot;Fast då går jag nog en annan väg!&quot;

'''Kalle's way to his work.'''

''It was morning. Kalle entered the street. He would walk the road to his work. This road he had walked many times before. &quot;When I've finished work I will walk home again.&quot;, Kalle said. &quot;But then I'll probably walk another route!&quot;''

==Exercises==
''Please translate into English:''

1. De har gått en annan väg.

2. Erik och Lina gick ut på puben.

3. Det var många i parken.

4. Hon har varit duktig.

5. Jag arbetade förut.

''Please translate into Swedish:''

6. Per, you are lucky!

7. He has another car.

8. She is exiting now.

9. Once upon a time mummy was lucky.  

10. What is the meaning of this?


[[../Answers to exercises/]]

==Glossary==
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;annan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''another, other''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;den här/det här&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''this''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;då&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''then''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;fast&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''but (in spoken language)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;förut&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''previously''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;att arbeta klart&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to finish work''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett arbete&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a work''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en gata&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a street''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to walk''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå dit&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to walk there''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå ut&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to exit''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) gå ut på&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to enter [a street], to go to [the pub], to mean something''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en gång&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''one time''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) ha&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to have''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) ha tur&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to be lucky''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett hem&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a home''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en morgon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a morning''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;nu&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''now''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;många&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''many''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;nog&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''probably, enough''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;när&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''when''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en pub&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a pub''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(att) säga&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''to say''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;vad&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''what''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;en väg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a road, way, route''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
[[Category:Language introductions]]
[[Category:Swedish]]
[[Category:Verbs]]
[[Category:Grammatical tenses]]</text>
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    <title>Wikimedia Foundation</title>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
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      <comment>Simplify after a long period of inactivity</comment>
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Learn about the Wikimedia Foundation and its sister projects.

The mission of the [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation] is to help [[Wikimedia|projects]] like Wikiversity collect and develop free and openly licensed educational content.

[[Category:Wikimedia studies]]
[[Category:Anthropology]]</text>
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      <comment>+ link for sister projects</comment>
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Learn about the Wikimedia Foundation and its [[w:Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects|sister projects]].

The mission of the [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation] is to help [[Wikimedia|projects]] like Wikiversity collect and develop free and openly licensed educational content.

[[Category:Wikimedia studies]]
[[Category:Anthropology]]</text>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
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      <comment>+ link for Wikiversity</comment>
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Learn about the Wikimedia Foundation and its [[w:Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects|sister projects]].

The mission of the [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation] is to help [[Wikimedia|projects]] like [[Main page|Wikiversity]] collect and develop free and openly licensed educational content.

[[Category:Wikimedia studies]]
[[Category:Anthropology]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ link for Wikimedia Foundation</comment>
      <origin>2681757</origin>
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Learn about the [[w:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]] and its [[w:Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects|sister projects]].

The mission of the [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation] is to help [[Wikimedia|projects]] like [[Main page|Wikiversity]] collect and develop free and openly licensed educational content.

[[Category:Wikimedia studies]]
[[Category:Anthropology]]</text>
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      <comment>by clicking on the icons above</comment>
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Learn about the [[w:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]] and its [[w:Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects|sister projects]] by clicking on the icons above.

The mission of the [http://wikimediafoundation.org Wikimedia Foundation] is to help [[Wikimedia|projects]] like [[Main page|Wikiversity]] collect and develop free and openly licensed educational content.

[[Category:Wikimedia studies]]
[[Category:Anthropology]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Introduction to Swedish/Definite forms</title>
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      <text bytes="4948" sha1="7jju0s6k0dr1zkxv125hwqj4n4p3jyf" xml:space="preserve">{{:Introduction to Swedish/Navbar}}
==Grammar==

Definiteness ''(the'' as opposed to ''a'') for Swedish nouns is usually marked by word endings, depending on the gender of the noun.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Gender
!Singular definite
!Singular definite genitive
!Plural definite
!Plural definite genitive
|-
|Common
| -n
| -ns
| -na
| -nas
|-
|Neuter
| -t
| -ts
| -nen
| -nens
|}
''tavla'' (painting) is in the common gender, thus:
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''a''' painting''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;en tavla&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''painting'''s'''''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tavlor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''the''' painting''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tavlan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''the''' painting'''s'''''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tavlorna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''the''' painting'''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'s''' frame''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tavlanas ram&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''the''' painting'''s's''' frames''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tavlornas ramar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''that''' painting''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den tavlan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''those''' paintings''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de där tavlorna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''this''' painting''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den här tavlan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''these''' paintings''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här tavlorna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

A specific word for ''the'' is used when the noun is preceded by an adjective or number:
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''a''' big painting''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;en stor tavla&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''big painting'''s'''''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;stora tavlor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''the''' big painting''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den stora tavlan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''the''' painting'''s'''''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de stora tavlorna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''the''' big painting'''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'s''' frame''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den stora tavlanas ram&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''the''' big painting'''s's''' frames''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de stora tavlornas ramar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''that''' big painting''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den stora tavlan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''those''' big paintings''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de där stora tavlorna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''this''' big painting''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den här stora tavlan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''''these''' big paintings''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här stora tavlorna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


[[Image:Midsommardans av Anders Zorn 1897.jpg|thumb|Midsummer dance by Anders Zorn, 1903]]
&lt;table border&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Declension&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;sing indefinite&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;plur indefinite&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;sing definite&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;plur definite&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Translation&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.1a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;en tavla&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tavlor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den tavlan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här tavlorna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a painting''&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.2a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;en bil&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;bilar&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den bilen&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här bilarna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a car''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.3a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;en rätt&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;rätter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den rätten&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här rätterna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a plate''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.3b&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett parti&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;partier&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;det partiet&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här partierna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a party (political)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.4a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett äpple&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;äpplen&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;det äpplet&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här äpplena&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a apple''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.5a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett träd&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;träd&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;det trädet&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här träden&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a tree''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.6a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;en vikarie&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;vikarier&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den vikarien&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här vikarierna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a deputy''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.7a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett centrum&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;centra&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;det centrumet&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här centrumen/centren&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a centre''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.8a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett stadium&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;stadier&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;det stadiet&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här stadierna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a state''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.9a&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;en browser&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;browsers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;den browsern&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här browserna&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a browser''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.9b&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ett fan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;fans&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;det fanset&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här fansen&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''a fan''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

===Demonstrative pronouns===

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;den här/det här&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''this''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;den där/det där&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''that''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;de här&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''these''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;de där&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''those''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Example sentences==

Många äpplen har fallit från träden. ''Many apples have fallen from the trees.''&lt;br&gt;
Cecilia plockade äpplena som låg på marken. ''Cecilia picked up the apples which were on the ground''&lt;br&gt;
Första stadiet i sjukdomen är att man känner sig yr. ''The first stage of the illness is dizziness.''&lt;br&gt;
Jag tycker att den nya vikarien är söt. ''I think the new deputy is cute.''&lt;br&gt;
Domaren hade bestämt sig i förväg. ''The judge had made his decision in advance.''&lt;br&gt;
Den här rätten ser inte lika god ut som den där! ''This plate does not look as tasty as that one!''

==Exercise==

''Translate into Swedish''

1. The elk want liberty.&lt;br&gt;

2. This boy has many talents.&lt;br&gt;

3. The artist is Anders Zorn.&lt;br&gt;

4. All parties agree in this decision.&lt;br&gt;

5. The Swedes eat herring both at Christmas and midsummer.&lt;br&gt;

''Translate into English''

6. Kungen är Sveriges statschef.&lt;br&gt;

7. Fansen får autografer av idolen.&lt;br&gt;

8. Fiskaren fiskar sill.&lt;br&gt;

9. Brottslingarna är hos polisen.&lt;br&gt;

10. Du måste fylla i de här blanketterna.&lt;br&gt;

[[../Answers to exercises/]]
{{swedish}}</text>
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      <comment>/* 2024 */ Update reference</comment>
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      <text bytes="5137" sha1="28c93dqfxlo87qche3xerf3ovu5kzdb" xml:space="preserve">==Profiles==
{{Scholia|Q85765119}}

* [https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/persons/james-neill James Neill] (UC, PURE)
* [https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0710-4550 ORCId]

==2024==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Black, H. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (accepted pending revisions). Wellbeing through nature: A qualitative exploration of psychosocial aspects of a Landcare ACT nature-connection program. ''Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education''.

Boerma, M., Beel, N., Neill, J. T., Jeffries, C., Krishnamoorthy, G., &amp; Guerri-Guttenberg, J. (2024). Male-friendly counselling for young men: a thematic analysis of client and caregiver experiences of Menslink counselling. ''Australian Psychologist'', 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050067.2024.2378119

Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (accepted pending revisions). The Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale (BIFIS). In V. Ramseyer Winter, T.  Tylka, &amp; A. Landor (Eds.), ''Handbook of body image-related measures'' (pp. *-*). Cambridge University Press.

Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (2024). The distinct affect regulation functions of body image flexibility and inflexibility: A prospective study in adolescents and emerging adults. ''Body Image'', ''50'', 101726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2024.101726

{{User:Jtneill/Publications/2024/Collaborative}}

Neill, J. T. &amp; Black. H. (2024). ''Landcare ACT Wellbeing through Nature program evaluation: Final report''. University of Canberra, Australia.

Neill, J. T. (2024). [[/Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices: Motivation and emotion case study/]]. In ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER: Australiasian case studies]''. Council of Australian University Librarians.

Neill, J. T., Herbert, S., Hartley, R., &amp; D'Cunha, N. (in preparation). ''Art for Wellbeing at the National Gallery of Australia: Thematic analysis of participant and staff perspectives''.

}}

==2023==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Brichacek, A. L., Neill, J. T., Murray, K., Rieger, E., &amp; Watsford, C. (2023). Ways of responding to body image threats: Development of the Body Image Flexibility and Inflexibility Scale for Youth. ''Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science'', ''30'', 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2023.08.007

{{/2023/WIL}}

Ross, B. M., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2023). Exploring the relationship between mental health, drug use, personality, and attitudes towards psilocybin-assisted therapy. ''[https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2054/2054-overview.xml Journal of Psychedelic Studies]'' (published online ahead of print 2023). https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2023.00264}}

==2022==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Stevenson, D. J., Neill, J. T., Ball, K., Smith, R., &amp; Shores, M. C. (2022). How do preschool to year 6 educators prevent and cope with occupational violence from students? ''Australian Journal of Education'', ''66''(2), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/00049441221092472. [https://www.teachermagazine.com/au_en/articles/the-research-files-episode-77-coping-with-violence-from-students Podcast].}}

==2021==
{{Hanging indent|1=Brichacek, A. L., Murray, K., Neill, J. T., &amp; Rieger, E. (2021). Contextual behavioral approaches to understanding body image threats and coping in youth: A qualitative study. ''Journal of Adolescent Research'', ''39''(2), 328–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211007851}}

==2016==
{{Hanging indent|1=Bowen, D. J., &amp; Neill, J. T. (2016). Effects of the PCYC Catalyst outdoor adventure intervention program on youths' life skills, mental health, and delinquent behaviour. ''International Journal of Adolescence and Youth'', ''21''(1), 34–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2015.1027716

{{/2016/Internationalisation}}}}

==2013==
{{Hanging indent|1=
{{/2013/Promoting}}

{{/2013/Teaching}}
}}

==2008==
{{Hanging indent|1=Neill, J. T. (2008). Enhancing life effectiveness: The impacts of outdoor education programs. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Western Sydney. https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:6441/}}

==2002==
{{/2002/Dramaturgy}}

==Theses==
* [[User:Jtneill/PhD|PhD]]
&lt;!-- 
==Published==
* [http://www.wilderdom.com/JamesNeill/JamesNeillpublications.htm Articles &amp; presentations by James Neill]
--&gt;
==Ideas / In progress==
* [[User:Jtneill/4 pillars of free and open teaching|4 pillars of free and open teaching]]
* Some international trends in outdoor education - Past, present, and future
* Ingando camp (life effectiveness)
* Life Effectiveness Questionnaire psychometrics
* OE outcomes (longitudinal study)
* Adolescent Coping Scale psychometrics
* Resilience Scale psychometrics
* Overview of Outdoor Education Theory and/or Research
* Overview of Outdoor Education in Australia
* Overview of Adventure Therapy Theory and/or Education
* Past Trends and Future Directions for Outdoor Education
* Psychological Aspects of Outdoor Education
* Outdoor Education and Modern Technology
* Outdoor Education and Environmental Sustainability

==See also==
* [[User:Jtneill/Presentations]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Spanish 1/School</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681752</id>
      <parentid>2680559</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T23:44:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>2601:58B:1580:8DC6:66C5:589A:D07A:1341</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Words to describe classes */</comment>
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      <text bytes="8548" sha1="nhicrlir7q9om8hbk1aemn0p7ffanw0" xml:space="preserve">==Chapter 4 (School)==
===Schedule===
*'''el horario''' - schedule
*'''almuerzo''' - lunch
*'''clase''' - class
*'''clase de ...''' - ... class
*'''matemáticas''' - math (mathematics)
*'''ciencias sociales''' - social studies
*'''banda''' - band
*'''educación física''' - PE (physical education)
*'''inglés''' - English
*'''arte''' - art
*'''tecnología''' - (technology)
*'''computación''' - computers (technology)
*'''drama''' - drama
*'''ciencias naturales''' - science
*'''español''' - spanish
*'''historia''' - history
*'''álgebra''' - algebra
*'''horario''' - schedule
*'''en la ... hora''' - in the ... hour (class period) e.g.: in the fourth hour
*'''tarea''' - homework

===School verbs===
*'''enseñar''' - to teach
*'''estudiar''' - to study
*'''hablar''' - to talk

===Words to talk about order===
*'''primero(a)''' - first
*'''segundo(a)''' - second
*'''tercero(a)''' - third
*'''cuarto(a)''' - fourth
*'''quinto(a)''' - fifth
*'''sexto(a)''' - sixth
*'''séptimo(a)''' - seventh
*'''octavo(a)''' - eighth
*'''noveno(a)''' - ninth
*'''décimo(a)''' - tenth

===School supplies===
*'''calculadora''' - calculator
*'''carpeta de argollas''' - three-ring binder
*'''diccionario''' - dictionary
*'''necesito''' - I need
*'''necesitas''' - you need
*'''bolsa/bolso''' - bag 
*'''mochila''' - backpack
*'''morral''' - backpack
*'''sacapuntas''' - sharpener
*'''papel''' - paper
*'''cuaderno''' - notebook
*'''computadora''' - computer
*'''ordenador''' - computer (Spain)
*'''audífonos''' - headphones
*'''marcador(es)''' - marker

===Words to describe classes===
*'''aburrido(a)''' - boring
*'''difícil''' - difficult
*'''divertido(a)''' - amusing/fun
*'''fácil''' - easy 
*'''favorite(a)''' - favorite
*'''Interesante''' - interesting
*'''práctico(a)''' - practical bahahahahahaha
*'''más ... que''' - more ... than
*'''alegre''' - joyful

===Other words===
*'''a ver ...''' - Let's see ...
*'''¿Quién?''' - Who?
*'''para''' - for
*'''mucho''' - a lot, much
*'''tengo''' - I have
*'''tienes''' - you have

===Pronouns===
Pronouns are essential to the Spanish language and mastering them will be very useful in the language. In Spanish, these are the SUBJECT PRONOUNS. Pronouns have &quot;person&quot; (First, Second or Third) and &quot;number (singular or plural).&quot;


'''First'''         I   (singular)     we (plural)
'''Second'''       you  (singular)     you (you all - plural)
'''Third'''    he, she, it (singular)  they  (plural)

The Spanish equivalents of the English subject pronouns are

*'''yo''' - I 
*'''tú''' - you (familiar)
*'''usted (Ud.)''' - you (formal)
*'''él''' - he       (*Note there is no subject pronoun in Spanish for the English &quot;it&quot; because all nouns are either &quot;he&quot; or &quot;she&quot; and have gender.)
*'''ella''' - she
*'''nosotros''' - we (masculine)
*'''nosotras''' - we (feminine)
*'''vosotros''' - you (plural, familiar, masculine)
*'''vosotras''' - you (plural, familiar, feminine)
*'''ustedes (Uds.)''' - you (plural, formal)
*'''ellos''' - they (masculine)
*'''ellas''' - they (feminine)

There are two forms for &quot;we&quot; - nosotros and nosotras, if all guys or guys and gals then &quot;we&quot; would be &quot;nosotros.&quot;
If &quot;we&quot; refers to all women or females, then &quot;nosotras&quot; is used.  The same is true for &quot;vosotros&quot; and &quot;vosotras.&quot;

1st person singular: yo

2nd person singular: tú, usted (Ud.)  (*Note the familiar and formal, different from English)

3rd person singular: él, ella

1st person plural: nosotros, nosotras

2nd person plural: vosotros, vosotras, ustedes (Uds.)  (*Note that in English the plural of &quot;you&quot; is &quot;you.&quot;)

3rd person plural: ellos, ellas

====Notes====
* The masculine form of the plural pronouns is always used if there is a masculine object, for example, even if there are 100 females and only 1 male, ''ellos'' is still used when talking about the crowd.

* ''Vosotros'' and ''Vosotras'', the English equivalent of &quot;y'all&quot; are mainly used in Spain, but they are also used in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay at a lesser extent and rarely in the United States. For the rest of the Spanish-speaking world, use ''Ustedes (Uds.)'', which is the formal way of saying you (plural) in all Spanish-speaking countries.

===Conjugating -ar verbs===
The majority of verbs in Spanish end in ''-ar'', such as ''bailar'', ''cantar'', and ''hablar''. Conjugating verbs replaces the ''to'' part of the word and adds the pronouns in.

Below is the list of endings for conjugating -ar verbs.  You &quot;chop off&quot; the -ar and add the appropriate ending.  At the end of each Spanish verb the subject is &quot;built-in,&quot; and in fact, in communication, many times the subject pronoun is omitted because of these specific endings.

* yo: -o

* tú: -as

* usted (Ud.), él, ella: -a

* nosotros, nosotras: -amos

* vosotros, vosotras: -áis

* ustedes (Uds.), ellos, ellas: - an

Note: Usted and ustedes use the 3rd person form of conjugation.

An example of conjugating -ar verbs, using ''hablar'':
*'''hablo''' - I talk
*'''hablas''' - you talk (singular)
*'''habla''' - he/she talks
*'''hablamos''' - we talk
*'''habláis''' - you talk (plural)
*'''hablan''' - they talk

Remember that when talking to a person you don't know well or a respected person, use the usted (Ud.) form and ustedes (Uds.) form when talking to a group of people where there is at least one person you call usted individually.

===Vocabulario adicional===
*'''griego''' - Greek
*'''biología''' - biology
*'''geografía''' - geography
*'''geometría''' - geometry
*'''química''' - chemistry
*'''trigonometría''' - trigonometry
*'''francés''' - French
*'''cálculo''' - calculus
*'''economía''' - economics
*'''alemán''' - German
*'''latín''' - Latin
*'''anuario''' - yearbook
*'''fotografía''' - photography

===Cultural Insight (School life in Spanish-speaking countries)===
In Spanish-speaking countries, school life is very different from that in North American English-speaking countries. Schools in Spanish-speaking countries require students to wear uniforms and teachers usually lecture more than having students participate in the classroom. Also, children in Spanish-speaking countries go to school more often than those in North - American English-speaking countries, children in Spain attend school for 190 days, Argentina for 185 days, while the United States school year lasts 180 days. School days in Spanish-speaking countries also last longer than those in other countries, usually having at least 6-7 periods a day, the former common in the USA as well.

===Country focus (República Dominicana)===
[[Image:Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg|150px|right]]
The '''Dominican Republic''' (Spanish: República Dominicana) is a nation located in the Caribbean region's island of Hispaniola. Part of the Greater Antilles archipelago, Hispaniola lies west of Puerto Rico and east of Cuba and Jamaica. Its western third is the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are occupied by two countries, Saint Martin being the other.

The Dominican Republic is the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, its capital Santo Domingo, which was also the first colonial capital in the Americas. It is the site of the first cathedral, university, European-built road, European-built fortress, and more.

For most of its independent history, the nation experienced political turmoil and unrest, suffering through many non-representative and tyrannical governments. Since the death of military dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina in 1961, the Dominican Republic has moved toward a liberal economic model which has made it the largest economy in the region and a representative democracy.

[[Image:LocationDominicanRepublic.png|noframe|150px|right]]

The culture of the Dominican Republic, like its Caribbean neighbors, is a blend of the European colonists, Taínos and Africans, and their cultural legacies and like nearby Cuba, it's culture is usually expressed through music and cuisine.

'''Factbox''':

-Official Language: Spanish

-Other Languages: French, Haitian Creole, English

-Capital: Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo de Guzmán)

-Government: Democracy

-Area: 48,730 sq km (18,815 sq mi) (130th)

-Population: 10,090,000 (2009) (82nd)

-Religion: Christianity (mostly Catholic) 96%, Animism 2.18%, Buddhism 0.1%, other (Bahá'í, Islam, Judaism, Non-religious) 1.72%

-Human Development: 0.777 (90th, MEDIUM)

[[Image:07-05-11LagoEnriquilloDR.jpg|150px|thumb|View of rural Dominican Republic.]]

-Independence: February 27, 1844

-Currency: Dominican Peso

[[Category:Spanish One]]</text>
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    <title>President of the United States/Barack Obama</title>
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      <comment>Replacing Joe_Biden_official_portrait_2013_cropped.jpg with [[File:Joe_Biden_official_portrait_2013_(cropped)_2.jpg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR4|Criterion 4]] (harmonizing names of</comment>
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{| border=2 cellspacing=5 cellpadding=10
| 42nd President 
| 43rd President 
| '''44th President'''
| 45th President 
| 46th President 
|-
| [[Image:Bill_Clinton.jpg|70px]]

[[../Bill Clinton/]]

1993 - 2001
| [[Image:George-W-Bush.jpeg|84px]]

[[../George W. Bush/]]

2001 - 2009
| [[Image:BarackObama2005portrait.jpg|100px]]

&lt;big&gt;'''Barack H. Obama'''&lt;/big&gt;

2009 - 2017
|[[File:President Trump 2.jpg|84px]]

[[../Donald Trump/]]

2017 - 2021

| [[File:Joe Biden official portrait 2013 (cropped) 2.jpg|70px|Joe Biden]]

[[../Joe Biden/]]

2021 - ?

|}

{{center bottom}}

[[Category:Presidents of the United States|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</text>
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    <title>User:Jtneill/Articles/Open management</title>
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&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Open management'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''Open management''' applies the philosophies and practices of [[openism]] and [[free culture]] to [[management]]. Much of this also revolves around communication and transparency. Openness is not a panacea or magic bullet, but its like pumping oxygen into an organic system - it makes other tasks fundamentally easier, it is more ethical, and it has significant potential for enhancing the quality of organisational and educational processes and outcomes.

Below I'm developing some ideas and principles about what open management might look like and how it might manifest, particularly in universities:

[[File:Japan road sign 212-2.svg|right|100px]]
'''Transparency''': The key I think to open management practices is transparent and communicative decision-making. An open management mantra could be ''communicate early, often, and continuously''. All decision-making (and relevant related information) should by default be made immediately and readily available to all staff and students/clients unless there is a compelling ethical reason otherwise. Transparency should be multi-way (e.g., top-down, bottom-up, and side-to-side) and multi-dimensional.

'''Open academia''': An open management organisation is a also a learning organisation. It should also adopt other practices of [http://ucspace.canberra.edu.au/display/~s613374/Open+academia open academia] since these will tend to strengthen the pursuit of open management.

'''Facilitation''': Open management can be thought of as facilitation and involving facilitation skills. Facilitation is at least as important as [[leadership]]. Management should facilitate, i.e., make the core tasks easier, not harder. If workers know what is in the mind of management and vice-versa, then the task of working together cooperatively is more likely. The same applies to the teacher-student relationship - teachers should be as open as possible in their work and interactions with students. [[Open management]], then, has much in common with [[open education]] and [[open teaching]].

'''Quality improvement cycles''': Multi-directional quality improvement cycles. Goal-Action-Evaluation/Feedback cycles are the lifeblood of a learning organisation and learning staff and students. Open management encourages and facilitates the flow of information amongst the interstitial tissues of an organisation. Each area can then improve based on evaluation of not only on analysis of itself, but can also based on transparent data about the operations of other parts of the organisation.

'''Radical transparency''': These open management ideas are very close to  [[w:radical transparency|radical transparency]], [[w:open government|open government]], and [[w:open source governance|open source governance]].

==Discussion==
''Please feel free to edit or [[User talk:Jtneill/Articles/Open management|discuss/comment]].

==See also==
* [[Government 2.0]]
* [[Management theory]]
* [[Management practice]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bentham.org/open/tomanaj/index.htm Open Management Journal]

[[Category:Open management]]</text>
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    <title>Algebra 1</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <id>2681413</id>
      <parentid>2651433</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T19:24:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>96.4.32.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Semester I */</comment>
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[[Category:Mathematics courses]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Numerical Methods</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>119778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681766</id>
      <parentid>2680580</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T01:42:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Calculus */</comment>
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      <text bytes="2702" sha1="8e5qzcq76dc4i5u3pvlflu7x9fktspp" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241107.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>8e5qzcq76dc4i5u3pvlflu7x9fktspp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681768</id>
      <parentid>2681766</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T01:43:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Numerical Differentiation */</comment>
      <origin>2681768</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2702" sha1="7kf28j4ayux9qigrxyhsc6atw2wvzci" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241108.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Aircraft</title>
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      <text bytes="1246" sha1="i6mile6gyfwqmyr213j5u6ozifwvl5o" xml:space="preserve">{{main|Aerospace engineering}}
[[File:XSB2C-1 18Dec1940.jpg|thumb|left|The prototype Curtiss XSB2C-1 Helldiver.]]

An '''aircraft''' is vehicle capable of flight. There are many different kinds of aircraft.

Some aircraft keep in the sky by moving air over their wings, including aeroplanes (airplanes), [[helicopter]]s, and gliders. Others, like balloons and airships, float.

Most aircraft use [[engine]] power while others use no power, such as gliders and balloons. Few aircraft use muscle power.

Big aeroplanes that transport people are called ''airliners''. Airliners can fly at more than 850 km/h (530 mph). Less than 100 years ago, the quickest ships needed more than seven days to travel across the Atlantic Ocean because it is 4,800 km (3,000 miles) wide.  Now airliners need less than seven hours to travel across the Atlantic Ocean. Airliners are the quickest way to travel.  Airliners can fly over mountains and bad weather. Airliners have complex technology to make them fly quickly, safely, and for less money. 

Fighting aircraft fly at 3,200 km/h (2,000 mph). 
{{clear}}
== Resources ==
{{commonscat|Aerospace engineering}}
{{Subpages/List}}

{{Aerospace engineering}}

[[Category:Aircraft| ]]
[[Category:Aerospace engineering]]</text>
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    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
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      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
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== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20211108.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20221130.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20241108.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
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    <title>Computer Support</title>
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{{:{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

'''Computer Support''' is a computer hardware and software topic that includes computer hardware, networking, laptops, printers, operational procedures, operating systems, security, mobile devices, and troubleshooting.

This course comprises 2 parts, 9 sections, and 58 lessons covering computer support.  Each lesson includes a combination of Wikipedia readings, YouTube videos, and hands-on learning activities. The course also assists learners in preparing for [[Wikipedia:CompTIA|CompTIA]] A+ Certification.

{{noprint | This entire Wikiversity course can be downloaded in book form by selecting Download Learning Guide in the sidebar.}}

== Preparation ==
This is a second-semester, college-level course.  Learners should already be familiar with [[IC3|introductory computer concepts]] and [[IT Fundamentals]].

==Objectives==
See the [[Computer Support/Objectives|list of all objectives]] {{stage|0%}}. For specific sections:
{{stages}}
===Core 1===
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Mobile Devices|Mobile Devices]] {{stage|0%}}
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Networking|Networking]] {{stage|0%}}
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Hardware|Hardware]] {{stage|0%}}
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Virtualization and Cloud Computing|Virtualization and Cloud Computing]] {{stage|0%}}
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Hardware and Network Troubleshooting|Hardware and Network Troubleshooting]] {{stage|0%}}
===Core 2===
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Operating Systems|Operating Systems]] {{stage|0%}}
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Security|Security]] {{stage|0%}}
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Software Troubleshooting|Software Troubleshooting]] {{stage|0%}}
# [[Computer Support/Objectives/Operational Procedures|Operational Procedures]] {{stage|0%}}

Also see the [[Computer Support/Acronyms|list of acronyms]] {{stage|0%}} and the [[Computer Support/Technologies|list of technologies]] {{stage|0%}}.

==Exam Details==
Exam description:
&lt;blockquote&gt;220-1101 covers mobile devices, networking technology, hardware, virtualization and cloud computing. &lt;br/&gt;
220-1102 covers operating systems, security, software and operational procedures.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Number of questions: Maximum of 90

Length of test: 90 minutes

Passing score:
* 220-1101: 675 (on scale of 900)
* 220-1101: 700 (on a scale of 900)

Recommended experience:
&lt;blockquote&gt;9 to 12 months hands-on experience in the lab or field&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Exam codes: 220-1101, 220-1102 

Languages: English, German, Japanese, Portuguese, Thai, Spanish, French

== Lessons ==
==== Part 1 ====
* [[/Hardware/]]
**'''Hardware Module 1'''
*** [[/Hardware/Motherboards|Motherboards]]
*** [[/Hardware/CPUs|CPUs]]
*** [[/Hardware/BIOS and UEFI|BIOS and UEFI]]
*** [[/Hardware/RAM|RAM]]
*** [[/Hardware/Expansion Cards|Expansion Cards]]
*** [[/Hardware/Storage|Storage]]
*** [[/Hardware/Power Supplies|Power Supplies]]
** '''Hardware Module 2'''
*** [[/Hardware/Interfaces|Interfaces]]
*** [[/Hardware/Displays|Displays]]
*** [[/Hardware/Connectors|Connectors]]
*** [[/Hardware/Peripheral Devices|Peripheral Devices]]
*** [[/Networking/Media|Media]]
**'''Hardware Module 3'''
*** [[/Hardware/Multifunction Devices|Multifunction Devices]]
*** [[/Hardware/Print Technologies|Print Technologies]]
*** [[/Hardware/Printer Maintenance|Printer Maintenance]]
*** [[/Hardware/Components|Components]]
* [[/Mobile Devices/]]
**'''Mobile Devices Module 1'''
*** [[/Mobile Devices/Laptop Components|Laptop Components]]
*** [[/Mobile Devices/Laptop Features|Laptop Features]]
**'''Mobile Devices Module 2'''
*** [[/Mobile Devices/Other Devices|Other Devices]]
*** [[/Mobile Devices/Ports and Accessories|Ports and Accessories]]
*** [[/Mobile Devices/Connectivity|Mobile Connectivity]]
*** [[/Mobile Devices/Synchronization|Mobile Synchronization]]
**'''Virtualization and Cloud Computing'''
*** [[/Other Technologies/Virtualization|Virtualization]]
*** [[/Other Technologies/Cloud Concepts|Cloud Concepts]]
* [[/Networking/]]
**'''Networking Module 1'''
*** [[/Networking/Devices|Devices]]
*** [[/Networking/Tools|Tools]]
**'''Networking Module 2'''
*** [[/Networking/Addressing|Addressing]]
*** [[/Networking/Protocols|Protocols]]
*** [[/Networking/Wireless|Wireless]]
*** [[/Other Technologies/Network Services|Network Services]]
**'''Networking Module 3'''
*** [[/Networking/Routers|Routers]]
*** [[/Networking/Connectivity|Connectivity]]
* [[/Hardware Troubleshooting/]]
**'''Hardware &amp; Networking Troubleshooting Module 1'''
*** [[/Procedures/Troubleshooting Theory|Troubleshooting Theory]]
*** [[/Hardware Troubleshooting/Systems|Systems]]
*** [[/Hardware Troubleshooting/Storage|Storage]]
**'''Hardware &amp; Networking Troubleshooting Module 2'''
*** [[/Hardware Troubleshooting/Displays|Displays]]
*** [[/Hardware Troubleshooting/Printers|Printers]]
**'''Hardware &amp; Networking Troubleshooting Module 3'''
*** [[/Hardware Troubleshooting/Networks|Networks]]
*** [[/Hardware Troubleshooting/Mobile Devices|Mobile Devices]]

==== Part 2 ====
* [[/Operating Systems/]]
**'''Operating Systems Module 1'''
*** [[/Windows/Installation|Installation]]
*** [[/Other Technologies/Mobile Operating Systems|Mobile Operating Systems]]
**'''Operating Systems Module 2'''
*** [[/Windows/Features|Features]]
**'''Operating Systems Module 3'''
*** [[/Windows/Control Panel|Control Panel]]
*** [[/Windows/GUI Tools|GUI Tools]]
**'''Operating Systems Module 4'''
*** [[/Windows/Maintenance|Maintenance]]
*** [[/Windows/Command Line Tools|Command Line Tools]]
*** [[/Other Technologies/macOS and Linux|macOS and Linux]]
*** [[/Windows/Networking|Networking]]

* [[/Procedures/]]
**'''Operational Procedures'''
*** [[/Procedures/Safety|Safety]]
*** [[/Procedures/Environment|Environment]]
*** [[/Procedures/Policies|Policies]]
*** [[/Procedures/Communication|Communication]]
* [[/Security/]]
**'''Security Module 1'''
*** [[/Security/Prevention|Prevention]]
*** [[/Security/Mobile|Mobile]]
*** [[/Security/Data Destruction|Data Destruction]]
**'''Security Module 2'''
*** [[/Security/Threats|Threats]]
*** [[/Security/Best Practices|Best Practices]]
**'''Security Module 3'''
*** [[/Security/Windows|Windows]]
*** [[/Security/Wired and Wireless|Wired and Wireless]]
* [[/Software Troubleshooting/]]
**'''Software Troubleshooting Module 1'''
*** [[/Software Troubleshooting/PC Operating Systems|PC Operating Systems]]
**'''Software Troubleshooting Module 2'''
***[[/Software Troubleshooting/PC Security|PC Security]]
**'''Software Troubleshooting Module 3'''
*** [[/Software Troubleshooting/Mobile Operating Systems|Mobile Operating Systems]]
*** [[/Software Troubleshooting/Mobile Security|Mobile Security]]

== See Also ==
{{Wikibooks|A+ Certification}}
* [[IT Fundamentals]]
* [[Wikipedia: CompTIA]]
* [[Computer Networks]]
* [[Network+ Certification]]
* [[Security+ Certification]]

== External Links ==
* [https://www.cybrary.it/course/comptia-aplus/ Cybrary: Free CompTIA A+ Course]
* [https://winkmody.com Free Video Editing Software]

== References ==
* [https://partners.comptia.org/docs/default-source/resources/comptia-a-220-1101-exam-objectives-(3-0) CompTIA: A+ Certification Exam Objectives - Exam 220-1101]
* [https://partners.comptia.org/docs/default-source/resources/comptia-a-220-1102-exam-objectives-(3-0) CompTIA: A+ Certification Exam Objectives - Exam 220-1102]

{{Hide|{{Information technology|theme=14}}}}
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[[Category:Certifications]]
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    <ns>0</ns>
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      <comment>/* Geometric Series Examples */</comment>
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      <text bytes="5241" sha1="47twz1hhgk76wogejc9ac2xmi2h4u9o" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20241107.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|C.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6230" sha1="ony3v5ztlk57pz9rolvuyu7tjsth0a4" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;


==Types==
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
* Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
* Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])

==Functions==
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])

==Expressions==
* Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
* Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Lambda Calculus==
* Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]])
* Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]])
* Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]])
* Encoding Datatypes 
:- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]])
:- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]])
:- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]])
:- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241107.pdf |pdf]])
:- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20240418.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]]</text>
      <sha1>ony3v5ztlk57pz9rolvuyu7tjsth0a4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681259</id>
      <parentid>2681256</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T18:19:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lambda Calculus */</comment>
      <origin>2681259</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6230" sha1="jl2im4om5lixyklh1ishwjsulf1ubdf" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;


==Types==
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
* Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
* Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])

==Functions==
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])

==Expressions==
* Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
* Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Lambda Calculus==
* Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]])
* Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]])
* Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]])
* Encoding Datatypes 
:- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]])
:- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]])
:- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]])
:- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241108.pdf |pdf]])
:- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20240418.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]]</text>
      <sha1>jl2im4om5lixyklh1ishwjsulf1ubdf</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Python programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>212733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681646</id>
      <parentid>2680498</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T20:53:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2681646</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2581" sha1="4rgcuyka49cpy61v7mxgyii80762wgl" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241107.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>4rgcuyka49cpy61v7mxgyii80762wgl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681650</id>
      <parentid>2681646</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T20:54:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2681650</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2581" sha1="dxde6h4fpz1648dw9ifrc3yvbpiafqh" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241108.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>dxde6h4fpz1648dw9ifrc3yvbpiafqh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681706</id>
      <parentid>2681650</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T21:15:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2681706</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="2647" sha1="cpjjs4dq1no8wp74laljphblxeavpum" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241108.pdf |pdf]])
* Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20241108.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>cpjjs4dq1no8wp74laljphblxeavpum</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Microprocessor Based System Design</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>232469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681302</id>
      <parentid>2680410</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T18:43:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <origin>2681302</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5760" sha1="aqiccuti9gdw60o90ydokf85cbn799q" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20230726.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20241107.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20230610.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Tail Chaining ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.TailChain.20230816.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220924.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>aqiccuti9gdw60o90ydokf85cbn799q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681307</id>
      <parentid>2681302</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T18:44:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <origin>2681307</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5760" sha1="ekgbz6yaxg8db35ekruombalscl4r57" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20230726.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20241108.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20230610.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Tail Chaining ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.TailChain.20230816.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220924.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>ekgbz6yaxg8db35ekruombalscl4r57</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Living Wisely/Improving our Social Operating Systems</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>240289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681248</id>
      <parentid>2637789</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T16:30:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lbeaumont</username>
        <id>278565</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Amplified human rights</comment>
      <origin>2681248</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3700" sha1="pv8kerd4weaftg5u4a3zkeq2fp0b0a0" xml:space="preserve">The purpose of this research project is to develop innovative and effective social operating system solutions. Today’s best social operating systems consist of fledgling democracies, hyperactive capitalism, Facebook, Fox news, and theologies.

Instead of solving the [[Grand challenges|grand challenges]] the world faces, people interacting within these operating systems have increased conflict, partisan politics, inequality, and divisiveness. [[Intellectual Honesty]] must become the norm for consequential communications. [[Assessing Human Rights|Protecting human rights]] must become the primary [[Evolving Governments/Good Government|responsibility of all governments]].
 
There must be better solutions that can unleash the wisdom of the people while avoiding the folly that is so salient today. If we could work together constructively, we could all flourish. 
 
The brilliant minds assembled at Wikiversity can apply system thinking from a [[Global Perspective|global perspective]] to help us all live together more wisely.

'''In general ''social operating'' systems are:'''&lt;br&gt;
*Forums where agents share information, interact, and/or constrain behaviors.
**Agents can be people, computers, robots or other actors.
*The rule of law (and other [[Exploring Social Constructs|social constructs]]) constrains behaviors. 
 
'''Desirable characteristics include:'''&lt;br&gt;
*[[Living_Wisely/Seeking_Real_Good|Seeking real good]] together.
*[[Pursuing Collective Wisdom|Collective wisdom]] is amplified and folly is attenuated.
*[[Virtues/Good|Good]] displaces bad.
*Systems are evolving, continuously improving
 
*Transparent, open, intellectually honest, and epistemically excellent
*[[Understanding Fairness|Fair]], consistent, coherent, objective
*[[Assessing Human Rights/Beyond Olympic Gold|Human rights are protected]]
**[[Evolving Governments/Good Government|Human needs are met]]
*Inclusive, collaborative, global scope
 
'''Dimensions include:'''
*Solving the basic problem of living: Advancing well-being, Seeking real good
*Solving the basic problem of government: Protecting human rights
*Solving the basic problem of economics: Allocating resources, Productivity
*Solving the basic problem of philosophy: Attaining consistency (Fairness)
*Solving the basic problem of ethics: What should I do? (Ought, what is good?)
*Solving the basic problem of physics (and all research): How does the world work? (What is)
*Solving the basic problem of epistemology: How do we know? ([[Seeking True Beliefs|Seeking true beliefs]])
*Solving the basic problem of ontology: What is there? (What is real?)
 
'''Good examples include:'''&lt;br&gt;
*Wikimedia projects, especially Wikipedia
*[[Thinking Scientifically]]
*Emerging forms of democracy?

'''Alternative Formulations'''&lt;br&gt;
Perhaps these alternative formulations of the question can lead to better insights.
*How can we create (allow to emerge, unleash) a [[w:Metamodernism|metamodern]] society?
*What are the minimal constraints on human [[w:Agency_(philosophy)|agency]] that will unleash human [[w:Flourishing|flourishing]]?

'''Next Steps:'''&lt;br&gt;
*Continue to develop the concept and problem statement
*Research existing work in this area
*[[w:Benchmarking|Benchmark]] good examples
*Share with organizations such as the Templeton institute 
*Regarding &quot;what ought to be&quot; consider this proposal for [[The_Idea_Incubator/An_Encyclopedia_of_Ought|An Encyclopedia of Ought]] and adapting it as a platform for answering &quot;what ought to be&quot;.
*Study [[w:Ranked_voting|Ranked Voting]] and the work of the [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization.
==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{CourseCat}} 
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Development Proposal]]
{{CourseCat}}</text>
      <sha1>pv8kerd4weaftg5u4a3zkeq2fp0b0a0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Idea Incubator</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>240304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681247</id>
      <parentid>2649223</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T16:23:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lbeaumont</username>
        <id>278565</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Carbon Dividend as Carbon Offset</comment>
      <origin>2681247</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1854" sha1="0brd6hrtwntu3xalk0juark0q4yirj0" xml:space="preserve">Many useful products originated from university research work.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.onlineuniversities.com/blog/2012/08/100-important-innovations-that-came-from-university-research/ 100 Important Innovations That Came From University Research], August 27, 2012. Staff Writers, OnLine Universities.com&lt;/ref&gt;  These include seat belts, Gatorade, the Internet, and Google. This product concept incubator provides an opportunity for the people of Wikiversity to conceive, describe, improve, and develop important new product concepts. 

Consumers can describe products they would like to see here. Creative inventors can propose product concepts. Innovators can refine product concepts into requirements statements and design specifications. Entrepreneurs can then develop and launch products inspired by these specifications.

Please add your product ideas to this list.
*Universal Authentication, [[The Idea Incubator/One ID|One ID]]. 
*[[/Blockchain-Secured Power of Attorney/]]
*[[/Mebot—A chatbot informed by your life and personality/]]
*[[Assessing_Human_Rights/Beyond_Olympic_Gold|A Human Rights Exhibition]]
*[[/Virtual Nations/]]
*[[/Global Land Trust/]]
*[[/Improving Constituent Assignments to Representatives/]]
*[[/Wiki Mural and The Big History Timeline/]]
*[[/Motivational Interviewing Chatbot/]]
*[[/Socrates, the chatbot/]]
*[[/The Real Good Navigator/]]
*[[Living Wisely/Improving our Social Operating Systems|Improved Social Operating Systems]]
*[[/An Encyclopedia of Ought/]]
*[[/The Wisdom Playground/]]
*[[/Carbon Dividend as Carbon Offset/]]
*[[/Crowdsourcing Weather Stations/]]
*[[/Eyelevel Video Camera/]]
*[[/Smart HVAC Systems/]]
*[[/User Agreement Summary Service/]]
*[[/Blood Type Certification/]]
*[[/Men’s Swimsuit Design/]]
== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;
{{CourseCat}}
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Development Proposal]]</text>
      <sha1>0brd6hrtwntu3xalk0juark0q4yirj0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Dan Polansky</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>260897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681531</id>
      <parentid>2668459</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T20:09:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Tidy up pages that link to deleted pages</comment>
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'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Dan Polansky!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOUI JS signature icon LTR.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

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You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:12, 17 March 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== COVID-19 ==

Thank you Dan for the support and contribution to the [[COVID-19]] learning resources. I appreciate your contributions very much. Would like to coordinate collaborative effort a bit due to the dynamic change of COVID-19 situation globally. Is there a specific subpage (not user-page) that is content driven, that you would like to add you expertise e.g. Data Analysis?. Shall we revise the structure to be more user-friendly for finding specific learning resources? Best regards, Bert --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 13:10, 17 March 2020 (UTC)
: Thank you. As for Wikiversity, I really do not know how things are working here. I have encouraged another editor to create [[COVID-19/Julian Mendez]], which is original research and is super interesting. However, I have not reviewed the material much, just had a superficial glance. On the surface, the thinking is good: it emphasizes time lag of detection of a rapidly exponentially increasing phenomenon.
: Since Wikiversity allows original research, it presents a unique opportunity for material like  [[COVID-19/Julian Mendez]]. My experience from data analysis is somewhat limited; I have a pretty strong mathematical background, so I know that the derivative of ''a^x'' is ''ln a * a^x'', and that gives a super scary light on the covid thing, how both totals and daily increases have the same base of exponential growth until mitigated, whether cases or deaths.
: I probably do not have the energy to coordinate efforts and I have no improvement proposals on [[COVID-19]] structure and content. I am wondering when I am finally going to run out of gumption. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:38, 17 March 2020 (UTC)

:: Thank you, no worries. Exponential growth might not be the appropriate mathematical model to describe the development of COVID-19 or an epidemiological outbreak in general, because developement of count has limits of growth e.g. the total population on earth. So logistical growth with a capacity is more likely to describe the development. Currently in the early phase the data shows an exponential pattern but closer to the capacity the derivation gets smaller and closer to zero. The question is, what is the capacity of the logistical growth. Best regards, Bert --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 14:24, 17 March 2020 (UTC)
::: The initial phase is exponential, and this is easily empirically verified by observing the straight lines in the graphs with logarithmic y-axis, but it is true that once factors limiting the growth set in, it ceases to be exponential. Without intervention/mitigation, starting to run out of people to infect is the main limiting factor of the exponential growth, from what I can see. However, this is where we do not want to get since that becomes numerically significant only after, say, 10% of the population gets infected, and luckily enough, hardly any country has come close to that degree. And this would be an interesting mathematical/epidemiological assignment for a classroom: determine at which degree of population penetration an unmitigated infection growth ceases significantly to be exponential, for some value of &quot;significantly&quot;. That would need to assume some model of spread; I was thinking of molecules in a gas hitting one another, but the social phenomenon may look much different because of non-Gaussian distribution of &quot;influencers&quot;, as it were; there would be some people who have hugely many contacts and targetting them specifically for isolation could make huge difference, and you do not get that in a gas, I suppose. But the gas model need not be so bad to get a very first idea, and isolating &quot;influencers&quot; would not need to suffice at all. I don't really know, but I do maintain that the virus growth is in an exponential phase and, unless mitigated, would stay in the exponential phase in the coming weeks in most countries that would not do mitigation. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:40, 17 March 2020 (UTC)
: For reference, I keep on expanding the following pages: [[COVID-19/Dan Polansky]] and [[Talk:COVID-19/Dan Polansky]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 12:39, 3 May 2020 (UTC)
: ''Late retraction'': As for &quot;The initial phase is exponential, and this is easily empirically verified by observing the straight lines in the graphs with logarithmic y-axis, but it is true that once factors limiting the growth set in, it ceases to be exponential&quot;: that is wrong or misleading; while the confirmed cases were indeed originally growing exponentially, the observed rate of exponential growth was due to exponential growth in number of tests, as is confirmed by observing test positivity rate and observing the rate of growth of tests. The true infection count could either be initially growing exponentially at hugely slower rate than the nominal confirmed cases, or they were growing according to Gompertz curve (see research by Michael Levitt) and therefore never growing exponentially. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:28, 15 August 2020 (UTC)

=== Effiency of Lock Down ===
thank you for adding that important topic, to COVID-19 learning resource, Best regards, Bert --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 14:13, 23 July 2020 (UTC)

== Transgenderism ==

I am experimenting with the following page: [[User:Dan Polansky/Transgenderism]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:48, 17 July 2020 (UTC)

== COVID-19 Data ==

Is the COVID-19 data you've added available in Wikidata? It would be better to have the data there and query it rather than saved as pages here. As Wikidata, anyone could query it in any language and for any Wikimedia project. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 22:33, 14 August 2020 (UTC)
: Not that I know of. I see your point with cross-wiki query and avoidance of duplication of storage. On the other hand, storing comma-separated lists of values directly in the wiki markup is very simple and convenient, and one can very easily take that and calculate e.g. moving averages from that. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:13, 15 August 2020 (UTC)

::This gets a little tricky, because [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|Wikiversity does not]] duplicate other Wikimedia projects. I haven't done a large data import and query like this, but I'm willing to try one and see if I can produce the same results using the preferred structure. Is there a particular page and data set you would recommend as a starting point? -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:47, 15 August 2020 (UTC)
::: You may try [[COVID-19/All-cause deaths/London]] if you wish; it uses sources different from the other pages. Let me note that I am not very enthusiastic; I am afraid of making simple things more complex at just a little benefit. If, say, I will want to update the London data as I did today, instead of doing something utterly simple and straightforward I will either need to ask you for help or learn about Wikidata imports myself. The loss of personal productivity is likely to be non-trivial and may be a showstoper for me; instead of updating London, I would then do something more straightfoward. And when I learn how to do Wikidata and someone else wants to update London, it is now them who has to learn Wikidata.
::: What would be really useful would be to update the charting add-in in Wikiversity to be on par with Wikipedia: in Wikipedia, it produces raster images whereas in Wikiversity, it produces some kind of semi-live object that seems to take longer to load. (I misspoke; the thing produced in Wikiversity is a PNG image as well; it does not have antialised fonts in the x-axis when the labels are at angle. Wikipedia seems more up to date with the add-in.) --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 14:03, 15 August 2020 (UTC)

::::I've updated [[Module:Graph]]. If that's not it, you'll need to be more specific as to what is more current at Wikipedia so it can be imported. You can also request imports yourself at [[Wikiversity:Import]]. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:17, 15 August 2020 (UTC)
::::: Thank you! It did not help: the x-axis fonts are still not antialiased and there is still a change to red color on mouseover over the blue line. [[Module:Graph]] is only a layer over the extension itself ([https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph Extension:Graph]), and maybe the extension needs an update. Theoretically, [[Template:Graph:Chart]] might need an update as well. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:28, 16 August 2020 (UTC)

::::::See [[Special:Version]]. Extension:Graph appears to be current. I checked the dates on Template:Graph:Chart initially and it was also current. I'm happy to import whatever we need to update, but I'll need your help to find whatever that might be. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:43, 16 August 2020 (UTC)
: (Outdent) Let me double check:
:* Per [[Special:Version]], Extension:Graph: Wikiversity: (9e762ac) 06:27, 6 August 2020; Wikipedia: (9e762ac) 06:27, 6 August 2020
:* [[Module:Graph]], textual comparison between WV and WP: same
:* [[Template:Graph:Chart]], textual comparison between WV and WP: same
:* [[Template:Graph:Chart/styles.css]], textual comparison between WV and WP: same except for a comment line, immaterial
:* Raw test of the JSON markup in [[User:Dan Polansky/sandbox]]: no x-axis antialiasing
: Could there be a relevant setting at LocalSettings.php? [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension_talk:Graph Mediawiki's Extension talk:Graph] mentions $wgGraphImgServiceUrl, so something like that. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:34, 17 August 2020 (UTC)

::At this point, the best option would be to file a [[phabricator:]] ticket and see if one of the developers can identify the problem. We can't make php setting changes, so the ticket will be necessary anyway. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:26, 17 August 2020 (UTC)
::: It seems that on Wikiversity, the charts are made using ''canvas'' element, and they are plotted by the client browser via Javascript. By contrast, the English Wikipedia seems to be customized to have a server backend generate the PNG images for the charts so the client browser does not have to do any plotting, showin an ''img'' element instead. One consequence is that Wikipedia charts show fine on older devices whose browsers do not support canvas element. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:14, 8 September 2020 (UTC)

== Original research ==

For my reference:
* [[Wikiversity:Original research]]
*: &quot;Original research which meets the guidelines of this policy is permitted on Wikiversity. Researchers devoted to scholarly investigation using sound, ethical methods are encouraged to develop and disseminate their work via Wikiversity. Wikiversity may also provide a useful forum for formal peer review.&quot;
--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:26, 17 September 2020 (UTC)

Also at:
* [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?#Wikiversity for researching]]

However:
* [[Wikiversity:Scope]]
*: &quot;The other kind of research is wiki-based original research. It is not yet clear that this will be part of the Wikiversity. If the Wikiversity community decides to support original research, it will have to develop a specific set of policies to support such research activities.&quot;

It seems Wikiversity:Scope needs an update to match the other pages. Alternatively, the page could be marked as archived and of historical interest only to ease maintenance burden of pages with overlapping scopes. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:38, 23 August 2023 (UTC)

== Your wikidebates on the Wikidebate homepage ==

Hi Dan! First, I'm amazed by the amount and quality of the debates, arguments and objections you produced last year. To be honest I didn't notice until recently, because I monitor activity from the [[Wikidebate#Recent changes|recent changes in the Wikidebate homepage]], but only changes to pages listed in the homepage are shown, so changes to your debates didn't show. Until now! I just added all of your debates to the homepage, so that should increase their visibility as well as the changes and additions done to them. Anyway, just thought you'd like to know. Again, amazing work, in the name of everyone who will be inspired, educated or interested by them, thanks!  [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 00:24, 11 January 2023 (UTC)
: It is very kind of you to say so and to increase the visibility of my work. Thank you very much. Last year, I was extremely enthusiastic about the debate format, as if possessed and driven by the ultimate spirit (&quot;enthusiasm&quot;). The debate format makes me a more honest thinker, being more ready to deal with the opposing arguments seriously. As a result of that enthusiasm, I tried to use the format and push it as far as I was able to, and I am planning to do more this year. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:15, 11 January 2023 (UTC)

== Would you like me to delete &quot;Is sharing personal images of oneself on social media a right that must be protected?&quot; ==

Would you like me to delete &quot;[[Is sharing personal images of oneself on social media a right that must be protected?]]&quot; &lt;big&gt;?&lt;/big&gt; -- [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 15:36, 12 January 2023 (UTC)
: You may delete the page if you wish, if you ask me. Nonetheless, for me, a redirect is as good as a deletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 17:59, 12 January 2023 (UTC)

==A little praise to mathematics==
(A blog post.)

I heard the following two-line conversation between a German mathematician F. and a Chinese colleague Y.:
* Y: F., where have you learned to speak German so well?
* F: In mathematics.
What the above means is that in mathematics one learns to think in a certain way that leads to increased care about accuracy (true or false) and precision (broad or narrow concept) of one's formulation, of one's choice of words and concepts, etc. One rejects the so-called ''interpretation'' by which the interpreter is allowed to add words and modify words in a sentence and thereby as if interpret it. A genuine interpretation is the assignment of plain-meaning semantics to words, phrases, clauses and sentences; or there is also a genuine metaphorical interpretation; but adding words that the formulator forgot to state is no interpretation proper. The notion seems plausible enough.

I further heard F. say:
* A freshly graduated mathematician is someone who knows nothing and can learn anything.
That, clearly, is a hyperbole; anything refers to intellectual and cognitive endeavors, not, say, dancing or ice-skating. And not all cognitive enterprises can probably be penetrated or conquered (two different metaphors, but both metaphors) with the use of the tools of mathematics by any mathematician given his or her talent. But the general tenor stands: a freshly graduated mathematician has enough talent (innate gift) to practice mathematics and other rigorous thought, and enough tools of mathematics (cultural gifts or artifacts) to practice rigorous thought with. What a beautifully simple answer to point to a powerful idea.

As an aside, Y is a female and nominally did not contribute anything to the statements revealed. And yet, without her, F. would have never said the statement to the effect of, I learned to speak German well in mathematics. What Y did is what could possibly be a contribution more typical of females than males, namely asking questions and eliciting answers from males. One only has to think of the popular Slovak TV presenter Adela Banášová/Vinczeová and notice the remarkable talent for asking questions, quite possibly a typically feminine tool or weapon (both metaphors; what is the non-metaphor? Anyone?) However, this stereotyping of what is feminine requires a proper formal verification, and remains on the level of unproven hypothesis.

On a vaguely related note, I heard an Equador-American colleague J. say something like the following:
* J: When one properly masters the literal tools of language, one can better appreciate the metaphorical tools.
I did not fully appreciate the value of this back then, but I am starting to see ever better what he had in mind. The relation of mathematics to literalism is that, in a sense, tools of mathematics as tools of description are even more ''literalist'' or ''explicitist'' than the tools of non-mathematical formal language.

That was today's little Chautauqua, &quot;to edify and entertain, improve the mind and bring culture and enlightenment to the ears and thoughts of the hearer.&quot; (Greetings to Pirsig, a master of the phrase, formulation and metaphor.) --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 10:06, 7 February 2023 (UTC)

== [[Talk:Transgenderism - Polansky]] ==

Hello, I just want you to know that there is a discussion about a page that you made. Please join the discussion if possible. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 05:14, 27 July 2023 (UTC)

== Ethics of infanticide ==
In a preparation for a debate elsewhere, trying to avoid overburdening that debate, I will collect some reasoning concerning the topic of &quot;ethics of infanticide&quot;. It relates to the question whether a debate like [[Should infanticide be legal?]] should be allowed.

My contentions are the following:
* 1) &quot;Ethics of infanticide&quot; is a recognized academic subject, per https://philpapers.org/browse/infanticide.
* 2) The topic is of academic interest only in so far as some hold that infanticide is sometimes legitimate, or that arguments for that position should be explored even if one disagrees with the arguments.
* 3) One should not fool oneself into thinking that ethics is a nice and palatable subject. From my experience, a serious examination of the field of ethics leads to examining highly unpalatable questions, propositions and arguments.
* 4) Example academic article: [https://philpapers.org/rec/TEDDPF Dutch Protocols for Deliberately Ending the Life of Newborns: A Defence], philpapers.org
* 5) It is not clear why the debate format with arguments for and arguments against, with objections raised against arguments and objections raised against objections, is necessarily a worse or morally more objectionable format than a philosophical monologue in an article like [[Ethics of infanticide]].
--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 12:31, 1 August 2023 (UTC)

==Ability of editors to reach decisions via votes==
The English Wikiversity does seem to have enough editors able to make decisions via votes:
* [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Koavf 2]]
--[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:46, 7 September 2023 (UTC)

== Deletion of [[Lexical unit]] ==

[[Lexical unit]] has been nominated for deletion.  Are you OK with that? [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 22:55, 15 October 2023 (UTC)
: @[[User:Guy vandegrift]]: Thank you for notifying me so that I can respond. In this case, I defer to other editors since: on the one hand, the page contains a minimum usable content: a definition and a good further reading, which is more than may non-deleted pages can say; on the other hand, the content is so small, is not an article but something very stubby, that it seems rational enough for the project to want to delete the page. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:22, 16 October 2023 (UTC)

== Debates on policies of other Wikimedia projects ==

You've recently created the following debates regarding policy decisions on other Wikimedia projects:

* [[Should Wiktionary avoid use of straw polls?]]
* [[Should Wikipedia essays be moved out of Wikipedia namespace?]]
* [[Should Wiktionary user signatures be required to be unadorned default?]]
* [[Should Wiktionary votes cast be required to have a rationale?]]
* [[Should Wiktionary avoid indefinite blocks of productive users?]]
* [[Should Wiktionary have entries for inflected forms?]]
* [[Should Wiktionary require that all its information artifacts are sourced from reliable sources?]]
* [[Should Wiktionary use images?]]
* [[Is 60 percent a good threshold for Wikipedia consensus?]]
* [[Is Wikipedia consensus process good?]]

I'm concerned about these debates for two primary reasons:

# It's not clear that these policies involve topics which are within the educational scope of Wikiversity.
# Posting these debates here, rather than on the relevant project wikis, could be seen as an attempt by Wikiversity to interfere with policy discussions on those projects. For [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Wikimedia Ethics:Ethical Breaching Experiments|historical reasons]], this is a sensitive issue.

The latter is particularly troubling given your current block on the English Wiktionary.

[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:16, 20 November 2023 (UTC)
: I read the above message and gave it some thought. I fail to see a serious problem, although some doubt is perhaps in order.
: As for the linked [[Wikiversity:Community Review/Wikimedia Ethics:Ethical Breaching Experiments]], the page documents some 2010 affair. I find the page and its subpages confusing; in any case, I am left confused. It must have been some very serious matter since there, Jimbo Wales threatened to close Wikiversity. Here is an [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Community_Review/Wikimedia_Ethics:Ethical_Breaching_Experiments&amp;oldid=548629 old revision], as a single page.
: If administrators see a problem, let me know, and let us determine whether some of the debates need to be deleted and why. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:51, 9 December 2023 (UTC)

== Re. [[Game Duenix for Amiga computers]] ==

Are you the author of this game, or do you have any evidence that this game was released by its author under a free license? While it may have been freely distributed during its lifetime in the 1990s, we would need an explicit release by the author under CC-BY-SA or a compatible license to host it as a learning resource on Wikiversity. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:51, 20 December 2023 (UTC)
: I am the author. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 19:03, 20 December 2023 (UTC)
::Oh, neat! Never mind then. :) [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:12, 20 December 2023 (UTC)

== Wikidebate stuff ==

You've undone three of my contributions now. Why? You seem sore about something. [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 14:34, 29 December 2023 (UTC)
: I hate to do it since it feels like censorship and I hate censorship, but it seems appropriate. I always try to explain in the edit summary what I am doing and why. I propose we discuss individual cases on the talk page of the respective debates, which seems to be the proper venue. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 14:37, 29 December 2023 (UTC)

== I read with great speed but my accuracy is sometimes off ==

My obsession with getting students to write essays on caused me to think &quot;Wikiversity&quot; when I looked at &quot;Wikipedia&quot; in your title: ''When I skimmed &quot;[[Should Wikipedia essays be moved out of Wikipedia namespace?]]''.  Nothing I said is relevant to your actual question. OOPS! [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 22:57, 12 February 2024 (UTC)

== Check redirect ==

Dan, when I processed [[Creating Examples of possible additional questions to ask the citrus grower]], I almost made the same mistake I often made: This page had no meaning until on realizes that it was a question asked in a (medium to low quality) page on Graphic Design.  In this hypothetical case, a graphic designer is working for a Citrus Growers Organization. At some point in our joint procedure, we need to check what links here.[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 15:19, 23 February 2024 (UTC)
: Apologies for any confusion. I now checked [[Special:WhatLinksHere/Examples_of_possible_additional_questions_to_ask_the_citrus_grower]] and it is only linked from [[Wikiversity talk:Stubs]]; was it previously linked from somewhere else? I see the page is now at [[Graphic Design/Design Process/Problem Definition/Examples of possible additional questions to ask the citrus grower]], but [[Special:WhatLinksHere/Graphic_Design/Design_Process/Problem_Definition/Examples_of_possible_additional_questions_to_ask_the_citrus_grower]] finds nothing, so how is the page used, given nothing seems to refer to it? Thanks. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:23, 23 February 2024 (UTC)
: I need to pay attention better: we are talking ''redirect''. To avoid further confusion, I now substed the page at [[Graphic Design/Design Process/Problem Definition]] and renominated for deletion: I see no reason for a separate, deeply nested page. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:30, 23 February 2024 (UTC)
::Copy-pasting was a good move.[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 15:34, 23 February 2024 (UTC)

On a slightly different topic: On the Colloquium you proposed changes to [[Wikiversity:Deletions]].  I tried and failed to launch a focused discussion among a critical mass of active editors with [[Wikiversity:Deletion Convention 2024]].  It's not that we have no active and competent editors, but that they are all busy with other projects and not very interested.  You (with my help) are making radical changes in our policy.  I know that because we are deleting/moving custodians, curators, and bureaucrats have edited in the past.  For that reason, my guiding principle is that everything we do must be easily reversed.  Moving pages to userspace and [[Draft:Archive]] accomplishes that to my satisfaction.  As I go through the actual page-moves, I seem to prefer moving to userspace when there is an unambiguous single author.  I like to put a &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:prod}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; on pages I (we) need to think about. Is that OK with you?--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 15:47, 23 February 2024 (UTC)
: I am generally happy with your manner of procedure. Where there is disagreement, we have a debate, and that's fine.
: About {{tlx|prod}}: I find {{tlx|rfd}} preferable over {{tlx|prod}}, but the latter is okay: it defers the deletion by multiple months, but that is tolerable. I think that deferral is usually not ideal, especially for pages that have ''not'' been created recently, but it does the work eventually. For freshly created pages, {{tlx|prod} pages sense, as in, give authors chance to expand their material; but then, moving to Draft: would also work, since the author could expand the material there and when it is more than sub-minimal, move it back to mainspace.
: About me &quot;making radical changes in our policy&quot;, I follow [[WV:Deletions]] and its phrase &quot;learning outcomes are scarce&quot;. So I do not see changes to policy. My nominations may deviate from recent practice in that I am applying [[WV:Deletions]] more rigorously than has before been the case. But then, a page with almost no statements and almost no further reading meets &quot;learning outcomes are scarce&quot;, has no saving graces, and should IMHO be moved out of mainspace. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:19, 23 February 2024 (UTC)

== Striking your words and creating space for voting ==
It was late when I struck your words regarding my motive for creating Draft:Archive.  I struck it because I '''thought''' it misrepresented something only I can know, which is my motive for doing something.  But it turns out that your words were correct (I often misread statements to be the opposite of what they actually say.)...Now about voting space:  I delete/move lots of pages, and I need to see a summary of where the community ''currently'' stands on each page.  For me, it is better if people deleted old votes and wrote in new votes (that magic word &quot;consensus&quot; can only become reality if people change their &quot;votes&quot;.)  On the other hand, I think we agree that &quot;discussion space&quot; is a place where the record needs to be kept (without modifications.)  To me, &quot;discussion space&quot; is like a loud bar or restaurant where people are talking simultaneously. I need quick summaries of where people currently stand so I can decide when to delete/move and when to close the discussion.  Feel free to express your discontent, because it is essential that all those who wish to change these rules are free to express their discontent.  If another person (or persons) shares your dissatisfaction with the &quot;voting space&quot; rules, we can and should hold a discussion on the topic....One more thing: I recently extended to requested maximum length for the &quot;voting&quot; section two allow for more nuanced positions.  Maybe that will help.  If you want, I can create a sub-sub section (with an extra = sign) with each person's name, so you can have more space to express your &quot;final&quot; position.  Would that help? --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandeg rift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 09:03, 10 March 2024 (UTC)
: The English Wikipedia and the English Wiktionary succeed in administering WP:AFD/WT:RFD without dedicated vote sections in their processes. I don't see why the English Wikiversity should not succeed in doing the same, provided editors learn to state e.g. '''keep''', '''delete''', '''leaning to keep''', '''leaning to delete''', etc. in boldface as part of their discussion contributions to make consensus determination easier. I think it key to emphasize the role of the strength of the argument standing in contrast to purely numerical consensus, and to allow something like the conjectures and refutations process, which can only work if refutations are allowed. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 17:51, 11 March 2024 (UTC)
::You ask why Wikiversity &quot;''should not'' (avoid a voting section)&quot;, the question is whether we &quot;''want to'' avoid a voting section.  That is how we did things in the past (see [[special:permalink/2612760]].) Why would I want to change?--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 22:30, 15 March 2024 (UTC)
::: I am saying that specifically RFD should not have a &quot;Voting&quot; section (whereas your link is to [[Wikiversity talk:Drafts]]); it should be more like WP:AFD and WT:RFD. And if it has a voting section, responses to those &quot;votes&quot; should be allowed. That is not to say that there should be no element of voting in RFD, but rather that it should be a discussion in which vote positions are indicated via boldface. These &quot;shoulds&quot; represent my views and I recognize others do not need to agree, and my views may not necessarily prevail.  --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:25, 16 March 2024 (UTC)
::: To add clarity to my position: I have no qualms at all about how [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Facilitation]] is proceeding: people are posting their rationales and boldface stances/positions, but ''there is no separate heading &quot;Voting&quot;''. I do like that it is easy to determine numerical consensus from the boldface stances/positions. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 11:00, 16 March 2024 (UTC)
::::I like that idea. It makes it easier to change your &quot;vote&quot;: Simply unbold the old and boldface the new.--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 04:18, 31 March 2024 (UTC)

==Google abandoned simple HTML version of Gmail==
(A blog post.) The simple HTML version of Gmail loaded instantly, was a pleasure to use and the visual design including colors looked great. The &quot;new and improved&quot; (not!) version takes several seconds to load and is rather displeasing. Oh well. One can read more in various online magazines. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:11, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

== Alternative to dewikifying categories ==

I noticed that you are removing &quot;what links here&quot; by removing category statements and such.  That is a good thing to do, but I was wondering if there is a better way to do it.  What if we put a backup copy into the history by copy/deleting the page, hitting &quot;save&quot; and then pasting the wikitext on the blank page. &lt;nowiki&gt;Then we get a bot to replace all instances of ]] and }} by ]*] and }*}.&lt;/nowiki&gt;  Some of the text will be corrupted, but the reader can just open the history and see the uncorrupted form.  I don't know much about bots, but perhaps the bot could also do the copy paste to create the uncorrupted version at the top of the history.

I added a search feature on [[Draft:Archive]] so that people could search the top (corrupted page) and would see enough to know whether they want to go into the history to read an uncorrupted version.--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 12:10, 22 March 2024 (UTC)
: I only commented out category markup, thereby removing the page from the categories ([[Special:Diff/2614826|diff]]). I am not clear about why removing links and templates is in general necessary. Links to Wikipedia do not even appear in &quot;what links here&quot; of anything, AFAIK, so deactivating them seems even less useful than deactivating links within Wikiversity. Looking e.g. at [[Draft:Archive/2024/Openness]], the page now appears sort of broken; is this worth the objective of deactivating the links and template usage? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:51, 23 March 2024 (UTC)
::{{ping|Dan Polansky}} Upon reflection, I agree that there is no immediate need to dewikify {&quot;purge&quot;) anything.  In the long run, the page count in mainspace will likely grow at a slower rate than the pagecount in draft-archive space (since it will be rare to take something out of the latter.)  There is a simple remedy: Each year, we purge one years worth of draft-archive, with that year being the current year minus X. In other words, if X=4, we purge 2024 pages in 2028. That should be more than enough to ensure that most of the pages you see on any given category are associated with mainspace (instead of draft-archive.) If and when draft-archive starts to clutter things up, people of the future can create bots to purge.  Organizing the pages in draft-archive space by year will facilitate these purges. Also, routine maintenance of categories will lead to purges of draft-archived pages as pages that don't belong in the category (I believe you mentioned something like that in the wikidebate.)--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 04:42, 31 March 2024 (UTC)
:::Oh, and one more thing: The degradation of purged pages in draft-archive space is not a great problem because the reader can go into the history and find the page immediately after it was moved to draft-archive.--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 04:49, 31 March 2024 (UTC)

== Speedy delete ==

Dan, please, don't delete my slowly moving stub. [[User:Janosabel|Janosabel]] ([[User talk:Janosabel|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Janosabel|contribs]]) 16:36, 16 April 2024 (UTC)
: The above is very likely in reference to page [[Decentralized education]], which I originally marked for speedy deletion, but which is now in the ''3-month-deferred'' deletion process. According to that process, the page will be deleted only after 3 months, and even then, it may be moved to user space rather than outright deleted. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:43, 16 April 2024 (UTC)
::Many thanks for the respite. Yes, my request did relate to that stub. [[User:Janosabel|Janosabel]] ([[User talk:Janosabel|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Janosabel|contribs]]) 18:24, 16 April 2024 (UTC)

== History of programming languages ==

Could you write an essay about the evolution from machine code to high-level programming languages? A history with some philosophical considerations? [[Special:Contributions/62.235.226.186|62.235.226.186]] ([[User talk:62.235.226.186|discuss]]) 20:27, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
: It's kind of you to ask. I am afraid I have a dearth of interesting ideas on the subject. But let me try: they say in jest that C is a portable assembly. If one learns assembly, one will learn how far that statement is from truth, even metaphorically. The jocular statement can at best be accepted as a mnemonic pointing to the fact that a reader of C code has it easy to imagine how blocks of bytes are being manipulated and what kind of assembly instructions are being generated by the compiler. Thus, compared to assembly, even the relatively low-level C--created in the 1970s and rather old now--is a very high level language that gives the power to control the behavior of the universal computing/typographic-manipulation machine into the hands of the masses, who are not ready or willing to learn assembly. Python goes farther in that direction (power to the masses) by being very legible, coming with batteries included (great standard library), and making it very easy to install permissively licensed 3rd party libraries (e.g. &quot;pip install numpy&quot;), of which there are many.
: The case of C makes it clear that the jump from assembly to a C-like language in its expressive power (C, procedural Pascal, procedural Basic, etc.) is a huge one (in bridging the gap between man and the machine), whereas the further jump to object-oriented languages is a much smaller one. To this day, C is one of the most important and widely used languages on the planet, used by operating system kernels, CPython, Git, Gtk and GIMP, etc. One would thus think that by 1970s, the most important programming language inventions were already made. However, I am only a single person with a limited experience and other people could persuasively argue that object-oriented programming is in fact a big deal, found in C++, Python and Java, which together with C dominate the Tiobe index. I do not deny the value of OOP in the domains where it is most fit for use, but it seems clear that the economic law of diminishing returns is at play and that the added value of procedural high-level programming over assembly is much larger than the added value of OOP. One could add managed runtimes (JVM, .NET) as a separate invention with a huge impact on reliability and cost reduction.
: I am no expert on programming language history. I unfairly omitted FORTRAN, with which I have no experience. I do not know to what extent the early FORTRAN was procedural and structured or whether it resembled the 8-bit Basics with plentiful use of goto; I would have to check. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:42, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

: Really I was speaking only half tongue-in-cheek. LISP is like nothing else, and it has a long history, dating back to the ''fifties''. Give it a try if you haven't used it. [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 18:52, 12 May 2024 (UTC)
:: If you want to create a writeup about why Lisp is better than Python or why you love Lisp, one option for you is to create it in [[User:AP295/Lisp]] (or &quot;LISP&quot; if you prefer), which will be linked from this thread, so the reader can continue to your writeup if he or she chooses. If prefer this thread to stay on topic. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:23, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
:::I shall. You did remove remove some fairly relevant points that I made though. [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 07:43, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
:::: I am not confident my removal was optimal, and in the past, I almost never did such a thing. On the other hand, I felt that your tendency to get off topic is bit too much. If you post to [[User:AP295/Lisp]], [[User:AP295/LISP]], [[User:AP295/Lisp vs. Python]] or the like, everyone will be able to read what you have to say, and the existence of the page will be advertised from this very thread. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:05, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

Oh, Dan. Why are you so sour toward me? [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 08:48, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
: I find the above unhelpful. I found something someone may find interesting:
:* [https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/800055.802016 A Critique of Common Lisp], 1984, dl.acm.org
: Search term: criticism of lisp. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 11:08, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
::Woefully outdated. They are essentially complaining that implementers (circa 1984) were presuming upon the availability of competitively-priced lisp-machines - computers specifically designed to run lisp but weren't being made anymore - and therefore that lisp was too slow and memory hungry on contemporary hardware... in 1984. I think you will find that scheme and common lisp run just fine on your computer. [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 11:43, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
::: Anyone can now read your ideas about Lisp at [[User:AP295]] (there is no section heading for Lisp there). To my mind, your text gets as opinionated and non-objective as it can get; a critical attitude toward what one writes seems completely absent. If I felt like it, I could write a debate like [[Is Lisp a good language?]] or [[Is Lisp the best language ever designed?]], and while I know very little about Lisp, having only briefly programmed in Emacs Lisp, I think I could do a much better job by surface analysis and perusing at least some sources critical of Lisp. What must strike almost anyone upon first impression is the arguably bizarre/unnatural syntax of Lisp (e.g. all the brackets + prefix syntax), even if that syntax is charming in its own way and makes parsing Lisp source code extremely easy for computers. As another brief point, the malleability of Lisp via powerful macro system, which to my surface reading suggests something like massive creation of de facto dialects, is obviously a double-edged sword, not an unlimited desideratum. Arguing that Lisp has its unique charms that go unappreciated by many: fine; stating that &quot;LISP is by far and away the most powerful, versatile, sensibly designed, simplest and most edifying type of programming language that has exists or ever will exist&quot;: patently absurd on the first impression. On the other hand, I could perhaps be convinced by an intelligent exposition by Edmund Weitz, a contributor to Common Lisp libraries and arguably an excellent mathematics expositor. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 12:02, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
:::: So make your own critique. And FYI, CL and scheme support loops and other features (e.g. tail recursion) that allow you to avoid making recursive function calls when you want to. The parentheses look odd at first, I grant you that, but it's not hard to observe good style and you'll find it ends up being quite readable. Yes, python does have quite simple ''looking'' syntax. It has far more numerical libraries and tensor libraries, and generally a lot of modern tools needed for cutting edge research. This is partly at least because so many people use it. It has a good core library with a lot of useful things, but racket's (for example) is at least as good. Python is great compared to something like java or c++, at least for many purposes. I'm not saying it's bad or not useful. I just found it disappointing compared to lisp [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 12:20, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

:::: Have you actually used it, Dan? Don't knock it until you've used it for something non-trivial. Yes, my paragraph is just an assertion. I might finish it some other time. That's why I put it away in the junk box on my userpage. I have less experience with common lisp than racket and scheme, which differ in some places e.g. in their macros, loop syntax, etc. but at any rate I don't give my opinion without giving something a chance first. And lastly, I am critical exactly when I have something to criticize. Most of my contributions could be called critique. Critique that I don't see very many people making. If there isn't a lot of criticism in my contribution, it's not because I am uninclined to be critical. [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 12:50, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
::::: I'll bite, though I may be sorry later. How did it happen that Python acquired all those libraries? The authors of e.g. numpy could have written numpy e.g. for Perl, couldn't they? The answer available to surface analysis is this: because Python has exceedingly legible core syntax (acknowledged e.g. by Eric Reymond), and other good things going for it. There were times when Perl was more popular and had more libraries than Python; the snowball/network-effect argument (the more users a language has, the more it will get) fails to explain how Python managed to overtake Perl. Also, since Python is so much slower than C, how did the slow Python manage to find its niche? And since enough people had exposure to Lisp (in Emacs, in AutoCAD I think, etc.), why did not Lisp acquire a larger following?
::::: All the leaders of Tiobe index (C, C++, Java and Python) have a lot of going for them (even the so often hated C++), and have my respect. People and markets are not all that stupid. It is not all just network effects, burden of history or marketing. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:07, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

:::::: I don't know why it does not have a larger following. If you want me to speculate, I'll also bite.  Many people would probably find any declarative language a bit unusual at first. Declarative/functional languages don't really let you copy and paste code without understanding the problem. I've seen many students who try this with java and make a sort-of working program without really learning anything. The prussian model of education does not teach people to think critically or abstractly. Students take orders and learn by example. Corporations push their own product like java and matlab upon the education system. Imperative style programming suits this system just fine. Declarative languages require a bit more thought to use, but they're no harder once you have some experience.  [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 13:35, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

:::::: In other words, I speculate that imperative languages are somewhat more compatible with the prussian model and generally the system used to psychologically control and extract value from the public. I'll ask you a question now. Why is lisp still kicking after nearly seventy years? That would be kind of odd if there weren't ''something'' to it, no?   [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 13:46, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
::::::: I shall try to stop responding now to the above absurdities. This thread has too many low-quality posts from you and I am in part guilty for failing to stop responding sooner. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 13:56, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
::::::::There's nothing absurd about it. The prussian model was intended to produce good workers and soldiers. People who followed instructions and carried them out. That is what people learn to do right up to college. Imperative programming jibes with this general idiom. Processors do the same thing, they follow instructions. Imperative languages follow naturally, but to abstract any further would not suit this system very well.  [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 14:07, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
::::::::You can throw your hands up and call it absurd but that's no different from just ignoring my reply, except that for some reason you feel the need to cast doubt upon it without actually addressing the point. &quot;''I am in part guilty for failing to stop responding sooner.''&quot; We're not in a courthouse. No need for such melodrama.  [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 14:18, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

:::: I was going to let the above be my last point, but I'll address one more thing. &quot;''As another brief point, the malleability of Lisp via powerful macro system, which to my surface reading suggests something like massive creation of de facto dialects, is obviously a double-edged sword, not an unlimited desideratum. ''&quot; Pray tell, how is that at all a bad thing? I've seen this assertion before but it makes little sense. There are lots of different programming languages in general, people create new ones all the time. You don't even have to use macros at all. I didn't use very many. Are you trying to say that a functional macro system is somehow more problematic or dangerous than C's macros? [[User:AP295|AP295]] ([[User talk:AP295|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/AP295|contribs]]) 13:03, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

:: &quot;''COMMON LISP requires a large computer memory. To support only the function names and keyword names alone requires many kilobytes.''&quot;

== Edifying fields of study ==

In your view, which disciplines / intellectual activities are the most edifying / mind-sharpening? Computer programming, mathematics, writing, learning to play a musical instrument, something else? [[Special:Contributions/62.235.226.186|62.235.226.186]] ([[User talk:62.235.226.186|discuss]]) 21:02, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
: I play guitar, but I do not find it mind-sharpening. Other than that, I find all of computer programming, mathematics and writing mind-sharpening. Among them, computer programming is the only clearly Popperian/empirical-refutation teacher: one is being refuted again and again, one makes mistakes without being able to argue one's way out of them, one forms hypotheses and finds them corrected/refined by testing. By contrast, paper is very patient (as for math and writing) and mistakes in one's math or writing seem much easier to go undetected. On the other hand, computer programming in no way replaces doing math and writing; these activities require and develop skills that seem to be to a large extent complementary. Moreover, one can approach writing in a Popperian spirit: write hypotheses down and try to refute them or find arguments against them. And even if what one is writing down seems to be clearly true rather than conjectural, one can try to play the devil's advocate against one's position anyway. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 07:45, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

==For literalism==
A little joke in favor of reasonable literalism: metaphor is the mother of nonsense, hyperbole is the worst thing on the planet and personification is the Devil himself. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 12:12, 12 May 2024 (UTC)

== Programming Fundamental course restructure suggestion==
I've opened [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Programming_Fundamental_course_restructure_suggestion|a proposal in Colloquium]] for what we've discussed about the [[Programming Fundamentals|Programming Fundamentals course]]. Please join me in that discussion . --[[User:Anonymous Agent|Anonymous Agent]] ([[User talk:Anonymous Agent|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Anonymous Agent|contribs]]) 08:00, 10 June 2024 (UTC)

== Real philosophy ==

Dear Dan, I read on your user page that you love philosophy. That's great! The things you write are very interesting! As a Dutch-speaking amateur philosopher, I was wondering what you meant by &quot;real philosophy&quot; - as stated on your user page. Is there also a &quot;fake philosophy&quot; or at least a philosophy that doesn't matter? Or do you mean more practical philosophy? I was wondering what exactly you mean by that term! I look forward to hearing from you! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|contribs]]) 18:49, 24 July 2024 (UTC)
: By &quot;real&quot; I do not mean ''practical'' but rather ''non-fake''/genuine. Thus, if someone doing physics fakes the numbers and publishes an article with them, the fraud may be discovered or not, but the result is ''fake'' physics. I believe there is an analogue in philosophy, although philosophy does not work with fake data but rather with statements and paragraphs that merely pretend to be philosophy, e.g. by using peculiar jargon. There is a valid discussion on what counts as fake philosophy and what does not, but I for one can detect from as if the texture of it whether it can be taken seriously. See e.g. [[Is postmodernism a pseudo-philosophy?]] and the very witty [https://physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/transgress_v2/transgress_v2_singlefile.html Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity] by Alan D. Sokal, physics.nyu.edu. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 20:36, 24 July 2024 (UTC)
::Interesting! So you mean that if a philosopher's intentions are good, the philosophy itself would be real? So it has not to do with whether a philosopher actually describes reality, but whether a philosopher with good intentions &lt;u&gt;truly attempts&lt;/u&gt; to describe reality? Or am I misunderstanding? If you were to read my philosophy (see the pages listed under [[:Category:Wikiphilosophers]] with my username included), would you take it seriously, for example? And about that peculiar jargon - personally, I find it annoying when philosophers describe their ideas as complicated as possible, so that the average person cannot understand, to appear serious. Do you share that opinion as well? I am curious about your answer! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|contribs]]) 20:55, 24 July 2024 (UTC)
::: Interesting ideas. I would use the word &quot;pseudo-philosophy&quot; to any really bad philosophy, regardless of the ''intentions'' of the author. If some pseudo-philosopher is just mentally deranged and produces, metaphorically speaking, &quot;word salad&quot; with good intentions, the result is still pseudo-philosophy. The intentions of Hegel are hard to know, but Schopenhauer and Popper are clear that this man produced gibberish in order to serve the Prussian state and advance his professional carreer. I vaguely remember a quote: philosophy is put to serve the interest of the state and to advance a career. What is the probability that truth will come out of that endeavor as a byproduct? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 20:59, 24 July 2024 (UTC)
::::Could you give a concrete example of a pseudo-philosophy? (It doesn't necessarily have to be a real case; you can make something up!) And what do you think of people with conspiracy theories? In my view, they are often (perhaps unjustly) seen as pseudo-thinkers. Interesting quote, by the way! Do you think that a significant number of famous philosophers became well-known because they were influenced by the state and that these are relatively often insincere philosophers? Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|contribs]]) 21:13, 24 July 2024 (UTC)
::: About [[Wikiphilosophers/Free will/S. Perquin]]: I don't think it is pseudo in the Hegel way, but I find it unconvincing. Since, about &quot;Everything that happens has a cause&quot;: that is not clear at all. What if there are chance uncaused quantum-level events that aggregate into somewhat deterministic behavior of larger wholes? And if a random quantum event is magnified via a deterministically chaotic mechanismm, the randomness at the bottom would get reflected into macroevents. These macroevents would be caused, but by something that is uncaused. There are more arguments: something has to be uncaused or there will be an infinite regress. I'll stop here but I could write more on this. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 21:12, 24 July 2024 (UTC)
::::That's an interesting question. I hadn't thought about it that way before. I think that even those quantum events are caused by the quantum events that occurred before them. Every movement arises from another movement that influences that movement or from a movement that occurred before it, I think. What would you suggest regarding those &quot;uncaused quantum-level events&quot;? Is it possible for something to arise spontaneously without a cause? And if something &lt;u&gt;seems&lt;/u&gt; to have no cause, could it be possible that the cause lies in the future or in a higher dimension? Personally, I find it difficult to understand that something could have no cause. Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|contribs]]) 21:23, 24 July 2024 (UTC)
::::: The following is for a start: [https://www.quora.com/Are-quantum-random-events-uncaused-and-how-would-we-objectively-know-the-difference Are quantum random events uncaused and how would we objectively know the difference?], quora.com. I may write more if I find energy for this subject and if I figure out the best venue for it, perhaps a wikidebate. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:23, 25 July 2024 (UTC)
::::::Very interesting! Perhaps you can share your arguments in discussions like [[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]]. I'm looking forward to your future contributions! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|contribs]]) 10:04, 25 July 2024 (UTC)
:::::::  I could but I do not like the phrasing of the question; I would dismiss it outright without much ado with a resounding &quot;no&quot;. To me, ''reason'', unlike a ''cause'', is a teleological or purpose-related thing. Thus, humans may have reasons for what they do, but e.g. lightning has no reason. When a tree ends up being split in half, the antecedent striking of the tree by a lightning is a ''cause'' of the split, but not a ''reason''. I happen to be an atheist and physicalist (some use the word ''materialist'' but I don't), so I do not believe for a second that events in the physical world are caused by a mind-like purpose-guided entity, say, some kind of ''spirit''. You can think of me as the sort of person (but far from as smart!) like Richard Dawkins or Christopher Hitchens. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 11:41, 25 July 2024 (UTC)
::::::::Ah, I never really thought about that before. Until now, I considered ''reason'' and ''cause'' to be synonyms. I think this is because society uses them interchangeably, at least in the country where I live. When a teacher says, &quot;There is a reason why I sent you out of the classroom,&quot; does he mean that there is a purpose for sending someone out of the classroom (the purpose might be that the student can learn from their mistakes) or does he mean that there is a cause for sending someone out of the classroom (the cause might be that the student was displaying disruptive behavior)? This shows how language can change our perception of reality, I think. Personally, I can relate well to [[:w:Spiritualism (beliefs)|spiritualism]] and also somewhat to [[:w:Platonism|platonism]]. Sometimes I also doubt that the [[:w:Idealism|idealism]] would be true. I also currently hesitate between the existence of a God on the one hand and the existence of a cosmic consciousness on the other. The question I ask myself is whether this is the same or if God stands above it. In other words, after death, do we merge with God and become God, or do we assist and serve God as a collective soul? Although I think that one of these two options must be true, I think you won't even consider these options as the truth, haha. My great idols are Socrates and Plato. But I also find René Descartes very interesting. I am curious about how you became an atheist and a physicalist. Could you tell me something about that? Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|contribs]]) 12:23, 25 July 2024 (UTC)
::::::::By the way, I created a new wikidebate: [[Can something come from nothing?]]. Perhaps you can share your arguments there about why not everything that happens has a cause? [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|contribs]]) 12:28, 25 July 2024 (UTC)
::::::::: I posted at [[Talk:Can something come from nothing?#Dan Polansky]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:05, 26 July 2024 (UTC)
::::::::::Thank you for your response! I have already replied back! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|contribs]]) 11:05, 26 July 2024 (UTC)

==Support staff==
{{ping|Dan Polansky}} Thanks for your active participation in Wikiversity. I am wondering whether you might be interested in joining the [[Wikiversity:Support staff]]? You seem to know your way around and have a thoughtful, communicative approach. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:11, 3 August 2024 (UTC)
: {{ping|Jtneill}} Thank you. I would be happy to join as a curator (=quasi-admin; can delete; cannot block). Disclaimer: I am indefinitely blocked in the English Wiktionary. It would thus perhaps be a good idea to have my tools initially only for a probation period of, say, 1 year, after which the tools get automatically removed. If, on the other hand, one wants to be risk-averse and see the indefinite block as a hurdle even for that, that is understandable; still, the probationary period should mitigate risks considerably. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:31, 4 August 2024 (UTC)
::Great - thanks for the heads up on the Wiktionary ban. Personally, I assume good faith. So, I've nominated you, but also requested that you explain about the ban: [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship#Requests and Nominations for Curatorship]]. Let me know if I can do anything else. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:57, 4 August 2024 (UTC)
:The nomination for curatorship has been approved. You should see additional content management tools available.  Please follow up with your mentor, [[User:Jtneill]], regarding any questions you might have. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:00, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
Welcome aboard as a curator, Dan. I look forward to collaborating with you to help make Wikiversity a great open learning community. Could you add yourself to: [[Wikiversity:Support staff]]? This page may also be of interest: [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop/Wikiversity]] (note: we don't currently have an equivalent page tailored towards curators). Feel free to get in touch with me if I can help. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:15, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
: Thank you all. I will use the tools with care. I added myself to [[Wikiversity:Support staff]]. (For later reference, the nomination discussion is at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Dan Polansky]].) --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:23, 17 September 2024 (UTC)

== draft of Karl Marx/Capital1 ==

Dear Friend,

thank you for your contribution to [[Karl Marx/Capital1]]. I started this page as a kind of contents overview for the different chapters of this extremely important book. But as you perhaps understand, it will take some time to write all the parts. Today I contributed the first piece of part 1. So please, give me some time to create the following parts. I would like to suggest to remove the &quot;proposed deletion&quot; banner in the meantime. I don't know if there is a banner &quot;work in progress&quot;, but to my humble opinion, that would be more appropriate. Many greetings, --[[User:Dick Bos|Dick Bos]] ([[User talk:Dick Bos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dick Bos|contribs]]) 18:48, 17 September 2024 (UTC)
: I do not see the point in removing the proposed deletion template; it tracks the time. The template gives you 3 months to expand the material. Once you sufficiently expand the material so that the learning outcomes are no longer scarce ([[WV:Deletions]]), the template can be removed. If you do not manage to expand the material in 3 months, you may still move it to your user page, where you will have no time limit for expansion.
: Alternatively, one could argue that even the brief outline is valuable enough, and if other people think so, I will not object to removing the template. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 19:31, 17 September 2024 (UTC)

== [[:Category:Proposed guidelines]] ==

Bumping [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Category:Proposed_guidelines|colloq]] on following through with the deletion. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 19:22, 9 October 2024 (UTC)

== Tidy up pages that link to deleted pages ==
Just a reminder to tidy up pages that link to a page you delete (e.g., I've done this for [[Facilitation]]). Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:09, 7 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>si3aba2wj3sfes3jbcfff4502q95v13</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
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    <title>Social Victorians/People/Tweeddale</title>
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      <text bytes="15690" sha1="rpa2gh5gpte0md9oaxlhmmh41e2abq6" xml:space="preserve">== Overview ==
After Field Marshal George Hay, 8th Marquess of Tweeddale died on 10 October 1876, the title went to his son Arthur Hay, 9th Marquess of Tweeddale. His brother William, 10th Marquess married Candida Bartolucci in May 1878. When Arthur Hay died in December 1878, his 32-year-old wife Julia Hay became the dowager Marchioness of Tweeddale.

== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==
== Organizations ==

=== William Montagu Hay, 10th Marquis of Tweeddale ===
*House of Commons, Liberal (1865–1868, August 1878 and December 1878)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;&quot;William Montagu Hay, 10th Marquess of Tweeddale.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3665.htm#i36649|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Member of Parliament, Liberal (1881–)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*Chairman, North British Railway (1878? – )&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-12-20|title=William Hay, 10th Marquess of Tweeddale|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Hay,_10th_Marquess_of_Tweeddale&amp;oldid=995372347|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Timeline ==
'''1878 May 18''', William Montagu Hay and Candida Louise Bartolucci married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;&quot;Candida Louise Bartolucci.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p3665.htm#i36650|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1897 June 28, Monday''', according to the ''Morning Post'', William, 10th Marquis and Candida, Marchioness of Tweeddale were invited to the 28 June [[Social Victorians/Diamond Jubilee Garden Party|Queen's Garden Party]], the official end of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations in London. The ''Morning Post'' says that the Dowager Tweeddale was also invited, which means Julia Hay, Marchioness of Tweeddale (who was by 1897 married for the 3rd time, to Major Sir William Gordon).

'''1897 July 2, Friday''', the Marquess and Candida, Marchioness of Tweeddale attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did their eldest daughter, Lady Clementine Hay, and two sons, Lord William George Montagu Hay (who would have been 12) and Lord Arthur Vincent Hay (who would have been 11).

== Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball ==
[[File:Lord-Arthur-Vincent-Hay-William-George-Montagu-Hay-11th-Marquess-of-Tweeddale-Candida-Louise-Marchioness-of-Tweeddale-as-the-Empress-Josephine.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a standing woman richly dressed in an historical costume, with two boys dressed as pages|Candida, Marchioness of Tweeddale as the Empress Josephine with sons Lord Arthur and Lord William. ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]]
=== Candida Hay, Marchioness of Tweeddale ===
[[File:David - Sacre de l'empereur Napoléon Ier (Detail).jpg|Detail of David's Coronation of Napoléon|thumb|alt=Queen Josephine kneeling on pillow to be crowned]][[File:Empress Josephine in Coronation Robes (Gérard).jpg|thumb|Gérard's Portrait of Empress Josephine in her Coronation Robes|alt=Queen Sitting on Throne in her Dress]]At the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]], Candida Hay, Marchioness of Tweeddale was dressed as Joséphine, wife of Napoleon; her sons seem to have been the pages who bore her train.
*&quot;The Marchioness of Tweeddale represented Josephine in Empire dress of white satin, embroidered in gold bees, thistle-leaves, and wheat, and with a train of geranium pink velvet worked with gold bees.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 4a}}
*&quot;Josephine, the wife of Napoleon, copied from the picture of her coronation, was impersonated by the Marchioness of Tweeddale, who wore white satin wrought with gold, and a train of geranium-red velvet, trimmed with ermine.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 34, Col. 1a}}
*She &quot;made a splendid 'Josephine' in Empire dress of white satin, embroidered in gold bees, thistle leaves and wheat, and with a train of geranium pink velvet worked with gold bees.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses.&quot; London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 6, Col. 1a}}
*&quot;The Marchioness of Tweeddale made a splendid &quot;Josephine&quot; in empire dress of white satin, embroidered in gold bees, thistle leaves, and wheat, and with a train of geranium pink velvet worked with gold bees.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram.&quot; ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9c [of 9]–6, Col. 1a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 6, Col. 1a}}
*&quot;The Marchioness of Tweeddale was Joséphine, wife of Napoleon, in white satin, wrought with gold and a deep rose-coloured train, trimmed with ermine, and borne by two pages in mauve velvet, embroidered with gold.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy-Dress Ball. Brilliant Spectacle.&quot; The Guernsey ''Star'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 1 [of 4], Col. 1–2. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000184/18970706/003/0001.&lt;/ref&gt;
*&quot;The Marchioness of Tweeddale made an effective Josephine.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 1}}
*&quot;The Marchioness of Tweeddale (Empress Josephine), while satin embroidered in gold bullion; train of geranium velvet, lined with white satin and embroidered with ermine.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 40, Col. 2a}}

==== Lord Arthur Vincent Hay and William George Montagu Hay ====
Lafayette's portrait of &quot;Lord Arthur Vincent Hay; William George Montagu Hay, 11th Marquess of Tweeddale; Candida Louise, Marchioness of Tweeddale as the Empress Josephine&quot; in costume is photogravure #124 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;&quot;Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker &amp; Boutall after various photographers.&quot; 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.&lt;/ref&gt; The printing on the portrait says, &quot;The Marchioness of Tweeddale as the Empress Josephine,&quot; with a Long S in ''Marchioness'' and ''Empress''.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marchioness of Tweeddale as the Empress Josephine.&quot; ''Diamond Jubilee Fancy Dress Ball''. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158487/Lord-Arthur-Vincent-Hay-William-George-Montagu-Hay-11th-Marquess-of-Tweeddale-Candida-Louise-Marchioness-of-Tweeddale-as-the-Empress-Josephine.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Commentary on Costumes ===
''The Coronation of Napoleon'' (''Le Sacre de Napoléon''), painted by Jacques-Louis David and completed in 1807,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2021-08-12|title=The Coronation of Napoleon|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Coronation_of_Napoleon&amp;oldid=1038503920|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Coronation_of_Napoleon.&lt;/ref&gt; was the source for several costumes at the ball, including Candida, Marchioness of Tweeddale, [[Social Victorians/People/Clary Aldringen|Countess Clary]], [[Social Victorians/People/Kinsky|Countess Kinsky]], and [[Social Victorians/People/Deym#Countess Isabel Deym|Countess Isabel Deym]], who were dressed as Napoleon's three sisters. Some of them can just be seen on the left in the detail of the coronation, above.
[[File:Lady (Susan Elizabeth) Clementine Waring (née Hay) as Valentina; William Montagu Hay, 10th Marquess of Tweeddale as St Bris (Les Huguenots).jpg|thumb|Lady Clementine Hay as Valentina; William Hay, Marquess of Tweeddale as St. Bris (''Les Huguenots'')|alt=Old man and his daughter in 18th-century dress]]
=== William Montagu Hay, 10th Marquis of Tweeddale and Lady Clementine Hay ===
[[File:Lady-Susan-Elizabeth-Clementine-Waring-ne-Hay-as-Valentina-William-Montagu-Hay-10th-Marquess-of-Tweeddale-as-St-Bris-Les-Huguenots.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a young woman and her father richly dressed in an historical costume|Lady Clementine Hay as Valentina and William Hay, Marquess of Tweeddale as St. Bris (from ''Les Huguenots''). ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]]
Lady Clementine Hay (at 629) came out — was introduced to society as a débutante — at the Duchess of Devonshire's ball.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Gossip of the Day. Debutantes.&quot; ''Nottinghamshire Guardian'' 5 February 1898, Saturday: 4 [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000176/18980205/033/0004.&lt;/ref&gt; William, the Marquis of Tweeddale was dressed as Saint Bris:
*He &quot;personated 'Saint Bris' in the 'Huguenots.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 6, Col. 1a}}
*&quot;The Marquis of Tweeddale personated 'Saint Bris' in the Hugenots.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 6, Col. 1a}}
*&quot;Marquis of Tweeddale (Elizabethan courtier), black velvet.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 40, Col. 2a}}
He and their daughter Clementine Hay appear in the portrait in the NPG Album: Lafayette's portrait of &quot;Lady (Susan Elizabeth) Clementine Waring (née Hay) as Valentina; William Montagu Hay, 10th Marquess of Tweeddale as St Bris (Les Huguenots)&quot; in costume is photogravure #125 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; The printing on the portrait says, &quot;The Marquess of Tweeddale, as St Bris. Lady Clementine Hay as Valentina. (Les Huguenots).&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marquess of Tweeddale, as St Bris.&quot; ''Diamond Jubilee Fancy Dress Ball''. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158488/Lady-Susan-Elizabeth-Clementine-Waring-ne-Hay-as-Valentina-William-Montagu-Hay-10th-Marquess-of-Tweeddale-as-St-Bris-Les-Huguenots.&lt;/ref&gt;

The photograph showing Lady Clementine Hay and the Marquis of Tweeddale in costume on the left is from the album of portraits. The photograph on the right is not the one included in the album, but it looks like another pose from the same session. They are dressed as characters from the 1836 opera ''Les Huguenots'' by Giacomo Meyerbeer.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2021-07-02|title=Les Huguenots|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Les_Huguenots&amp;oldid=1031622737|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Huguenots.&lt;/ref&gt; The opera was in regular performance at Covent Garden in the 1890s; the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1895#29 June 1895, Saturday|production with Nellie Melba and Emma Albani]] in 1895 was well attended and attracted particular notice. The Album identifies two men who came as Raoul de Nangis: [[Social Victorians/People/Dawson#Douglas Dawson|Douglas Dawson]] (whose name is wrong in the Album) and [[Social Victorians/People/Gosford#Lord Archibald Acheson|Archibald, Lord Acheson]], whom the The ''Gentlewoman'' says was dressed as &quot;Mignon Henri III.&quot;

== Demographics ==
*Nationality: Hay, Scots; Bartolucci, Italian&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

== Family ==
*Field Marshal George Hay, 8th Marquess of Tweeddale (1 February 1787 – 10 October 1876)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Field Marshal George Hay, 8th Marquess of Tweeddale.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10321.htm#i103203|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Lady Susan Montagu (18 September 1797 – 5 March 1870)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Susan Montagu.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10322.htm#i103218|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2021-05-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# Lady Susan Georgiana Hay ( – 6 May 1853)
*# Lady Hannah Charlotte Hay ( – 10 November 1887)
*# Lady Jane Hay ( – 13 December 1920)
*# Lady Louisa Jane Hay ( – 9 September 1882)
*# Lady Elizabeth Hay (27 September 1820 – 13 August 1904)
*# George Hay, Earl of Gifford (22 April 1822 – 22 December 1862)
*# Arthur Hay, 9th Marquess of Tweeddale (9 November 1824 – 29 December 1878)
*# '''William Montagu Hay, 10th Marquess of Tweeddale''' (27 January 1826 – 25 November 1911)
*# Admiral Lord John Hay (23 August 1827 – 4 May 1916)
*# Lady Emily Hay (1836 – 4 April 1924)


*Julia Charlotte Sophia Stewart-Mackenzie (21 June 1846 – 17 May 1937)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Julia Charlotte Sophia Stewart-Mackenzie.&quot; Person #36634. ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''. https://www.thepeerage.com/p3664.htm#i36634.&lt;/ref&gt;
*Arthur Hay, 9th Marquess of Tweeddale (9 November 1824 – 29 December 1878)
*Rt. Hon. Sir John Rose, 1st Bt. (2 August 1820 – 24 August 1888)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Rt. Hon. Sir John Rose, 1st Bt..&quot; Person Page #36636. ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as well as the Royal Families of Europe''. https://www.thepeerage.com/p3664.htm#i36636.&lt;/ref&gt;
*Major Sir William Eden Evans Gordon ( – October 1913)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major Sir William Eden Evans Gordon.&quot; Person Page #36637. ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as well as the Royal Families of Europe''. https://www.thepeerage.com/p3664.htm#i36637.&lt;/ref&gt;


*William Montagu Hay, 10th Marquess of Tweeddale (27 January 1826 – 25 November 1911)
*Candida Louise Bartolucci (3 May 1854 –  14 February 1925)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
#Lady (Susan Elizabeth) Clementine Hay (9 August 1879 – )
#Lady Candida Louisa Hay (25 August 1882 – )
#William George Montagu Hay, 11th Marquess of Tweeddale (4 November 1884 – 30 March 1967)
#Lord Arthur Vincent Hay (16 March 1886 – 14 September 1914)
#Maj.-Gen. Lord Edward Douglas John Hay (2 November 1888 – 18 June 1944)

== Also Known As ==
*Family name: Hay
*Tweeddale, sometimes misspelled as Tweedale
*Baron Tweeddale of Yester (UK peerage)
**William Montagu Hay, 1st Baron Tweeddale (6 October 1881 – 25 November 1911)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*Marquess of Tweeddale
**William Montagu Hay, 10th Marquess of Tweeddale (29 December 1878 – 25 November 1911)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*Marchioness of Tweeddale
**Candida Louise Bartolucci Hay (29 December 1878 – 1925)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;
*Earl of Tweeddale
**William Montagu Hay, 10th Earl of Tweeddale (29 December 1878 – 25 November 1911)
*Earl of Gifford
**William Montagu Hay, 10th Earl of Gifford (29 December 1878 – 25 November 1911)
*Viscount Walden
**William Montagu Hay, 10th Viscount Walden (29 December 1878 – 25 November 1911)
* [[Social Victorians/People/Violet Tweedale|Violet Tweedale]], author and member of the Golden Dawn, is not related: Tweedale is her surname, but the surname of the Marquess of Tweeddale is Hay.

== Notes and Questions ==

# Had there been a recent production of Meyerbeer's ''Les Huguenots''?
# Candida, Marchioness of Tweeddale is #399 in the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who were present]], her sons are at #399 as well; William, the Marquis of Tweeddale is #400; Lady Clementine Hay is #629.

== Footnotes ==
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      <text bytes="17995" sha1="tq7fvaof8ll0v10svctazurn9wznyu7" xml:space="preserve">=== Atomic orbitals ===
[[File:Alpha-hyperbolic-spiral.gif|thumb|right|640px|Bohr radius during ionization, as the H atom electron reaches each ''n'' level, it completes 1 orbit (for illustration) then continues outward (actual velocity will become slower as radius increases according to angle β)]]
In the atom we find individual particle to particle orbitals, and as such the atomic orbital is principally a wave-state orbital (during the orbit the electron is predominately in the electric wave-state). The wave-state is defined by a wave-function, we can however map (assign co-ordinates to) the mass point-states and so follow the electron orbit, for example, in 1 orbit at the lowest energy level in the H atom, the electron will oscillate between wave-state to point-state approximately 472127 times. 

During electron transition between orbitals, we find the electron follows a [[v:Fine-structure_constant_(spiral) |hyperbolic spiral]], this is significant because periodically the spiral angle components cancel reducing to integer radius values (360°=4''r'', 360+120°=9''r'', 360+180°=16''r'', 360+216°=25''r'' ... 720°=∞''r'').

As these spiral angles (360°, 360+120°, 360+180°, 360+216° ...) are linked directly to pi, we may ask if quantization of the atom has a geometrical origin. &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title=4. Atomic energy levels correlate exactly to pi via a hyperbolic spiral |journal=RG |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.23106.71367/9}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


==== Simulation ====
The simulation program can be modified for atomic orbitals by including an additional alpha term in the rotation angle '''β'''. 

:&lt;math&gt;\beta = \frac{1}{r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}} \sqrt{2\alpha}}&lt;/math&gt; 

R = 10973731.568157 &lt;ref&gt;https://codata.org/ (mean)&lt;/ref&gt; ([[w:Rydberg constant |Rydberg constant]])

α =137.035999177 (inverse fine structure constant &lt;ref&gt;https://codata.org/ (mean)&lt;/ref&gt;

proton/electron mass ratio pe = 1836.152673426 &lt;ref&gt;https://codata.org/ (mean)&lt;/ref&gt;


The following simulates an electron transition, the electron begins at radius &lt;math&gt;r = r_{orbital}&lt;/math&gt; and moves in incremental steps to higher orbitals. The nucleus is a set of 249 mass points arranged in the center.  At specific angles the spiral radius is an integer of the initial radius (360°; x=r, y=0 ... 720°; x=4r, y=0 ... 900°; x=-16r, y=0 ... )


Key: nucleus = 249 mass points and the electron = 1 mass point, ''t''&lt;sub&gt;sim&lt;/sub&gt; = period and ''l''&lt;sub&gt;sim&lt;/sub&gt; = distance travelled by the electron, the radius coefficient ''n''&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; is divided by &lt;math&gt;r_{orbital}&lt;/math&gt; for clarity.  
[[File:H-atom-electron-transition-nucleus-plot.gif|thumb|right|640px|H atom electron transition spiral plotting the nucleus and barycenter as the electron transitions from n=1 to n=8]]

:&lt;math&gt;j_{atom} = 250&lt;/math&gt; (atomic mass)

:&lt;math&gt;i_{nucleus} = j_{atom} -1 = 249&lt;/math&gt; (relative nucleus mass)

:&lt;math&gt;r_{wavelength} = 2 (\frac{j_{atom}}{i_{nucleus}})^2&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;r_{orbital} = 2 \alpha \;*\; r_{wavelength} &lt;/math&gt; (radius)

:&lt;math&gt;t_n = \frac{t_{sim}}{r_{wavelength}}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;l_n = \frac{l_{sim}}{2\pi r_{orbital}}&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt;r_b = r_{sim} - \frac{r_{sim}}{j_{atom}}&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt;r_n = \frac{r_b}{r_{orbital}}&lt;/math&gt; 


Experimental values for H(1s-ns) transitions (''n'' the [[w:principal quantum number |principal quantum number]]).


H(1s-2s) =  2466 061 413 187.035 kHz &lt;ref&gt;http://www2.mpq.mpg.de/~haensch/pdf/Improved%20Measurement%20of%20the%20Hydrogen%201S-2S%20Transition%20Frequency.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;  

H(1s-3s) =  2922 743 278 665.79 kHz &lt;ref&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33243883/&lt;/ref&gt;  

H(1s-4s) =  3082 581 563 822.63 kHz &lt;ref&gt;https://codata.org/&lt;/ref&gt;   

H(1s-∞s) =  3288 086 857 127.60 kHz &lt;ref&gt;https://codata.org/ (109678.77174307cm-1)&lt;/ref&gt; (''n''&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; = ∞)

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_H = \frac{2c}{\lambda_e + \lambda_p} = 8\pi c \alpha^2 R \frac{pe}{pe+1}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;t_{ns} = (n^2-1) \frac{\lambda_H }{H(1s-ns)}&lt;/math&gt;

 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Electron transition (mass = 250 ''n''=1 to ''n''=5)
! angle (degrees)
! ''r''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;
! ''t''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; 
! ''t''&lt;sub&gt;expt&lt;/sub&gt;
! ''l''&lt;sub&gt;sim&lt;/sub&gt;
! ''l''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;
! ''x'', ''y'' (electron) 
! ''x'', ''y'' (nucleus) 
! ''x'', ''y'' (barycenter) 
|-
| 360.000098° (360°)
| 1.00000505
| 471957.459
| *471959.243
| 3457.89
| 0.999996
| 550.3312,  0.00094
| -2.2243,  0.00678
| -0.0141,  0.00676
|-
| 360.0000048°  (720°) 
| 4.0009321 
| 1888285.299
| 1887839.826
| 10375.377
| 3.0004814
| 2202.7583  0.0002
| -7.9668  -1.9527 
| 0.8761  -1.9449
|-
| 120.0000146° (840°) 
| 8.9992087 
| 4247298.2
| 4247634.049
| 17288.7374 
| 4.9997735
| -2472.7061,  4296.0250 
| 13.5637,  -10.3181
| 3.6186,  6.9073
|-
| 180.0000028° (900°) 
| 15.99814 
| 7550517.5
| 7551347.553 
| 24203.8485  
| 6.999572
| -8814.1765,  13.3070
| 25.6420,  13.3074
| -9.7173,  13.3074
|-
| 216.0000011° (936°) 
| 24.99631
| 11797316
|  
| 31118.741  
| 8.99931
| -11157.39,  -8079.27
| 16.573,  39.086
| -28.123,  6.612 
|}

* at infinity the second photon energy reduces to irrelevancy. 


[[File:Bohr_atom_model_English.svg|thumb|right|320px|Electron at different ''n'' level orbitals]]
==== Theory ====

===== Bohr model =====
The H atom has 1 proton and 1 electron orbiting the proton, the electron can be found at fixed radius (the [[w:Bohr radius |Bohr radius]]) from the proton (nucleus), these radius represent different energy levels (orbitals) at which the electron may be found orbiting the proton and so are described as quantum levels. Electron transition (to higher energy levels) occurs when an incoming photon provides the required energy (momentum). Conversely emission of a photon will result in electron transition to lower energy levels.

The [[w:principal quantum number |principal quantum number ''n'']] denotes the energy level for each orbital. As ''n'' increases, the electron is at a higher energy and is therefore less tightly bound to the nucleus (as ''n'' increases, the electron is further from the nucleus). Each ''n'' ([[w:electron shell|electron shell]]) can accommodate up to ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; electrons (1, 4, 9, 16, 25...), and accounting for two states of spin, 2''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. As these orbitals are fixed according to integer ''n'', the atom can be said to be quantized.


The basic (alpha) radius for each ''n'' level uses the fine structure constant alpha (α = 137.036) whereby;

&lt;math&gt;r_{orbital} = 2\alpha n^2&lt;/math&gt;


Such that at ''n'' = 1, the start radius ''r'' = 2α. We can map the electron orbit around the orbital as a series of steps with the duration of each step the frequency of the electron + proton wavelengths (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_p + \lambda_e&lt;/math&gt;). The steps are defined according to angle β;

:&lt;math&gt;\beta = \frac{1}{r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}}\sqrt{2\alpha}}&lt;/math&gt;


[[File:atomic-orbital-rotation-step.png|thumb|right|208px|electron (blue dot) moving 1 step anti-clockwise along the alpha orbital circumference]]
At specific ''n'' levels;

:&lt;math&gt;\beta = \frac{1}{4\alpha^2 n^3}&lt;/math&gt;


This gives a length travelled per step as the inverse of the radius

:&lt;math&gt;l_{orbital} = \frac{1}{2\alpha n}&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt;v_{orbital} = \frac{1}{2\alpha n}&lt;/math&gt; 


The number of steps (orbital period) for 1 orbit of the electron then becomes 

:&lt;math&gt;t_{orbital} = \frac{2\pi r_{orbital}}{v_{orbital}} = 2\pi 2\alpha 2\alpha n^3&lt;/math&gt;


A base (reference) orbital (''n''=1)

:&lt;math&gt;t_{ref} = 2\pi 4\alpha^2&lt;/math&gt;


===== Photon orbital model =====
The electron can jump between ''n'' levels via the absorption or emission of a photon. In the [[Quantum_gravity_(Planck)#Atomic_orbitals|photon-orbital]] model&lt;ref&gt;Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title=4. Atomic energy levels correlate exactly to pi via a hyperbolic spiral |journal=RG |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.23106.71367/9}}&lt;/ref&gt;, the orbital (Bohr) radius is treated as a 'physical wave' akin to the photon albeit of inverse or reverse phase such that &lt;math&gt;orbital \;radius + photon = zero&lt;/math&gt; (cancel).

The photon can be considered as a moving wave, the orbital radius as a standing/rotating wave (trapped between the electron and proton). It is the rotation of the orbital radius that pulls the electron, resulting in the electron orbit around the nucleus (orbital momentum comes from the orbital radius). Furthermore, orbital transition (between orbitals) occurs between the orbital radius and the photon, the electron has a passive role.


The photon is actually 2 photons as per the Rydberg formula (denoted initial and final).

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_{photon} = R.(\frac{1}{n_i^2}-\frac{1}{n_f^2}) = \frac{R}{n_i^2}-\frac{R}{n_f^2}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_{photon} = (+\lambda_i) - (+\lambda_f)&lt;/math&gt;


The wavelength of the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i&lt;/math&gt;) photon corresponds to the wavelength of the orbital radius. The (+&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i&lt;/math&gt;) will then delete the orbital radius as described above (orbital + photon = zero), however the (-&lt;math&gt;\lambda_f&lt;/math&gt;), because of the Rydberg minus term, will have the same phase as the orbital radius and so conversely will increase the orbital radius. And so for the duration of the (+&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i&lt;/math&gt;) photon wavelength, the orbital radius does not change as the 2 photons cancel each other;

:&lt;math&gt;r_{orbital} = r_{orbital} + (\lambda_i - \lambda_f)&lt;/math&gt;


However, the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_f&lt;/math&gt;) has the longer wavelength, and so after the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i&lt;/math&gt;) photon has been absorbed, and for the remaining duration of this (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_f&lt;/math&gt;) photon wavelength, at each transition step the orbital radius will be extended until the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_f&lt;/math&gt;) is also absorbed. At each step, as the orbital radius increases, the orbital rotation angle β will conversely decrease, and as the velocity of orbital rotation depends on β, the velocity will adjust accordingly.

For example, the electron is at the ''n'' = 1 orbital. To jump from an initial &lt;math&gt;n_i = 1&lt;/math&gt; orbital to a final &lt;math&gt;n_f = 2&lt;/math&gt; orbital, first the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i&lt;/math&gt;) photon is absorbed (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i + \lambda_{orbital} = zero&lt;/math&gt; which corresponds to 1 complete ''n'' = 1 orbit by the electron, the '''orbital phase'''), then the remaining (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_f&lt;/math&gt;) photon continues until it too is absorbed (the '''transition phase''').

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i = 1t_{ref}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_f = 4t_{ref}&lt;/math&gt; (''n'' = 2)


After &lt;math&gt;t_{ref}&lt;/math&gt; steps, the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i&lt;/math&gt;) photon is absorbed, but the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_f&lt;/math&gt;) photon still has &lt;math&gt;\lambda_f = (4-1)t_{ref}&lt;/math&gt; steps remaining until it too is absorbed.


[[File:atomic-orbital-transition-alpha-steps.png|thumb|right|277px|orbital transition during orbital rotation]]
Instead of a discrete jump between energy levels by the electron, absorption/emission takes place in steps, each step corresponds to a unit of &lt;math&gt;r_{incr}&lt;/math&gt;;

:&lt;math&gt;r_{incr} = -\frac{1}{2 \pi 2\alpha}&lt;/math&gt;


As &lt;math&gt;r_{incr}&lt;/math&gt; has a minus value, the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i&lt;/math&gt;) photon will shrink the orbital radius accordingly, per step

:&lt;math&gt;r_{orbital} = r_{orbital} + r_{incr}&lt;/math&gt; 


Conversely, because of its minus term, the (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_i&lt;/math&gt;) photon will extend the orbital radius accordingly;

:&lt;math&gt;r_{orbital} = r_{orbital} - r_{incr}&lt;/math&gt; 


The transition frequency is a combination of the orbital phase and the transition phase. 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{{n_f}^2 - {n_i}^2}{t_{orbital} + t_{transition}}&lt;/math&gt;


The model assumes orbits also follow along a [[Quantum_gravity_(Planck)#Hyper-sphere_orbit|timeline ''z''-axis]]

:&lt;math&gt;t_{orbital} = t_{ref} \sqrt{1 - \frac{1}{(v_{orbital})^2}}&lt;/math&gt; 

The orbital phase has a fixed radius, however at the transition phase this needs to be calculated for each discrete step as the orbital velocity depends on the radius;

:&lt;math&gt;t_{transition} = t_{ref} \sqrt{1 - \frac{1}{(v_{transition})^2}}&lt;/math&gt; 


===== Alpha spiral =====
[[File:Hyperbol-spiral-1.svg|thumb|right|320px|Hyperbolic spiral]]
A [[w:hyperbolic spiral |hyperbolic spiral]] is a type of [[w:spiral|spiral]] with a pitch angle that increases with distance from its center. As this curve widens (radius '''r''' increases), it approaches an [[w:asymptotic line|asymptotic line]] (the '''y'''-axis) with the limit set by a scaling factor '''a''' (as '''r''' approaches infinity, the '''y''' axis approaches '''a''').

In its simplest form, a [[w:fine structure constant|fine structure constant]] spiral (or alpha spiral) is a specific hyperbolic spiral that appears in [[w:Atomic electron transition|electron transitions]] between [[w:atomic orbital|atomic orbitals]] in a [[w:Hydrogen atom|Hydrogen atom]].


It can be represented in Cartesian coordinates by

:&lt;math&gt;x = a^2 \frac{cos(\varphi)}{\varphi^2},\; y = a^2 \frac{sin(\varphi)}{\varphi^2},\;0 &lt; \varphi &lt; 4\pi&lt;/math&gt;


This spiral has only 2 revolutions approaching 720° as the radius approaches infinity. If we set start radius '''r''' = 1, then at given angles radius '''r''' will have integer values (the angle components cancel).

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = (2)\pi, \; r = 4&lt;/math&gt; (360°)
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = (4/3)\pi,\; r = 9&lt;/math&gt; (240°)
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = (1)\pi, \;  r = 16&lt;/math&gt; (180°)
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = (4/5)\pi, \;  r = 25&lt;/math&gt; (144°)
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = (2/3)\pi, \;  r = 36&lt;/math&gt; (120°)


Starting with &lt;math&gt;\varphi = 0, \;r = 2\alpha&lt;/math&gt; (''n''=1), for each step during transition;

:&lt;math&gt;\beta = \frac{1}{r_{orbital} \sqrt{r_{orbital}}\sqrt{2\alpha}}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = \varphi + \beta&lt;/math&gt;


As &lt;math&gt;\beta&lt;/math&gt; is proportional to the radius, as the radius increases the value of &lt;math&gt;\beta&lt;/math&gt; will reduce correspondingly (likewise reducing the orbital velocity). 

{{see|Fine-structure_constant_(spiral)}}


[[File:H-orbit-transitions-n1-n2-n3-n1.gif|thumb|right|640px|fig 5. H atom orbital transitions from n1-n2, n2-n3, n3-n1 via 2 photon capture, photons expand/contract the orbital radius. The spiral pattern emerges because the electron is continuously pulled in an anti-clockwise direction by the rotating orbital.]]
===== H atom =====
The Bohr radius for an ionizing electron (H atom) follows this hyperbolic spiral. At specific spiral angles, the angle components (for this particular spiral) cancel returning an integer value for the radius (360°=4''r'', 360+120°=9''r'', 360+180°=16''r'', 360+216°=25''r'' ... 720°=∞''r'').

The wavelength of the electron in terms of the [[w:Rydberg constant|Rydberg constant]] = {{physconst|Rinf|after=}}

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda_e = \frac{2}{t_{ref} R}&lt;/math&gt;


In the classical [[w:Bohr model|Bohr model]], the electron orbits around the barycenter (center of mass) and for this is used the reduced mass (the CODATA proton-electron mass ratio ''μ'' = 1836.152673426(32)).

:&lt;math&gt;\mu_n = \frac{m_e + m_p}{m_p} = 1 + \frac{1}{\mu}&lt;/math&gt; = 1.000544 617 021


However, the &lt;math&gt;H_{1s-\infty s}&lt;/math&gt; (ionization) vs. Rydberg constant shows slight divergence

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{R}{H(1s-\infty s)}&lt;/math&gt; = 1.000533 776 387


The formula for transition, including the variable &lt;math&gt;\mu_n&lt;/math&gt; term;

:&lt;math&gt;f{(n_i\;to\;n_f)} = (\frac{t_{ref} R c}{\mu_n })(\frac{{n_f}^2 - {n_i}^2}{(t_{orbital} + t_{transition})})&lt;/math&gt;


We can then determine the precise value for &lt;math&gt;\mu_n&lt;/math&gt; for each energy level using the literature values as reference:

H(1s-2s) =  2466 061 413 187.035 kHz &lt;ref&gt;http://www2.mpq.mpg.de/~haensch/pdf/Improved%20Measurement%20of%20the%20Hydrogen%201S-2S%20Transition%20Frequency.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;

H(1s-3s) =  2922 743 278 665.79 kHz &lt;ref&gt;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33243883/&lt;/ref&gt;

H(1s-4s) =  3082 581 563 822.63 kHz &lt;ref&gt;https://codata.org/&lt;/ref&gt;


[[File:Hatom-alpha-orbital-spiral-angle-vs-transition-frequency-eV.jpg|thumb|right|447px|H atom transition (n=1 to n=64); alpha orbital spiral angles (pi) vs transition energies (eV)]]
Gives for these ''n'' levels

''n'' = 2,    &lt;math&gt;\mu_n&lt;/math&gt; = 1.000539 387 875  

''n'' = 3,    &lt;math&gt;\mu_n&lt;/math&gt; = 1.000536 337 888  

''n'' = 4,   &lt;math&gt;\mu_n&lt;/math&gt; = 1.000535 460 372  


Setting t = step number (FOR t = 1 TO ...), we can calculate the radius ''r'' and the &lt;math&gt;n_f^2&lt;/math&gt; at each step.

:&lt;math&gt;r = 2 \alpha + \frac{t}{2\pi 2\alpha}&lt;/math&gt; (number of increments ''t'' of &lt;math&gt;r_{incr}&lt;/math&gt;)

:&lt;math&gt;n_f^2 = 1 + \frac{t}{2\pi 4\alpha^2}&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;n_f^2&lt;/math&gt; as a function of ''t'') 

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi =4 \pi \frac{(n_f^2 - n_f)}{n_f^2}&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; at any &lt;math&gt;n_f^2&lt;/math&gt;) 


Solving for integer radius values gives 

:&lt;math&gt;f{(n_i\;to\;n_f)},\; n_i = 1&lt;/math&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, Malcolm J.; {{Cite journal |title=4. Atomic energy levels correlate exactly to pi via a hyperbolic spiral |journal=RG |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.23106.71367/9}}&lt;/ref&gt;:

(n&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; = 2) ''f'' = 2466 061 413 187.035 kHz, radius/(2α) = 4; 
                     
(n&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; = 3) ''f'' = 2922 743 278 665.790 kHz, radius/(2α) = 9; 

(n&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; = 4) ''f'' = 3082 581 563 822.630 kHz, radius/(2α) = 16; 

(n&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; = 5) ''f'' = 3156 563 322 099.082 kHz, radius/(2α) = 25; 
              
(n&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; = 6) ''f'' = 3196 750 686 730.957 kHz, radius/(2α) = 36; 
                     
(n&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; = 7) ''f'' = 3220 982 537 638.802 kHz, radius/(2α) = 49; 
 

[[File:orbital-transition-frequency-vs-spiral-angle-Rydberg-Hatom.jpg|thumb|right|526px|	
orbital transition frequencies (Rydberg - H) in eV vs spiral angle (pi) for transitions from n=1 up to n=64]]
We can also map the (continuous) transition energy difference (in eV) between a Rydberg atom (nucleus mass &gt;&gt; electron mass) and the lighter proton (y-axis = Rydberg atom - H atom), and find the H atom, as the electron drifts further from the proton, requires less energy when compared with the Rydberg atom, presumably to which the electron is more tightly bound. 


== External links ==</text>
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    <title>Workings of gcc and ld in plain view</title>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>21186</id>
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      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
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      <text bytes="3276" sha1="1ud05w9gu2aehgq3y630bkcjfvfb74i" xml:space="preserve">=== Workings of the GNU Compiler for IA-32 ===

==== Overview ====
* Overview ([[Media:Overview.20200211.pdf |pdf]])

==== Data Processing ====
* Access ([[Media:Access.20200409.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Operator.20200427.pdf |pdf]])

==== Control ====
* Conditions ([[Media:Condition.20230630.pdf |pdf]])
* Control ([[Media:Control.20220616.pdf |pdf]])

==== Function calls ==== 
* Procedure ([[Media:Procedure.20220412.pdf |pdf]])
* Recursion ([[Media:Recursion.20210824-2.pdf |pdf]])

==== Pointer and Aggregate Types ==== 
* Arrays ([[Media:Array.20211018.pdf |pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:Structure.20220101.pdf |pdf]])
* Alignment ([[Media:Alignment.20201117.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointers ([[Media:Pointer.20201106.pdf |pdf]])

==== Integer Arithmetic ==== 
* Overview ([[Media:gcc.1.Overview.20240813.pdf |pdf]])
* Carry Flag ([[Media:gcc.2.Carry.20241107.pdf |pdf]])
* Overflow Flag ([[Media:gcc.3.Overflow.20240724.pdf |pdf]])
* Examples ([[Media:gcc.4.Examples.20240724.pdf |pdf]])
* Borrow ([[Media:Borrow.20230701.pdf |pdf]])

==== Floating point Arithmetic ====
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Workings of the GNU Linker for IA-32 ===

==== Overview ====

* Static Linking Overview ([[Media:Link.3A.StaticLinking.20241108.pdf |pdf]])

* Dynamic Linking Overview ([[Media:Link.3B.DynamicLinking.20241101.pdf |pdf]])

* Shared Library Overview ([[Media:Link.3C.SharedLibrary.20241101.pdf |pdf]])

==== Library Search Path ====

* Library Search using -L and -l only ([[Media:Link.4A.LibSearch-withLl.20240807.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.4B.LibSearch-withLl.20240705.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Library Search Using RPATH ([[Media:Link.5A.LibSearch-RPATH.20241101.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.5B.LibSearch-RPATH.20240705.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Linking Process ====

* Object Files ([[Media:Link.3.A.Object.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.3.B.Object.20190405.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Symbols ([[Media:Link.4.A.Symbol.20190312.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.4.B.Symbol.20190312.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Relocation ([[Media:Link.5.A.Relocation.20190320.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.5.B.Relocation.20190322.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Loading ([[Media:Link.6.A.Loading.20190501.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.6.B.Loading.20190126.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Static Linking ([[Media:Link.7.A.StaticLink.20190122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.7.B.StaticLink.20190128.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Dynamic Linking ([[Media:Link.8.A.DynamicLink.20190207.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.8.B.DynamicLink.20190209.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Position Independent Code ([[Media:Link.9.A.PIC.20190304.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.9.B.PIC.20190309.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Example I ====
* Vector addition ([[Media:Eg1.1A.Vector.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.1B.Vector.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Swapping array elements ([[Media:Eg1.2A.Swap.20190302.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.2B.Swap.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Nested functions ([[Media:Eg1.3A.Nest.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.3B.Nest.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Examples II ====
* analysis of static linking ([[Media:Ex1.A.StaticLinkEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Ex2.B.StaticLinkEx.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]])

* analysis of dynamic linking ([[Media:Ex2.A.DynamicLinkEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]])

* analysis of PIC ([[Media:Ex3.A.PICEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;
go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming language]]</text>
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    <title>User:Dan Polansky</title>
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      <text bytes="13963" sha1="ann0si7k6267ih6vj6ez3y6bzj8s5bq" xml:space="preserve">{{#babel: cs|en-3|de-2|sk-1|ru-1}}
Dan Polansky is described in more detail at [[Meta:User:Dan Polansky]]. He is trained in computer science, earned money as a programmer and software engineer, and loves real philosophy and stubborn independent attempt to think clearly. He spent an inordinate time documenting mainly Czech vocabulary in the English Wiktionary, a job truly for a harmless drudge rather than a philosopher proper, but maybe it is like painting a hedge in The Karate Kid, an activity preparatory for philosophy in some sense.

Dan Polansky is a curator (quasi-administrator capable of deleting pages) of the English Wikiversity.

==Why Wikiversity==
Above all, Wikiversity allows original research, unlike Wikipedia (and probably unlike Wikibooks). Wikiversity does not require content to be encyclopedic, unlike Wikipedia. There is in general more freedom in how one ''gestalts'' (designs, shapes, makes up) the page/pages.

Moreover:
* If one wants to trace every single sentence to a source, one can.
* If one prefers itemized bullet points (discouraged on Wikipedia, which favors paragraphs), one can.
* If one has a paragraph of original deliberation not tracing to sources, one can have it.
* If one wants to include more material than would be ''encyclopedic'', one can, including various interesting lists, nested lists, tables, etc.
* If one dislikes having one's text mercilessly modified by anyone who comes along, whether anonymous IP editors and qualitatively unidentified editors (no education, job experience, age or other similar identification), one has the option of writing and editing one's own article.

See also [[Is Wikiversity a project worth having?]].

==Originality==
The contributions of Dan Polansky are original in the sense of author law: they are original formulations, original sequences of words that form phrases, clauses and sentences. By contrast, the ideas expressed in the formulations are often unoriginal, stemming from one of the books that Dan Polansky has read and that are identified below, or from a YouTube video such as a debate. Some ideas stem from face-to-face interactions with people, including relatives, friends, colleagues and teachers. The original contribution of Dan Polansky as for ideas is for the historians to identify.

==Created pages==
Selected created pages, whether articles or debates (see also [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pages/en.wikiversity.org/Dan%20Polansky xtools report]):
* COVID-19
** [[COVID-19/All-cause deaths]] -- amazing highly instructive graphs generated with the use of Python that hardly anyone views, given the page views
** [[COVID-19/Dan Polansky]]
** [[COVID-19 related censorship]]
** [[Review of Tomas Pueyo's articles on COVID-19 management]]
* Technology, its ethics, threat, and limits
** [[Technology as a threat or promise for life and its forms]]
** [[The limits of technological potential]]
** [[The limits of progress]]
** [[History of cornucopian thought]]
** [[Technosphere]]
** [[Saving the Earth]]
* Philosophy, psychology, miscellaneous
** [[Hedonism (Polansky)]]
** [[A human as multiple persons]]
** [[The burden of history in the design of functional entities]]
** [[Mind Children]] and [[Hans Moravec]]
** [[Concept]] and [[Concept clarification]]
** [[Donald Cameron's The Purpose of Life]]
** [[Transgenderism (Polansky)]]
** [[Qualitative consensus]]
** [[Defamation law in Czechia]]
** [[One man's look at the debate format in Wikiversity]]
** [[All Life is Problem Solving]]
** [[An analysis of identity]]
** [[An analysis of truth]]
** [[An analysis of reality]]
** [[A pictorial guide to asset price history]]
** [[Discrete-time dynamical system orbit diagram]]
** [[Mandelbrot set along the real axis and the orbits]]
** [[Mandelbrot set as a model for the concept of approximation]]
** [[Variations of the Mandelbrot set]]
** [[Original research on Wikimedia projects]]
** [[One man's look at copyright law]]
** [[One man's look at The Hacker's Diet]]
** [[An application of computability theory to epistemology in Popperian spirit]]
** [[A purpose of life: The power of living things]]
** [[Crafting Your Life Program]]
** [[Czech national identity]]
** [[One man's manual calculation exercises]]
** [[An analysis of counting and countability]]
** [[An analysis of the word program and its concepts]]
** [[A human as a biological robot]]
** [[Life expectancy in schizophrenia]]
** [[Life expectancy in bipolar disorder]]
** [[Bipolar disorder and psychosis]]
** [[Survivalism]]
** [[An analysis of the concept of algorithm]]
** [[Deadly Psychiatry and Organised Denial]]
** [[One man's look at the categorical imperative]]
** [[An analysis of the concept of person]]
** [[Developing a Universal Religion, a review]]
** [[One man's look at the arrow of time]]
** [[What is ethics]]
* Software
** [[FreeMind]]
** [[Comparison of Python and Perl]]
** [[AMOS programming language]]
** [[One man's look at C and C++]]
** [[Atari BASIC programming]]
** [[Learning 6502 assembly]]
** [[ABAP programming]]
* Linguistics, with possible philosophical component or aspect:
** [[Proper name]]
** [[Explication of modalities]]
** [[Elimination of dead metaphor from writing]]
** [[English as a hybrid Romance-Germanic language (Polansky)]]
** [[Compound (linguistics)]]
** [[Thesaurus (information retrieval)]]
** [[Thesaurus (lexicography)]]
** [[Slovak-Czech dissimilar terms]]
** [[Czech Wiktionary]]
** [[Czech diminutive]]
** [[Czech verb morphological productivity]]
** [[Czech dictionaries]]
** [[Word coinage during Czech National Revival]]
** [[One man's look at English]]
** [[One man's look at the design of dictionary definitions]]
* Many [[Wikidebate]]s
** [[Are wikidebates a good thing?]]
** [[Should Mill's harm principle be accepted?]]
** [[Should cryptocurrencies be banned?]]
** [[Should we aim to reduce the Earth population?]]
** [[Is Wikipedia consensus process good?]]
** [[Is collapse of the global civilization before year 2100 likely?]]
** [[Can electric cars significantly help humanity get off fossil fuels?]]
** Etc.; see [[:Category:Wikidebates]]
** Also about Wikidebates: [[One man's look at the debate format in Wikiversity]]

==Books in library==
Selected philosophical books in Dan Polansky's library, in physical form:
* Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by Pirsig
* Lila by Pirsig
* Guidebook to Guidebook to Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by DiSanto and Steele
* Gödel, Escher, Bach by Hofstadter
* Metamagical Themas by Hofstadter
* Alles Leben ist Problemlösen by Popper (in German)
* The Open Society and Its Enemies by Popper (volume 1: The Spell of Plato; volume 2: Hegel and Marx)
* Conjectures and Refutations by Popper
* Proofs and Refutations by Lakatos
* The Structure of Scientific Revolutions by Kuhn
* Word and Object by Quine
* Čtyři důvody pro zrušení televize by Mander, in Czech; original title: Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television
* In the Absence of the Sacred by Mander
* Meaning and Necessity by Kripke
* Mind Children by Moravec (arguably a book with a strong philosophical component)
* How the Mind Works by Pinker (although primarily a work of evolutionary psychology, there is a strong philosophical component)
* Darwin's Dangerous Idea by Dennett
* Cultural Software by Balkin
* Out of Control by Kelly
* Cybernetics by Wiener
* What is Life by Schrödinger
* Zen in the Art of Archery by Herrigel
* A New Introduction to Modal Logic by Hughes and Cresswell
* Moral Calculations by Mérö
* Against Method by Feyerabend (largely nonsense)
* The Conquest of Happiness by Russell
* What Do You Say After You Say Hello by Berne (officially a work of psychology, but seems philosophical enough)
* Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes by Gould
* Dialogue Concerning the two Chief World Systems by Galilei
* The Purpose of Life by Cameron
* The Greeks by Kitto
* The Value of Science by Poincaré
* The Society of Mind by Minsky
* A přesto říci životu ano by Frankl, in Czech (the English title: Man's Search for Meaning)
* Sociology, 6th edition, by Calhoun et al.
* Cybernetics by Wiener -- arguably philosophical
* Introduction to Cybernetics by Ashby -- arguably philosophical
* Saturnin by Jirotka -- a Czech comic novel that is arguably somewhat philosophical
* Only the Paranoid Survive by Grove -- only read, but not in my personal library
* Analytische Theorien der Metaphen[https://is.muni.cz/th/d6lfa/Analytische_Theorien_der_Metapher.pdf] by Mácha (Candidate English title: Analytical theories of metaphor.
* Steps to an Ecology of Mind by Bateson
* Selfish Gene by Dawkins
* Snad ti nedělají starosti cizí názory by Feynmann, in Czech (the English title: &quot;What Do You Care What Other People Think?&quot;)
* To snad nemyslíte vážně, pane Feynmanne! by Feynmann, in Czech (the English title: Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!)
* O povaze fyzikálních zákonů by Feynmann, in Czech (the English title: The Character of Physical Law)
* Programátorské poklesky by Kopeček and Kučera, in Czech -- has many philosophically interesting quotations

Philosophers who would appear to be properly classified as pseudo-philosophers: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Jaspers, Heidegger, Foucault, etc. Kant is perhaps somewhat unfairly on the list, but someone who claims that lying is strictly prohibited in all circumstances and that the knowledge of Newton's laws is a priori (pre-empirical) thereby creates an unfavorable impression. As for Foucault, I have read {{W|The Order of Things}} in Czech (Slova a věci) and I could not tell what in the world he was talking about, like what problems he was trying to address and what solutions he offered; it was &quot;not even wrong&quot;, as they say.

Dictionaries:
* Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, with a beautiful middle section showing a picture dictionary
* Penguin Thesaurus, a synonym dictionary
* Czech Etymological Dictionary by Rejzek
However, I use online dictionaries much more than those above.

Self-help and other non-philosophical books:
* The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People by Covey
* Living the 7 Habits by Covey
* How to Stop Worrying and Start Living by Carnegie -- some bad ideas, but also many good ideas
* How to Win Friends and Influence People by Carnegie -- some bad ideas, but also many good ideas
* Your Erroneous Zones by Dyer

Tolkien, arguably somewhat philosophical:
* The Hobbit, in Czech
* The Lord of the Rings, in Czech (read in English long time ago when I was a teenager and at that point, it was a hard reading)
* Silmarillion, in Czech

==Books read==
Selected books read that have philosophical, scientific or similar impact, other than those in [[#Books in library|Books in library]] section:
* Economics by Samuelson and Nordhaus
* The C++ Programming Language, 3rd edition, by Stroustrup, showing Stroustrup to be a great thinker
* Usability Engineering by Nielsen

==Online authoritative text resources==
Online authoritative text resources that I used during my philosophical and other investigations:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] (SEP), plato.stanford.edu
* [https://iep.utm.edu/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy], iep.utm.edu -- seems less excellent than SEP but still often worth having a look
* [[Wikisource: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]], especially [[Wikisource: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Classified List of Articles#Philosophy and Psychology]], a section for which I created many articles in Wikisource

==YouTube videos==
Some ideas stem from YouTube debates viewed or other videos:
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZRcYaAYWg4 The Catholic Church is a Force for Good in the World] featuring Hitchens, Fry, Onaiyekan and Widdecombe
* Etc; TBD.

Debaters:
* Christopher Hitchens, the ultimate debater
* Richard Dawkins
* Steven Pinker

==Films/movies==
Films/movies rich in intellectual ideas and fun, from which possibly some ideas are being drawn:
* {{W|12 Angry Men (1957 film)}} - shows the idea that a lone opposer stubbornly trying to think clearly and carefully examine the strength of the reasoning and evidence can turn the sides of supports and opposes around
* [[Wikipedia:The Boss of it All|The Boss of it All]] (Direktøren for det hele, Danish), including the ultimate Gambini, with whom the film starts and ends, staring the spectacular [[W:Jens Albinus|Jens Albinus]], and in some frames also the amazing director Lars von Trier (although many of his films are a bit too drastic)
* [[Wikipedia:District 9|District 9]], e.g. the funny name MNU: Multi-National United or the like, the ultimate evil über-corporate, and the incredibly funny main character Wikus van de Merwe, who is a cowardly and nasty little officer or something, an entity many of us have in our psyche
* [[Wikipedia:Adam's Apples|Adam's Apples]] (Adams Æbler, Danish), e.g. the funny quasi-corporate manager doing an analog of performance goal setting and über-positive thinker (Christopher, go to the father's office) Ivan; Ivan is also an ultimate provocateur in his &quot;is this a good looking man; is it your father&quot;, when referring to a picture of Hitler in Adam's (the nazi's) room; Ivan is played by the great [[W:Mads Mikkelsen|Mads Mikkelsen]], and other actors are also excellent
* [[Wikipedia:Box of Moonlight|Box of Moonlight]], somewhat reminiscent of Pirsig's contrast between classic and romantic, featuring a very responsible engineer and family man Al Fountain and a hippie or worse Kid, featuring the great {{W|John Turturro}} and {{W|Sam Rockwell}}

==Frequently viewed pages==
The following report shows most often viewed pages created by me:
* [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/userviews/?project=en.wikiversity.org Userviews Analysis for Dan Polansky, en.wikiversity.org], pageviews.wmcloud.org

==Policies and guidelines==
See [[:User:Dan Polansky/Policies and guidelines]]

==About Wikiversity==
See [[:User:Dan Polansky/About Wikiversity]]

==Subpages==

{{Subpages/List}}</text>
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    <title>Hans Moravec</title>
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This original article describes Hans Moravec, an Austrian-born American roboticist, researcher of artificial intelligence and a book author. The article takes advantage of Wikiversity being less strict about content inclusion than Wikipedia.

He is noted for his book [[Mind Children]] from 1988.

His publication list page has a lot of online articles capturing some of his thought and philosophy.

==See also==
* [[Mind Children]]

==Further reading==
About Hans Moravec by others:
* [[W:Hans Moravec]]
* [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hans-Moravec Hans Moravec], britannica.com
* [https://www.wired.com/1995/10/moravec/ Superhumanism], 1995, wired.com
* [https://www.davidjaybrown.com/blog/hans-moravec/ Hans Moravec | Mavericks of the Mind] -- David Jay Brown Interviews Hans Moravec

Hans Moravec own publications:
* [https://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/ Hans Moravec], frc.ri.cmu.edu, a home page
* [https://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/hpm.pubs.html Hans Moravec Publications], frc.ri.cmu.edu
* [https://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1978/analog.1978.html Today's Computers, Intelligent Machines and Our Future] by Hans Moravec, 1979</text>
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  <page>
    <title>ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>297536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681753</id>
      <parentid>2666342</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T00:15:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.135.204.168</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ISO 8601 */ Corrected the hypothetical, since February corresponds to 02</comment>
      <origin>2681753</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2465" sha1="3sidv93lc6x5nfjftor6l0ydvze0hsv" xml:space="preserve">This brief article describes how to compute differences between dates manually using ISO 8601 and suggests that it may be easier to remember dates in ISO 8601 format.  

== ISO 8601 ==

ISO 8601 is an international standard for dates and times.  For example, 01/02/03:  Is that January 2, 2003, or 1 February 2003 or 2001 - February 3?  You can't tell by looking, and [[w:Date format by country|each of these three alternative interpretations is used someplace in the world]].  The first two are both used in the US, so it's not easy to tell which interpretation is intended unless one of the three numbers is greater than 12.  

ISO 8601 solves this problem by insisting we write YYYY-MM-DD.  Thus, [[w:Christmas|Christmas]] Day 2003 for most people in the West is 2003-12-25 in ISO 8601 format.  Similarly, [[w:Valentine's Day|Valentine's Day]] 2001 is 2001-02-14.  

What's the time difference between Valentine's Day 2001 and Christmas 2003?  Easy:  

:(2003-12-25) - (2001-02-14) = (2-10-11) = 2 years, 10 months, and 11 days.  

Computing the difference between Christmas 2001 and Valentines 2003 is harder but not too hard:  

:(2003-02-14) - (2001-12-25)

We can't subtract 25 from 14 and get a positive number, but we can think of February 14 as the 45th day of January, so 2003-02-14 is the same as 2003-01-45.  With this equivalence, we can subtract 25 from 45 and get a difference of 20 days.  

Similarly, we can't subtract 12 from 1 and get a positive number.  However, again, we can think of January 2003 as the 13th month of 2002.  With this, we rewrite 2003-02-14 as 2003-01-45 and then as 2002-13-45.  Now we can subtract as follows:  

:(2002-13-45) - (2001-12-25) = (1-01-20) = one year plus 1 month and 20 days.  

Oh, that was almost hard ;-)

== Roman numerals == 

Have you ever tried to do arithmetic with [[w:Roman numerals|Roman numerals]]?  It's much easier with so-called [[w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]], which seem to have been invented in India and brought to Europe by Arab traders. 

At least for the present author it's much easier to do arithmetic with dates in ISO 8601 format than in other formats.  Moreover, it seems easier to remember dates in ISO 8601 format, perhaps because it's easier for me to remember the number for each month than the name;  it's certainly more obvious that June comes after March, etc.  

[[Category:Tutorials]]
[[Category:Dates]]
[[Category:Dates/Lectures]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Orthorexia and emotion</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>298559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681798</id>
      <parentid>2676575</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T06:20:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681798</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20536" sha1="2ogjpdgbkfzvwuz73xcxy314nsdjt5l" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|U3222012}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Eating]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychopathology]]
* What psychological theories can help to understand? What is the main research in this area?
Let me know if I can do anything else as you go along.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:53, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

:{{ping|U3229936}} Thanks for picking up this topic. I've added a title placeholder and the categories mentioned above. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:43, 11 August 2024 (UTC)
== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:U3229936|Hi [[User:U3229936|U3229936]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:44, 11 August 2024 (UTC)
|}

== Nice topic  ==

Orthorexia was a super interesting topic I looked into during a Nutrition Class. I specifically looked into the affects of Social media, could be something you explore as well. [[User:Annabelle Taylor|Annabelle Taylor]] ([[User talk:Annabelle Taylor|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Annabelle Taylor|contribs]]) 09:14, 13 August 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
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# The title and/or sub-title were not correctly worded and/or formatted. This has been corrected.
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# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Promising 2-level heading structure – could benefit from further development
# A heading about eating disorders isn't necessary. Instead, briefly describe/compare/contrast orthorexia and then provide embedded links to related book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles for more info about EDs more generally and/or other specific EDs
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# Generally well-written, but I recommend using the [https://unicanberra.instructure.com/courses/15707/external_tools/262?display=borderless Studiosity] service and/or a service like [https://www.grammarly.com/ Grammarly] to help improve the quality of written expression because there are grammatical errors.
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## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting]
## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable)
## use dois where available instead of other links
## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
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&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence – this was covered in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03]]. Looking ahead to the book chapter submission, see how to earn marks for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:45, 18 August 2024 (UTC)

== Interesting page :) ==

Hi, reading your chapter so far it looks like it flows really nicely and is very interesting. I think it’s kind of connected to my chapter topic on the gut-brain axis and emotion. I’ve come across an article you might find interesting that explains how starting a specific diet for “digestive issues” due to gut imbalances, can lead to orthorexia. If you’re interested, heres the link for the study https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nmo.14427    [[User:U3239091|U3239091]] ([[User talk:U3239091|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3239091|contribs]]) 23:13, 26 September 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a very good chapter. It makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Very good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# In some places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. The content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes.
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FOrthorexia_and_emotion&amp;diff=2676574&amp;oldid=2665459 these copyedits]
|2=
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# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
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# Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
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&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# Refer to current version of the DSM
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# Builds somewhat on Wikipedia articles; to improve the chapter, build more strongly on other Wikipedia articles related book chapters by including more embedded links for key terms
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# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Basic use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
# In some places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
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&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Basic critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent integration between theory and research
|6=
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# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
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&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags)
## Some sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of 34.5. Aim for 50+.
## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
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## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
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## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who]
## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] (semicolons are overused)
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## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
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# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Use double (not single) quotation marks &quot;to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression&quot; (APA 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
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### Well captioned
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## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
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## Citations use good APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
### Use ampersand (&amp;) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and &quot;and&quot; outside parentheses
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use reasonably good APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Remove publisher location
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Good use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Embedded links to Wikipedia --&gt;
# Basic use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features - Embedded links to Wikiversity --&gt;
# No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
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# Basic use of table(s)
# Reasonably good use of feature box(es)
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# ~3 logged, useful, mostly minor social contributions with direct links to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:06, 27 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
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# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
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}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:20, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>2ogjpdgbkfzvwuz73xcxy314nsdjt5l</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Cut the coordinates! (or Vector Analysis Done Fast)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>302374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681804</id>
      <parentid>2678030</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T08:07:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gavin R Putland</username>
        <id>2838145</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2681804</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="287019" sha1="h42qn3q8m5lb2cq91j9g5jtjbrusazx" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first = Gavin R.
| last = Putland
| orcid = 0000-0003-4757-6341
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| correspondence = [[w:Special:EmailUser/Gavin_R_Putland|Contact form]]
| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| abstract = The gradient, the curl, the divergence, and the Laplacian are initially defined, without coordinates, as closed-surface integrals per unit volume&amp;mdash;the definition of the Laplacian being indifferent to whether the operand is a scalar field or a vector field. Four integral theorems&amp;mdash;including the divergence theorem&amp;mdash;follow almost immediately, provided that the initial definitions are unambiguous. Their unambiguity, together with their usefulness, is established as follows, at a level suitable for beginners (although this abstract is for prospective instructors):
* The gradient is related to an acceleration through an equation of motion;
* The divergence is related to two time-derivatives of density (the partial derivative and the material derivative) through two forms of an equation of continuity;
* The component of the curl in a general direction is expressed as a divergence (now known to be unambiguous);
* The same is done for the general component of the gradient, yielding not only a second proof of unambiguity of the gradient, but also the relation between the gradient and the directional derivative; this together with the original definition of the Laplacian shows that the Laplacian of a ''scalar'' field is the divergence of the gradient and therefore unambiguous. The unambiguity of the Laplacian of a ''vector'' field then follows from a component argument (as for the curl) or from a linearity argument.
The derivation of the relation between the gradient and the directional derivative yields a coordinate-free definition of the dot-del operator for a scalar right-hand operand. But, as the directional derivative is also defined for a non-scalar operand, the same relation offers a method of generalizing the dot-del operator, so that the definition of the Laplacian of a general field can be rewritten with that operator. The advection operator&amp;mdash;derived without coordinates, for both scalar and vector properties&amp;mdash;is likewise rewritten.

Meanwhile comparison between the definitions of the various operators leads to coordinate-free definitions of the del-cross, del-dot, and del-squared operators. These together with the dot-del operator allow the four integral theorems to be condensed into a single generalized volume-integral theorem.

If the volume of integration is reduced to a thin curved slab of uniform thickness, with an edge-face perpendicular to the broad faces, the four integral theorems are reduced to their two-dimensional forms, each of which relates an integral over a surface segment to an integral around its enclosing curve, provided that the original ''closed''-surface integral has no contribution from the broad faces of the slab. This proviso can be satisfied by construction in two of the four cases, yielding two general theorems, one of which is the Kelvin&amp;ndash;Stokes theorem. By applying these two theorems to a segment of a closed surface, and expanding the segment to cover the entire surface, it is shown that the gradient is irrotational and the curl is solenoidal.

The next part of the exposition is more conventional, but still coordinate-free. The gradient theorem is derived from the relation between the gradient and the directional derivative. An irrotational field is shown to have a scalar potential. The 1/''r''&amp;#8202; scalar field is shown to be the field whose negative gradient is the inverse-square vector field, whose divergence is a delta function, which is therefore also the negative Laplacian of the 1/''r''&amp;#8202; scalar field. These results enable the construction of a field with a given divergence or a given Laplacian. The wave equation is derived from small-amplitude sound waves in a non-viscous fluid, and shown to be satisfied by a spherical-wave field with a 1/''r''&amp;#8202; amplitude, whose D'Alembertian is a delta function, enabling the construction of a wave function with a given D'Alembertian. But further progress, including the construction of a field with a given ''curl'', seems to require the introduction of coordinates.

With the aid of identities already found, expressions are easily obtained for the gradient, curl, divergence, Laplacian, and advection operators in Cartesian coordinates&amp;mdash;with indicial notation and implicit summation, for brevity. While the resulting expressions for the curl and divergence may look unfamiliar, they match the initial definitions given by J.&amp;#8239;Willard Gibbs. The Cartesian expressions are found convenient for deriving further identities: a comprehensive collection is derived, leading to the construction of a field with a given curl in a star-shaped region and, as a by-product, a demonstration that the curl of the velocity field of a rigid body is twice the angular velocity. The curl-of-the-curl identity leads to a second definition of the Laplacian of a vector, the Helmholtz decomposition, and the prediction of electromagnetic waves.

The time-honored method of deriving vector-analytic identities&amp;mdash;treating the divergence and curl as &quot;formal products&quot; with the del operator, varying one field at a time, and adding the results&amp;mdash;is found to be less than rigorous, sometimes less than clear, and hard to justify in view of the ease with which the same thing can be done with Cartesian coordinates, indicial notation, and implicit summation.

The introduction of ''general'' coordinates proceeds through (non-normalized) natural and dual basis vectors, reciprocity, the Kronecker delta, covariance of the natural basis, contravariance of the dual basis, contravariant and covariant components, local bases, contravariance of coordinates, covariance of derivatives w.r.t. coordinates, the Jacobian, and handedness. Reciprocity leads to the dot-product of two vector fields and, via the permutation symbol, to the cross-products of the basis vectors, the definition of one basis in terms of the other, the cross-product of two vector fields, and reciprocity of the covariant and contravariant Jacobians. Thus the stage is set for expressing operators in general coordinates.

The multivariate chain rule leads to expressions for the directional derivative (in terms of the contravariant basis), hence the gradient (del) and advection operators. The identity for the curl of the product of a scalar and a vector leads to an expression for the curl in terms of covariant components. Expressions for the curl and divergence ''operators'' are obtained from the original volume-based definitions, and are found to agree with del-cross and del-dot respectively, with del expressed in the same general coordinates. The volume-based definition of the divergence leads, by a simpler path, to an expression in terms of contravariant components, which in turn yields an expression for the Laplacian.

::'''&amp;vellip;'''

'''[''To be continued.'']'''
| keywords = curvilinear coordinates, general coordinates, symbolic vector
}}

== Introduction ==

[[w:Sheldon Axler|Sheldon Axler]], in his essay &quot;Down with determinants!&quot; ([[#axler-95|1995]]) and his ensuing book ''Linear Algebra Done Right'' (4th Ed., [[#axler-23-|2023–]]), does not entirely eliminate determinants, but introduces them as late as possible and then exploits them for what he calls their &quot;main reasonable use in undergraduate mathematics&quot;, namely the change-of-variables formula for multiple integrals.&lt;ref&gt;[[#axler-95|Axler, 1995]], &amp;sect;9. The relegation of determinants was anticipated by C.G.&amp;#8239;Broyden ([[#broyden-75|1975]]). But Broyden's approach is less radical: he does not deal with abstract vector spaces or abstract linear transformations, and his eventual definition of the determinant, unlike Axler's, is traditional&amp;mdash;not a product of the preceding narrative.&lt;/ref&gt; Here I treat coordinates in vector analysis somewhat as Axler treats determinants in linear algebra: I introduce coordinates as late as possible, and then exploit them in unconventionally ''rigorous'' derivations of vector-analytic identities from (e.g.) vector-algebraic identities. But I contrast with Axler in at least two ways. First, as my subtitle suggests, I have no intention of expanding my paper into a book. Brevity is of the essence. Second, while one may well avoid determinants in ''numerical''&amp;#8202; linear algebra,&lt;ref&gt;[[#axler-95|Axler, 1995]], &amp;sect;1. But it is Broyden ([[#broyden-75|1975]]), not Axler, who discusses numerical methods at length.&lt;/ref&gt; one can hardly avoid coordinates in ''numerical'' vector analysis! So I cannot extend the coordinate-minimizing path into computation. But I can extend it up to the threshold by expressing the operators of vector analysis in general coordinates and orthogonal coordinates, leaving it for others to specialize the coordinates and compute with them. On the way, I can satisfy readers who need the concepts of vector analysis for ''theoretical'' purposes, and who would rather read a paper than a book.

=== The cost of coordinates ===

Mathematicians define a &quot;vector&quot; as a member of a ''[[w:vector space|vector space]]'', which is a [[w:set (mathematics)|set]] whose members satisfy certain basic rules of algebra (called the ''vector-space axioms'') with respect to another set (called a ''[[w:field (mathematics)|field]]''), which has its own basic rules of algebra (the ''field axioms''), and whose members are called &quot;scalars&quot;. Physicists are more fussy. They typically want a &quot;vector&quot; to be not only a member of a vector space, but also a '''first-order tensor'''&amp;#8239;: a &quot;tensor&quot;, meaning that it exists independently of any coordinate system with which it might be specified; and &quot;first-order&quot; (or &quot;first-degree&quot;, or &quot;first-rank&quot;), meaning that it is specified by a ''one''-dimensional array of numbers. Similarly, a 2nd-order tensor is specified by a 2-dimensional array (a matrix), and a 3rd-order by a 3-dimensional array, and so on. Hence they want a &quot;scalar&quot;, which is specified by a single number (a zero-dimensional array), to be a ''zero-order tensor''. In &quot;vector analysis&quot;, we are greatly interested in applications to physical situations, and accordingly take the physicists' view on what constitutes a vector or a scalar.

So, for our purposes, defining a quantity by three components in (say) a Cartesian coordinate system is not enough to make it a vector, and defining a quantity as a real function of a list of coordinates is not enough to make it a scalar, because we still need to show that the quantity has an independent existence. One way to do this is to show that its coordinate representation behaves appropriately when the coordinate system is changed. Independent existence of a ''quantity'' means that its coordinate representation changes so as to compensate for the change in the coordinate system.&lt;ref&gt;E.g., Feynman ([[#feynman-63|1963]], vol.&amp;#8239;1, &amp;sect;&amp;#8202;11-5), having defined velocity from displacement in Cartesian coordinates, shows that velocity is a vector by showing that its coordinate representation contra-rotates (like that of displacement) if the coordinate system rotates.&lt;/ref&gt; But independent existence of an ''operator'' means that its expression in one coordinate system (with the operand[s] and the result ''in that system'') gives the same result as the corresponding expression in another coordinate system.&lt;ref&gt;E.g., Feynman ([[#feynman-63|1963]], vol.&amp;#8239;1, &amp;sect;&amp;#8202;11-7), having defined the magnitude and dot-product in Cartesian coordinates, proves that they are scalar functions by showing that the corresponding expressions in rotated (&quot;primed&quot;) coordinates give the same values as the original expressions (in &quot;unprimed&quot; coordinates). And Tai ([[#tai-95|1995]], pp.&amp;#8239;66–7), having found an expression for the &quot;gradient&quot; operator in a general coordinate system (the &quot;unprimed&quot; system), proves the &quot;invariance&quot; of the operator (its vector character in this case) by showing that the corresponding expression in any other general coordinate system (the &quot;primed&quot; system) has the same effect.&lt;/ref&gt;

Here we circumvent these complications by the most obvious route: by ''initially'' defining things without coordinates. If, having defined something without coordinates, we then need to represent it ''with'' coordinates, we can choose the coordinate system for convenience rather than generality.

=== The limitations of limits ===

In the branch of pure mathematics known as ''analysis'', there is a thing called a ''limit'', whereby for every positive ''&amp;epsiv;''&amp;#8202; there exists a positive ''&amp;delta;'' such that if some increment is less than ''&amp;delta;'', some error is less than ''&amp;epsiv;''. In the branch of applied mathematics known as ''[[w:continuum mechanics|continuum mechanics]]'', there is a thing called reality, whereby if the increment is less than some positive ''&amp;delta;'', the assumption of a continuum becomes ridiculous, so that the error cannot be made less than an ''arbitrary &amp;epsiv;''. Yet vector &quot;analysis&quot; (together with higher-order tensors) is typically studied with the intention of applying it to some form of &quot;continuum&quot; mechanics, such as the modeling of elasticity, plasticity, fluid flow, or (widening the net) electrodynamics of ordinary matter; in short, it is studied with the intention of conveniently forgetting that, on a sufficiently small scale, matter is lumpy.{{efn|Even if we claim that &quot;particles&quot; of matter are wave functions and therefore continuous, this still implies that matter is lumpy in a manner not normally contemplated by continuum mechanics.}} One might therefore submit that to express the principles of vector analysis in the language of limits is to strain at a gnat and swallow a camel. Here I avoid that camel by referring to '''elements''' of length or area or volume, each of which is ''small'' enough to allow some quantity or quantities to be considered uniform within it, but, for the same reason, ''large'' enough to allow such local averaging of the said quantity or quantities as is necessary to tune out the lumpiness.

We shall see bigger camels, where well-known authors define or misdefine a vector ''operator'' and then want to treat it like an ordinary vector (a ''quantity''). These I also avoid.

=== Prerequisites ===

I assume that the reader is familiar with the algebra and geometry of vectors in 3D space, including the dot-product, the cross-product, and the scalar triple product, their geometric meanings, their expressions in Cartesian coordinates, and the identity
:{{big|{{math|'''a''' &amp;times; ('''b''' &amp;times; '''c''')  {{=}}  '''a&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;c b''' &amp;minus; '''a&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;b c''' ,}}}}
which we call the &quot;expansion&quot; of the vector triple product.&lt;ref&gt;There are many proofs and interpretations of this identity. My own effort, for what it's worth, is &quot;Trigonometric proof of vector triple product expansion&quot;, ''Mathematics Stack Exchange'', [https://math.stackexchange.com/a/4839213/307861 t.co/NM2v4DJJGo], 2024. The classic is [[#gibbs-1881-4|Gibbs, 1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;sect;&amp;#8239;26–7.&lt;/ref&gt; I further assume that the reader can generalize the concept of a derivative, so as to differentiate a vector with respect to a scalar, e.g.
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r}'(t) = \frac{d\mathbf{r}}{dt}
  =\, \lim_{h\to 0} \frac{\mathbf{r}(t+h) - \mathbf{r}(t)}{h} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
or so as to differentiate a function of several independent variables &quot;partially&quot; w.r.t. one of them while the others are held constant, e.g.
:&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\part}{\part y} \psi\big(x,y,z\big)
  =\, \lim_{h\to 0} \frac{\psi(x,y{+}h~\!,z) - \psi(x,y,z)}{h} \,.&lt;/math&gt;

But in view of the above remarks on limits, I also expect the reader to be tolerant of an argument like this: In a short time{{mvar| dt}}, let the vectors {{math|'''r'''}} and {{math|'''p'''}} change by {{math|''d'''''r'''}} and {{math|''d'''''p'''}} respectively. Then
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
  \tfrac{d}{dt}\big(\mathbf{r}\!\times\!\mathbf{p}\big)
  &amp;= \frac{(\mathbf{r}+d\mathbf{r})\times(\mathbf{p}+d\mathbf{p})
            \,-\, \mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}}{dt}\\[1ex]
  &amp;= \frac{\mathbf{r}\!\times\!d\mathbf{p}+d\mathbf{r}\!\times\!\mathbf{p}}{dt}
       ~~\quad [\mathsf{neglecting}~d\mathbf{r}\!\times\!d\mathbf{p}]\\[1ex]
  &amp;=\, \mathbf{r}\times\!\tfrac{d\mathbf{p}}{dt}
       + \tfrac{d\mathbf{r}}{dt}\!\times\mathbf{p}\\[1ex]
  &amp;=\, \mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{\dot{p}}\,+\,\mathbf{\dot{r}}\times\mathbf{p}\,,
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
where, as always, the orders of the cross-products matter.{{efn|If {{math|'''r'''}} is the position of a particle and {{math|'''p'''}} is its momentum, the last term vanishes. If the force is toward the origin, the previous term also vanishes, and we are left with ''conservation of angular momentum'' about the origin.}} Differentiation of a ''dot''-product behaves similarly, except that the orders ''don't'' matter; and if&amp;#8239;{{math| '''p'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''m'''''v'''}}, where {{mvar|m}} is a scalar and {{math|'''v'''}} is a vector, then
:&lt;math&gt;~~\mathbf{\dot{p}} = m\mathbf{\dot{v}} + \dot{m}\mathbf{v} \,.&lt;/math&gt;

Or an argument like this:  If&lt;math&gt;~z\!=\!f(x,y)&lt;/math&gt;, then
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
  \frac{\part^2 z}{\part x\,\part y}
  &amp;= \tfrac{\part}{\part x}\,\tfrac{\part}{\part y} f\big(x,y\big)\\
  &amp;= \frac{\part}{\part x}\,\frac{f(x,y{+}dy)-f(x,y)}{dy}\\[1ex]
  &amp;= \frac{\,\frac{f(x{+}dx~\!,\,y{+}dy)\,-\,f(x{+}dx~\!,\,y)}{dy}
           - \frac{f(x,\,y{+}dy)\,-\,f(x,y)}{dy}\,} {dx}\\[2ex]
  &amp;= \frac{\,\frac{f(x{+}dx~\!,\,y{+}dy)\,-\,f(x,\,y{+}dy)}{dx}
           - \frac{f(x{+}dx~\!,\,y)\,-\,f(x,y)}{dx}\,} {dy}\\[1ex]
  &amp;= \frac{\part}{\part y}\,\frac{f(x{+}dx~\!,~\!y)-f(x,y)}{dx}\\[1ex]
  &amp;= \tfrac{\part}{\part y}\,\tfrac{\part}{\part x} f\big(x,y\big)
   = \frac{\part^2 z}{\part y\,\part x} \,;
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
that is, we can switch the order of differentiation in a &quot;mixed&quot; partial derivative. If{{mvar| &amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;}} is an abbreviation for {{mvar|{{sfrac|&amp;part;|&amp;part;x}}&amp;#8202;}}, etc., this rule can be written in '''operational''' terms as
:{{big|{{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;x &lt;/sub&gt;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;y&lt;/sub&gt; {{=}} &amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;y &lt;/sub&gt;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;x &lt;/sub&gt;.}}}}
More generally, if {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}} is an abbreviation for {{mvar|{{sfrac|&amp;part;|&amp;part;x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}}}&amp;#8202; where&amp;#8202; {{math|''i''&amp;#8239;&amp;#8714;&amp;#8202;&amp;lcub;1,&amp;#8202;2,&amp;hellip;&amp;rcub;,}}&amp;#8202; the rule becomes
:{{big|{{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i &lt;/sub&gt;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt; {{=}} &amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;j &lt;/sub&gt;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i &lt;/sub&gt;.}}}}

These generalizations of differentiation, however, do not go beyond differentiation w.r.t. ''real'' variables, some of which are scalars, and some of which are coordinates. Vector analysis involves quantities that may be loosely described as derivatives w.r.t. a ''vector''&amp;mdash;usually the position vector.

== Closed-surface integrals per unit volume ==

The term ''field'', mentioned above in the context of algebraic axioms, has an alternative meaning: if {{math|'''r'''}} is the position vector, a '''scalar field''' is a scalar-valued function of {{math|'''r''',}} and a '''vector field''' is a vector-valued function of {{math|'''r'''}}; both may also depend on time. These are the functions of which we want &quot;derivatives&quot; w.r.t. the vector{{math| '''r'''}}.

In this section I introduce four such derivatives&amp;mdash;the ''gradient'', the ''curl'', the ''divergence'', and the ''Laplacian''&amp;#8202;&amp;mdash;in a way that will seem unremarkable to those readers who aren't already familiar with them, but idiosyncratic to those who are. The gradient is commonly introduced in connection with a curve and its endpoints, the curl in connection with a surface segment and its enclosing curve, the divergence in connection with a volume and its enclosing surface, and the Laplacian as a composite of two of the above, initially applicable only to a scalar field. Here I introduce all four in connection with a volume and its enclosing surface; and I introduce the Laplacian as a concept in its own right, equally applicable to a scalar ''or vector'' field, and only later relate it to the others. My initial definitions of the gradient, the curl, and the Laplacian, although not novel, are usually thought to be more advanced than the common ones&amp;mdash;in spite of being conceptually simpler, and in spite of being obvious variations on the same theme.

=== Instant integral theorems (with a caveat) ===

Let {{mvar|V}} be a volume (3D region) enclosed by a surface {{mvar|S}} (a mathematical surface, ''not'' generally a physical barrier). Let {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} be the unit normal vector at a general point on {{mvar|S}}, pointing ''out'' of {{mvar|V}}. Let {{mvar|n}} be the distance from {{mvar|S}} in the direction of {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} (positive outside {{mvar|V}}, negative inside), and let {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;}} be an abbreviation for{{mvar| {{sfrac|&amp;part;|&amp;part;n}}&amp;#8202;}}, where the derivative&amp;mdash;commonly called the '''normal derivative'''&amp;mdash;is tacitly assumed to exist.

In {{mvar|V}}, and on {{mvar|S}}, let {{mvar|p}} be a scalar field (e.g., pressure in a fluid, or temperature), and let {{math|'''q'''}} be a vector field (e.g., flow velocity, or heat-flow density), and let {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} be a generic field which may be a scalar or a vector. Let a general element of the surface {{mvar|S}} have area {{mvar|dS}}, and let it be small enough to allow {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}}, {{mvar|p}}, {{math|'''q'''}}, and {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;psi;}} to be considered uniform over the element. Then, for every element, the following four products are well defined:
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\hat{n}}            ~\!p\,dS ~,\qquad
                 \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q}\,dS ~,\qquad
                 \mathbf{\hat{n}         \cdot q}\,dS ~,\qquad
                 \part_n                     \psi\;dS \,.
          &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|1}}}}
If {{mvar|p}} is pressure in a non-viscous fluid, the first of these products is the force exerted by the fluid in {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; through the area {{mvar|dS}}. The second product does not have such an obvious physical interpretation; but if {{math|'''q'''}} is ''circulating'' clockwise about an axis directed through {{mvar|V}}, the cross-product will be exactly tangential to {{mvar|S}} and will tend to have a component in the direction of that axis. The third product is the ''flux'' of {{math|'''q'''}} through the surface element; if {{math|'''q'''}} is flow velocity, the third product is the volumetric flow rate (volume per unit time) ''out'' of {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; through {{mvar|dS&amp;#8202;}}; or if {{math|'''q'''}} is heat-flow density, the third product is the heat transfer rate (energy per unit time) ''out'' of {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; through {{mvar|dS}}. The fourth product, by analogy with the third, might be called the flux of the normal derivative of {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} through the surface element, but is equally well defined whether {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a scalar or a vector&amp;mdash;or, for that matter, a matrix, or a tensor of any order, or anything else that we can differentiate w.r.t.{{mvar| n}}.

If we add up each of the four products over all the elements of the surface {{mvar|S}}, we obtain, respectively, the four '''surface integrals'''
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\iint_S \!\mathbf{\hat{n}}            ~\!p\,dS \,,~
                 \iint_S \!\mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q}\,dS \,,~
                 \iint_S \!\mathbf{\hat{n}         \cdot q}\,dS \,,~
                 \iint_S \!\part_n                     \psi\;dS \,,
          &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|2}}}}
in which the double integral sign indicates that the range of integration is two-dimensional. The first surface integral takes a scalar field and yields a vector; the second takes a vector field and yields a vector; the third takes a vector field and yields a scalar; and the fourth takes (e.g.) a scalar field yielding a scalar, or a vector field yielding a vector. If{{mvar| p}} is pressure in a non-viscous fluid, the first integral is the force exerted by the fluid in {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; on the fluid outside {{mvar|V}}. The second integral may be called the ''skew'' surface integral of {{math|'''q'''}} over {{mvar|S&amp;#8202;}},&lt;ref&gt;[[#gibbs-1881-4|Gibbs, 1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;56.&lt;/ref&gt; or, for the reason hinted above, the ''circulation'' of {{math|'''q'''}} over {{mvar|S}}.&amp;#8201; The third integral, commonly called the ''flux integral'' (or simply the surface integral) of {{math|'''q'''}} over {{mvar|S}}, is the total ''flux'' of {{math|'''q'''}} out of {{mvar|V}}. And the fourth integral is the surface integral of the outward normal derivative of {{mvar|&amp;psi;}}.

Let the volume {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; be divided into elements. Let a general volume element have the volume {{mvar|dV}} and be enclosed by the surface {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}&amp;#8201;&amp;mdash;not to be confused with the area {{mvar|dS}} of a surface ''element'', which may be an element of {{mvar|S}} or of {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}. Now consider what happens if, instead of evaluating each of the above surface integrals over {{mvar|S}}, we evaluate it over each {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} and add up the results for all the volume elements. In the ''interior'' of {{mvar|V}}, each surface element of area {{mvar|dS}} is on the boundary between two volume elements, for which the unit normals {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} at {{mvar|dS}}, and the respective values of {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;psi;}}, are equal and opposite. Hence when we add up the integrals over the surfaces {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}, the contributions from the elements {{mvar|dS}} cancel in pairs, except on the original surface {{mvar|S}}, so that we are left with the original integral over {{mvar|S}}. So, for the four surface integrals in ({{EquationNote|2}}), we have respectively
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}~\!p \,dS
    &amp; \,= \sum_V\iint_{\delta S} \mathbf{\hat{n}}~\!p \,dS \,, \\
    \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q} \,dS
    &amp; \,= \sum_V\iint_{\delta S} \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q} \,dS \,, \\
    \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}\cdot q} \,dS
    &amp; \,= \sum_V\iint_{\delta S} \mathbf{\hat{n}\cdot q} \,dS \,, \\
    \iint_S \part_n \psi \;dS
    &amp; \,= \sum_V\iint_{\delta S} \part_n \psi \;dS \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|3}}}}

Now comes a big &quot;if&quot;:&amp;#8201; ''if''&amp;#8202; we define the '''gradient''' of {{mvar|p}} (pronounced &quot;grad {{mvar|p}}&quot;) inside {{mvar|dV}}&amp;#8202; as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\nabla p
    \,:=\, \frac{1}{dV}\iint_{\delta S} \mathbf{\hat{n}}~\!p \,dS
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|4g}}}}
and the '''curl''' of {{math|'''q'''}} inside {{mvar|dV}}&amp;#8202; as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    \,:=\, \frac{1}{dV}\iint_{\delta S} \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q} \,dS
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|4c}}}}
and the '''divergence''' of {{math|'''q'''}} inside {{mvar|dV}}&amp;#8202; as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
    \,:=\, \frac{1}{dV}\iint_{\delta S} \mathbf{\hat{n}\cdot q} \,dS
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|4d}}}}
and the '''Laplacian''' of {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} inside {{mvar|dV}}&amp;#8202; as&amp;#8202;{{efn|Here we use the broad triangle symbol {{math|(&amp;#9651;)}} rather than the narrower Greek Delta {{math|(&amp;Delta;)}}; the latter would more likely be misinterpreted as &quot;change in&amp;hellip;&quot;}}
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\triangle\psi
    \,:=\, \frac{1}{dV}\iint_{\delta S} \part_n \psi \;dS
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|4L}}}}
(where the letters after the equation number stand for ''gradient'', ''curl'', ''divergence'', and ''Laplacian'', respectively), then equations ({{EquationNote|3}}) can be rewritten
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}~\!p \,dS
    &amp; \,= \sum_V \nabla p ~dV \,, \\
    \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q} \,dS
    &amp; \,= \sum_V \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} ~dV \,, \\
    \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}\cdot q} \,dS
    &amp; \,= \sum_V \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} ~dV \,, \\
    \iint_S \part_n \psi \;dS
    &amp; \,= \sum_V \triangle\psi ~dV \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
But because each term in each sum has a factor {{mvar|dV}}, we call the sum an integral; and because the range of integration is three-dimensional, we use a triple integral sign. Thus we obtain the following four theorems relating integrals over an enclosing surface {{mvar|S}}&amp;#8202; to integrals over the enclosed volume {{mvar|V&amp;#8202;}}:
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;~~~~~\!\iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}~\!p \,dS
    \,= \iiint_V \nabla p ~dV \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|5g}}}}
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q} \,dS
    \,= \iiint_V \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} ~dV \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|5c}}}}
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;~~\!\iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}\cdot q} \,dS
    \,= \iiint_V \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} ~dV \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|5d}}}}
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;~~\iint_S \part_n \psi \;dS
    \,= \iiint_V \triangle\psi ~dV \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|5L}}}}
Of the above four results, only the third ({{EquationNote|5d}}) seems to have a standard name; it is called the '''divergence theorem''' (or ''Gauss's theorem'' or, more properly, ''[[w:Mikhail Ostrogradsky|Ostrogradsky]]'s theorem''&lt;ref&gt;[[#katz-79|Katz, 1979]], pp.&amp;#8239;146–9.&lt;/ref&gt;), and is indeed the best known of the four&amp;mdash;although the other three, having been derived in parallel with it, may be said to be equally fundamental.

As each of the operators {{math|&amp;nabla;,}} {{math|curl,}} and {{math|div}} calls for an integration w.r.t. area and then a division by volume, the ''dimension'' (or unit of measurement) of the result is the dimension of the operand divided by the dimension of length, as if the operation were some sort of differentiation w.r.t. position. Moreover, in each of equations ({{EquationNote|5g}}) to ({{EquationNote|5d}}), there is a triple integral on the right but only a double integral on the left, so that each of the operators {{math|&amp;nabla;,}} {{math|curl,}} and {{math|div}} appears to compensate for a single integration. For these reasons, and for convenience, we shall describe them as '''differential operators'''. By comparison, the {{math|&amp;#9651; }}operator in ({{EquationNote|4L}}) or ({{EquationNote|5L}}) calls for a further differentiation w.r.t.{{mvar| n&amp;#8202;}}; we shall therefore describe {{math|&amp;#9651;}} as a ''2nd-order'' differential operator. (An additional reason for these descriptions will emerge later.) As promised, the four definitions ({{EquationNote|4g}}) to ({{EquationNote|4L}}) are &quot;obvious variations on the same theme&quot; (although the fourth is somewhat less obvious than the others).

But remember the &quot;if&quot;: Theorems ({{EquationNote|5g}}) to ({{EquationNote|5L}}) depend on definitions ({{EquationNote|4g}}) to ({{EquationNote|4L}}) and are therefore only as definite as those definitions! Equations ({{EquationNote|3}}), without assuming anything about the shapes and sizes of the closed surfaces {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} (except, tacitly, that {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} is piecewise well-defined), indicate that the surface integrals are ''additive with respect to volume''. But this additivity, by itself, does not guarantee that the surface integrals are shared among neighboring volume elements ''in proportion'' to their volumes, as envisaged by &quot;definitions&quot; ({{EquationNote|4g}}) to ({{EquationNote|4L}}). Each of these &quot;definitions&quot; is unambiguous if, and only if, the ratio of the surface integral to {{mvar|dV}}&amp;#8202; is insensitive to the shape and size of {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} for a sufficiently small {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}. Notice that the issue here is ''not'' whether the ratios specified in equations ({{EquationNote|4g}}) to ({{EquationNote|4L}}) are true vectors or scalars, independent of the coordinates; all of the operations needed in those equations have coordinate-free definitions. Rather, the issue is whether the resulting ratios are unambiguous ''notwithstanding the ambiguity of'' {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}, provided only that {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} is sufficiently small. That is the advertised &quot;caveat&quot;, which must now be addressed.

In accordance with our &quot;applied&quot; mathematical purpose, our proofs of the unambiguity of the differential operators will rest on a few [[w:thought experiment|thought experiments]], each of which applies an operator to a physical field, say{{mvar| f}}, and obtains another physical field whose unambiguity is beyond dispute. The conclusion of the thought experiment is then applicable to any operand field whose ''mathematical'' properties are consistent with its interpretation as the physical field{{mvar| f&amp;#8202;}}; the loss of generality, if any, is only what is incurred by that interpretation.

=== Unambiguity of the gradient ===

Suppose that a fluid with density {{mvar|&amp;rho;}} (a scalar field) flows with velocity {{math|'''v'''}} (a vector field) under the influence of the internal pressure {{mvar|p}} (a scalar field). Then the integral in ({{EquationNote|4g}}) is the force exerted by the pressure of the fluid inside {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} on the fluid outside, so that ''minus'' the integral is the force exerted ''on'' the fluid inside{{mvar| &amp;delta;S}} by the pressure of the fluid outside. Dividing by {{mvar|dV}}, we find that {{math|&amp;minus;&amp;nabla;''p''}}, as defined by ({{EquationNote|4g}}), is the force per unit volume, due to the pressure outside the volume.&lt;ref&gt;In [[#feynman-63|Feynman, 1963]],&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;minus;&amp;nabla;''p'' }}as the &quot;pressure force per unit volume&quot; eventually appears in the 3rd-last lecture of Volume 2 (&amp;sect;40-1).&lt;/ref&gt; If this is the ''only'' force per unit volume acting ''on'' the volume (e.g., because the fluid is non-viscous and in a weightless environment, and the volume element is not in contact with the container), then it is equal to the acceleration times the mass per unit volume; that is,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \rho\,\frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = -\nabla p \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|6g}}}}
Now provided that the left side of this equation is locally continuous, it can be considered uniform inside the small {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}, so that the left side is unambiguous, whence&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;''p'' }}''is also unambiguous''. If there are additional forces on the fluid element, e.g. due to gravity and&amp;#10744;or viscosity, then {{math|&amp;minus;&amp;nabla;''p''}} is not the sole contribution to density-times-acceleration, but is still the contribution due to pressure, which is still unambiguous.

By showing the unambiguity of definition ({{EquationNote|4g}}), we have confirmed theorem ({{EquationNote|5g}}). In the process we have seen that the volume-based definition of the gradient is useful for the modeling of fluids, and intuitive in that it formalizes the common notion that a pressure &quot;gradient&quot; gives rise to a force.

=== Unambiguity of the divergence ===

In the aforesaid fluid, in a short time {{mvar|dt}}, the volume that flows out of fixed closed surface {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}&amp;#8202; through a fixed surface element of area {{mvar|dS}}&amp;#8202; is {{math|'''v'''&amp;#8202;''dt''&amp;#8202;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;n'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8239;''dS''}}.&amp;#8201; Multiplying by density and integrating over {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}, we find that the mass flowing out of {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}&amp;#8202; in time {{mvar|dt}} is&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\textstyle\iint_{\delta S}\rho\mathbf{v}~\!dt\cdot\mathbf{\hat{n}}\,dS&lt;/math&gt;.  Dividing this by {{mvar|dV}}, and then by {{mvar|dt}}, we get the rate of reduction of density inside {{mvar|&amp;delta;S&amp;#8202;}}; that is,
:&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S}\mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot\rho\mathbf{v}\,dS
       \,= -\frac{\part\rho}{\part t} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
where the derivative w.r.t. time is evaluated at a fixed location (because {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} is fixed), and is therefore written as a ''partial'' derivative (because other variables on which {{mvar|&amp;rho;}} might depend&amp;mdash;namely the coordinates&amp;mdash;are held constant). Provided that the right-hand side is locally continuous, it can be considered uniform inside {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} and is therefore unambiguous, so that the left side is likewise unambiguous. But the left side is simply {{math|div&amp;#8239;''&amp;rho;'''''v'''}}&amp;#8201; as defined by ({{EquationNote|4d}}),{{efn|There is no need for parentheses around {{math|''&amp;rho;'''''v'''&amp;#8202;,}} because {{math|div&amp;#8239;''&amp;rho;'''''v'''&amp;#8202;}} cannot mean {{math|(div&amp;#8239;''&amp;rho;'')'''v'''&amp;#8202;,}} because the divergence of a scalar field is not defined.}} which is therefore also unambiguous,&lt;ref&gt;A demonstration like the foregoing is outlined by Gibbs ([[#gibbs-1881-4|1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;55).&lt;/ref&gt; confirming theorem ({{EquationNote|5d}}). In short, the divergence operator is that which maps {{math|''&amp;rho;'''''v'''}} to the rate of reduction of density at a fixed point:
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\rho\mathbf{v} = -\frac{\part\rho}{\part t} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|7d}}}}
This result, which expresses ''conservation of mass'', is a form of the so-called '''equation of continuity'''.

The partial derivative {{mvar|{{sfrac|&amp;part;&amp;rho;|&amp;part;t}}&amp;#8202;}} in ({{EquationNote|7d}}) must be distinguished from the '''material derivative''' {{mvar|{{sfrac|d&amp;rho;|dt}}&amp;#8202;}}, which is evaluated at a point that moves ''with the fluid''.{{efn|The material derivative {{mvar|{{sfrac|d|dt}}}} is also called the ''substantive'' derivative, and is sometimes written {{mvar|{{sfrac|D|Dt}}}} if the result is meant to be understood as a field rather than simply a function of time ([[#kemmer-77|Kemmer, 1977]], pp.&amp;#8239;184–5).}} [Similarly, {{math|{{sfrac|''d''&amp;#8202;'''v'''|''dt''}}}} in ({{EquationNote|6g}}) is the ''material'' acceleration, because it is the acceleration of the mobile mass&amp;mdash;not of a fixed point!&amp;#8239;]&amp;#8239; To re-derive the equation of continuity in terms of the ''material'' derivative, the volume {{math|'''v'''&amp;#8202;''dt''&amp;#8202;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;n'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8239;''dS''&amp;#8202;,}} which flows out through {{mvar|dS}} in time {{mvar|dt}} (as above), is integrated over {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} to obtain the increase in volume of the mass ''initially'' contained in {{mvar|dV}}. Dividing this by the mass, {{mvar|&amp;rho;&amp;#8239;dV}}, gives the increase in ''[[w:specific volume|specific volume]]'' {{math|(1&amp;#10744;''&amp;rho;'')}} of that mass, and then dividing by {{mvar|dt}} gives the rate of change of specific volume; that is,
:&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{\rho~\!dV}\!\iint_{\delta S}\mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot\mathbf{v}\,dS
       \,= \tfrac{d}{dt}\big(\rho^{-1}\big)
       = -\rho^{-2\,}\tfrac{d\rho}{dt} \,.&lt;/math&gt;
Multiplying by {{math|''&amp;rho;''&amp;sup2;}} and comparing the left side with ({{EquationNote|4d}}), we obtain
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \rho\operatorname{div}\mathbf{v} = -\frac{d\rho}{dt} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|7d'}}}}
Whereas ({{EquationNote|7d}}) shows that {{math|div&amp;#8239;''&amp;rho;'''''v'''&amp;#8202;}} is unambiguous, ({{EquationNote|7d'}}) shows that {{math|div&amp;#8239;'''v'''&amp;#8202;}} is unambiguous (provided that the right-hand sides are locally continuous). In accordance with the everyday meaning of &quot;divergence&quot;, ({{EquationNote|7d'}}) also shows that {{math|div&amp;#8239;'''v'''&amp;#8202;}} is positive if the fluid is expanding ({{mvar|&amp;rho;}} decreasing), negative if it is contracting ({{mvar|&amp;rho;}} increasing), and zero if it is incompressible. In the last case, the equation of continuity reduces to
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{v} = 0
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;[&amp;#8202;for an incompressible fluid&amp;#8202;].|{{EquationRef|7i}}}}

For incompressible flow, any tubular surface tangential to the flow velocity, and consequently with no flow in or out of the &quot;tube&quot;, has the same volumetric flow rate across all cross-sections of the &quot;tube&quot;, as if the surface were the wall of a pipe full of liquid (except that the surface is not necessarily stationary). Accordingly, ''a vector field with zero divergence is described as '''solenoidal''''' (from the Greek word for &quot;pipe&quot;). More generally, a solenoidal vector field has the property that for any tubular surface tangential to the field, the flux integrals across any two cross-sections of the &quot;tube&quot; are the same&amp;mdash;because otherwise there would be a net flux integral out of the closed surface comprising the two cross-sections and any segment of tube between them, in which case, by the divergence theorem ({{EquationNote|5d}}), the divergence would have to be non-zero somewhere inside, contrary to ({{EquationNote|7i}}).

=== Unambiguity of the curl (and gradient) ===

The unambiguity of the curl ({{EquationNote|4c}}) follows from the unambiguity of the divergence. Taking dot-products of ({{EquationNote|4c}}) with an arbitrary constant vector {{math|'''b''',}} we get
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \mathbf{b}\cdot\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}\,
    &amp;=\, \mathbf{b}\cdot\tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S}
           \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q}
         \,dS \\[.5ex]
    &amp;=\, \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S}
           \mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{\hat{n}}\!\times\!\mathbf{q}
         \,dS \\[1ex]
    &amp;=\, \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S}
           \mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot\mathbf{q}\!\times\!\mathbf{b}
         \,dS \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
that is, by ({{EquationNote|4d}}),
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{b}
    = \operatorname{div}(\mathbf{q}\!\times\!\mathbf{b})
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;[&amp;#8202;for uniform {{math|'''b'''}}].|{{EquationRef|8c}}}}
(The parentheses on the right, although helpful because of the spacing, are not strictly necessary, because the alternative binding would be {{math|(div&amp;#8201;'''q''')}}, which is a scalar, whose cross-product with the vector {{math|'''b'''}} is not defined. And the left-hand expression does not need parentheses, because it can only mean the dot-product of a curl with the vector {{math|'''b'''}}; it cannot mean the curl of a dot-product, because the curl of a scalar field is not defined.) This result ({{EquationNote|8c}}) is an identity if the vector {{math|'''b'''}} is ''independent of location'', so that it can be taken inside or outside the surface integral; thus {{math|'''b'''}} may be a uniform vector field, and may be time-dependent. If we make {{math|'''b'''}} a ''unit'' vector, the left side of the identity is the (scalar) component of {{math|curl&amp;#8239;'''q'''}} in the direction of {{math|'''b''',}} and the right side is unambiguous. Thus ''the curl is unambiguous because its component in any direction is unambiguous''. This confirms theorem ({{EquationNote|5c}}).

Similarly, the unambiguity of the divergence implies the unambiguity of the gradient. Starting with ({{EquationNote|4g}}), taking dot-products with an arbitrary uniform vector {{math|'''b''',}} and proceeding as above, we obtain
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\nabla p \cdot \mathbf{b}
    = \operatorname{div} p\mathbf{b}
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;[&amp;#8202;for uniform {{math|'''b'''}}].|{{EquationRef|8g}}}}
(The left-hand side does not need parentheses, because it can only mean the dot-product of a gradient with the vector {{math|'''b'''}}; it cannot mean the gradient of the dot-product of a scalar field with a vector field, because that dot-product would not be defined.) If we make {{math|'''b'''}} a ''unit'' vector, this result ({{EquationNote|8g}}) says that the (scalar) component of {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}} in the direction of {{math|'''b'''}} is given by the right-hand side, which again is unambiguous. So here we have a second explanation of the unambiguity of the gradient: like the curl, it is unambiguous because its component in any direction is unambiguous.

We might well ask what happens if we take ''cross''-products with {{math|'''b'''}} on the left, instead of dot-products. If we start with ({{EquationNote|4g}}), the process is straightforward: in the end we can switch the order of the cross-product on the left, and change the sign on the right, obtaining
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\nabla p \times \mathbf{b}
    = \operatorname{curl} p\mathbf{b}
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;[&amp;#8202;for uniform {{math|'''b'''}}].|{{EquationRef|8p}}}}
(Again no parentheses are needed.) If we start with ({{EquationNote|4c}}) instead, and take {{math|'''b'''}} inside the integral, we get a vector triple product to expand, which leads to
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{b} \times \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    = \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S}\!\mathbf{\hat{n}}\,\mathbf{b{\cdot}q}\,dS
    - \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S}\!\mathbf{b{\cdot}\hat{n}\,q}\,dS \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
in which the first term on the right is simply&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8239;'''b&amp;#11825;q'''}}&amp;#8201; (the gradient of the dot-product). The second term is more problematic. ''If'' we had a scalar {{mvar|p}} instead of the vector {{math|'''q''',}} we could take {{math|'''b'''}} outside the second integral, so that the second term would be (minus) {{math|'''b&amp;#8239;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8239;&amp;nabla;''p''}}. This suggests that the actual second term should be (minus) {{math|'''b&amp;#8239;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8239;&amp;nabla;'''q'''}}.&amp;#8201; Shall we therefore adopt the second term (without the sign) as the ''definition'' of {{math|'''b&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;&amp;#8239;'''q'''}} for a ''vector'' {{math|'''q'''}} (treating {{math|'''b&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} as an operator), and write
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{b} \times \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} ~\!=
    \nabla\,\mathbf{b{\cdot}q} - \mathbf{b}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{q}
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;[&amp;#8202;for uniform {{math|'''b'''}}] ?|{{EquationRef|8q}}}}
The proposal would be open to the objection that&amp;#8202; {{math|'''b&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;&amp;#8239;'''q'''}}&amp;#8202; had been defined only for ''uniform''{{math| '''b'''&amp;#8202;,}} whereas&amp;#8202; {{math|'''b&amp;#8239;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8239;&amp;nabla;''p''&amp;#8202;}} (for scalar{{mvar| p}}) is defined whether {{math|'''b'''}} is uniform or not.&amp;#8201; So, for the moment, let us put ({{EquationNote|8q}}) aside and run with ({{EquationNote|8c}}), ({{EquationNote|8g}}), and ({{EquationNote|8p}}).

=== Another meaning of the gradient ===

Let {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}} be a unit vector in a given direction, and let {{mvar|s}} be a parameter measuring distance (arc length) along a path in that direction. By equation ({{EquationNote|8g}}) and definition ({{EquationNote|4d}}), we have
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla p \cdot \mathbf{\hat{s}} =
    \operatorname{div} p\mathbf{\hat{s}} =
    \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S}\mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot p\mathbf{\hat{s}}\,dS\,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
where, by the unambiguity of the divergence, the shape of the closed surface {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} enclosing {{mvar|dV}}&amp;#8202; can be chosen for convenience. So let {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}} be a right cylinder with cross-sectional area {{mvar|&amp;alpha;}}&amp;#8201; and perpendicular height {{mvar|ds&amp;#8202;,}} with the path passing perpendicularly through the end-faces at parameter-values {{mvar|s}} and {{mvar|s+ds&amp;#8202;,}} where the outward unit normal {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} consequently takes the values {{math|&amp;minus;'''s&amp;#770;'''}} and {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''&amp;#8202;,}} respectively. And let the cross-sectional dimensions be small compared with {{mvar|ds}}&amp;#8202; so that the values of {{mvar|p}} at the end-faces, say {{mvar|p}} and {{mvar|p+dp}}, can be taken to be the same as where the end-faces cut the path. Then&amp;#8202; {{mvar|dV&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;&amp;alpha;&amp;#8239;ds&amp;#8202;}}, and the surface integral over{{mvar| &amp;delta;S}} includes only the contributions from the end-faces (because {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} is perpendicular to {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}} elsewhere); those contributions are respectively&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;-\mathbf{\hat{s}}\!\cdot\!p\mathbf{\hat{s}}\,\alpha\,&lt;/math&gt; and&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\hat{s}}\!\cdot\!(p\!+\!dp)\mathbf{\hat{s}}\,\alpha~\!,&lt;/math&gt;  i.e.&amp;#8239; &lt;math&gt;-p\alpha\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(p\!+\!dp)\alpha&lt;/math&gt;.  With these substitutions the above equation becomes
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \nabla p \cdot \mathbf{\hat{s}}
    &amp;= \tfrac{1}{\alpha\,ds}\Big({-}p\alpha + (p\!+\!dp)\alpha\Big) \\[1ex]
    &amp;= \frac{\,p\!+\!dp ~-~ p\,}{ds} = \frac{\part p}{\part s} ~;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla p \cdot \mathbf{\hat{s}} = \part_s p \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|9g}}}}
where the right-hand side, commonly called the '''directional derivative''' of {{mvar|p}} in the {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}} direction,&lt;ref&gt;[[#wilson-1901|Wilson, 1901]], pp.&amp;#8239;147–8; [[#borisenko-tarapov-68|Borisenko &amp;amp; Tarapov, 1968]], pp.&amp;#8239;147–8 (again); [[#hsu-84|Hsu, 1984]], p.&amp;#8239;92; [[#kreyszig-62-|Kreyszig, 1988]], pp.&amp;#8239;485–6; [[#wrede-spiegel-10|Wrede &amp;amp; Spiegel, 2010]], p.&amp;#8239;198.&lt;/ref&gt; is the derivative of {{mvar|p}} w.r.t. distance in that direction. Although ({{EquationNote|9g}}) has been obtained by taking that direction as fixed, the equality is evidently maintained if {{mvar|s}} measures arc length along any path ''tangential''&amp;#8202; to{{math| '''s&amp;#770;'''}} at the point of interest.

Equation ({{EquationNote|9g}}) is an alternative definition of the gradient: it says that ''the gradient of&lt;math&gt;~p&lt;/math&gt; is the vector whose scalar component in any direction is the directional derivative of&lt;math&gt;~p&lt;/math&gt; in that direction''. For ''real&lt;math&gt;~p&lt;/math&gt;'', this component has its maximum, namely {{math|{{abs|&amp;nabla;''p''}}&amp;#8202;,}} in the direction of {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''&amp;#8202;}}; thus ''the gradient of&lt;math&gt;~p&lt;/math&gt; is the vector whose direction is that in which the derivative of&lt;math&gt;~p&lt;/math&gt; w.r.t. distance is a maximum, and whose magnitude is that maximum''. This is the usual conceptual definition of the gradient.&lt;ref&gt;Gibbs ([[#gibbs-1881-4|1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;50) ''introduces'' the gradient with this definition, except that he calls {{math|&amp;nabla;''u''}} simply the ''derivative'' of {{mvar|u}}, and {{mvar|u}} the ''primitive'' of {{math|&amp;nabla;''u''}}. Use of the term ''gradient'' as an alternative to ''derivative'' is reported by Wilson ([[#wilson-1901|1901]], p.&amp;#8239;138).&lt;/ref&gt; Sometimes it is convenient to work directly from this definition. For example, in Cartesian coordinates {{math|(''x'',&amp;#8239;''y'',&amp;#8239;''z''),}} if a scalar field is given by {{mvar|x&amp;#8202;,}} its gradient is obviously the unit vector in the direction of the {{mvar|x }}axis, usually called {{math|'''i'''&amp;#8202;}}; that is, {{math|&amp;nabla;''x''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''i'''}}. Similarly, if&amp;#8201; {{math|'''r'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''r''&amp;#8202;'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;}}&amp;#8201; is the position vector, then {{math|&amp;nabla;''r''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8239;'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;}}.

If&amp;#8202; {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}} is ''tangential''&amp;#8202; to a '''level surface''' of{{mvar| p}} (a surface of constant{{mvar| p}}), then {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8201;p}}&amp;#8202; in that direction is zero, in which case ({{EquationNote|9g}}) says that {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}} (if not zero) is orthogonal to{{math| '''s&amp;#770;'''}}.&amp;#8201; So&lt;math&gt;\,\nabla p&lt;/math&gt; ''is orthogonal to the surfaces of constant&lt;math&gt;~p\,&lt;/math&gt;'' (as we would expect, having just shown that the direction of {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}} is that in which {{mvar|p}} varies most steeply). This result leads to a method of finding a vector normal to a curved surface at a given point: if the equation of the surface is&amp;#8239; {{math|''f''&amp;#8239;('''r''')&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''C''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8202; where {{math|'''r''' }}is the position vector and {{mvar|C&amp;#8202; }}is a constant (possibly zero), a suitable vector is {{math|&amp;nabla;''f''}}&amp;#8202; evaluated at the given point.

If {{mvar|p}} is ''uniform''&amp;#8202;&amp;mdash;that is, if it has no spatial variation&amp;mdash;then its derivative w.r.t. distance in every direction is zero; that is, the component of {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}} in every direction is zero, so that {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}} must be the zero vector. In short, ''the gradient of a uniform scalar field is zero''. Conversely, if {{mvar|p}} is ''not'' uniform, there must be some location and some direction in which its derivative w.r.t. distance, if defined at all, is non-zero, so that its gradient, if defined at all, is also non-zero. Thus ''a scalar field with zero gradient in some region is uniform in that region''.

=== Unambiguity of the Laplacian ===

Armed with our new definition of the gradient ({{EquationNote|9g}}), we can revisit our definition of the Laplacian ({{EquationNote|4L}}). If{{mvar| &amp;psi;}} is a ''scalar'' field, then, by ({{EquationNote|9g}}),  &lt;math&gt;\part_n \psi&lt;/math&gt; can be replaced by &lt;math&gt;\nabla\psi\cdot\mathbf{\hat{n}}\,&lt;/math&gt; in ({{EquationNote|4L}}), which then becomes
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\triangle\psi \,=\,
    \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S} \mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot\nabla\psi \;dS \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|9L}}}}
that is, by definition ({{EquationNote|4d}}),
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\triangle\psi
    \,=\, \operatorname{div}\nabla\psi
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;[&amp;#8202;for scalar {{mvar|&amp;psi;}}].|{{EquationRef|9L'}}}}
So ''the Laplacian of a scalar field is the divergence of the gradient''. This is the usual ''introductory'' definition of the Laplacian&amp;mdash;and on its face is applicable only in the case of a scalar field. The unambiguity of the Laplacian, in this case, follows from the unambiguity of the divergence and the gradient.

If, on the contrary, {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} in definition ({{EquationNote|4L}}) is a ''vector'' field, then we can again take dot-products with a uniform vector {{math|'''b''',}} obtaining
:&lt;math&gt;(\triangle\psi)\cdot\mathbf{b} \,=\,
    \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S} \part_n(\psi\!\cdot\!\mathbf{b}) \,dS \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
If we make {{math|'''b'''}} a ''unit'' vector, this says that ''the scalar component of the Laplacian of a vector field, in any direction, is the Laplacian of the scalar component of that vector field in that direction''. As we have just established that the latter is unambiguous, so is the former.

But the unambiguity of the Laplacian can be generalized further. If
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;~\!\psi = \textstyle\sum_i \alpha_i \varphi_i&lt;/math&gt;}}
&lt;!-- EQUATION ENLARGED TO ENSURE SUBSCRIPTS ARE LEGIBLE. --&gt;where each &lt;math&gt;\varphi_i&lt;/math&gt; is a scalar field, and each {{mvar|&amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}} is a constant, and the counter {{mvar|i}} ranges from (say) 1 to {{mvar|k&amp;#8202;}}, then it is clear from ({{EquationNote|4L}}) that
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;!-- ENLARGED TO ENSURE SUBSCRIPTS ARE LEGIBLE: --&gt;{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \triangle\big( \textstyle\sum_i \alpha_i \varphi_i \big)
    = \textstyle\sum_i \big( \alpha_i \triangle \varphi_i \big) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|10}}}}
In words, this says that ''the Laplacian of a linear combination of fields is the same linear combination of the Laplacians of the same fields''&amp;mdash;or, more concisely, that ''the Laplacian is '''linear'''''. I say &quot;it is clear&quot; because the Laplacian as defined by ({{EquationNote|4L}}) is itself a linear combination, so that ({{EquationNote|10}}) merely asserts that we can regroup the terms of a nested linear combination; the gradient, curl, and divergence as defined by ({{EquationNote|4g}}) to ({{EquationNote|4d}}) are likewise linear. It follows from ({{EquationNote|10}}) that ''the Laplacian of a linear combination of fields is unambiguous if the Laplacians of the separate fields are unambiguous''. Now we have supposed that the fields &lt;math&gt;\varphi_i&lt;/math&gt; are scalar and that the coefficients {{mvar|&amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}} are constants. But the same logic applies if the &quot;constants&quot; are uniform basis vectors (e.g.,{{math| '''i''',&amp;#8202;'''j''','''k'''}}), so that the &quot;linear combination&quot; can represent any vector field, whence the Laplacian of any vector field is unambiguous. And the same logic applies if the &quot;constants&quot; are chosen as a &quot;basis&quot; for a space of tensors of any order, so that the Laplacian of any tensor field of that order is unambiguous, and so on. In short, ''the Laplacian of any field that we can express with a uniform basis is unambiguous''.

=== The dot-del, del-cross, and del-dot operators ===

The gradient operator {{math|&amp;nabla;}} is also called {{mvar|'''del'''}}.{{efn|Or ''nabla'', because it allegedly looks like the ancient Phoenician harp that the Greeks called by that name.}} If it simply denotes the gradient, we tend to pronounce it &quot;grad&quot; in order to emphasize the result. But it can also appear in combination with other operators to give other results, and in those contexts we tend to pronounce it &quot;del&quot;.

One such combination is &quot;dot del&quot;&amp;mdash;&amp;#8202;as in &quot;{{math|&amp;#8202;'''b&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;}}&quot;, which we proposed for ({{EquationNote|8q}}), but did not quite manage to define satisfactorily for a vector operand. With our new definition of the gradient ({{EquationNote|9g}}), we can now make a second attempt. A general vector field {{math|'''q'''}} can be written {{math|{{abs|'''q'''}}&amp;#8201;'''q'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8202;,}} so that
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{q}\cdot\nabla\psi
    \,=\, |\mathbf{q}| \,\mathbf{\hat{q}}\cdot\nabla\psi \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
If {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a ''scalar'' field, we can apply ({{EquationNote|9g}}) to the right-hand side, obtaining
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{q}\cdot\nabla\psi
    ~\!=~\! |\mathbf{q}| \,\part_{s_q} \psi \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
where {{mvar|s&lt;sub&gt;q&lt;/sub&gt;}} is distance in the direction of {{math|'''q'''}}. For ''scalar'' {{mvar|&amp;psi;}}, this result is an identity between previously defined quantities. For ''non-scalar'' {{mvar|&amp;psi;}}, we have not yet defined the left-hand side, but the right-hand side is still well-defined and self-explanatory (provided that we can differentiate {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} w.r.t.{{mvar| s&lt;sub&gt;q&lt;/sub&gt;}}). So we are free to adopt
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi \,:=\, |\mathbf{q}| \,\part_{s_q} \psi\,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|11}}}}
where {{mvar|s&lt;sub&gt;q&lt;/sub&gt;}} is distance in the direction of {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} as the general definition of the ''operator'' {{math|'''q&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;,}} and to interpret it as defining both a ''unary'' operator&amp;#8202; {{math|'''q&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} which operates on a generic field, and a ''binary'' operator&amp;#8202; {{math|'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} which takes a (possibly uniform) vector field on the left and a generic field on the right.

For any vector field {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} it follows from ({{EquationNote|11}}) that ''if&lt;math&gt;~\psi&lt;/math&gt; is a uniform field, then&lt;math&gt;\,\,\mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla~\!\psi=0&lt;/math&gt;''.

For the special case in which {{math|'''q'''}} is a unit vector {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''&amp;#8202;,}} with {{mvar|s}} measuring distance in the direction of&amp;#8202; {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''&amp;#8202;,}} definition ({{EquationNote|11}}) reduces to
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\hat{s}}{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi = \part_s \psi \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|12}}}}
which agrees with ({{EquationNote|9g}}) but now holds for a ''generic'' field {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} [whereas ({{EquationNote|9g}}) was for a ''scalar'' field, and was derived as a ''theorem'' based on earlier definitions]. So{{math| '''s&amp;#770;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;,}} with a unit vector {{math|'''s'''&amp;#8202;,}} is the '''directional-derivative operator''' on a generic field; and by ({{EquationNote|11}}),&amp;#8201; {{math|'''q&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} is a '''scaled directional derivative''' operator on a generic field.

In particular, if&amp;#8201; {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''n'''&amp;#770;}}&amp;#8201; we have
:&lt;math&gt;\part_n \psi \,=\, \mathbf{\hat{n}}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi \,,&lt;/math&gt;
which we may substitute into the original definition of the Laplacian ({{EquationNote|4L}}) to obtain
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\triangle\psi \,=\,
    \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S} \mathbf{\hat{n}}{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi \;dS \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|13L}}}}
which is just ({{EquationNote|9L}}) again, except that it now holds for for a ''generic'' field.

If our general definition of the gradient ({{EquationNote|4g}}) is also taken as the general definition of the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} operator,&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#borisenko-tarapov-68|Borisenko &amp;amp; Tarapov, 1968]], p.&amp;#8239;157, eq.&amp;#8239;(4.43), quoted in [[#tai-95|Tai, 1995]], p.&amp;#8239;33, eq.&amp;#8239;(4.19).&lt;/ref&gt; then, comparing ({{EquationNote|4g}}) with ({{EquationNote|4c}}), ({{EquationNote|4d}}), and ({{EquationNote|13L}}), we see that
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} ~\!&amp;= \nabla(\times\mathbf{q}) \\
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}  ~\!&amp;= \nabla(\cdot\,\mathbf{q}) \\
    \triangle\psi                 ~\!&amp;= \nabla(\cdot\nabla\,\psi) \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
where the parentheses may seem to be required on account of the closing {{mvar|dS}}&amp;#8202; in ({{EquationNote|4g}}).&lt;ref&gt;The first two cases may be compared with Javid &amp;amp; Brown, 1963, cited in [[#tai-94|Tai, 1994]], p.&amp;#8239;15.&lt;/ref&gt; But if we write the factor {{mvar|dS}} ''before'' the integrand, the del operator in ({{EquationNote|4g}}) becomes
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla = \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S} dS\,\mathbf{\hat{n}} &lt;/math&gt;
&amp;mdash;''if''&amp;#8202; we insist that it is to be read as a operator looking for an operand, and not as a self-contained expression. Then, if we similarly bring forward the {{mvar|dS}} in ({{EquationNote|4c}}), ({{EquationNote|4d}}), and ({{EquationNote|13L}}), the respective operators become&lt;ref&gt;The first two cases may be compared with Neff, 1991, cited in [[#tai-94|Tai, 1994]], p.&amp;#8239;16.&lt;/ref&gt;
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \operatorname{curl} &amp;= \nabla\times \\
    \operatorname{div}  &amp;= \nabla~\!\boldsymbol{\cdot} \\
    \triangle           &amp;= \nabla\boldsymbol{\cdot}\nabla
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|14}}}}
(pronounced &quot;del cross&quot;, &quot;del dot&quot;, and &quot;del dot del&quot;), of which the last is usually abbreviated as{{math| &amp;nabla;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8201; (&quot;del squared&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;But Gibbs ([[#gibbs-1881-4|1881]]) and Wilson ([[#wilson-1901|1901]]) were content to leave it as {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}}.  And they did not call it the ''Laplacian''; they used that term with a different meaning, which has apparently fallen out of fashion.&lt;/ref&gt; These notations are ubiquitous.

Another way to obtain the {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8202; operators (but ''not''{{math|&amp;#8202; &amp;nabla;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;}}), again inspired by ({{EquationNote|4g}}), is to define
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;T(\nabla)
    \,:=\, \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S} T(\mathbf{\hat{n}}) \,dS \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|14s}}}}
where {{mvar|T}}&amp;#8202; is any well-defined function that takes a vector argument. Setting{{math|&amp;#8202; ''T''&amp;#8202;(&amp;nabla;)}} to {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''&amp;#8202;,}} {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8202;'''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} and{{math| &amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;q'''}}&amp;#8239; in ({{EquationNote|14s}}), we obtain respectively {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8202; {{math|curl&amp;#8201;'''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} and&amp;#8202; {{math|div&amp;#8239;'''q'''}}&amp;#8239; as given by ({{EquationNote|4g}}) to ({{EquationNote|4d}}). But this approach has undesirable side-effects&amp;mdash;for example, that {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}}&amp;#8202; becomes synonymous with{{math| ''p''&amp;nabla;}}.&amp;#8201; Accordingly, Chen-To Tai,&lt;ref&gt;[[#tai-fang-91|Tai &amp;amp; Fang, 1991]], pp.&amp;#8239;168–9.&lt;/ref&gt; on the left of ({{EquationNote|14s}}), replaces{{math| &amp;nabla;}} with his original symbol&lt;math&gt;~\nabla\!\!\!\!^{\textstyle_-}~\!\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; which he calls the &quot;symbolic operator&quot; or the &quot;{{nowrap|''S''&amp;#8202;-operator}}&quot; or, later, the &quot;symbolic vector&quot; or the &quot;dummy vector&quot;. Tai in his later works (e.g.,&amp;#8239;[[#tai-94|1994]],&amp;#8239;[[#tai-95|1995]]) does not tolerate cross- or dot-products involving the del operator, but ''does'' tolerate such products involving his symbolic vector ([[#tai-95|1995]], pp.&amp;#8239;50–52).

There is a misconception that the operational equivalences in ({{EquationNote|14}}) apply ''only'' in Cartesian coordinates.&lt;ref&gt;Durney &amp;amp; Johnson, in ''Introduction to Modern Electromagnetics'' (1969, p.&amp;#8239;45, cited in [[#tai-94|Tai, 1994]], p.&amp;#8239;12), make the absurd statement that &quot;a{{math| &amp;nabla;}} operator cannot be defined in the other coordinate systems&amp;hellip;&quot; In the context, they apparently meant to say that {{math|div&amp;#8202;'''A'''}} isn't {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;A'''}} in other coordinate systems. Robert S. Elliott, in ''Electromagnetics'' (1966, p.&amp;#8239;606, cited in [[#tai-94|Tai, 1994]], p.&amp;#8239;13), says that &quot;only in Cartesian coordinates&amp;hellip; do the gradient and divergence operators turn out to be identical.&quot; Apparently he meant to say that only in Cartesian coordinates do the two operators differ by a dot. But what these authors apparently meant to say is still wrong, as shown with counterexamples by Kemmer (next reference).&lt;/ref&gt; Tai does not accept them even in that case. But, because these equivalences have been derived from ''coordinate-free'' definitions of the operators, they must remain valid in any coordinate system ''provided that they are expressed correctly''&amp;mdash;without (e.g.) inadvertently taking dependent variables inside or outside differentiations.&lt;ref&gt;The perception that they are restricted to Cartesian coordinates arises partly from failure to allow for the variability of the basis vectors in curvilinear coordinate systems; ''cf''. [[#kemmer-77|Kemmer, 1977]], pp.&amp;#8239;163–5, 172–3 (Exs.&amp;#8239;2,&amp;#8239;3,&amp;#8239;5), 230–33 (sol'ns). From the del operator and the derivatives of the basis vectors w.r.t. the coordinates, Kemmer finds the curl and divergence in cylindrical coordinates, notes that we can do the same &quot;with a little greater effort&quot; in spherical coordinates (p.&amp;#8239;230), and finds the Laplacian of a scalar in both coordinate systems (p.&amp;#8239;231). He further reports that the method works for the Laplacian of a vector in cylindrical and spherical coordinates and is relatively convenient for the former (p.&amp;#8239;232), for which &quot;differentiation of the unit vectors is very simple&quot; (p.&amp;#8239;165).&lt;/ref&gt; That does ''not'' mean that they are always convenient, or easily verified, or conducive to the avoidance of error. But they sometimes make useful mnemonics; e.g., they let us rewrite identities ({{EquationNote|8c}}), ({{EquationNote|8g}}), and ({{EquationNote|8p}}) as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}
    \nabla\!\times\!\mathbf{q}\cdot\mathbf{b}
    &amp;\,=\, \nabla\cdot\mathbf{q}\!\times\!\mathbf{b}\\[.5ex]
    \nabla p \cdot \mathbf{b}
    &amp;\,=\, \nabla\cdot\;\! p\mathbf{b}\\[.5ex]
    \nabla p \times \mathbf{b}
    &amp;\,=\, \nabla \times p\mathbf{b}
  \end{align}~\right\}\quad&lt;/math&gt;for uniform {{math|'''b'''}}.
    |{{EquationRef|15}}}}
These would be basic ''algebraic'' vector identities if&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;}} were an ordinary vector, and one could try to derive them from the &quot;algebraic&quot; behavior of {{math|&amp;nabla;}}; but they're not, because it isn't, so we didn't&amp;#8239;!  Moreover, these simple &quot;algebraic&quot; rules are for a uniform {{math|'''b''',}} and do not of themselves tell us what to do if&amp;#8202; {{math|'''b'''}} is spatially variable; for example, ({{EquationNote|8g}}) is not applicable to ({{EquationNote|7d}}).

=== The advection operator ===

Variation or transportation of a property of a medium due to motion with the medium is called '''advection''' (which, according to its Latin roots, means &quot;carrying to&quot;). Suppose that a medium (possibly a fluid) moves with a velocity field {{math|'''v'''}} in some inertial reference frame. Let {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} be a field (possibly a scalar field or a vector field) expressing some property of the medium (e.g., density, or acceleration, or stress,{{efn|Stress is a second-order tensor, and the origin of the term &quot;tensor&quot;; but, for present purposes, it's just another possible example of a field called{{mvar| &amp;psi;}}.}}&amp;hellip; or even {{math|'''v''' }}itself). We have seen that the time-derivative of {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} may be specified in two different ways: as the ''partial'' derivative {{mvar|{{sfrac|&amp;part;&amp;psi;|&amp;part;t}}&amp;#8202;,}} evaluated at a fixed point (in the chosen reference frame), or as the ''material'' derivative {{mvar|{{sfrac|d&amp;psi;|dt}}&amp;#8202;}}, evaluated at a point moving at velocity {{math|'''v'''}} (i.e., ''with the medium''). The difference&amp;#8202; {{mvar|{{sfrac|d&amp;psi;|dt}}&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;{{sfrac|&amp;part;&amp;psi;|&amp;part;t}}&amp;#8202;}} is due to motion with the medium. To find another expression for this difference, let {{mvar|s}} be a parameter measuring distance along the path traveled by a particle of the medium. Then, for a short time interval {{mvar|dt}}, the surface-plot of the small change in {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} (or each component thereof) as a function of the small changes in {{mvar|t}} and {{mvar|s&amp;#8202;}} (plotted on perpendicular axes) can be taken as a plane through the origin, so that
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;d\psi
    = \tfrac{\part\psi}{\part t}~\!dt + \tfrac{\part\psi}{\part s}~\!ds \;;
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
that is, the change in {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is the sum of the changes due to the change in {{mvar|t}} and the change in {{mvar|s&amp;#8202;}}. Dividing by {{mvar|dt}} gives
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\tfrac{d\psi}{dt}
  &amp;= \tfrac{\part\psi}{\part t}+\tfrac{\part\psi}{\part s}~\!\tfrac{ds}{dt}\\[1ex]
  &amp;= \tfrac{\part\psi}{\part t}+\tfrac{\part\psi}{\part s}~\!|\mathbf{v}| \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
i.e.,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{d\psi}{dt}
    = \tfrac{\part\psi}{\part t} + |\mathbf{v}|\,\part_s \psi
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
(and the first term on the right could have been written {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;&amp;psi;}}). So the second term on the right is the contribution to the material derivative due to motion with the medium; it is called the '''advective term''', and is non-zero wherever a particle of the medium moves along a path on which {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} varies with location&amp;mdash;even if {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} at ''each'' location is constant over time.&amp;#8201; So the operator&amp;#8202; {{math|{{abs|'''v'''}}&amp;#8201;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;,}} where {{mvar|s}} measures distance along the path, is the ''advection operator''&amp;#8239;: it maps a property of a medium to the advective term in the time-derivative of that property. If{{mvar| &amp;psi;}} is {{math|'''v''' }}itself, the above result becomes
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt}
    = \tfrac{\part\mathbf{v}}{\part t} + |\mathbf{v}|\,\part_s \mathbf{v} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
where the left-hand side (the ''material'' acceleration) is as given by Newton's second law, and the first term on the right (which we might call the &quot;partial&quot; acceleration) is the time-derivative of velocity in the chosen reference frame, and the second term on the right (the ''advective'' term) is the correction that must be added to the &quot;partial&quot; acceleration in order to obtain the material acceleration. This term is non-zero wherever velocity is non-zero and varies along a path, even if the velocity at each point on the path is constant over time (as when water speeds up while flowing at a constant volumetric rate into a nozzle). Paradoxically, while the material acceleration and the &quot;partial&quot; acceleration are apparently linear (first-degree) in {{math|'''v''',}} their difference (the advective term) is not. Thus the distinction between {{mvar|{{sfrac|&amp;part;&amp;psi;|&amp;part;t}}}} and {{mvar|{{sfrac|d&amp;psi;|dt}}}}&amp;#8202; has the far-reaching implication that ''fluid dynamics is non-linear''.

Applying ({{EquationNote|11}}) to the last two equations, we obtain respectively
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{d\psi}{dt}
    = \tfrac{\part\psi}{\part t} + \mathbf{v}{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|16}}}}
and
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt}
    = \tfrac{\part\mathbf{v}}{\part t} + \mathbf{v}{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{v} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|16v}}}}
where, in each case, the second term on the right is the advective term. So ''the '''advection operator''' can also be written''&amp;#8239;{{math| '''v&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;}}.

When the generic {{mvar|&amp;psi;&amp;#8202;}} in ({{EquationNote|16}}) is replaced by the density {{mvar|&amp;rho;&amp;#8202;}}, we get a relation between {{mvar|{{sfrac|&amp;part;&amp;rho;|&amp;part;t}}&amp;#8202;}} and {{mvar|{{sfrac|d&amp;rho;|dt}}&amp;#8202;}}, both of which we have seen before&amp;mdash;in equations ({{EquationNote|7d}}) and ({{EquationNote|7d'}}) above. Substituting from those equations then gives
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\rho\mathbf{v}
    \,=\, \rho\operatorname{div}\mathbf{v} \,+\, \mathbf{v}\cdot\nabla\rho \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|17}}}}
where {{math|&amp;nabla;''&amp;rho;''}} can be taken as a gradient since {{mvar|&amp;rho;}} is scalar. This result is in fact an identity&amp;mdash;a ''product rule for the divergence''&amp;mdash;as we shall eventually confirm by another method.

=== Generalized volume-integral theorem ===

We can rewrite the fourth integral theorem ({{EquationNote|5L}}) in the &quot;dot del&quot; notation as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi \;dS
    \,= \iiint_V \triangle\psi ~dV \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|18L}}}}
Then, using notations ({{EquationNote|14}}), we can condense ''all four'' integral theorems ({{EquationNote|5g}}), ({{EquationNote|5c}}), ({{EquationNote|5d}}), and ({{EquationNote|18L}}) into the single equation
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}} * \psi \;dS
    \,= \iiint_V \nabla * \psi ~dV \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|19}}}}
where the wildcard {{math|&amp;lowast;}} (conveniently pronounced &quot;star&quot;) is a generic binary operator which may be replaced by a null (direct juxtaposition of the operands) for theorem ({{EquationNote|5g}}), or a cross for ({{EquationNote|5c}}), or a dot for ({{EquationNote|5d}}), or&amp;#8202; {{math|'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} for ({{EquationNote|18L}}). This single equation is a ''generalized volume-integral theorem'', relating an integral over a volume to an integral over its enclosing surface.&lt;ref&gt;Kemmer ([[#kemmer-77|1977]], p.&amp;#8239;98, eq.&amp;#8239;4) gives an equivalent result for our first three integral theorems ({{EquationNote|5g}} to {{EquationNote|5d}}) only, and calls it the ''generalized divergence theorem'' because the divergence theorem is its most familiar special case.&lt;/ref&gt;

Theorem ({{EquationNote|19}}) is based on the following definitions, which have been found unambiguous:
* the ''gradient'' of a scalar field {{mvar|p}} is the closed-surface integral of&amp;#8202; {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8202;''p''}} per unit volume, where {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} is the outward unit normal;
* the ''divergence'' of a vector field is the outward flux integral per unit volume;
* the ''curl'' of a vector field is the skew surface integral per unit volume, also called the surface circulation per unit volume; and
* the ''Laplacian'' is the closed-surface integral of the outward normal derivative, per unit volume.
The gradient maps a scalar field to a vector field; the divergence maps a vector field to a scalar field; the curl maps a vector field to a vector field; and the Laplacian maps a scalar field to a scalar field, or a vector field to a vector field, etc.

The ''gradient'' of {{mvar|p}}, as defined above, has been shown to be also
* the vector whose (scalar) component in any direction is the ''directional derivative'' of {{mvar|p}} in that direction (i.e. the derivative of {{mvar|p}} w.r.t. distance in that direction), and
* the vector whose direction is that in which the directional derivative of {{mvar|p}} is a maximum, and whose magnitude is that maximum.
Consistent with these alternative definitions of the gradient, we have defined the&amp;#8202;{{math| '''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} operator so that&amp;#8202; {{math|'''s&amp;#770;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} (for a ''unit'' vector {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}}) is the operator yielding the directional derivative in the direction of&amp;#8202; {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''&amp;#8202;,}} and we have used that notation to bring theorem ({{EquationNote|5L}}) under theorem ({{EquationNote|19}}).

So far, we have said comparatively little about the curl. That imbalance will now be rectified.

== Closed-circuit integrals per unit area ==

=== Instant integral theorems (on a condition) ===

Theorems ({{EquationNote|5g}}) to ({{EquationNote|5L}}) are three-dimensional: each of them relates an integral over a volume {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; to an integral over its enclosing surface{{mvar| S}}. We now seek analogous ''two''-dimensional theorems, each of which relates an integral over a surface segment to an integral around its enclosing curve. For maximum generality, the surface segment should be allowed to be curved into a third dimension.{{efn|In mathematical jargon, it should be a two-dimensional ''manifold'' embedded in 3D Euclidean space.}} Theorems of this kind can be obtained as special cases of theorems ({{EquationNote|5g}}) to ({{EquationNote|5L}}) by suitably choosing {{mvar|V}} and {{mvar|S&amp;#8202;}}; this is another advantage of our &quot;volume first&quot; approach.

Let {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} be a surface segment enclosed by a curve {{mvar|C}} (a ''circuit'' or ''closed contour''), and let {{mvar|l}} be a parameter measuring arc length around {{mvar|C&amp;#8202;}}, so that a general element of{{mvar| C}} has length{{mvar| dl&amp;#8202;}}; and let a general element of the surface {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} have area {{mvar|d&amp;Sigma;}}. Let&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt; be the unit normal vector at a general point on {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;&amp;#8202;}}, and let {{math|'''t'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;}} be the unit ''tangent'' vector to {{mvar|C}} at a general point on {{mvar|C}} in the direction of increasing{{mvar| l}}. In the original case of a surface enclosing a volume, we had to decide whether the unit normal pointed into or out of the volume (we chose the latter). In the present case of a circuit enclosing a surface segment, we have to decide whether {{mvar|l}} is measured clockwise or counterclockwise as seen when looking in the direction of the unit normal, and we choose clockwise. So {{mvar|l }}''is measured clockwise about&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}},&lt;/math&gt;'' and {{mvar|C }}is ''traversed'' clockwise about&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;.

From {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}}&amp;#8202; we can construct obvious candidates for {{mvar|V}} and{{mvar| S}}. From every point on {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;&amp;#8202;}}, erect a perpendicular with a uniform ''small''&amp;#8202; height {{mvar|h}} in the direction of&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;. Then simply let {{mvar|V}} be the volume occupied by all the perpendiculars, and let {{mvar|S}} be its enclosing surface. Thus {{mvar|V}} is a (generally curved) thin slab of uniform thickness{{mvar| h}}, whose enclosing surface {{mvar|S}} consists of two close parallel (generally curved) broad faces connected by a perpendicular ''edge-face'' of uniform height{{mvar| h&amp;#8202;}}; and we can treat&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt; as a vector ''field''&amp;#8202; by extrapolating it perpendicularly from{{mvar| &amp;Sigma;}}. If we can arrange for {{mvar|h}} to cancel out, the volume{{mvar| V}} will serve as a 3D representation of the surface segment{{mvar| &amp;Sigma;}} while the ''edge-face'' will serve as a 2D representation of the curve{{mvar| C&amp;#8202;}}, so that our four theorems will relate an integral around {{mvar|C}} to an integral over {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}}&amp;#8201; ''provided that there is no contribution from the broad faces to the integral over''{{mvar| S}}. For brevity, let us call this proviso the ''2D condition''.

''If''&amp;#8202; the 2D condition is satisfied, an integral over the new {{mvar|S}} reduces to an integral over the edge-face, on which
:&lt;math&gt;dS = h\,dl \,,&lt;/math&gt;
so that the cancellation of{{mvar| h}} will leave an integral over {{mvar|C}}&amp;#8202; w.r.t. length. Meanwhile, in an integral over the new {{mvar|V}}, regardless of the 2D condition, we have
:&lt;math&gt;dV = h\,d\varSigma \,,&lt;/math&gt;
so that the cancellation of{{mvar| h}} will leave an integral over {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} w.r.t. area. So, substituting for {{mvar|dS}} and {{mvar|dV}}&amp;#8202; in ({{EquationNote|5g}}) to ({{EquationNote|5L}}), and canceling {{mvar|h}} as planned, we obtain respectively
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;~~~~~\!\oint_C \mathbf{\hat{n}}~\!p \,dl
    \,= \iint_{\varSigma} \nabla p ~d\varSigma \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|20g}}}}
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\oint_C \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{q} \,dl
    \,= \iint_{\varSigma} \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} ~d\varSigma \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|20c}}}}
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;~~\!\oint_C \mathbf{\hat{n}\cdot q} \,dl
    \,= \iint_{\varSigma} \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} ~d\varSigma \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|20d}}}}
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;~~\oint_C \part_n \psi \;dl
    \,= \iint_{\varSigma} \triangle\psi ~d\varSigma \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|20L}}}}
''all subject to the 2D condition''. In each equation, the circle on the left integral sign acknowledges that the integral is around a closed loop. The unit vector {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8202;,}} which ''was'' normal to the edge-face, is now normal to both {{math|'''t'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;}} and&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;; that is, {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} is tangential to the surface segment {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} and projects perpendicularly outward from its bounding curve.

On the left side of ({{EquationNote|20g}}), the 2D condition is satisfied if (but not only if) {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;''p''}} takes equal-and-opposite values at any two opposing points on opposing broad faces of{{mvar| S&amp;#8202;,}} i.e. if {{mvar|p}} takes the ''same'' value at such points, i.e. if {{mvar|p}} has a zero directional derivative normal to{{mvar| &amp;Sigma;&amp;#8202;,}} i.e. if {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}} has no component normal to{{mvar| &amp;Sigma;}}. Thus a sufficient &quot;2D condition&quot; for ({{EquationNote|20g}}) is the obvious one.

Skipping forward to ({{EquationNote|20L}}), we see that the 2D condition is satisfied if&lt;math&gt;~\part_n \psi&lt;/math&gt; takes equal-and-opposite values at any two opposing points on opposing broad faces of{{mvar| S&amp;#8202;,}} i.e. if&lt;math&gt;~\part_{\nu}\psi&lt;/math&gt; (where &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; measures distance in the direction of&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;) takes the ''same'' value at such points, i.e. if&lt;math&gt;~\part^2_{\nu}\psi\!=\!0&lt;/math&gt;.

For ({{EquationNote|20c}}) and ({{EquationNote|20d}}), the 2D constraint can be satisfied by construction, with more useful results&amp;mdash;as explained under the next two headings. To facilitate this process, we first make a minor adjustment to {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} and {{mvar|C}}. Noting that any curved surface segment can be approximated to any desired accuracy by a ''polyhedral'' surface enclosed by a ''polygon'', we shall indeed consider {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} to be a polyhedral surface made up of small planar elements, {{mvar|d&amp;Sigma;}} being the area of a general element, and we shall indeed consider {{mvar|C}} to be a polygon with short sides, {{mvar|dl}} being the length of a general side.{{efn|If any part of our argument requires {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} or {{mvar|C}} to be ''smooth'', this is not an impediment, because having approximated {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} or {{mvar|C}} to any desired accuracy by a polyhedron or polygon, we can then approximate the polyhedron or polygon to any desired ''higher'' accuracy by a smooth surface or curve!}} The benefit of this trick, as we shall see, is to make the unit normal &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt; uniform over each surface element, without forcing us to treat {{math|'''q'''}} (or any other field) as uniform over the same element. But, as the elements of{{mvar| C}} can ''independently'' be made as short as we like (dividing straight sides into shorter elements if necessary!), we can still consider &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}},&lt;/math&gt; {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} and {{math|'''t'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;}} to be uniform over each element of{{mvar| C}}.

=== Special case for the gradient ===

In ({{EquationNote|20c}}), the 2D condition is satisfied by&lt;math&gt;~\mathbf{q}\!=\!p\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt; (where {{mvar|p}} is a scalar field), because then the integrand on the left is zero on the broad faces of {{mvar|S&amp;#8202;,}} where {{math|'''n'''}} is parallel to&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;. Equation ({{EquationNote|20c}}) then becomes
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \oint_C \mathbf{\hat{n}}{\times}\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}~\!p \;dl \,=
    \iint_{\varSigma}\operatorname{curl}p\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\;d\varSigma \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|21n}}}}
Now on the left,&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\hat{n}}\!\times\!\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\!=\!-\mathbf{\hat{t}}~\!;\,&lt;/math&gt; and on the right, over each surface element, the unit normal &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt; is uniform so that, by ({{EquationNote|8p}}),&amp;#8201; {{midsize|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}p\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}=~\!\!\nabla p \!\times\!\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}=-\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\!\times\!\nabla p&lt;/math&gt;}}.  With these substitutions, the minus signs cancel and we get
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \oint_C p\mathbf{\hat{t}} \,dl \,=
    \iint_{\varSigma} \boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\times\nabla p \;d\varSigma
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|21g}}}}
or, if we write&amp;#8201; {{math|''d'''''r'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''t'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;&amp;#8239;''dl''}}&amp;#8201; and&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d\varSigma}\!=\!\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\,d\varSigma~\!,&lt;/math&gt;
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \oint_C p \,d\mathbf{r} \,=
    \iint_{\varSigma} \big(\boldsymbol{d\varSigma}\times\!\nabla p\big) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|21r}}}}
This result, although well attested in the literature,&lt;ref&gt;E.g., [[#gibbs-1881-4|Gibbs, 1884]], &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;165, eq.&amp;#8239;(1); [[#wilson-1901|Wilson, 1901]], p.&amp;#8239;255, Ex.&amp;#8239;1; [[#kemmer-77|Kemmer, 1977]], p.&amp;#8239;99, eq.&amp;#8239;(6); [[#hsu-84|Hsu, 1984]], p.&amp;#8239;146, eq.&amp;#8239;(7.31).&lt;/ref&gt; does not seem to have a name&amp;mdash;unlike the next result.

=== Special case for the curl ===

In ({{EquationNote|20d}}), the 2D condition is satisfied if {{math|'''q'''}} is replaced by&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}{\times}\mathbf{q}~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; because then (again) the integrand on the left is zero on the broad faces of {{mvar|S&amp;#8202;,}} where {{math|'''n'''}} is parallel to&lt;math&gt;~\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;. Equation ({{EquationNote|20d}}) then becomes
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \oint_C \mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}{\times}\mathbf{q} \;dl
    \,=
    \iint_{\varSigma}
      \operatorname{div}(\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\!\times\!\mathbf{q})
    \,d\varSigma \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|22n}}}}
Now on the left, the integrand can be written&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\hat{n}}{\times}\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\!\cdot\!\mathbf{q}\!=\!-\mathbf{\hat{t}}\!\cdot\!\mathbf{q}~\!;\,&lt;/math&gt; and on the right,&amp;#8201; {{midsize|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}(\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\!\times\!\mathbf{q})\!=\!-\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{q}\!\times\!\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}})\!=\!-\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}\cdot\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\,&lt;/math&gt;}} by identity ({{EquationNote|8c}}), since &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt; is uniform over each surface element.  With these substitutions, the minus signs cancel and we get
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \oint_C \mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{\hat{t}} \,dl \,=
    \iint_{\varSigma}
      \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}\cdot\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}
    \,d\varSigma
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|22c}}}}
or, if we again write&amp;#8201; {{math|''d'''''r'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''t'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;&amp;#8239;''dl''}}&amp;#8201; and&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{d\varSigma}\!=\!\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}\,d\varSigma~\!,&lt;/math&gt;
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \oint_C \mathbf{q} \cdot d\mathbf{r} \,=
    \iint_{\varSigma}
      \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}\cdot\boldsymbol{d\varSigma} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|22r}}}}
This result&amp;mdash;the best-known theorem relating an integral over a surface segment to an integral around its enclosing curve, and the best-known theorem involving the curl&amp;mdash;is called ''[[w:Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet|Stokes]]' theorem'' or, more properly, the '''[[w:Lord Kelvin|Kelvin]]&amp;ndash;Stokes theorem''',&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#katz-79|Katz, 1979]], pp.&amp;#8239;149–50.&lt;/ref&gt; or simply the ''curl theorem''.&lt;ref&gt;Although Hsu ([[#hsu-84|1984]], p.&amp;#8239;141) applies that name to our theorem ({{EquationNote|5c}}).&lt;/ref&gt;

The integral on the left of ({{EquationNote|22c}}) or ({{EquationNote|22r}}) is called the '''circulation''' of the vector field {{math|'''q'''}} around the closed curve {{mvar|C}}. So, &lt;span id=&quot;kelvin-stokes-verbal&quot;&gt;in words&lt;/span&gt;, the Kelvin&amp;ndash;Stokes theorem says that ''the circulation of a vector field around a closed curve is equal to the flux of the curl of that vector field through any surface spanning that closed curve''.

Now let a general element of {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} (with area {{mvar|d&amp;Sigma;&amp;#8202;}}) be enclosed by the curve {{mvar|&amp;delta;C}}, traversed in the same direction as the outer curve {{mvar|C}}. Then, applying ({{EquationNote|22c}}) to the single element, we have
:&lt;math&gt;
    \oint_{\delta C} \!\mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{\hat{t}} \,dl \,=\,
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}\cdot\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}} \,d\varSigma \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}\cdot\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}} \,=\,
    \frac{1}{d\varSigma}\oint_{\delta C}\!\mathbf{q}\cdot\mathbf{\hat{t}}\,dl\,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|23c}}}}
where the right-hand side is simply the ''circulation per unit area''.

Equation ({{EquationNote|23c}}) is an alternative definition of the curl: it says that ''the curl of''{{math| '''q'''}} ''is the vector whose scalar component in any direction is the circulation of''{{math| '''q'''}} ''per unit area of a surface whose normal points in that direction''. For ''real''{{math| '''q''',}} this component has its maximum, namely {{math|{{abs|curl&amp;#8201;'''q'''}}&amp;#8202;,}} in the direction of {{math|curl&amp;#8239;'''q'''&amp;#8202;}}; thus ''the curl of''{{math| '''q'''}} ''is the vector whose direction is that which a surface must face if the circulation of''{{math| '''q'''}} ''per unit area of that surface is to be a maximum, and whose magnitude is that maximum''. This is the usual conceptual definition of the curl.&lt;ref&gt;E.g., [[#gibbs-1881-4|Gibbs, 1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;61; [[#hsu-84|Hsu, 1984]], pp.&amp;#8239;117–18.&lt;/ref&gt;

[Notice, however, that our original volume-based definition ({{EquationNote|4c}}) is more succinct: the curl is the closed-surface circulation per unit volume, i.e. the skew surface integral per unit volume.]

It should now be clear where the curl gets its name (coined by [[w:James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]), and why it is also called the ''rotation'' (indeed the {{math|curl}} operator is sometimes written &quot;{{math|rot}}&quot;, especially in Continental languages, in which &quot;rot&quot; does not have the same unfortunate everyday meaning as in English). It should be similarly unsurprising that ''a vector field with zero curl is described as '''irrotational''''' (which one must carefully pronounce differently from &quot;{{nowrap|irr''i&amp;#8202;''tational}}&quot;!), and that the curl of the velocity of a medium is called the '''vorticity'''.

However, a field does not need to be vortex-like in order to have a non-zero curl; for example, by identity ({{EquationNote|8p}}), in Cartesian coordinates, the velocity field {{math|''x'''''j'''}} has a curl equal to&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;nabla;''x''&amp;#8201;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;'''j'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''i'''&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8202;'''j'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''k'''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8201; although it describes a ''shearing'' motion rather than a rotating motion. This is understandable because if you hold a pencil between the palms of your hands and slide one palm over the other (a shearing motion), the pencil rotates. Conversely, we can have a vortex-like field whose curl is zero everywhere except on or near the axis of the vortex. For example, the '''Maxwell&amp;ndash;Amp&amp;egrave;re law''' in magnetostatics says that&amp;#8201; {{math|curl&amp;#8201;'''H'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''J'''&amp;#8202;,}} where {{math|'''H'''}} is the '''magnetizing field''' and {{math|'''J'''}} is the current density.{{efn|In the general case, there is an extra term {{math|{{sfrac|''&amp;part;''&amp;#8202;'''D'''|''&amp;part;t''}}}} on the right; but this term is zero in the magneto''static'' case.}} So if the current is confined to a wire, {{math|curl&amp;#8201;'''H'''&amp;#8202;}} is zero outside the wire&amp;mdash;although, as is well known, the field lines circle the wire. The resolution of the paradox is that {{math|'''H'''}} gets stronger as we approach the wire, making a shearing pattern, whose effect on the curl counteracts that of the rotation.

=== The curl-grad and div-curl operators ===

We have seen from ({{EquationNote|9L}}) that the Laplacian of a scalar field is the divergence of the gradient. Four more such second-order combinations make sense, namely the curl of the gradient (of a scalar field), and the divergence of the curl, the gradient of the divergence, and the curl of the curl (of a vector field). The first two&amp;#8239;&amp;mdash;&quot;curl grad&quot; and &quot;div curl&quot;&amp;mdash;&amp;#8239;can now be disposed of.

Let the surface segment {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} enclosed by the curve {{mvar|C}} be a segment of the closed surface {{mvar|S}} surrounding the volume{{mvar| V}}, and let {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} expand across {{mvar|S}} until it engulfs {{mvar|S&amp;#8202;,}} so that {{mvar|C}} shrinks to a point on the far side of{{mvar| S}}. Then, in the nameless theorem ({{EquationNote|21g}}) and the Kelvin&amp;ndash;Stokes theorem ({{EquationNote|22c}}), the integral on the left becomes zero while {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} and &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}&lt;/math&gt; on the right become {{mvar|S}} and {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8202;,}} so that the theorems respectively reduce to
:&lt;math&gt;
    \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\nabla p \;dS
     \,=\, \mathbf{0}
  &lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt;
    \iint_S
      \mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    \;dS \,=\, 0 \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
Applying theorem ({{EquationNote|5c}}) to the first of these two equations, and the divergence theorem ({{EquationNote|5d}}) to the second, we obtain respectively
:&lt;math&gt;\iiint_V \operatorname{curl}\nabla p \;dV ~\!=\, \mathbf{0} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt;
    \iiint_{V}
      \operatorname{div}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    \;dV ~\!=\, 0 \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
As the integrals vanish for ''any'' volume {{mvar|V}} in which the integrands are defined, the integrands must be zero wherever they are defined; that is,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\nabla p \equiv \mathbf{0}
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|24c}}}}
and
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} \equiv 0 \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|24d}}}}
In words, ''the curl of the gradient is zero'', and ''the divergence of the curl is zero''; or, more concisely, ''any gradient is irrotational'', and ''any curl is solenoidal''.

We might well ask whether the converses are true. Is every irrotational vector field the gradient of something? And is every solenoidal vector field the curl of something? The answers are affirmative, but the proofs require more preparation.

Meanwhile we may note, as a mnemonic aid, that when the left-hand sides of the last two equations are rewritten in the del-cross and del-dot notations, they become&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8201;&amp;times;&amp;#8201;&amp;nabla;''p''}}&amp;#8201; and&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8201;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8201;&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8202;'''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} respectively. The former ''looks like'' (but isn't) a cross-product of two parallel vectors, and the latter ''looks like'' (but isn't) a scalar triple product with a repeated factor, so that each expression ''looks like'' it ought to be zero (and it is). But such appearances can lead one astray, because {{math|&amp;nabla;}} is an operator, not a self-contained vector quantity; for example,&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''&amp;#8201;&amp;times;&amp;#8201;&amp;nabla;''&amp;phi;''}}&amp;#8201; is ''not'' identically zero, because two gradients are not necessarily parallel.&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#feynman-63|Feynman, 1963]], vol.&amp;#8239;2, &amp;sect;2-8.&lt;/ref&gt;

We should also note, to tie a loose end, that identity ({{EquationNote|24d}}) was to be expected from our [[#kelvin-stokes-verbal|verbal statement]] of the Kelvin&amp;ndash;Stokes theorem ({{EquationNote|22c}}). That statement implies that the flux of the curl through any two surfaces spanning the same closed curve is the same. So if we make a ''closed'' surface from two spanning surfaces, the flux into one spanning surface is equal to the flux out of the other, i.e. the net flux out of the closed surface is zero, i.e. the integral of the divergence over the enclosed volume is zero; and since ''any'' simple volume in which the divergence is defined can be enclosed this way, the divergence itself (of the curl) must be zero wherever it is defined.

== Change per unit length ==

Continuing (and concluding) the trend of reducing the number of dimensions, we now seek ''one''-dimensional theorems, each of which relates an integral over a ''path'' to values at the endpoints of the path. For maximum generality, the path should be allowed to be curved into a second and a third dimension.

We ''could'' do this by further specializing theorems ({{EquationNote|5g}}) to ({{EquationNote|5L}}). We could take a curve {{math|&amp;Gamma;}} with a unit tangent vector {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}}. At every point on {{math|&amp;Gamma;}} we could mount a circular disk with a uniform ''small'' area {{mvar|&amp;alpha;&amp;#8202;,}} centered on{{math| &amp;Gamma;}} and orthogonal to it. We could let {{mvar|V}} be the volume occupied by all the disks and let {{mvar|S}} be its enclosing surface; thus {{mvar|V}} would be a thin right circular cylinder, except that its axis could be curved. If we could arrange for {{mvar|&amp;alpha;}} to cancel out, our four theorems would indeed be reduced to the desired form, ''provided'' that there were no contribution from the curved face of the &quot;cylinder&quot; to the integral over{{mvar| S}} (the &quot;1D proviso&quot;). But, as it turns out, this exercise yields only one case in which the &quot;1D proviso&quot; can be satisfied by a construction involving {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}} and a general field, and we have already ''almost'' discovered that case by a simpler and more conventional argument&amp;mdash;which we shall now continue.

=== Fundamental theorem ===

Equation ({{EquationNote|9g}}) is applicable where {{math|''p''('''r''')}} is a scalar field,&amp;#8201; {{mvar|s}} is a parameter measuring arc length along a curve{{math| &amp;Gamma;,}} and {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}} is the unit tangent vector to{{math| &amp;Gamma;}} in the direction of increasing{{mvar| s}}. Let {{mvar|s}} take the values {{math|''s''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}} and {{math|''s''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} at the endpoints of {{math|&amp;Gamma;,}} where the position vector {{math|'''r'''}} takes the values {{math|'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}} and {{math|'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} respectively. Then, integrating ({{EquationNote|9g}}) w.r.t.{{mvar| s}} from {{math|''s''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}} to {{math|''s''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}} and applying the fundamental theorem of calculus, we get
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \int_{s_1}^{s_2} \nabla p \cdot \mathbf{\hat{s}} \,ds
      \,=\, p(\mathbf{r}_2) - p(\mathbf{r}_1) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|25g}}}}
This is our third integral theorem involving the gradient, and the best-known of the three: it is commonly called simply the '''[[w:gradient theorem|gradient theorem]]''',&lt;ref&gt;Although Hsu ([[#hsu-84|1984]], p.&amp;#8239;141) applies that name to our theorem ({{EquationNote|5g}}).&lt;/ref&gt; or the ''fundamental theorem of the gradient'', or the ''fundamental theorem of line integrals''; it generalizes the fundamental theorem of calculus to a curved path.&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#gibbs-1881-4|Gibbs, 1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;sect;&amp;#8239;50,&amp;#8239;59; presumably this is one reason why Gibbs called the gradient simply the ''derivative''.&lt;/ref&gt; If we write {{math|''d'''''r'''}}&amp;#8202; for&amp;#8239; {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''&amp;#8239;''ds''}} (the change in the position vector), we get the theorem in the alternative form
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \int_{\mathbf{r}_1}^{\mathbf{r}_2} \nabla p \cdot d\mathbf{r}
      \,=\, p(\mathbf{r}_2) - p(\mathbf{r}_1) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|25r}}}}
As the right-hand side of ({{EquationNote|25g}}) or ({{EquationNote|25r}}) obviously depends on the endpoints but ''not on the path in between'', so does the integral on the left. This integral is commonly called the '''work integral''' of {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}} over the path&amp;mdash;because if {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''}} is a force, the integral is the work done by the force over the path. So, in words, the gradient theorem says that ''the change in value of a scalar field from one point to another is the work integral of the gradient of that field field over any path from the one to the other''.

Applying ({{EquationNote|25r}}) to a single element of the curve, we get
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\nabla p \cdot d\mathbf{r} = dp \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|26g}}}}
which is reminiscent of&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;y'(x)~\!dx\,{=}\,dy\,&lt;/math&gt; in elementary calculus.&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#gibbs-1881-4|Gibbs, 1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;sect;&amp;#8239;50,&amp;#8239;51; presumably this is another reason why Gibbs called the gradient the ''derivative''.&lt;/ref&gt; Alternatively, we could have obtained ({{EquationNote|26g}}) by multiplying both sides of ({{EquationNote|9g}}) by{{mvar| ds}}, and then obtained ({{EquationNote|25r}}) by adding ({{EquationNote|26g}}) over all the elemental displacements{{math| ''d'''''r'''}} on any path from {{math|'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}} to{{math| '''r'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}}.

If we ''close'' the path by setting&amp;#8201; {{math|'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;2 &lt;/sub&gt;{{=}} '''r'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;,}} the gradient theorem reduces to
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\oint \nabla p \cdot d\mathbf{r} \,=\, 0 \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|27g}}}}
where the integral is around ''any'' closed loop. Applying the Kelvin&amp;ndash;Stokes theorem then gives
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \iint_{\varSigma}
      \operatorname{curl}\nabla p \cdot \boldsymbol{\hat{\nu}}
    \,d\varSigma \,=\, 0 \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|28g}}}}
where {{mvar|&amp;Sigma;}} is any surface spanning the loop. As this applies to any loop spanned by any surface on which the integrand is defined,&amp;#8201; {{math|curl&amp;#8201;&amp;nabla;''p''}}&amp;#8202; must be zero wherever it is defined. This is a second proof (more conventional than the first) of theorem ({{EquationNote|24c}}).

=== Scalar potential: field with given gradient ===

'''Lemma''':  If&amp;#8201; {{math|curl&amp;#8239;'''q'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''0'''}}&amp;#8201; in a simply connected region{{mvar| V}},&amp;#8201; then&amp;#8239; &lt;math&gt;\textstyle\int\!\mathbf{q}\!\cdot\!d\mathbf{r}\,&lt;/math&gt; over any path in{{mvar| V}}&amp;#8239; depends only on the endpoints of the path.

''Proof:''  Suppose, on the contrary, that there are two paths {{math|&amp;Gamma;}} and {{math|&amp;Lambda;}} in{{mvar| V}},&amp;#8202; with a common starting point and a common finishing point, such that
:&lt;math&gt;\textstyle\int_{\Gamma}\mathbf{q}\cdot d\mathbf{r}
       \,\neq \textstyle\int_{\Lambda}\mathbf{q}\cdot d\mathbf{r} \,.&lt;/math&gt;
Let&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;minus;&amp;Lambda;}} denote {{math|&amp;Lambda;}} traversed backwards. Then for every {{math|''d'''''r'''}} on {{math|&amp;Lambda;}}&amp;#8201; there is an equal and opposite{{math| ''d'''''r'''}} on&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;minus;&amp;Lambda;&amp;#8202;,}} so that we have
:&lt;math&gt;\textstyle\int_{\Gamma}\mathbf{q}\cdot d\mathbf{r} \,\neq\,
       \textstyle-\!\int_{-\Lambda}\mathbf{q}\cdot d\mathbf{r} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
i.e.
:&lt;math&gt;\textstyle\int_{\Gamma}\mathbf{q}\cdot d\mathbf{r} \,+
  \textstyle\int_{-\Lambda}\mathbf{q}\cdot d\mathbf{r} \,\neq\, 0 \,,&lt;/math&gt;
where the left-hand side is now a work integral of {{math|'''q'''}} around a closed loop in{{mvar| V}}.&amp;#8201; By the simple connectedness of{{mvar| V}},&amp;#8202; this loop is spanned by some surface{{mvar| &amp;Sigma;}} in{{mvar| V}}.&amp;#8201; So we can apply the Kelvin&amp;ndash;Stokes theorem and conclude that the flux integral of&amp;#8202; {{math|curl&amp;#8239;'''q'''}}&amp;#8202; through{{mvar| &amp;Sigma;}}&amp;#8202; is non-zero, in which case&amp;#8202; {{math|curl&amp;#8239;'''q'''}}&amp;#8202; must be non-zero somewhere on{{mvar| &amp;Sigma;&amp;#8202;,}} hence somewhere in{{mvar| V}}&amp;#8201;&amp;mdash;&amp;#8239;contradicting the hypothesis of the lemma. &amp;#9724;

'''Corollary''':  If&amp;#8201; {{math|curl&amp;#8239;'''q'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''0'''}}&amp;#8201; in a simply connected region{{mvar| V}},&amp;#8202; there exists a scalar field {{mvar|p}} such that&amp;#8239; {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;&amp;nabla;''p''}}&amp;#8201; in{{mvar| V}}.

''Proof:''  We shall show that a suitable candidate is
:&lt;math&gt;p(\mathbf{r}) \,=
    \int_{\mathbf{r}_0}^{\mathbf{r}} \!\mathbf{q}\cdot d\boldsymbol{\rho} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
where {{math|'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}} is the position vector of any fixed point in{{mvar| V}},&amp;#8202; and {{mvar|'''&amp;rho;'''}} is the position vector of a general point on the path of integration, which may be any path in{{mvar| V}}. First note that {{math|''p''('''r''')}} is unambiguous because, by the preceding lemma, it is independent of the path for given {{math|'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}} and{{math| '''r''',}} provided that the path is in{{mvar| V}}.&amp;#8201; Now to find&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;''p''('''r'''),}}&amp;#8202; let {{mvar|&amp;sigma;}} be the arc length along the path from {{math|'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}} to {{mvar|'''&amp;rho;'''&amp;#8202;}}, so that {{mvar|&amp;sigma;}} ranges from 0 to (say){{mvar| s}}&amp;#8201; as {{mvar|'''&amp;rho;'''}} ranges from {{math|'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}} to{{math| '''r'''&amp;#8202;}}; and let {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}} be the unit vector tangential to the path at{{mvar| '''&amp;rho;'''&amp;#8202;}}, in the direction of increasing{{mvar| &amp;sigma;}}.&amp;#8201; Then&amp;#8239; {{math|''d'''&amp;rho;'''''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;'''s&amp;#770;'''&amp;#8239;''d&amp;sigma;''&amp;#8202;,}} so that the above equation becomes
:&lt;math&gt;p\big(\mathbf{r}(s)\big) \,=
    \int_0^s \!\mathbf{q}\cdot\mathbf{\hat{s}} \,d\sigma \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
Differentiating w.r.t.{{mvar| s}} gives
:&lt;math&gt;\part_s p = \mathbf{q}\cdot\mathbf{\hat{s}} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
where {{math|'''s&amp;#770;'''}} is evaluated at&amp;#8201; {{mvar|&amp;sigma;&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;s}}&amp;#8201; and is therefore in the direction in which the path reaches{{math| '''r'''}}.&amp;#8201; By the generality of the path, this can be ''any'' direction. So the last equation says that {{math|'''q'''}} is the vector whose (scalar) component in any direction is the derivative of {{mvar|p}} w.r.t. arc length in that direction; that is, {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;&amp;nabla;''p''&amp;#8202;,}} as required. &amp;#9724;

This is the promised converse of theorem ({{EquationNote|24c}}). ''But'', given an irrotational vector field {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} we usually prefer to find a scalar field whose ''negative'' gradient is{{math| '''q'''&amp;#8202;}};&amp;#8201; that is, we usually prefer a scalar field &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; such that&amp;#8201;
&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{q}~\!\!=\!-\nabla\varphi&lt;/math&gt;.&amp;#8201; Such a field &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; is called a '''scalar potential''' for{{math| '''q'''}}.&amp;#8201; From the above expression for {{math|''p''('''r'''),}} a suitable candidate is
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\varphi(\mathbf{r}) \,=\,
    -\!\int_{\mathbf{r}_0}^{\mathbf{r}} \!\mathbf{q}\cdot d\boldsymbol{\rho} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|29}}}}

A scalar field has zero gradient if and only if it is uniform, so that adding a uniform field, but ''only'' a uniform field, to a given scalar field leaves its gradient unchanged. Thus ''the scalar potential is determined up to an arbitrary additive uniform field''. This would be the case with or without the minus sign in front of the gradient. The reason for preferring the minus sign appears next.

=== Conservative fields ===

An irrotational vector field&amp;mdash;or, equivalently, a field that is (plus or minus) the gradient of something&amp;mdash;is described as '''conservative''', because if the field is a force, it does zero work around a closed loop, and consequently ''conserves energy'' around the loop (at least if the field does not change during traversal of the loop).

If the only force acting on a particle is&amp;#8201; {{math|'''F'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;&amp;minus;&amp;nabla;''U'',}}&amp;#8201; then, by the gradient theorem, the work done on the particle over a path is the increase in {{mvar|&amp;minus;U}},&amp;#8201; i.e. the ''decrease'' in{{mvar| U&amp;#8202;}}; and this work is the increase in the particle's kinetic energy{{mvar| T}}.&amp;#8201; Hence, if we identify {{mvar|U}} with the ''potential'' energy, the total energy&amp;#8202; {{mvar|U&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8202;T}}&amp;#8201; is conserved. This interpretation of the scalar potential is possible only if the force is ''minus'' the gradient of the potential.

The minus sign is also used if the conservative vector field is an '''electric field''' (force per unit charge) or a gravitational acceleration (force per unit mass); the scalar potential is potential energy per unit charge, or potential energy per unit mass, respectively.

== Some special fields ==

=== The 1/''r'' scalar potential ===

For the potential energy field
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;U = \frac{1}{\,r\,} \,&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|30}}}}
where {{mvar|r}} is the distance from the origin (and {{math|''r''&amp;#8201;&amp;ne;&amp;#8201;0}}), let us find the corresponding force&amp;#8201; {{math|'''F'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;&amp;minus;&amp;nabla;''U''}}.&amp;#8201; The direction of&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;''U''}}&amp;#8202; is that of the steepest increase of {{mvar|U}}, which, by the spherical symmetry, can only be parallel or antiparallel to {{math|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;}} (the unit vector pointing away from the origin). So
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla U = \big(\nabla U \cdot \mathbf{\hat{r}}\big)~\!\mathbf{\hat{r}}
                = \part_r U \,\mathbf{\hat{r}}
                = \frac{d}{dr}\Big(\!\frac{1}{\,r\,}\!\Big)~\!\mathbf{\hat{r}}
                = -\frac{1}{\,r^2}~\!\mathbf{\hat{r}} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
whence
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = \frac{\mathbf{\hat{r}}}{\,r^2} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|31}}}}
So the negative gradient of the {{math|1/''r''}}&amp;#8202; scalar potential ({{EquationNote|30}}) is the unit '''inverse-square radial vector field'''. Multiplying the numerator and denominator by {{mvar|r}} gives the alternative form
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = \frac{\mathbf{r}}{\,r^3} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
which is convenient if the center of the force is shifted from the origin to position{{math| '''r&amp;prime;'''}}: in that case we simply replace {{math|'''r'''}} by {{math|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;''',}} and {{mvar|r}} by {{math|{{abs|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;'''}},}} so that the force becomes
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = \frac{\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'}
                         {|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r'}|^3}&lt;/math&gt;
and the corresponding scalar potential becomes
:&lt;math&gt;U = \frac{1}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|} \,.&lt;/math&gt;

=== Inverse-square radial vector field ===

We derived the vector field ({{EquationNote|31}}) as the negative gradient of the scalar potential ({{EquationNote|30}}). Conversely, given the inverse-square radial vector field ({{EquationNote|31}}), we could derive its scalar potential from ({{EquationNote|29}}). At a general point on the path, let the position vector be&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{\rho}~\!\!=\!\rho\boldsymbol{\hat{\rho}}\,&lt;/math&gt; so that, by ({{EquationNote|31}}),&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}\!=\!\boldsymbol{\hat{\rho}}/\rho^2&lt;/math&gt;.&amp;#8201; Then ({{EquationNote|29}}) becomes
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}U(\mathbf{r})
    \,&amp;=\, -\!\int_{\mathbf{r}_0}^{\mathbf{r}} \!
               \mathbf{F} \cdot d\boldsymbol{\rho} \\[1ex]
      &amp;=\, -\!\int_{\mathbf{r}_0}^{\mathbf{r}} \!
               \tfrac{1}{\,\rho^2}~\!
              \boldsymbol{\hat{\rho}} \!\cdot\! d\boldsymbol{\rho} \\[1ex]
      &amp;=\, -\!\int_{r_0}^r \! \tfrac{1}{\,\rho^2} \,d\rho
     \ =\, \tfrac{1}{\,\rho\,}\bigg|^r_{r_0}
     \,=\, \frac{1}{\,r\,}-\frac{1}{\,r_0} \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
so that, if we choose&amp;#8201; {{math|''r''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;rarr;&amp;#8239;&amp;infin;&amp;#8202;,}} we recover ({{EquationNote|30}}).

Because {{math|'''F''',}} given by ({{EquationNote|31}}), has a scalar potential,&amp;#8201; {{math|curl&amp;#8201;'''F'''}}&amp;#8202; must be zero. This is independently obvious in that the spherical symmetry of{{math|&amp;#8202; '''F'''}} seems to rule out any resemblance of rotation or shear&amp;mdash;even at the origin, where {{math|'''F'''}} becomes infinite. On the last point, let us check whether&amp;#8201; {{math|curl&amp;#8201;'''F'''}}&amp;#8202; has a meaningful integral over a volume containing the origin. If the volume {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; is enclosed by the surface {{mvar|S}}&amp;#8202; whose outward unit normal is {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8202;}}, then, by theorem ({{EquationNote|5c}}),
:&lt;math&gt;\iiint_V \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{F} ~dV
    \,= \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\mathbf{F} \,dS
    \,= \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\times\frac{\mathbf{\hat{r}}\,}{r^2} \,dS \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
If {{mvar|V}} contains the origin, then, because&amp;#8201; {{math|curl&amp;#8201;'''F'''}}&amp;#8239; is zero everywhere ''except'' at the origin, the volume {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; can be replaced by any ''element'' of {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; containing the origin, whatever the shape of that element may be. If we choose that element to be a spherical ball centered on the origin, then {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} is parallel to {{math|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;&amp;#8202;,}} so that the cross-product in the integrand on the right is zero. Thus the volume integral on the left is not only meaningful, but is ''zero'', even if the volume contains the point where the integrand is undefined. In this sense, the field {{math|'''F'''}} is ''so'' irrotational that its curl may be taken as zero even where the field itself is undefined!

The situation concerning the ''divergence'' of{{math|&amp;#8202; '''F'''}} is more complicated. Again, let the volume {{mvar|V}}&amp;#8202; be enclosed by the surface {{mvar|S}} whose outward unit normal is {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}}.&amp;#8201; By the divergence theorem ({{EquationNote|5d}}),
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\iiint_V \operatorname{div}\mathbf{F} ~dV
    \,= \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot\mathbf{F} \,dS
   \,&amp;= \iint_S \mathbf{\hat{n}}\cdot\frac{\mathbf{\hat{r}}\,}{r^2} \,dS\\[1ex]
     &amp;= \iint_S \frac{\mathbf{\hat{r}}\cdot\mathbf{\hat{n}}\,dS}{\,r^2} \\[1ex]
     &amp;= \iint_S d\Omega \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
where {{math|''d''&amp;Omega;}} is the ''solid angle'' subtended at the origin by the surface element of area{{mvar| dS&amp;#8202;}}, and is positive if the outward unit normal {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} has a positive component ''away from'' the origin ({{math|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;n'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8201;&amp;gt;&amp;#8201;0}}), and negative if {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}} has a positive component ''toward'' the origin ({{math|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;n'''&amp;#770;&amp;#8201;&amp;lt;&amp;#8201;0}}). If the volume enclosed by {{mvar|S}} does ''not'' include the origin, then for every positive contribution {{math|''d''&amp;Omega;}} there is a compensating negative contribution, so that the integral of&amp;#8201; {{math|div&amp;#8201;'''F'''}}&amp;#8202; over the volume is zero. As this applies to every such volume,&amp;#8201; {{math|div&amp;#8201;'''F'''}}&amp;#8202; must be zero everywhere except at the origin. If, on the contrary, the volume ''does'' include the origin, then the contributions {{math|''d''&amp;Omega;}} add up to the total solid angle subtended by the enclosing surface, which is{{math| 4''&amp;pi;''}}. In summary,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{div}\Big(\frac{\mathbf{\hat{r}}}{\,r^2}\Big)
  =~\! 4\pi~\!\delta(\mathbf{r}) \,,&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|32d}}}}
where {{math|''&amp;delta;''('''r'''),}} the 3D '''unit delta function''', is zero everywhere except at the origin, but has an integral of&amp;#8202; {{math|1}} over any volume that includes the origin. For example, a unit point-mass at the origin has the density {{math|''&amp;delta;''('''r''')}}, and a point-mass {{mvar|m}} at position {{math|'''r&amp;prime;'''}} has the density&amp;#8202; {{math|''m&amp;delta;''('''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;''')}}. As the argument of&amp;#8202; {{math|div}}&amp;#8202; in ({{EquationNote|32d}}) is&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;minus;&amp;nabla;(1/''r''),}} we also have
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\triangle\Big(\frac{1}{\,r\,}\Big)
  = -4\pi~\!\delta(\mathbf{r}) \,.&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|32L}}}}
If we shift the centers from the origin to {{math|'''r&amp;prime;''',}} the last two results become
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathrm{div}\bigg(\frac{ \mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'}
                           {|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|^3} \!\bigg)
    =~\! 4\pi~\!\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}')
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|33d}}}}
and
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \triangle\bigg(\frac{1}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|}\bigg)
    = -4\pi~\!\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}') \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|33L}}}}

=== Field with given divergence (and zero curl) ===

It follows from '''Coulomb's law''' that the electric field due to a point-charge {{mvar|Q}} at the origin, in a vacuum, is
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E}
  = \frac{Q}{4\pi\epsilon_0 r^2} ~\!\mathbf{\hat{r}} \,,&lt;/math&gt;
where {{math|''&amp;epsiv;''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}} is a physical constant (called the '''vacuum permittivity''' or simply the '''electric constant'''). In a ''vacuum'', the '''electric displacement field''', denoted by{{math| '''D'''&amp;#8202;,}} is {{math|''&amp;epsiv;''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'''E'''}}.&amp;#8201; So it is convenient to multiply the above equation by {{math|''&amp;epsiv;''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;,}} obtaining
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{D}
  = \frac{Q}{4\pi} ~\!\frac{\mathbf{\hat{r}}\,}{r^2} \,.&lt;/math&gt;
This is a inverse-square radial vector field and therefore has zero curl.

Now suppose that, instead of a charge {{mvar|Q}} at the origin, we have a static ''charge density'' {{math|''&amp;rho;''('''r&amp;prime;''')}} in a general elemental volume {{mvar|dV&amp;prime;}}&amp;#8202; at position{{math| '''r&amp;prime;'''}} (the standard symbol for ''charge'' density being unfortunately the same as for ''mass'' density). Then the contribution from that element to the field{{math| '''D'''}} at position{{math| '''r'''}}&amp;#8202; is
:&lt;math&gt;d\mathbf{D}(\mathbf{r}) ~\!=~\!
    \frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')\,dV'}{4\pi}\,
    \frac{\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|^3}
  &lt;/math&gt;
provided that, for each {{math|'''r''',}} the dimensions of each volume element are small compared with {{math|{{abs|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;'''}}}}. This contribution likewise has zero curl. The total field due to static charges is then the sum of the contributions:
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{D}(\mathbf{r}) \,= \iiint
    \frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi}\,
    \frac{\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|^3} \,dV'
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|34}}}}
where the integral is over all space. And {{math|'''D'''('''r''')}} has zero curl because all the contributions have zero curl.

Independently of the physical significance of&amp;#8202; {{math|'''D'''('''r'''),}} we can take its divergence &quot;term by term&quot; (or &quot;under the integral sign&quot;), obtaining
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\operatorname{div}\mathbf{D}(\mathbf{r})
  \,&amp;= \iiint \frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi}~\!\mathrm{div}\bigg(
         \frac{\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|^3}
       \!\bigg) ~\!dV' \\[3pt]
    &amp;= \iiint \frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi}\,
         4\pi~\!\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}') \,dV'
         \quad \big[\mathsf{by~eq.(33d)}\big] \\[3pt]
    &amp;= \iiint \rho(\mathbf{r}')\,\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}')\,dV'\\[3pt]
    &amp;= \iiint \rho(\mathbf{r})\,\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}') \,dV'
           ~~~ \begin{bmatrix}~\!\!
                 \mathsf{since}~\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}')\!=\!0\\
                 \mathsf{unless}~\,\mathbf{r}'{=}~\!\mathbf{r}
               ~\!\!\end{bmatrix} \\
    &amp;= \,\rho(\mathbf{r})\!\iiint\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}')\,dV'\\[3pt]
    &amp;= \,\rho(\mathbf{r})\!\iiint\delta(\mathbf{r}'{-}~\!\mathbf{r})\,dV',
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
where the last step is permitted because the volume integral of the delta function of{{math| '''r&amp;prime;'''}} is not changed by a &quot;[[w:point reflection|point reflection]]&quot; (inversion) across {{math|'''r'''}}.&amp;#8201; As the volume of integration (all space) includes the shifted origin of the delta function, the integral is simply{{math| 1&amp;#8202;,}} so that
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{D}=\rho \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|35}}}}
where both sides are evaluated at{{math| '''r'''}}.

Mathematically, this result is an identity which applies if&amp;#8202; {{math|'''D'''}} is given by ({{EquationNote|34}}); substituting for{{math| '''D'''&amp;#8202;,}} we can write the identity in full as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\rho(\mathbf{r}) \,\equiv\, \mathrm{div}\iiint
    \frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi}\,
    \frac{\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|^3}
  \,dV'.&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|36}}}}
Subject to the convergence of the integral, this shows that ''we can construct an irrotational vector field whose divergence is a given scalar field''{{math| ''&amp;rho;''('''r''')}}. And of course, by theorem ({{EquationNote|24d}}), ''any curl'' can be added to that vector field without changing its divergence.

In ''electrostatics'', ({{EquationNote|34}}) is a generalization of Coulomb's law; and ({{EquationNote|35}}), which follows from ({{EquationNote|34}}), is '''Gauss's law''' expressed in ''differential form''. If we integrate ({{EquationNote|35}}) over a volume enclosed by a surface{{mvar| S}} (with outward unit normal {{math|'''n'''&amp;#770;}}) and apply the divergence theorem on the left, we get the ''integral form'' of Gauss's law:
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \iint_S \mathbf{D}\cdot\mathbf{\hat{n}}\,dS \,=\, Q_{\mathrm{e}} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|37}}}}
where {{math|''Q''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;}} is the total charge ''enclosed''&amp;#8202; by{{mvar| S}}.

=== Field with given Laplacian ===

In ({{EquationNote|36}}), we can recognize the {{math|'''r'''}}-dependent factor&amp;#8202; {{math|{{sfrac|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;'''|{{abs|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;'''}}&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;}}}}&amp;#8201; as&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;minus;&amp;nabla;{{sfrac|1|&amp;#8202;{{abs|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;'''}}&amp;#8202;}}}}&amp;#8201; and take the gradient operator outside the integral, obtaining
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 1em&quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\rho(\mathbf{r}) \,\equiv\, \mathrm{div}\bigg(\!{-}\nabla\!\iiint
    \frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi}\,
    \frac{1}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|}
  \,dV' \!\bigg) \,,&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
i.e.
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\rho(\mathbf{r}) \,\equiv\, \triangle\bigg(\!{-}\!\iiint
    \frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi}\,
    \frac{1}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|}
  \,dV' \!\bigg) \,.&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|38}}}}
Subject to the convergence of the integral, this shows that ''we can construct a field whose Laplacian is a given field''. More precisely, it shows that we can construct a ''scalar'' field whose Laplacian is a given ''scalar''&amp;#8202; field{{math| ''&amp;rho;''('''r''')}}. But, due to the linearity of the Laplacian, the same applies to any given linear combination of scalar fields, including any combination whose coefficients are uniform vectors, uniform matrices, or uniform tensors of any order; that is, the same applies to any field that we can express with a uniform basis.

Mathematically, ({{EquationNote|38}}) is simply an identity. To find its significance in electrostatics, we can multiply it by&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;minus;1&amp;#10744;''&amp;epsiv;''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;,}} obtaining
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;-\frac{\rho(\mathbf{r})}{\epsilon_0} \,\equiv\,
  \triangle\iiint
    \frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\,
    \frac{1}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|}
  \,dV',&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|39}}}}
which is also an identity. But the negative gradient of the expression after the integral sign is
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\,\rho(\mathbf{r}')\,dV'}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\,
  \frac{\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|^3}\,,&lt;/math&gt;
which is the contribution to the electric field at position{{math| '''r'''}} due to a charge&amp;#8202; {{math|''&amp;rho;''('''r&amp;prime;''')&amp;#8239;''dV&amp;prime;''}}&amp;#8239; at position{{math| '''r&amp;prime;'''}} in a vacuum. So the expression after the integral sign is the corresponding contribution to the electrostatic potential, and the whole integral is the whole electrostatic potential. Denoting this by &lt;math&gt;\varphi~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; we can rewrite ({{EquationNote|39}}) as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \triangle\varphi = -\frac{\rho}{\,\epsilon_0} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|40}}}}
This is '''Poisson's equation''' in electrostatics, treating the medium as a vacuum (so that {{mvar|&amp;rho; }}must be taken as the ''total'' charge density, including any contributions caused by the effect of the field on the medium). In a region in which&amp;#8201; {{math|''&amp;rho;''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;0&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8201; Poisson's equation ({{EquationNote|40}}) reduces to
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \triangle\varphi = 0 \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|41}}}}
which is '''Laplace's equation''' in electrostatics.

=== The wave equation ===

It is an empirical fact that a compressible fluid, such as air, carries waves of a mechanical nature: sound waves. In establishing the unambiguity of the gradient and the divergence, we have already derived equations dealing with the inertia and continuity (mass-conservation) of non-viscous fluids. So, by introducing a relation describing the compressibility, and eliminating variables, we should be able to get ''one'' equation (the &quot;wave equation&quot;) in ''one'' scalar or vector field (the &quot;wave function&quot;), with recognizably &quot;wavelike&quot; solutions. And we should expect this equation to be analogous to equations describing other kinds of waves.

If we suppose, for simplicity, that the only force acting on an element of fluid is the pressure force, the applicable equation of motion is ({{EquationNote|6g}}). But, for reasons which will soon be apparent, let us call the pressure{{mvar| P}}, so that ({{EquationNote|6g}}) becomes
:&lt;math&gt;
    \rho\,\frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = -\nabla P \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
Then at ''equilibrium'' we have
:&lt;math&gt;
    0 ~\!= -\nabla P_0 \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
where {{math|''P''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}} is the equilibrium pressure. Subtracting this equation from the previous one and defining
:&lt;math&gt;p = P - P_0 \,,&lt;/math&gt;
we get
:&lt;math&gt;
    \rho\,\frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = -\nabla p \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
which looks like ({{EquationNote|6g}}), except that {{mvar|p}} is now the '''sound pressure''' (also called &quot;acoustic pressure&quot;, or sometimes &quot;excess pressure&quot;), i.e. the pressure rise above equilibrium.

For the equation of continuity we can use ({{EquationNote|7d'}}), which we repeat for convenience:
:&lt;math&gt;
    \rho\operatorname{div}\mathbf{v} = -\frac{d\rho}{dt} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;

Eliminating {{math|'''v'''}} between the last two equations is fraught because {{math|'''v''' }}is evaluated at a moving point in the former and at a fixed point in the latter; and introducing any relation between {{mvar|p}} and {{mvar|&amp;rho;}} is similarly fraught because {{mvar|p}} is evaluated at a fixed point and {{mvar|&amp;rho;}} at a moving point. The obvious remedy is to apply the advection rule ({{EquationNote|16}}) to the last two equations, obtaining respectively
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \rho\Big(\tfrac{\part\mathbf{v}}{\part t}
             + \mathbf{v}\cdot\nabla\mathbf{v}\Big) \,&amp;=\, -\nabla p ~; \\
    \rho\operatorname{div}\mathbf{v} \,&amp;=\,
      -\tfrac{\part\rho}{\part t} - \mathbf{v}\cdot\nabla\rho \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
That gets all the variables evaluated at fixed points, at the cost of making the equations more complicated and more obviously non-linear. But the equations and be simplified and linearized by '''small-amplitude approximations'''. In the parentheses in the first equation, the first term is proportional to the amplitude of the vibrations while the second term is a product of ''two'' factors proportional to the amplitude, so that, for sufficiently small amplitudes, the second term is negligible. Similarly, in the second equation, for sufficiently small amplitudes and a ''homogeneous medium'', we can neglect the second term on the right. Then, on the left side of each equation, we are left with a factor proportional to the amplitude, multiplied by{{mvar| &amp;rho;}}. But {{mvar|&amp;rho;}} is not proportional to the amplitude; only its deviation from the equilibrium density is so proportional. Hence, for small amplitudes,&amp;#8201; {{mvar|&amp;rho; }}can be replaced by the equilibrium density, which we shall call{{math| ''&amp;rho;''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;,}} which is independent of time and (in a homogeneous medium) independent of position. With these approximations, our equations of motion and continuity become
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \rho_0 \mathbf{\dot{v}} &amp;= -\nabla p \,, \\[.5ex]
    \rho_0 \operatorname{div}\mathbf{v} &amp;= -\dot{\rho} \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
where, for brevity, we use an overdot to denote ''partial'' differentiation w.r.t. time (i.e., at a ''fixed'' point, not a point moving with the fluid).

Now we can eliminate {{math|'''v'''}}. Taking divergences in the first equation, and differentiating the second ''partially'' w.r.t. time (which can be done inside the {{math|div}} operator, which represents a linear combination), we get
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \rho_0 \operatorname{div}\mathbf{\dot{v}} &amp;= -\triangle p \,, \\[.5ex]
    \rho_0 \operatorname{div}\mathbf{\dot{v}} &amp;= -\ddot{\rho} \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
so that we can equate the right-hand sides, obtaining
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\ddot{\rho} = \triangle p \,.&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|42}}}}

Maintaining the small-amplitude assumption, we can now consider compressibility. For ''small'' compressions in a ''homogeneous'' medium, we may suppose that the pressure change {{mvar|dp}} is some constant times the density change{{mvar| d&amp;rho;}}. It is readily verified that such a constant must have the dimension of velocity squared. So we can say&amp;#8201; {{math|''dp''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''c''&amp;sup2;&amp;#8202;''d&amp;rho;''&amp;#8202;,}} where {{mvar|c}} is a constant with the units of velocity.{{efn|When a gas is compressed, work is done on it, causing its temperature to rise, so that the ratio of {{mvar|dp}} to {{mvar|d&amp;rho;}} is higher than if the compression were isothermal. In sound waves, there is typically not enough time for a significant part of the heat of compression to be conducted away; that is, the compression is near enough to '''adiabatic'''. The words &quot;not enough time&quot; may suggest that the adiabatic approximation is a high-frequency approximation. But in fact, in free air, it is a ''low''-frequency approximation, because as the frequency is reduced, the equalization of temperature is hindered more by the longer wavelength than it is helped by the longer period. Only in a confined space, which limits the required distance of conduction, does the adiabatic assumption require the frequency to be ''above'' some lower limit. In a musical wind instrument, that lower limit tends to be far below the audible range. Meanwhile the upper limit, due to easier heat conduction within a shorter wavelength, tends to be very far above the audible range. Thus, under typical conditions, for the purpose of calculating{{mvar| c&amp;#8202;}}, the adiabatic assumption is reasonable. (See [[#fletcher-74|Fletcher, 1974]].)}} Dividing by {{mvar|dt}} gives&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\dot{p}\!=\!c^2\dot{\rho}~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; whence
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\ddot{p} = c^2~\!\ddot{\rho} \,.&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|43}}}}
Substituting from  ({{EquationNote|42}}) then gives the desired '''wave equation''':
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\ddot{p} = c^2 \triangle p \,.&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|44}}}}

This is the 3D classical wave equation with the sound pressure {{mvar|p}} as the wave function. For a generic wave function {{mvar|&amp;psi;&amp;#8202;,}} in a homogeneous isotropic medium, we would expect the equation to be
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\ddot{\psi} = c^2 \triangle\psi \,,&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|45}}}}
which may be written more compactly as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\Box\psi =~\! 0 \,,&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|46}}}}
where {{math|&amp;#9744;,}} pronounced &quot;wave&quot; or &quot;box&quot;,{{efn|Or sometimes &quot;quabla&quot;, by analogy with &quot;nabla&quot;.}} is called the '''D'Alembertian''' operator and is defined by
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \Box\psi := \triangle\psi - \frac{1}{\,c^2}\frac{\part^2 \psi}{\part t^2}
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|47}}}}
in this paper, although other conventions exist.{{efn|In particular, some authorities change the sign, defining {{math|&amp;#9744;}} as&amp;#8201; {{math|{{sfrac|1|&amp;#8239;c&amp;sup2;}}&amp;#8202;{{sfrac|&amp;part;&amp;sup2;|&amp;part;t&amp;sup2;}}&amp;#8239;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;&amp;#9651;&amp;#8239;,}}&amp;#8239; and some write the operator (however defined) as{{math| &amp;#9744;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;}}.}}

In a ''static'' situation, the second term on the right of ({{EquationNote|47}}) is zero. So one advantage of definition ({{EquationNote|47}}), over any alternative definition that changes the sign or the scale factor, is that ''in the static case, the D'Alembertian is reduced to the Laplacian'', making it especially obvious that ''in the static case, the wave equation is reduced to Laplace's equation'' [compare ({{EquationNote|46}}) and ({{EquationNote|41}})]. Also notice that the D'Alembertian, being a linear combination of two linear operators, is itself ''linear''.

=== Spherical waves ===

Having established that there are wavelike time-dependent fields described by equation ({{EquationNote|45}}), in which the constant {{mvar|c}} has the units of velocity, we can now make an informed guess at an elementary solution of the equation. Consider the candidate
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \psi(\mathbf{r},t) = \tfrac{1}{\,r\,}~\!f\big(t-r/c\big) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|48}}}}
where&amp;#8201; {{math|'''r'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''r''&amp;#8202;'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;}}&amp;#8201; is the position vector (so that {{mvar|r}} is distance from the origin),&amp;#8201; {{mvar|f}}&amp;#8239; is an arbitrary function (arbitrary except that it will need to be twice differentiable),&amp;#8201; {{mvar|t }}is time, and {{mvar|c }}is a constant (and obviously {{mvar|&amp;psi; }}is not defined at the origin even if {{mvar|f&amp;#8202; }}is.)

If, at the origin, the function {{mvar|f}}&amp;#8239; has a certain argument at time&amp;#8201; {{math|''t&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;&amp;tau;''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8201; then at any distance{{mvar| r}}&amp;#8202; from the origin, it has the same argument at time&amp;#8201; {{math|''t&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;&amp;tau;&amp;#8202;+r''&amp;#10744;''c''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8201; which is&amp;#8201; {{math|''r''&amp;#10744;''c'' }}&amp;#8239;''later''&amp;#8202; than at the origin. Hence, if {{mvar|f}}&amp;#8239; has a certain feature (e.g., a zero-crossing) at the origin, the time taken for that feature to reach any distance{{mvar| r}}&amp;#8239; is{{math| ''r''&amp;#10744;''c''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8239; implying that the feature travels outward from the origin at speed{{mvar| c}}.&amp;#8201; Another way to perceive this is to set the argument of{{mvar| f}}&amp;#8201; equal to a constant (corresponding to some feature of the function) and differentiate w.r.t.{{mvar| t&amp;#8202;,}} obtaining&amp;#8201; {{math|''r''&amp;#8202;'''&amp;#775;'''&amp;#8239;{{=}}&amp;#8239;''c''}}&amp;#8202; (the speed at which the feature recedes from the origin). Thus equation ({{EquationNote|48}}) describes ''waves''&amp;#8202; radiating outward from the origin with speed{{mvar| c}}.&amp;#8239;{{efn|The symbol {{mvar|c}} comes from a general-purpose Latin word for speed, but has become the usual symbol for ''wave'' speed.}}

Equation ({{EquationNote|48}}) further implies that there are surfaces over which the wave function {{mvar|&amp;psi;}}&amp;#8239; is uniform&amp;mdash;namely surfaces of constant{{mvar| r}},&amp;#8201; i.e. spheres centered on the origin. These are the '''wavefronts'''. So ({{EquationNote|48}}) describes '''spherical waves'''.

Because the surface area of a sphere is proportional to the square of its radius, we should expect the radiated '''intensity''' (power per unit area) to satisfy an ''inverse-square law'' (if the medium is ''lossless''&amp;mdash;neither absorbing nor scattering the radiated power). That does ''not'' mean that the wave function itself should satisfy an inverse-square law. In a traveling wave in 3D space, there will be an &quot;effort&quot; variable (e.g., sound pressure) and a &quot;flow&quot; variable (e.g., fluid velocity), and the instantaneous intensity will be proportional to the product of the two. If the two are proportional to each other, the instantaneous intensity will be proportional to the square of one or the other. Hence if the instantaneous intensity falls off like{{math| 1/''r''&amp;#8202;&amp;sup2;,}} the effort and flow variables&amp;mdash;and the wave function, if it is proportional to one or the other&amp;mdash;will fall off like{{math| 1/''r''}}. That suggests the attenuation factor {{math|1/''r''}}&amp;#8202; in ({{EquationNote|48}}).

But there are big ''if''&amp;#8202;s in that argument. For all we know so far, the relation between effort and flow could involve a lag, so that the ''instantaneous'' product of the two could swing negative although it averages to something positive. And for all we know so far, the lag could vary with{{mvar| r}}, allowing at least one of the two (effort or flow) to depart from the {{math|1/''r''}}&amp;#8202; law, even if their average product still falls off like{{math| 1/''r''&amp;#8202;&amp;sup2;}}. The {{math|1/''r''}}&amp;#8202; factor in ({{EquationNote|48}}) is therefore only an &quot;informed guess&quot;. Notwithstanding these complications, we have also guessed that the form of the function {{mvar|f}}&amp;#8202; (the &quot;waveform&quot;) does not change as {{mvar|r}} increases; we have not considered whether this behavior might depend on the medium, or the functional form, or the geometry.

So let us carefully verify that ({{EquationNote|48}}) satisfies ({{EquationNote|45}}) or, equivalently, ({{EquationNote|46}}).

As a first step, and as a useful inquiry in its own right, we find {{math|&amp;#9651;''&amp;psi;''}} from definition ({{EquationNote|4L}}), given that {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a function of {{math|(''r'',&amp;#8202;''t'') }}only. For the surface {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}&amp;#8202; let us start with
* a cone (''not'' a double cone) with its apex at the origin, subtending a ''small'' solid angle {{mvar|&amp;omega;}} at the origin,
* a sphere centered on the origin, with radius {{math|''r''}}, and
* a sphere centered on the origin, with radius {{mvar|r&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8202;dr&amp;#8202;}};
and let the volume element be the region inside the cone and between the spheres, so that its enclosing surface {{mvar|&amp;delta;S}}&amp;#8202; has three faces: a segment of the cone, a segment of the inner sphere with area{{math| ''r''&amp;#8202;&amp;sup2;''&amp;#8202;&amp;omega;''&amp;#8202;,}} and a segment of the outer sphere with area{{math| (''r&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8202;dr'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''&amp;omega;''&amp;#8202;}}. By the symmetry of{{mvar| &amp;psi;&amp;#8202;}}, the outward normal derivative {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;psi;}}&amp;#8202; is equal to zero on the conical face,&amp;#8201; {{math|+''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;psi;''(''r&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8202;dr'',&amp;#8202;''t'')}} on the outer spherical face, and&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;minus;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;psi;''(''r'',&amp;#8202;''t'')}} on the inner spherical face. The volume of the element is&amp;#8201; {{math|''dV''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''r''&amp;#8202;&amp;sup2;''&amp;#8202;&amp;omega;&amp;#8239;dr''}}. So, assembling the pieces of definition ({{EquationNote|4L}}), we get
:&lt;!-- SUBSCRIPTS ENLARGED FOR LEGIBILITY: --&gt;&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\triangle\psi
    &amp;= \frac{1}{r^2 \omega \,dr}\Big(\!
         (r\!+\!dr)^2 \omega ~\!\part_{\textstyle r} \psi(r\!+\!dr,t)
         - r^2 \omega ~\!\part_{\textstyle r} \psi(r,t)
       \!\Big) \\[1ex]
    &amp;= \frac{1}{\,r^2}~\!
       \frac{(r\!+\!dr)^2 \part_{\textstyle r}\psi(r\!+\!dr,t)
             - r^2 \part_{\textstyle r}\psi(r,t)}{dr} \\[.5ex]
    &amp;= \frac{1}{\,r^2}~\!
       \frac{\part}{\part r}\Big(r^2 \part_{\textstyle r}\psi(r,t)\Big) \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
i.e.
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \triangle\psi(r,t)
    \equiv \frac{1}{\,r^2}~\!\frac{\part}{\part r}
             \Big(r^2 \frac{\part\psi}{\part r}\Big)
             \qquad \big[\mathsf{if}\,\,r\!\neq~\!\!0\big]\,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|49}}}}

Now we can verify our &quot;informed guess&quot;. Differentiating ({{EquationNote|48}}) twice w.r.t.{{mvar| t}}&amp;#8202; by the chain rule gives
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \frac{\part^2\psi}{\part t^2} = \frac{1}{\,r\,}~\!f''\!\big(t-r/c\big) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|50}}}}
where each prime {{math|(&amp;prime;)}} denotes differentiation of the function w.r.t. its own argument. Differentiating ({{EquationNote|48}}) once w.r.t.{{mvar| r}}&amp;#8202; by the product rule and chain rule, we get
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \frac{\part\psi}{\part r}
    \,=\, -\frac{1}{cr}~\!f'\!\big(t-r/c\big)
          -\frac{1}{\,r^2}~\!f\big(t-r/c\big) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|51}}}}
Proceeding as specified in ({{EquationNote|49}}), we multiply this by {{math|''r''&amp;#8202;&amp;sup2;}}, differentiate again w.r.t.{{mvar| r}} (giving three terms, of which two cancel), and divide by {{math|''r''&amp;#8202;&amp;sup2;}}, obtaining
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \triangle\psi = \frac{1}{c^2 r}~\!f''\!\big(t-r/c\big) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|52}}}}
Then if we substitute ({{EquationNote|52}}) and ({{EquationNote|50}}) into ({{EquationNote|47}}), we obviously get&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;#9744;''&amp;psi;''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;0&amp;#8202;,}} satisfying ({{EquationNote|46}}). So we have guessed correctly.

Having shown that the D'Alembertian of {{mvar|&amp;psi;&amp;#8202;,}} as given by ({{EquationNote|48}}), is zero everywhere except at the origin (where it is not defined), let us now find its integral over a volume{{mvar| V}} (enclosed by a surface{{mvar| S}}) that includes the origin. From ({{EquationNote|47}}),
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \iiint_V \Box\psi \,dV
      \,&amp;= \iiint_V \triangle\psi \,dV
           - \frac{1}{\,c^2}\iiint_V \frac{\part^2 \psi}{\part t^2}\,dV\\[.5em]
        &amp;= \iint_S \part_n \psi \,dS
           - \frac{1}{\,c^2}\iiint_V \frac{\part^2 \psi}{\part t^2}\,dV\,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
where the second equality follows from theorem ({{EquationNote|5L}}). Now because the integrand on the left is zero except at the origin, ''any''{{mvar| V}} containing the origin will give the same integral. So for convenience, let {{mvar|V}} be a spherical ball of radius{{mvar| R}} centered on the origin. Then, by the spherical symmetry of{{mvar| &amp;psi;&amp;#8202;,}} integration over{{mvar| S}} reduces to multiplication by{{math| 4''&amp;pi;R''&amp;#8202;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;,}} and {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;}} is equivalent to{{mvar| &amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;,}} and {{mvar|dV}} can be taken as{{math| 4''&amp;pi;r''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8202;2&lt;/sup&gt;''dr''}}. With these substitutions we have
:&lt;math&gt;
    \iiint_V \Box\psi \,dV \,=\,
      4\pi R^2 \frac{\part\psi}{\part r}\bigg|_{r=R} \!
      - \frac{1}{\,c^2}\!\int_0^R \!\frac{\part^2 \psi}{\part t^2}\,2\pi r\,dr
  &lt;/math&gt;
or, substituting from ({{EquationNote|51}}) and ({{EquationNote|50}}),
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \iiint_V \!\Box\psi \,dV ~\!\!
     =\,&amp; 4\pi R^2 \!\Big(\!{-}\tfrac{1}{cR} f'\!\big(t\!-\!R/c\big)
                   - \tfrac{1\,}{R^2} f\big(t\!-\!R/c\big)\!\Big) \\
        &amp;- \tfrac{1}{\,c^2}\!\int_0^R \!\tfrac{1}{\,r\,}~\!
                                      f''\!\big(t-r/c\big)\,2\pi r\,dr \\[1ex]
     =\,&amp;-\tfrac{4\pi R}{\,c\,}~\!f'\!\big(t\!-\!R/c\big)
           - 4\pi f\big(t\!-\!R/c\big) \\
        &amp;- \tfrac{2\pi}{\,c^2}\!\int_0^R \!f''\!\big(t-r/c\big) \,dr \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
Again noting that any {{mvar|V}} containing the origin will give the same integral, we can let {{mvar|R}} approach zero, with the result that the integral approaches&amp;#8239;{{math| &amp;minus;4''&amp;pi;f''&amp;#8202;(''t'')}}. This is the integral of{{math| &amp;#9744;''&amp;psi;''}} over any volume containing the origin, for {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} given by ({{EquationNote|48}}). Meanwhile {{math|&amp;#9744;''&amp;psi;''}} is zero everywhere except that the origin. In summary,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \Box~\!\Big\{\!\tfrac{1}{\,r\,}~\!f\big(t-r/c\big)\!\Big\}
    \equiv -4\pi f(t)\,\delta(\mathbf{r}) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|53}}}}
Shifting the center of the spherical waves from the origin to position{{math| '''r&amp;prime;''',}} we get
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \Box~\!\Big\{\tfrac{1}{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|}
                 ~\!f\big(t-\tfrac{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|\,}{c}\big)\Big\}
    \equiv -4\pi f(t)\,\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}') \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|54}}}}

We shall refer to the field given by ({{EquationNote|48}}) as the wave function due to a '''monopole''' source with '''strength''' {{math|''f''&amp;#8202;(''t'')}} at the origin. The D'Alembertian of this wave function is given by ({{EquationNote|53}}).&lt;ref&gt;Our definition of ''strength'' follows the old convention used by Baker &amp;amp; Copson ([[#baker-copson-39|1939, p.&amp;#8239;42]]), Born &amp;amp; Wolf ([[#born-wolf-02|2002, p.&amp;#8239;421]]), and Larmor ([[#larmor-1904|1904, p.&amp;#8239;5]]). The newer convention followed by Miller ([[#miller-91|1991, p.&amp;#8239;1371]]) would use the denominator {{math|4''&amp;pi;r''}} instead of our {{mvar|r}} in ({{EquationNote|48}}); this would have the advantage of eliminating the factor{{math| 4''&amp;pi;''}} from the D'Alembertian of the wave function, and the disadvantage of introducing that factor into (the denominator of) the wave function itself.&lt;/ref&gt; Hence the field whose D'Alembertian is given by ({{EquationNote|54}}) is the wave function due to a monopole source with strength {{math|''f''&amp;#8202;(''t'')}} at position{{math| '''r&amp;prime;'''}}. In each case, the D'Alembertian is zero everywhere except at the source.

=== Field with given D'Alembertian ===

Now suppose that, instead of a wave source with strength {{math|''f''&amp;#8202;(''t'')}} at the general position{{math| '''r&amp;prime;''',}} we have at that position a wave-source ''density&lt;math&gt;~w(\mathbf{r}'\!,t)&lt;/math&gt;'' in an elemental volume {{mvar|dV&amp;prime;}}, whose contribution to the wave function {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} at position{{math| '''r'''}}&amp;#8202; is
:&lt;math&gt;d\psi(\mathbf{r},t)
    = \tfrac{1}{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|}~\!
      w\big(\mathbf{r}',\,t-\tfrac{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|\,}{c}\big)\,dV' ,
  &lt;/math&gt;
where for each {{math|'''r''',}} the dimensions of each volume element are small compared with {{math|{{abs|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;'''}}}}. Then the total wave function is the sum of the contributions:
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\psi(\mathbf{r},t)
    = \iiint \tfrac{1}{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|}~\!
      w\big(\mathbf{r}',\,t-\tfrac{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|\,}{c}\big)\,dV' ,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|55}}}}
where the integral is over all space.

Independently of the physical significance of {{math|''&amp;psi;''('''r''',&amp;#8202;''t''),}} we can take its D'Alembertian &quot;under the integral sign&quot; by rule ({{EquationNote|54}}), obtaining
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\Box\psi(\mathbf{r},t)
   &amp;= \iiint \Big({-}4\pi~\!w(\mathbf{r}'\!,t)\,
                  \delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}')\Big)\,dV' \\[.5ex]
   &amp;= \iiint \Big({-}4\pi~\!w(\mathbf{r},t)\,
                  \delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}')\Big)\,dV' \\[.5ex]
   &amp;= -4\pi~\!w(\mathbf{r},t)\!
       \iiint\delta(\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}')\,dV' \\[.5ex]
   &amp;= -4\pi~\!w(\mathbf{r},t)\!
       \iiint\delta(\mathbf{r}'{-}~\!\mathbf{r})\,dV' ;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \Box\psi(\mathbf{r},t) = -4\pi~\!w(\mathbf{r},t) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|56}}}}

Mathematically, equation ({{EquationNote|56}}) is an identity which applies if {{math|''&amp;psi;''('''r''',&amp;#8202;''t'')}} is given by ({{EquationNote|55}}). Substituting from ({{EquationNote|55}}) and solving for&lt;math&gt;~w,&lt;/math&gt; we can write the identity in full as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;w(\mathbf{r},t) \equiv \Box\bigg({-}\tfrac{1}{4\pi}\!\iiint
      \tfrac{1}{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|}~\!
      w\big(\mathbf{r}',\,t-\tfrac{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|\,}{c}\big)
    \,dV'\bigg) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|57}}}}
Subject to the convergence of the integral, this shows that ''we can construct a wave function with a given D'Alembertian''.

Physically, equation ({{EquationNote|56}}) gives the D'Alembertian of the wave function for a source density&lt;math&gt;~w&lt;/math&gt;. It is the ''inhomogeneous wave equation'', which applies in the presence of an arbitrary source density&amp;mdash;in contrast to the ''homogeneous wave equation'' ({{EquationNote|46}}), which applies in a region where the source density is zero. In this context the word ''homogeneous'' or ''inhomogeneous'' describes the equation, not the medium (which has been assumed homogeneous and isotropic).

In a ''static'' situation, in which the D'Alembertian is reduced to the Laplacian, the inhomogeneous wave equation ({{EquationNote|56}}) is reduced to the form of Poisson's equation ({{EquationNote|40}}). As written, equation ({{EquationNote|40}}) is Poisson's equation in electro''statics''; it applies to the charge density{{math| ''&amp;rho;''('''r''')}}, for which the scalar potential [in ({{EquationNote|39}})] is
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi(\mathbf{r}) = \tfrac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}
    \iiint \tfrac{1}{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|}
    \rho(\mathbf{r}') \,dV'.
  &lt;/math&gt;
In electro''dynamics'', which takes time-dependence into account, the scalar potential due to the charge density{{math| ''&amp;rho;''('''r''',&amp;#8202;''t'')}} is
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi(\mathbf{r},t) = \tfrac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}
    \iiint \tfrac{1}{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|}
    \rho\big(\mathbf{r}',\,t-\tfrac{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|\,}{c}\big) \,dV',
  &lt;/math&gt;
where the wave speed {{mvar|c}} is the speed of light; this is the same as in the static case except for the delay {{math|{{sfrac|&amp;#8202;{{abs|'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;'''r&amp;prime;'''}}&amp;#8202;|''c''}}&amp;#8202;,}} indicating that the influence of the change density at{{math| '''r&amp;prime;'''}} travels outward from that point at the speed of light. In the dynamic case, by rule ({{EquationNote|57}}), the D'Alembertian of the scalar potential is
:&lt;math&gt;
    \Box\varphi = -\frac{\rho(\mathbf{r},t)}{\,\epsilon_0} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
This result is the inhomogeneous wave equation in the scalar potential&amp;mdash;the equation which, in the electro''static'' case, reduces to Poisson's equation ({{EquationNote|40}}).

In electro''dynamics'', however, the electric field&amp;#8202; {{math|'''E'''}} is ''not'' simply&lt;math&gt;\,\,{-}\nabla\varphi~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; but&lt;math&gt;~\,{-}\nabla\varphi~\!\!-\!\tfrac{\part\mathbf{A}}{\part t}~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; where {{math|'''A'''}} is the '''magnetic vector potential''', whose defining property is that its curl is the '''magnetic flux density''':
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B} = \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{A} \,.&lt;/math&gt;
By identity ({{EquationNote|24d}}), this property implies
:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}\mathbf{B} = 0 \,,&lt;/math&gt;
which is '''Gauss's law for magnetism'''. We have noted in passing&amp;mdash;but not yet proven&amp;mdash;that ({{EquationNote|24d}}) has a converse, whereby the solenoidality of{{math|&amp;#8202; '''B'''}} implies the ''existence'' of the vector potential{{math| '''A'''}}.  Precedents suggest we might be able to prove this by finding a vector field whose curl is a delta function&amp;mdash;perhaps through new identities relating it to a field whose divergence is a delta function&amp;mdash;and using it to construct a vector field with a given curl. In fact we shall prove our &quot;converse&quot; differently, but we shall still need some new identities for the purpose. And to obtain those identities (among a comprehensive set of identities), we must take the detour that we have made a virtue of ''not'' taking until now&amp;hellip;

== Cartesian coordinates ==

=== Indicial notation; implicit summation ===

Considering that a scalar field is a function of three coordinates, while a vector field has three components each of which is a function of three coordinates, we can readily imagine that coordinate-based derivations of vector-analytic identities are likely to be excruciatingly repetitive&amp;mdash;unless perhaps we choose a notation that concisely specifies the repetition. So, instead of writing the Cartesian coordinates as {{math|''x'',&amp;#8239;''y'',&amp;#8239;''z''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8239; we shall usually write them as {{mvar|x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; where&amp;#8202; {{math|''i''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8239;1,&amp;#8202;2,&amp;#8202;3&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8201; respectively;&amp;#8202; and instead of writing the unit vectors in the directions of the respective axes as {{math| '''i''',&amp;#8202;'''j''','''k'''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8239; we shall usually write them as {{math|'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;}}.&amp;#8201; And for partial differentiation w.r.t.{{math| ''x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;,}} instead of writing {{mvar|{{sfrac|&amp;part;|&amp;part;x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}}} or even {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;,}} we shall write {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;}}.

Now comes a stroke of genius for which we are indebted to Einstein&amp;mdash;although he used it in a more sophisticated context!&amp;#8201; Instead of writing the position vector as
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r} = x_1\mathbf{e}_1 + x_2\mathbf{e}_2 + x_3\mathbf{e}_3&lt;/math&gt;
or even as
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r} = \textstyle\sum_i x_i \mathbf{e}_i \,,&lt;/math&gt;}}
we shall write it simply as
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r} = x_i \mathbf{e}_i \,,&lt;/math&gt;}}
where it is ''understood''&amp;#8202; that we ''sum over the repeated index''. More generally, we shall write the vector field {{math|'''q'''}} as
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{q} = q_i \mathbf{e}_i&lt;/math&gt;}}
with implicit summation, and the vector field {{math|'''v'''}} as
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} = v_i \mathbf{e}_i&lt;/math&gt;}}
with implicit summation, and so on. (By that nomenclature, the position vector in Cartesian coordinates should be, and often is, called {{math|'''x'''&amp;#8202;}}; but we called it {{math|'''r'''}} because we wanted to call its magnitude {{mvar|r}}, for ''radius''.)

Implicit summation not only avoids writing the {{big|{{math|&amp;Sigma;}}}} symbol and specifying the index of summation, but also allows a summation over ''two'' repeated indices, say {{mvar|i}} and {{mvar|j&amp;#8202;}}, to be considered as summed first over {{mvar|i}} and then over {{mvar|j}} or vice versa, removing the need for an explicit regrouping of terms. Of course, if we hide messy details behind a notation, we need to make sure that it handles those details correctly. In particular, when we perform a notation on an implicit sum, we implicitly perform it ''term-by-term'', and must therefore make sure that the operation is valid when interpreted that way.

=== Formulation of operators ===

'''Gradient''':  Putting&amp;#8201; {{mvar|s&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8201; in ({{EquationNote|9g}}), we find that the scalar component of{{math|&amp;#8202; &amp;nabla;''p''}} in the direction of each {{math|'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; is{{mvar|&amp;#8202; &amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8201;p}}.&amp;#8201; To obtain the vector component in that direction, we multiply by {{math|'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;}}.&amp;#8201; Assembling the components, we have (with implicit summation)
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla p = \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\part_i p
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|58g}}}}
or, in operational terms,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla =~\! \mathbf{e}_i \part_i
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|58o}}}}
or, in traditional longhand notation,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla =~\! \mathbf{i}~\!\tfrac{\part}{\part x}
           +~\! \mathbf{j}~\!\tfrac{\part}{\part y}
           +~\! \mathbf{k}~\!\tfrac{\part}{\part z} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|58t}}}}
It is also worth noting, from ({{EquationNote|58g}}), that the squared magnitude of{{math|&amp;#8202; &amp;nabla;''p'' &amp;#8239;}}is
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    |\nabla p|^2 =~\! \part_i p \;\part_i p \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|58s}}}}
where we write&amp;#8239; {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;p&amp;#8201;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;p}}&amp;#8201; rather than {{math|(''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;p'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8239; to ensure that implicit summation applies!

As reported by Tai ([[#tai-94|1994]]), there are unfortunately some textbooks in which the del operator is defined as
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\nabla =~\!
    \tfrac{\part}{\part x}~\!\mathbf{i} +
    \tfrac{\part}{\part y}~\!\mathbf{j} +
    \tfrac{\part}{\part z}~\!\mathbf{k} \quad\qquad
  &lt;/math&gt;}}{{big|1=[''sic!''&amp;#8239;]}}
&amp;mdash;which, on its face, is not an operator at all, but a self-contained expression whose value is the zero vector (because it is a sum of derivatives of constant vectors). Among the offenders is Erwin Kreyszig, who, in the 6th edition of his bestselling ''Advanced Engineering Mathematics'' ([[#kreyszig-62-|1988]], p.&amp;#8239;486), misdefines the del operator thus and then rewrites the gradient of{{mvar|&amp;#8202; f}}&amp;#8239; as {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;''f'',}} apparently imagining that the differentiation operators look ''through'' the constant vectors rather than ''at''&amp;#8202; them. Six pages later, he defines the divergence in Cartesian coordinates (which we shall do shortly) and then immediately informs us that &quot;Another common notation for the divergence of {{math|'''v'''}} is {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;v'''}},&quot; where {{math|&amp;nabla;}} is defined as before, but the resulting {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;v'''}} is apparently not identically zero!&lt;ref&gt;The latter passage, as it appears in the 5th edition (p.&amp;#8239;397), is the one cited by Tai ([[#tai-94|1994]], p.&amp;#8239;6).&lt;/ref&gt; These errors persist in the 10th edition ([[#kreyszig-62-|2011]], pp.&amp;#8239;396,&amp;#8239;402–3). Tai finds similar howlers in mathematics texts by Wilfred Kaplan, Ladis D. Kovach, and Merle C. Potter, and in electromagnetics texts by William H. Hayt and Martin A. Plonus.&lt;ref&gt;Quoted by Tai ([[#tai-94|1994]]), in alphabetical order within each category. For Kovach he could have added p.&amp;#8239;308.&amp;#8201; Potter he misnames as Porter.&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;#8201; Knudsen &amp;amp; Katz, in ''Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer'' (1958), avoid the misdefinition of{{math| &amp;nabla;,}} but implicitly define the divergence of {{math|'''V'''}} as {{math|1='''V&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}}&amp;#8202; (which, as we have seen, is actually an operator), and then somehow reduce it to the correct expression for{{math|&amp;#8202; div&amp;#8239;'''V'''}}.&amp;#8239;&lt;ref&gt;Quoted by Tai ([[#tai-94|1994]], p.&amp;#8239;23).&lt;/ref&gt;  But I digress.

'''Curl and divergence''':  Expressing the operand of the curl in components, and noting that the unit vectors are ''uniform'', we can apply ({{EquationNote|8p}}):
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    &amp;= ~\!\mathrm{curl}(q_j ~\!\mathbf{e}_j) &amp;&amp; \\
    &amp;= \nabla q_j \times \mathbf{e}_j &amp;&amp; [\mathsf{\scriptstyle by~eq.(8p)}] \\
    &amp;= ~\!\mathbf{e}_i \part_i q_j \times \mathbf{e}_j
       &amp;&amp; [\mathsf{\scriptstyle by~eq.(58g)}] \\
    &amp;= ~\!\mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times \part_i ~\!q_j \mathbf{e}_j \,. &amp;&amp;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
If we sum over {{mvar|j}} first, this is
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} =~\! \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times\part_i\mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|59c}}}}
or, in operational terms,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl} =~\! \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times\part_i
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|59o}}}}
or, in traditional longhand,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}
    \,=\, \mathbf{i} \times \tfrac{\part}{\part x}
     +~\! \mathbf{j} \times \tfrac{\part}{\part y}
     +~\! \mathbf{k} \times \tfrac{\part}{\part z} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
For the ''divergence'' we proceed as for the curl except that, instead of ({{EquationNote|8p}}), we use ({{EquationNote|8g}}):
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
    &amp;= ~\!\mathrm{div}(q_j ~\!\mathbf{e}_j) &amp;&amp; \\
    &amp;= \nabla q_j \cdot \mathbf{e}_j &amp;&amp; [\mathsf{\scriptstyle by~eq.(8g)}] \\
    &amp;= ~\!\mathbf{e}_i \part_i q_j \cdot \mathbf{e}_j
       &amp;&amp; [\mathsf{\scriptstyle by~eq.(58g)}] \\
    &amp;= ~\!\mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot \part_i ~\!q_j \mathbf{e}_j \,; &amp;&amp;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} =~\! \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot \part_i\mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|60d}}}}
or, in operational terms,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div} =~\! \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot \part_i
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|60o}}}}
or, in traditional longhand,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}
    \,=\, \mathbf{i} \cdot \tfrac{\part}{\part x}
     +~\! \mathbf{j} \cdot \tfrac{\part}{\part y}
     +~\! \mathbf{k} \cdot \tfrac{\part}{\part z} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
It follows from ({{EquationNote|59c}}) and ({{EquationNote|60d}}), if it was not already obvious, that ''a uniform vector field has zero curl and zero divergence''.

Although the above expressions for the divergence and curl will surprise many modern readers, they match the ''initial definitions'' of the divergence and curl given by the founder of vector analysis as we know it, [[w:Josiah Willard Gibbs|J.&amp;#8239;Willard Gibbs]] ([[#gibbs-1881-4|1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;54). Gibbs even uses the {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8202; notations on the left sides of the defining equations, and only ''after''&amp;#8202; the equations (albeit immediately after) does he announce that&amp;#8202; &quot;{{math|&amp;#8202;&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8202;''&amp;omega;''}} is called the ''divergence'' of {{mvar|&amp;omega;}}&amp;#8239; and {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;''&amp;omega;''}}&amp;#8239; its ''curl''.&quot; (He uses Greek letters for vectors.) Our notation and Cartesian expression for the gradient ({{EquationNote|58g}}) also match Gibbs ([[#gibbs-1881-4|1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;52). Hence, using the Gibbs notations, we can merge definitions ({{EquationNote|58g}}), ({{EquationNote|59c}}), and ({{EquationNote|60d}}) into the general Cartesian formula
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla~\!\! * \psi =~\! \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\! * \part_i \psi
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|60s}}}}
(with implicit summation), where the {{math|&amp;lowast;}} operator may be a null (for the gradient), a cross (for the curl), or a dot (for the divergence).

Gibbs does not offer any justification for the {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8202; notations, but nor is it difficult to find such a justification based on his definitions. As{{math| '''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}} is a ''uniform'' vector, we can rewrite ({{EquationNote|59c}}) ''rigorously'' as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} = \part_i(\mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times\mathbf{q})
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|61c}}}}
and thence ''operationally'' as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} =~\! \mathbf{e}_i\part_i \times \mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|61o}}}}
or, recalling ({{EquationNote|58o}}),
:&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} ~\!= \nabla \times \mathbf{q} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
which can be evaluated in the usual manner as
:&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} \,=\,
      \begin{vmatrix}
        \mathbf{i} &amp; \part_x &amp; q_x \\
        \mathbf{j} &amp; \part_y &amp; q_y \\
        \mathbf{k} &amp; \part_z &amp; q_z
      \end{vmatrix} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
where {{mvar|q&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;}} is the {{mvar|x}} component of {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8202;}}, etc. This indeed is how one evaluates the curl of a given field in Cartesian coordinates, although we shall find ({{EquationNote|59c}}) more convenient for deriving identities. Similarly, we can rewrite ({{EquationNote|60d}}) ''rigorously'' as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} = \part_i(\mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot \mathbf{q})
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|62d}}}}
and thence ''operationally'' as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} =~\! \mathbf{e}_i\part_i \cdot \mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|62o}}}}
or, recalling ({{EquationNote|58o}}),
:&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} ~\!= \nabla \!\cdot \mathbf{q} ~.
  &lt;/math&gt;
For evaluating the divergence of a given field, however, we simplify ({{EquationNote|62d}}) to
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} = \part_i q_i
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
or, in traditional longhand,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
    ~\!= \frac{\part q_x}{\part x}
       + \frac{\part q_y}{\part y}
       + \frac{\part q_z}{\part z} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
although we shall find ({{EquationNote|60d}}) more convenient for deriving identities. But the longhand form makes it especially obvious that if{{math|&amp;#8202; '''r'''}} is the position vector,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}\mathbf{r} = 3 \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|62r}}}}

Notice that we can get from ({{EquationNote|62o}}) back to ({{EquationNote|60d}}) by permuting the {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}} with the dot, and from ({{EquationNote|61o}}) back to ({{EquationNote|59c}}) by permuting the {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}} with the cross, as if the differentiation operator could, as it were, look through the dot or the cross&amp;mdash;or, as Gibbs's student [[w:Edwin Bidwell Wilson|Edwin B.&amp;#8201;Wilson]] puts it, &quot;pass by&quot; the dot and the cross, yielding Gibbs's original definitions.&lt;ref&gt;[[#wilson-1901|Wilson, 1901]], p.&amp;#8239;150.&lt;/ref&gt; Hence Wilson considers it helpful to regard Gibbs's {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8202; notations as &quot;the (formal) scalar product and the (formal) vector product of{{math|&amp;#8202; &amp;nabla;}} into&quot; the operand, or &quot;the symbolic scalar and vector products of{{math|&amp;#8202; &amp;nabla;}} into&quot; the operand, and to regard {{math|&amp;nabla;}} as a &quot;symbolic vector&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#wilson-1901|Wilson, 1901]], pp.&amp;#8239;150,&amp;#8239;152. Wilson does not announce this idea in his preface (p.&amp;#8239;xii), although Tai ([[#tai-95|1995, p.&amp;#8239;26]]) gets the contrary impression by omitting a comma from the relevant quote.&lt;/ref&gt; (not to be confused with Tai's symbolic vector&lt;math&gt;~\nabla\!\!\!\!^{\textstyle_-}&lt;/math&gt;).

Tai ([[#tai-94|1994]], [[#tai-95|1995]]) rejects Wilson's argument together with the entire tradition of treating {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8202; as compound operators. Of formal products, Tai says that the concept &quot;has had a tremendously detrimental effect upon the learning of vector analysis&quot;; he calls such a product a &quot;meaningless assembly&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[#tai-95|Tai, 1995]], pp.&amp;#8239;26,&amp;#8239;38.&lt;/ref&gt; Of the &quot;pass by&quot; step, he complains that &quot;standard books on mathematical analysis do not have such a theorem.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[#tai-95|Tai, 1995]], p.&amp;#8239;28.&lt;/ref&gt;

I submit, however, that the intermediate steps ({{EquationNote|61c}}) and ({{EquationNote|62d}}), after which we take the constant multiplier outside the operator (eqs. {{EquationNote|61o}} &amp;amp; {{EquationNote|62o}}), support Wilson's &quot;pass by&quot; argument. In any event the reader may write out the sums on the right-hand sides of ({{EquationNote|59c}}) and ({{EquationNote|60d}}) and verify that they agree with the formal products {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8202;'''q'''}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;q'''}}&amp;#8202; respectively&amp;mdash;and may notice that in the evaluation of each formal product, the cross or dot may be eliminated, leaving nothing to &quot;pass by&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;The latter observation is made, or at least suggested, by Kemin et al. ([[#kemin-et-al-00|2000]], p.&amp;#8239;605).&lt;/ref&gt; I further submit that the great generality of our derivation of equations ({{EquationNote|14}}), above, compels us to treat the {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8202; notations as more than mere notations. But the kicker is that Tai himself, having found the form of the del operator in ''general'' coordinates ([[#tai-95|1995]], p.&amp;#8239;64, eq.&amp;#8239;9.33), derives original corresponding forms of the {{math|div}} and {{math|curl}} operators (his eqs.&amp;#8239;9.35 &amp;amp; 9.40) which, upon reversal of the forbidden &quot;pass by&quot;, become del-dot and del-cross! Indeed his three equations, just cited, are reminiscent of our ({{EquationNote|58o}}), ({{EquationNote|60o}}), and ({{EquationNote|59o}}) respectively. That being said, I shall find some points of agreement with Tai, and some reasons to criticize Wilson.

'''Laplacian''':  If {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a ''scalar'' field, then
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\triangle\psi
    &amp;= \operatorname{div}\nabla\psi
       &amp;&amp; [\mathsf{\scriptstyle by~eq.(9L')}] \\
    &amp;= \part_i(\mathbf{e}_i \cdot \nabla\psi)
       &amp;&amp; [\mathsf{\scriptstyle by~eq.(62)}] \\
    &amp;= \part_i(\part_i \psi) \,; &amp;&amp;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \triangle\psi = \part_i \part_i \psi \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|63L}}}}
where we write&amp;#8202; {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; rather than {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; in order to maintain implicit summation. In traditional longhand, ({{EquationNote|63L}}) becomes
:&lt;math&gt;\triangle\psi ~\!= \frac{\part^2 \psi}{\part x ^2}
                        + \frac{\part^2 \psi}{\part y ^2}
                        + \frac{\part^2 \psi}{\part z ^2}
  &lt;/math&gt;
or, in operational terms,
:&lt;math&gt;\triangle ~\!= \frac{\part^2}{\part x ^2}
                    + \frac{\part^2}{\part y ^2}
                    + \frac{\part^2}{\part z ^2}
  &lt;/math&gt;
or, by comparison with ({{EquationNote|58t}}),
:&lt;math&gt;\triangle = \nabla{\cdot}\nabla &lt;/math&gt;
&amp;mdash;as expected.

By the linearity of the Laplacian, the same applies if {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is any field expressible in terms of a uniform basis. For example, if {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a ''vector'' field given by&amp;#8239; {{math|''&amp;psi;&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8239; (with implicit summation), then
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \triangle\psi
    &amp;= \triangle(\psi_j ~\!\mathbf{e}_j) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_j ~\!\triangle\psi_j \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_j \part_i \part_i \psi_j \\
    &amp;= \part_i \part_i (\psi_j ~\!\mathbf{e}_j)
     = \part_i \part_i \psi \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
where the third line follows from ({{EquationNote|63L}}) as applied to a scalar field. Thus ({{EquationNote|63L}}) is quite general.

After listing theorems ({{EquationNote|5g}}) to ({{EquationNote|5L}}) above, we gave reasons for describing {{math|&amp;nabla;,}} {{math|curl,}} and {{math|div}} as ''differential operators'', and {{math|&amp;#9651;}} as a ''2nd-order'' differential operator&amp;mdash;the implication being that the others are only 1st-order. We now have the promised &quot;additional reason&quot; for these descriptions: when expressed in Cartesian coordinates, the {{math|&amp;#9651;}} operator involves second derivatives, while the others involve (only) first derivatives. In the meantime we have acquired the {{math|'''q&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} operator, which is also 1st-order, as we shall now confirm.

'''Advection, directional derivative, etc.''':   If {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a ''scalar'' field, then
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi
    &amp;= (\mathbf{q}) \cdot (\nabla\psi) \\
    &amp;= (q_i~\!\mathbf{e}_i) \cdot (\mathbf{e}_j ~\!\part_j \psi) \\
    &amp;= \;\!\mathbf{e}_i{\cdot}\;\!\mathbf{e}_j \;q_i \part_j \psi \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
In this double summation, the only non-zero terms are those for which&amp;#8202; {{mvar|j&amp;#8239;{{=}}&amp;#8201;i&amp;#8202;}},&amp;#8239; in which case&amp;#8239; {{math|'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;e'''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8239;1}}.&amp;#8201; So we have
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi = q_i ~\!\part_i \psi
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|64}}}}
or, in operational terms,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla = q_i ~\!\part_i
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|64o}}}}
or, in traditional longhand,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla
    =~\! q_x\tfrac{\part}{\part x}
    +~\! q_y\tfrac{\part}{\part y}
    +~\! q_z\tfrac{\part}{\part z} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
which indeed is the &quot;formal&quot; or &quot;symbolic&quot; dot-product of&amp;#8202; {{math|'''q'''}} and{{math| &amp;nabla;}}.&amp;#8202; By the linearity of the directional derivative in ({{EquationNote|11}}), the same result applies if {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a vector field or any field expressible in terms of a uniform basis. In particular, if{{math| '''r'''}} is the position vector, we have
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{r}
    = q_i ~\!\part_i \mathbf{r}
    = q_i ~\!\mathbf{e}_i \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
i.e.,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{r} = \mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|64r}}}}
&amp;mdash;which is also deducible from ({{EquationNote|11}}).

For convenience in the following discussion, we shall refer to the scaled-directional-derivative operator {{math|'''q&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} as an &quot;advection&quot; operator although, physically, it represents advection only if {{math|'''q'''}} is the material velocity.

=== Identities without pain ===

In deriving the Cartesian expressions for the gradient, curl, divergence, Laplacian, and advection operators, we used the preceding identities ({{EquationNote|9g}}), ({{EquationNote|8p}}), ({{EquationNote|8g}}), ({{EquationNote|9L'}}), and ({{EquationNote|11}}) respectively, the last being a definition generalizing ({{EquationNote|9g}}). Thus we could have derived the Cartesian expressions quite early in the exposition, although we did not find that option convenient. The other vector-analytic identities that we have previously mentioned are:
* ({{EquationNote|8c}}), which showed the unambiguity of the curl;
* ({{EquationNote|8q}}), which has a question mark after it;
* ({{EquationNote|17}}), a product rule for the divergence, which is yet to be proven as a general identity;
* ({{EquationNote|24c}}) and ({{EquationNote|24c}}), concerning &quot;curl grad&quot; and &quot;div curl&quot;; and
* the identities showing that we can construct a field with a given divergence ({{EquationNote|36}}), Laplacian ({{EquationNote|38}}), or D'Alembertian ({{EquationNote|57}}).

The above list exposes the following shortcomings:
* we have not yet investigated &quot;grad div&quot; and &quot;curl curl&quot;;
* we have only one ''product rule''&amp;#8202;&amp;mdash;the unverified identity ({{EquationNote|17}})&amp;mdash;in which both factors are spatially variable fields; this needs to be verified and identities ({{EquationNote|8c}}) and ({{EquationNote|8p}}) need to be generalized;
* our collection of product rules does not yet include the curl of a cross-product, or the gradient of a dot-product or of a product of scalars, or the advection of a product; and
* we do not yet have any ''chain rules'' involving {{math|&amp;nabla;,}} {{math|curl,}} or {{math|div}}.
With the aid of the Cartesian forms of the various operators, we may now fill these gaps.

&lt;br /&gt;

The &quot;'''grad div'''&quot; and &quot;'''curl curl'''&quot; operators turn out to be related:
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \operatorname{curl}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} \;\!
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i \times\part_i(\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i \times\part_i(\mathbf{e}_j \times\part_j\mathbf{q}) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i \times(\mathbf{e}_j \times\part_i\part_j\mathbf{q}) \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
whence expanding the vector triple product gives
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} \;\!
    = \mathbf{e}_i \!\cdot~\!\!\part_i\part_j\mathbf{q} ~\mathbf{e}_j
      - \mathbf{e}_i {\cdot}~\!\mathbf{e}_j \,\part_i\part_j\mathbf{q} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
In the first term on the right, we can switch the order of partial differentiation; and in the second term&amp;mdash;which, like the first, is a double summation&amp;mdash;the only non-zero contributions are those for which&amp;#8202; {{mvar|j&amp;#8239;{{=}}&amp;#8201;i}}&amp;#8239; and&amp;#8239; {{math|'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;e'''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8239;1}}.&amp;#8201; So we have
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \operatorname{curl}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} \;\!
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i \!\cdot~\!\!\part_j\part_i\mathbf{q} ~\mathbf{e}_j
       - \part_i\part_i\mathbf{q} \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_j \,\part_j(\mathbf{e}_i \!\cdot~\!\!\part_i\mathbf{q})
      - \part_i\part_i\mathbf{q} \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    ~\!\equiv \nabla\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} - \triangle\mathbf{q} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|65}}}}
This result may be memorized as &quot;''curl curl is grad div minus del squared''&amp;#8239;&quot; and written as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|{{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8239;&amp;times;&amp;#8201;(&amp;nabla;&amp;#8239;&amp;times;&amp;#8201;'''q''') &amp;equiv; &amp;nabla; &amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;q''' &amp;minus; &amp;nabla;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8202;'''q'''}}&amp;#8201;,}}|{{EquationRef|66}}}}
which ''looks like'' the expansion of a vector triple product; and the key step in the above derivation, based on the Gibbs definitions of the operators,  ''really is''&amp;#8202; the expansion of a vector triple product.

&lt;br /&gt;

We now turn to ''product rules'' in which neither factor is assumed uniform.

The '''curl of a cross-product''' is
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    &amp;\operatorname{curl}(\mathbf{a}\!\times\!\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;~= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times\part_i(\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;~= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times(\part_i\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} +
                                 \mathbf{a}\times\part_i\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;~= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times(\part_i\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b}) +
        \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times(\mathbf{a}\times\part_i\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;~= \mathbf{e}_i{\cdot}~\!\mathbf{b} \,\part_i\mathbf{a}
        - \mathbf{e}_i{\cdot}~\!\part_i\mathbf{a} \;\mathbf{b}
        + \mathbf{e}_i{\cdot}~\!\part_i\mathbf{b} \;\mathbf{a}
        - \mathbf{e}_i{\cdot}~\!\mathbf{a} \,\part_i\mathbf{b} \\
    &amp;~= b_i\part_i\mathbf{a} - (\operatorname{div}\mathbf{a})~\!\mathbf{b}
        + (\operatorname{div}\mathbf{b})~\!\mathbf{a} - a_i\part_i\mathbf{b} \\
    &amp;~= \mathbf{b}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{a}
        - \mathbf{b}\operatorname{div}\mathbf{a}
        + \mathbf{a}\operatorname{div}\mathbf{b}
        - \mathbf{a}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{b} \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
i.e.,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}(\mathbf{a}\!\times\!\mathbf{b})
    \equiv \mathbf{a}\operatorname{div}\mathbf{b}
         - \mathbf{b}\operatorname{div}\mathbf{a}
         + \mathbf{b}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{a}
         - \mathbf{a}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{b} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|67c}}}}

The '''divergence of a cross-product''', as we might expect, is simpler:
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{a}\!\times\!\mathbf{b})
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot\part_i(\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot(\part_i\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} +
                               \mathbf{a}\times\part_i\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot\part_i\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} +
       \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot\mathbf{a}\times\part_i\mathbf{b} \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot\part_i\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} -
       \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot\part_i\mathbf{b}\times\mathbf{a} \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times\part_i\mathbf{a} -
       \mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times\part_i\mathbf{b} \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
i.e.,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{div}(\mathbf{a}\!\times\!\mathbf{b})
    \equiv \mathbf{b}\cdot\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{a}
         - \mathbf{a}\cdot\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{b} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|67d}}}}
In particular, in electromagnetics,&amp;#8201; {{math|div('''E'''&amp;#8239;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;'''H''') &amp;equiv; '''H&amp;#8239;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8201;curl&amp;#8201;'''E''' &amp;minus; '''E&amp;#8239;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8201;curl&amp;#8201;'''H'''}}&amp;#8239;;&amp;#8239; this is the identity on which [[w:Poynting's theorem|Poynting's theorem]] is based. But if&amp;#8202; {{math|'''b'''}} in ({{EquationNote|67d}}) is uniform, then ({{EquationNote|67d}}) reduces to ({{EquationNote|8c}}).

The '''gradient of a dot-product''', by comparison, is surprisingly messy:
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\nabla\,\mathbf{a}{\cdot}\mathbf{b}
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i
       \part_i(\mathbf{a}\!\cdot\!\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i
       (\mathbf{a}\!\cdot\!\part_i\mathbf{b} +
        \mathbf{b}\!\cdot\!\part_i\mathbf{a}) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{a}\!\cdot\!\part_i\mathbf{b}
       \;\mathbf{e}_i +
       \mathbf{b}\!\cdot\!\part_i\mathbf{a}
       \;\mathbf{e}_i \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
Now the first term on the right can be recognized as&amp;#8201; {{math|'''a'''&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;('''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;'''b''')&amp;#8201;+&amp;#8201;'''a&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8201;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;'''b'''&amp;#8202;}};&amp;#8201; that is,&amp;#8201; {{math|'''a'''&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;('''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;'''b''')&amp;#8201;+&amp;#8201;''a&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;'''b'''&amp;#8202;}};&amp;#8201; that is,&amp;#8201; {{midsize|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\!\times\!\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{b}+\mathbf{a}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{b}&lt;/math&gt;}}.&amp;#8201; Similarly, the second term is&amp;#8201; {{midsize|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{b}\!\times\!\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{a}&lt;/math&gt;}}.&amp;#8201; Thus we have
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla\,\mathbf{a}{\cdot}\mathbf{b}
    \equiv \mathbf{a}\!\times\!\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{b}
         + \mathbf{b}\!\times\!\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{a}
	 + \mathbf{a}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{b}
	 + \mathbf{b}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{a} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|68}}}}
For ''uniform''&amp;#8202; {{math|'''b'''&amp;#8202;,}} the first and third terms on the right vanish, and we can solve for the first term on the right, obtaining
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{b}\times\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{a} ~\!=
    \nabla\,\mathbf{b{\cdot}a} - \mathbf{b}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{a}
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;[&amp;#8202;for uniform {{math|'''b'''}}] ,
so that we can now drop the question mark after ({{EquationNote|8q}}). If we write the curl operator as&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;,}}&amp;#8239; the last equation [or ({{EquationNote|8q}})]&amp;#8202; ''looks like'' the expansion of a vector triple product; but the identity is valid only for uniform{{math| '''b'''}}.

The '''gradient of a product of scalars''', unlike that of a dot-product, is as simple as the product rule for ordinary differentiation:
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\nabla(p\varphi)
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i \part_i(p\varphi) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i(p~\!\part_i\varphi + \varphi~\!\part_i p) \\
    &amp;= p~\!\mathbf{e}_i\part_i\varphi + \varphi~\!\mathbf{e}_i\part_i p \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla(p\varphi) \equiv p\;\!\nabla\varphi + \varphi\;\!\nabla p \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|69}}}}

The '''advection of a product''' is equally simple, ''regardless of the type of product'', except that the order of a cross-product matters. Let {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} and {{mvar|&amp;chi;}} be scalar or vector fields, and let {{math|''&amp;psi;''&amp;#8202;&amp;lowast;''&amp;chi;''}} denote any meaningful product of the two. Then, by ({{EquationNote|64}}),
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,(\psi~\!\! * \!\chi)
    &amp;= q_i \part_i (\psi~\!\! * \!\chi) \\
    &amp;= q_i (\psi * \part_i \chi + \part_i \psi * \chi) \\
    &amp;= \psi * q_i \part_i \chi + q_i \part_i \psi * \chi \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,(\psi~\!\! * \!\chi)
    \equiv \psi * (\mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\chi) +
           (\mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\psi) * \chi \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|70}}}}
The {{math|'''q&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} operator is a ''scalar'' operator in the sense that it maps the operand field to a field of the same order&amp;mdash;a scalar field to a scalar field, a vector field to a vector field, a matrix field to a matrix field, etc.&amp;mdash;&amp;#8202;''as if''&amp;#8202; it were multiplication by a scalar or differentiation w.r.t. a scalar; and indeed a differentiation w.r.t. path length appears in the coordinate-free definition ({{EquationNote|11}}) of the operator. Moreover, we did not need coordinates to obtain rule ({{EquationNote|70}}); as the reader may verify, the same rule can be obtained directly from the definition ({{EquationNote|11}}) in a similar manner. From these points of view, the simplicity of the rule is unsurprising.

The '''curl of the product of a scalar and a vector''' is
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\operatorname{curl}p\mathbf{b}
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times \part_i(p\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\times(p~\!\part_i\mathbf{b}+\part_i p\;\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;= p~\!\mathbf{e}_i{\times}~\!\part_i\mathbf{b} +
       \mathbf{e}_i\part_i p \times\mathbf{b} \\
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}p\mathbf{b}
    \,\equiv\, p\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{b} ~\!+ \nabla p \times\mathbf{b} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|71c}}}}
For uniform {{math|'''b'''&amp;#8202;,}} this reduces to ({{EquationNote|8p}}), which was used to derive the Cartesian form of the curl ({{EquationNote|59c}}).

For the '''divergence of the product of a scalar and a vector''', we proceed likewise except that we use a dot instead of a cross. The result is
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
     \operatorname{div}p\mathbf{b}
     \,\equiv\, p\operatorname{div}\mathbf{b} ~\!+ \nabla p \cdot \mathbf{b} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|71d}}}}
which has the same form as ({{EquationNote|17}}), delivering the promised confirmation that ({{EquationNote|17}}) is an identity. For uniform {{math|'''b'''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8201; ({{EquationNote|71d}}) reduces to ({{EquationNote|8g}}), which was used to derive the Cartesian form of the divergence ({{EquationNote|60d}}).

That exhausts the first-order product rules. For future reference, however, we shall also derive one second-order rule.

The '''Laplacian of the product of a scalar and a vector''', by ({{EquationNote|63L}}), is
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\triangle\,p\mathbf{b}
    &amp;= \part_i \part_i (p\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;= \part_i (p~\!\part_i \mathbf{b} + \part_i p\;\mathbf{b}) \\
    &amp;= p\,\part_i \part_i \mathbf{b} + \part_i p\,\part_i \mathbf{b} +
       \part_i p\,\part_i \mathbf{b} + \part_i \part_i p\;\mathbf{b} \\
    &amp;= p\,\part_i \part_i \mathbf{b} + 2\part_i p~\!\part_i \mathbf{b} +
       \part_i \part_i p\;\mathbf{b} \\
    &amp;= p~\!\triangle\mathbf{b} + 2\part_i p~\!\part_i \mathbf{b} +
       \mathbf{b}~\!\triangle p \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
In the middle term, by ({{EquationNote|58g}}), {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;p}}&amp;#8202; is the {{mvar|i&amp;#8202;}}th component of{{math|&amp;#8202; &amp;nabla;''p''}}&amp;#8239; so that, by ({{EquationNote|64o}}),&amp;#8201; {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;p&amp;#8239;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8239; is the {{math|'''q&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} operator for&amp;#8239; {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8239;{{=}}&amp;#8239;&amp;nabla;''p''}}.&amp;#8201; So we have
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
     \triangle\,p\mathbf{b}
     \equiv p~\!\triangle\mathbf{b} + 2(\nabla p \cdot \nabla)\mathbf{b} +
              \mathbf{b}~\!\triangle p \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|72}}}}

&lt;br /&gt;

Finally we turn to ''chain rules''&amp;#8202;&amp;mdash;&amp;#8202;especially the simple cases of the gradient, curl, divergence, advection, and Laplacian of a function of a scalar field{{mvar| u}}. As usual, let {{mvar|p}} denote a scalar field, {{math|'''q'''}} a vector field, and {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} a generic field.

'''Gradient&amp;#8202;&amp;#10744;&amp;#8202;curl&amp;#8202;&amp;#10744;&amp;#8202;divergence of a function of a scalar''':  By the general Cartesian formula ({{EquationNote|60s}}) and the chain rule for{{math| ''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;,}}
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\nabla~\!\! * \big(\psi(u)\big)
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\! * \part_i \big(\psi(u)\big) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\! * \psi'~\!\!(u) ~\!\part_i u \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_i \part_i u * \psi'~\!\!(u) \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
i.e., by ({{EquationNote|58g}}),
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla~\!\! * \big(\psi(u)\big)
    \equiv \nabla u * \psi'~\!\!(u) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|73}}}}
In particular, if&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;lowast;}} is a null,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla\big(p(u)\big) \equiv \nabla u \;p'~\!\!(u) \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|73g}}}}
and if&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;lowast;}} is a cross,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathrm{curl}\big(\mathbf{q}(u)\big)
    \equiv \nabla u \times \mathbf{q}'~\!\!(u) \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|73c}}}}
and if&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;lowast;}} is a dot,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathrm{div}\big(\mathbf{q}(u)\big)
    \equiv \nabla u \cdot \mathbf{q}'~\!\!(u) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|73d}}}}

'''Advection of a function of a scalar''':
:&lt;!-- SUBSCRIPTS ENLARGED FOR LEGIBILITY: --&gt;&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\big(\psi(u)\big)
    &amp;= q_{\textstyle i} \part_{\textstyle i} \big(\psi(u)\big) \\
    &amp;= q_{\textstyle i} ~\!\psi'~\!\!(u) ~\!\part_{\textstyle i} u \\
    &amp;= q_{\textstyle i} \part_{\textstyle i} u \;\psi'~\!\!(u) \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
i.e.,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\big(\psi(u)\big)
    \equiv~\! \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla u ~\psi'~\!\!(u) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|73q}}}}
This fits into the pattern set by ({{EquationNote|73}}) in that the gradient operator in ({{EquationNote|73g}}) is replaced by an advection operator.

Of the last four results, only ({{EquationNote|73c}}) is dependent on the order of the {{math|&amp;lowast;}} product; the others could equally well be written
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \nabla\big(p(u)\big) &amp;\equiv~\! p'~\!\!(u) ~\!\nabla u \\
    \mathrm{div}\big(\mathbf{q}(u)\big)
    &amp;\equiv~\! \mathbf{q}'~\!\!(u) \cdot~\!\! \nabla u \\
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\big(\psi(u)\big)
    &amp;\equiv~\! \psi'~\!\!(u)\;\mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla u ~.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|73z}}}}

The '''Laplacian of a function of a scalar''' departs from the above pattern.
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\triangle\big(\psi(u)\big)
    &amp;= \part_i \part_i \big(\psi(u)\big) \\
    &amp;= \part_i\big(\psi'~\!\!(u) ~\!\part_i u\big) \\
    &amp;= \psi'~\!\!(u) ~\!\part_i\part_i u
       + \psi''~\!\!(u) ~\!\part_i u \,\part_i u \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
where the last line follows from the product rule for {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; and, in the second term, the chain rule for{{mvar| &amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;}}.&amp;#8201; In that second term, the implicit sum&amp;#8202; {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;u&amp;#8239;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;u}}&amp;#8239; can be recognized as&amp;#8202; {{math|{{abs|&amp;nabla;''u''}}&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; by ({{EquationNote|58s}}). So we have
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \triangle\big(\psi(u)\big)
    \equiv \psi'~\!\!(u)~\!\triangle u + \psi''~\!\!(u)~\!\big|\nabla u\big|^2.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|74}}}}

'''Multivariate chain rule''':  The foregoing chain rules involve ''one'' intermediate function of ''one'' scalar variable. It will be useful to have an elementary chain rule that can handle more than one of each. Let {{math|''p''('''r''')}} be a smooth scalar field, and let {{math|'''r'''}} in turn be a smooth function of several variables, one of which, say{{mvar| t&amp;#8202;}}, is allowed to vary while the others are held constant, so that {{math|'''r'''}} changes by {{math|''d'''''r'''}} when {{mvar|t}} changes by {{mvar|dt}}. Then dividing ({{EquationNote|26g}}) by {{mvar|dt}}&amp;#8202; gives
:&lt;math&gt;\part_t p = \nabla p \cdot \part_t \mathbf{r}&lt;/math&gt;
or, in indicial Cartesian coordinates with implicit summation,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\part_t p = \part_i p \,\part_t x_i&lt;/math&gt;}}
or, in traditional longhand,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{\part}{\part t}~\!p(x,y,z)
    = \tfrac{\part p}{\part x}~\!\tfrac{\part x}{\part t}
    + \tfrac{\part p}{\part y}~\!\tfrac{\part y}{\part t}
    + \tfrac{\part p}{\part z}~\!\tfrac{\part z}{\part t} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
This is the desired multivariate chain rule for a scalar function of three intermediate real variables. The assumption that these variables are Cartesian coordinates is not a loss of generality, because any three real quantities can be suitably scaled and represented by perpendicular axes, so that any scalar function of them becomes a function of position, to which ({{EquationNote|26g}}) applies; and then the scaling can be reversed without changing the products in the last equation. Moreover, by the linearity of {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;}}, the scalar field {{mvar|p}} may be replaced by any field expressible in terms of a uniform basis. For example, for a vector field{{math| '''q'''&amp;#8202;}},
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\part_t \mathbf{q}
    &amp;= \part_t (q_j \mathbf{e}_j) \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_j \part_t q_j \\
    &amp;= \mathbf{e}_j \part_i q_j \,\part_t x_i \\
    &amp;= \part_i (q_j \mathbf{e}_j) ~\!\part_t x_i
     = \part_i \mathbf{q} \,\part_t x_i \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
where the third line is obtained by applying the multivariate chain rule for a scalar field. Thus, for a generic field {{mvar|&amp;psi;&amp;#8202;}},
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \part_t \psi = \part_i \psi \,\part_t x_i
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}[&amp;#8202;for generic {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} and {{mvar|x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;}}].|{{EquationRef|75}}}}

'''Gradient&amp;#8202;&amp;#10744;&amp;#8202;curl&amp;#8202;&amp;#10744;&amp;#8202;divergence of a function of a scaled position vector''':  We end this subsection by deriving a lemma for use in the next subsection. If{{mvar| k}} is a uniform scalar and {{math|'''r'''}} is the position vector,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla * \psi(k\mathbf{r})
    = \mathbf{e}_i * \part_i \psi(k\mathbf{r})
    = k\mathbf{e}_i * \part_{(kx_{\scriptstyle i})} \psi(k\mathbf{r}) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
where the third expression is obtained by from the second by multiplying each denominator (change in{{mvar| x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}) by{{mvar| k}}&amp;#8239; and compensating. But now we have
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla * \psi(k\mathbf{r}) = k\,(\nabla {*}~\! \psi)\Big|_{k\mathbf{r}} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|76}}}}
where the vertical bar and subscript indicate that the gradient, curl, or divergence is evaluated at{{math| ''k''&amp;#8202;'''r'''}}. We shall be interested in the curl (for which {{math|&amp;lowast;}} is a cross).

=== Field with given curl ===

Consider the vector field
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{r}) = \mathbf{q}(\mathbf{r})\times\mathbf{r} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|77}}}}
where {{math|'''q'''}} is a ''solenoidal''&amp;#8202; vector field and {{math|'''r''' }}is the position vector. By identity ({{EquationNote|67c}}),
:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{v}
  =   \mathbf{q}\operatorname{div}\mathbf{r}
    - \mathbf{r}\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
    + \mathbf{r}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{q}
    - \mathbf{q}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{r}
  &lt;/math&gt;
where, by hypothesis, {{math|div&amp;#8239;'''q'''}}&amp;#8202; is zero. Applying identities ({{EquationNote|62r}}) and ({{EquationNote|64r}}) then yields
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
  \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{v}
  &amp;= 3\mathbf{q} + \mathbf{r}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{q} - \mathbf{q} \\
  &amp;= 2\mathbf{q} + \mathbf{r}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{q} \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

In the special case in which {{math|'''q'''}} is the ''angular velocity'' {{math|'''&amp;omega;'''}} of a '''rigid body''' about an axis through the origin,&amp;#8201; {{math|'''v''' }}is the velocity field ({{math|'''&amp;omega;'''&amp;#8239;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;'''r'''}}) and {{math|'''&amp;omega;'''}} is uniform, so that the last result reduces to&amp;#8201; {{math|curl&amp;#8239;'''v'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;2'''&amp;omega;'''&amp;#8202;}}; that is, ''the vorticity is twice the angular velocity''. As the vorticity in this case is uniform and therefore independent of position relative to the axis, it does not change if the axis is shifted, provided that the angular velocity has the same magnitude and direction. And because a uniform velocity field has zero curl, the vorticity is also unchanged if a translational motion is superposed on the rotation. This is the most direct connection that we have seen between curl and rotation. But again I digress.

Returning to the more general case in which {{math|'''q''' }}is not necessarily uniform, but merely solenoidal,&lt;ref&gt;The following explanation takes some hints from Christopher Ford's note on &quot;Vector Potentials&quot; at [https://www.maths.tcd.ie/~houghton/231/Notes/ChrisFord/vp.pdf maths.tcd.ie/~houghton/231/Notes/ChrisFord/vp.pdf], circa 2004.&lt;/ref&gt; we have
:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{v}(\mathbf{r})
    = 2\mathbf{q}(\mathbf{r})
      + \mathbf{r}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{q}(\mathbf{r}) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
to which we can apply our lemma ({{EquationNote|76}}) with a uniform real factor {{mvar|t&amp;#8202;}}, obtaining
:&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{v}(t\mathbf{r})
    = 2t\mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r})
       + t\mathbf{r}~\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r}) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
On the left we can recall ({{EquationNote|77}}); and on the right we can apply ({{EquationNote|11}}), noting that the magnitude of{{math| {{abs|'''r'''}}}} is{{mvar| r&amp;#8202;}}, which measures distance in the direction of{{math| '''r'''}}. Thus we obtain
:&lt;math&gt;
  \mathrm{curl}\big(\mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r})\times t\mathbf{r}\big)
    = 2t\mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r})
      + tr \part_{\textstyle r} \mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r}) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
Now if the direction of{{math| '''r'''}} is held constant,&amp;#8201; {{math|'''q'''(''t''&amp;#8202;'''r''')}} is a function of{{mvar| tr&amp;#8239;}}; and in general&amp;#8201; {{math|''r&amp;#8202;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8201;f''&amp;#8202;(''tr'')&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''t&amp;#8202;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8201;f''&amp;#8202;(''tr'')}}.&amp;#8201; So we have
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
  \mathrm{curl}\big(\mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r})\times t\mathbf{r}\big)
    &amp;= 2t\mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r}) + t^2 \part_t \mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r}) \\
    &amp;= \part_t \big(t^2 \mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r})\big) \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
Integrating w.r.t. {{mvar|t}}&amp;#8239; from 0 to 1 gives
:&lt;math&gt;
  \int_0^1\!\mathrm{curl}\big(\mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r})\times t\mathbf{r}\big)\,dt
    = \big(t^2 \mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r})\big)\Big|_0^1
    =~\! \mathbf{q}(\mathbf{r}) \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{q}(\mathbf{r}) \equiv
  \mathrm{curl}\int_0^1\!\mathbf{q}(t\mathbf{r})\!\times\!t\mathbf{r}\;dt\qquad
  &lt;/math&gt;[&amp;#8202;for solenoidal {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8202;}}].|{{EquationRef|78}}}}
Thus for any solenoidal vector field{{math| '''q'''}}&amp;#8239; we can construct a '''vector potential'''&amp;mdash;that is, a field whose curl is{{math| '''q'''&amp;#8202;}}; such a field is given by the integral on the right. This is the long-promised proof of the &quot;converse&quot; of identity ({{EquationNote|24d}}). Of course the vector potential is not unique, because any conservative field&amp;mdash;but ''only'' a conservative field&amp;mdash;can be added to it without changing its curl. Hence the existence of ''one'' vector potential implies the existence of infinitely many. The above integral gives us ''one''.

The proof of ({{EquationNote|78}}) assumes that {{math|'''q''' }}is solenoidal not only at position{{math| '''r'''&amp;#8202;,}} but also at{{math| ''t''&amp;#8202;'''r'''}}&amp;#8202; where&amp;#8239; {{math|0&amp;#8239;&amp;leq;&amp;#8239;''t''&amp;#8239;&amp;leq;&amp;#8202;1}}, i.e. at every point on the line-segment from the origin to{{math| '''r'''}}.&amp;#8201; A '''star-shaped''' region is one that contains an point{{mvar| O}}&amp;#8202; such that for every point{{mvar| P}} in the region, the line-segment {{mvar|OP}} is entirely contained in the region. We may choose any such {{mvar|O}}&amp;#8202; as the origin in the proof of ({{EquationNote|78}}). So the proof tells us that if a vector field is solenoidal within a star-shaped region, it has a vector potential in that region. As a special case, a vector field that is solenoidal everywhere has a vector potential everywhere.

=== Notes on the curl of the curl ===

Identity ({{EquationNote|65}}), namely
:&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    ~\!\equiv \nabla\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q} - \triangle\mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;
(&quot;curl curl is grad div minus del squared&quot;), has at least three implications worth noting here.

First, it can be rearranged as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\triangle\mathbf{q}
    ~\!\equiv \nabla\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
              - \operatorname{curl}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|79}}}}
(&quot;del squared is grad div minus curl curl&quot;). This would serve as a coordinate-free definition of the Laplacian of a vector, if we did not already have one.&lt;ref&gt;''Cf''. [[#gibbs-1881-4|Gibbs, 1881]], &amp;sect;&amp;#8202;71, and [[#moon-spencer-65|Moon &amp;amp; Spencer, 1965]], p.&amp;#8239;235; quoted in [[#tai-95|Tai, 1995]], pp.&amp;#8239;18,&amp;#8239;43.&lt;/ref&gt; But we do: we started with a coordinate-free definition ({{EquationNote|4L}}) for a generic field, established its unambiguity via ({{EquationNote|9L}}), and found its Cartesian form ({{EquationNote|63L}}), which we used in the derivation of ({{EquationNote|79}}). Wherever we start, we may properly assert by way of contrast that the Laplacian of a ''vector''&amp;#8202; is given by ({{EquationNote|79}}), whereas the Laplacian of a ''scalar''&amp;#8202; is given by the divergence of the gradient. But we should ''not'' conclude, as Moon &amp;amp; Spencer do, that representing the scalar and vector Laplacians by the same symbol is &quot;poor practice&amp;hellip; since the two are basically quite different&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;[[#moon-spencer-65|Moon &amp;amp; Spencer, 1965]], p.&amp;#8239;236.&lt;/ref&gt; because in fact the two have a common definition which is succinct, unambiguous, and coordinate-free: the Laplacian (of anything) is the closed-surface integral of the outward normal derivative, per unit volume.{{efn|Tai ([[#tai-95|1995]], pp.&amp;#8239;43–4) also disagrees with Moon &amp;amp; Spencer, but for a different reason: he regards the Laplacian as the divergence of the gradient even if the operand is a ''vector'' field. For better or worse, we do not consider the gradient of a vector in the present paper&amp;mdash;although the reader can probably work out how to modify ({{EquationNote|26g}}) if&amp;#8202; {{math|''d''&amp;#8202;'''r'''}} is written as a column vector and&amp;#8202; {{mvar|dp}}&amp;#8202; is ''replaced''&amp;#8202; by a column vector (compare the later footnote on ''dyadics'').}}

Second, by reason of identity ({{EquationNote|38}}) and the remarks thereunder, a given vector field{{math| '''v'''}} can be written
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}(\mathbf{r}) \,\equiv\, \triangle\bigg(\!{-}\!\iiint
    \frac{\,\mathbf{v}(\mathbf{r}')}{4\pi}\,
    \frac{1}{|\mathbf{r}\!-\!\mathbf{r}'|}
  \,dV' \!\bigg) \,,&lt;/math&gt;
where the integral is over all space. So, subject to the convergence of the integral, there exists a vector field{{math| '''q'''}} such that
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} = \triangle\mathbf{q} \,;&lt;/math&gt;
that is, by ({{EquationNote|79}}), there exists{{math| '''q'''}} such that
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}
    = \nabla\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
      - \operatorname{curl}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;
that is, there exist a scalar field, say&lt;math&gt;\,\varphi~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; and a vector field, say{{math| '''&amp;Psi;'''}}, such that
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}
    = -\nabla\varphi+\operatorname{curl}\boldsymbol{\Psi}
  &lt;/math&gt;
(namely&amp;#8201; {{midsize|&lt;math&gt;\varphi\!=\!-\!\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}\,&lt;/math&gt;}} and&amp;#8201; {{math|'''&amp;Psi;'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;&amp;minus;&amp;#8202;curl&amp;#8239;'''q'''}}). In short, subject to the convergence of the said integral,
* ''a given vector field can be resolved into [minus] a gradient plus a curl''.
Such a resolution is called a '''Helmholtz decomposition''', and the proposition that it exists is the ''Helmholtz decomposition theorem''. Of course the gradient is irrotational and the curl is solenoidal so that, subject to the same convergence,
* ''a given vector field can be resolved into an irrotational field plus a solenoidal field''.
This is a second statement of the theorem, and follows from the first. And the first follows from the second because an irrotational field has a scalar potential by ({{EquationNote|29}}) and a solenoidal field has a vector potential by ({{EquationNote|78}}).

Third, if {{math|'''q'''}} is ''solenoidal'', the term&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8201;div&amp;#8239;'''q'''}}&amp;#8239; in ({{EquationNote|65}}) or ({{EquationNote|79}}) vanishes. Hence ''for a solenoidal field, the curl of the curl is minus the Laplacian''. For example, in the ''dynamic'' case, in a ''vacuum'', the Maxwell&amp;ndash;Amp&amp;egrave;re law says that&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{H}=\mathbf{\dot{D}}=\epsilon_0\mathbf{\dot{E}}&lt;/math&gt;.&amp;#8201; Multiplying this by the physical constant {{math|''&amp;mu;''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}} (called the '''vacuum permeability''' or simply the '''magnetic constant''') gives&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{B}=\mu_0\epsilon_0\mathbf{\dot{E}}~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; whence
:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{B}
    = \mu_0\epsilon_0\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{\dot{E}} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
But, by Gauss's law for magnetism, {{math|'''B'''}} is solenoidal so that, by ({{EquationNote|65}}), the left-hand side of the above is&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;-\triangle\mathbf{B}&lt;/math&gt;.&amp;#8201; And by '''Faraday's law''',&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{E}=-\mathbf{\dot{B}}~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; so that&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{\dot{E}}=-\mathbf{\ddot{B}}&lt;/math&gt;.&amp;#8201; Making these substitutions, we get&amp;#8201; &lt;math&gt;-\triangle\mathbf{B}=-\mu_0\epsilon_0\mathbf{\ddot{B}}~\!,\,&lt;/math&gt; i.e.
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\ddot{B}}=\frac{1}{\mu_0\epsilon_0}\triangle\mathbf{B} \,.&lt;/math&gt;
By comparison with ({{EquationNote|45}}), this is the wave equation with
:&lt;math&gt;c=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0\epsilon_0}} \,.&lt;/math&gt;
Thus the Maxwell&amp;ndash;Amp&amp;egrave;re law, Gauss's law for magnetism, and Faraday's law, with the aid of ({{EquationNote|65}}), predict the existence of '''electromagnetic waves''' together with their speed.

For these reasons, especially the last, one could hardly overstate the importance of identity ({{EquationNote|65}}).

=== Digression: Proofs from formal products ===

We have seen that Wilson ([[#wilson-1901|1901]], pp.&amp;#8239;150,&amp;#8239;152) interprets the divergence and curl as &quot;formal&quot; or &quot;symbolic&quot; scalar and vector products with the {{math|&amp;nabla; }}operator.&amp;#8201; {{nowrap|C.-T. Tai}}, in his [[#tai-95|1995 report]] (pp.&amp;#8239;26–9), alleges that this interpretation began with Wilson and not with Gibbs. Here I shall submit, on the contrary, that while the terminology may not be attributable to Gibbs, the concept certainly is.

Later in the same report, Tai confuses the picture by citing the first volume of [[w:Oliver Heaviside|Heaviside]]'s ''Electromagnetic Theory'' (1893), where Heaviside, although his notations for the scalar and vector products differ from those of Gibbs, nevertheless considers the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} operator as a factor in such products. Tai continues:
&lt;blockquote&gt;At the time of his writing he [Heaviside] was already aware of Gibbs' pamphlets on vector analysis but Wilson's book was not yet published. It seems, therefore, that Heaviside and Wilson independently introduced the misleading concept for the scalar and vector products between {{math|&amp;nabla;}} and a vector function. Both were, perhaps, induced by Gibbs' notations for the divergence and the curl. Heaviside did not even include the word 'formal' in his description of the products.&lt;ref&gt;[[#tai-95|Tai, 1995]], p.&amp;#8239;35.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Whereas it was quite in character for Heaviside to treat an operator that way, the word &quot;independently&quot; would have surprised Wilson and is contradicted by Tai himself, who observes that Wilson's preface acknowledges Heaviside.&lt;ref&gt;[[#tai-95|Tai, 1995]], pp.&amp;#8239;25,&amp;#8239;29.&lt;/ref&gt; In Wilson's own words:
&lt;blockquote&gt;By far the greater part of the material used in the following pages has been taken from the course of lectures on Vector Analysis delivered annually at the University [Yale] by Professor Gibbs. Some use, however, has been made of the chapters on Vector Analysis in Mr. Oliver Heaviside's ''Electromagnetic Theory'' (Electrician Series, 1893) and in Professor F&amp;ouml;ppl's lectures on ''Die Maxwell'sche Theorie der Electricit&amp;auml;t'' (Teubner, 1894).&amp;#8239;....

Notwithstanding the efforts which have been made during more than half a century to introduce Quaternions into physics the fact remains that they have not found wide favor.{{efn|A ''quaternion''&amp;#8202; is a mathematical object invented by [[w:William Rowan Hamilton|William Rowan Hamilton]] in 1843, consisting of two parts which Hamilton later called the scalar part and the vector part. For most purposes the two parts were found to be more useful separately than together. By putting them together, however, Hamilton constructed a set which satisfied all the algebraic field axioms except commutativity of multiplication. This was considered a triumph.}} On the other hand there has been a growing tendency especially in the last decade toward the adoption of some form of Vector Analysis. The works of Heaviside and F&amp;ouml;ppl referred to before may be cited in evidence. As yet however no system of Vector Analysis which makes any claim to completeness has been published. In fact Heaviside says: &quot;I am in hopes that the chapter which I now finish may serve as a stopgap till regular vectorial treatises come to be written suitable for physicists, based upon the vectorial treatment of vectors&quot; (''Electromagnetic Theory'', Vol.&amp;#8239;{{serif|I}}., p.&amp;#8239;305). Elsewhere in the same chapter Heaviside has set forth the claims of vector analysis as against Quaternions, and others have expressed similar views.&lt;ref&gt;[[#wilson-1901|Wilson, 1901]], pp.&amp;#8239;ix,&amp;#8239;xi–xii.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Most damaging to Tai's thesis, however, is Gibbs's original pamphlet, a copy of which Heaviside received from Gibbs himself in June 1888.&lt;ref&gt;[[#gibbs-1881-4|Gibbs, 1881–84]], privately printed version&amp;mdash;of which the scan linked in our bibliography is of the very copy that Gibbs sent to Heaviside, with annotations in Heaviside's hand. On the annotations see [[#rocci-20|Rocci, 2020]].&lt;/ref&gt; Sections 62 to 65 of the pamphlet appear under the heading
&lt;blockquote style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;&gt;{{math|&amp;nabla;,}} {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8202;,}} ''and''&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8239; ''applied to Functions of Functions of Position''.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;In &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;62, Gibbs says that a constant scalar factor after such an operator may be placed before it (that is, taken outside the operator). {{nowrap|In &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;63}} he states our rule ({{EquationNote|73g}}) for the gradient of a function of a scalar field. His next section (in which I have bolded the vector field{{math| '''&amp;omega;'''}}) is worth quoting in full:
&lt;blockquote&gt;64.  If {{mvar|u}} or {{math|'''&amp;omega;'''}} is a function of several scalar or vector variables, which are themselves functions of the position of a single point, the value of&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;''u''}} or {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;&amp;omega;'''}}&amp;#8202; or {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8202;'''&amp;omega;'''}}&amp;#8202; will be equal to the sum of the values obtained by making successively all but each one of these variables constant.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
This proposition is a ''generalized product rule'' in the sense that the &quot;function of several scalar or vector variables&quot; may be, but is not restricted to, any sort of product of those variables. Gibbs continues:
&lt;blockquote&gt;65.  By the use of this principle, we easily derive the following identical equations:
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Six &quot;equations&quot; follow. The first says that the gradient operation is distributive over addition, and the second says the same of the divergence and curl (on one line). The last four are our identities ({{EquationNote|69}}), ({{EquationNote|71d}}), ({{EquationNote|71c}}), and ({{EquationNote|67d}}), in that order (albeit with different symbols). Gibbs then remarks (with my italics):
&lt;blockquote&gt;The student will observe an analogy between these equations and the formul&amp;aelig; of ''multiplication''. (In the last four equations the analogy appears most distinctly when we regard all the factors but one as constant.) Some of the more curious features of this analogy are due to the fact that the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} contains implicitly the vectors {{math|'''i'''&amp;#8202;,}} {{math|'''j'''&amp;#8202;,}} and {{math|'''k'''&amp;#8202;,}} which are to be ''multiplied''&amp;#8202; into the following quantities.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Indeed, if the ''first''&amp;#8202; factor is constant, identities ({{EquationNote|69}}), ({{EquationNote|71d}}), ({{EquationNote|71c}}), and ({{EquationNote|67d}}) become
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \nabla(p\varphi) &amp;= p\;\!\nabla\varphi \\
    \nabla\cdot p\mathbf{b} &amp;= p\,\nabla{\cdot}~\!\mathbf{b} \\
    \nabla\times p\mathbf{b} &amp;= p\,\nabla{\times}~\!\mathbf{b} \\
    \nabla\cdot(\mathbf{a}\!\times\!\mathbf{b})
    &amp;= -\mathbf{a}\cdot\nabla{\times}~\!\mathbf{b} \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
whereas if the ''second''&amp;#8202; factor is constant, they become respectively
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \nabla(p\varphi) &amp;= \varphi\;\!\nabla p \\
    \nabla\cdot p\mathbf{b} &amp;= \nabla p \cdot \mathbf{b} \\
    \nabla\times p\mathbf{b} &amp;= \nabla p \times \mathbf{b} \\
    \nabla\cdot(\mathbf{a}\!\times\!\mathbf{b})
    &amp;= \nabla{\times}~\!\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b} \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
All eight equations look like rearrangements of ''products'' involving a vector{{math| &amp;nabla;}}.&amp;#8201; [Concerning the last ''three'' equations, we have made that observation before; see ({{EquationNote|15}}) above.]&amp;#8201; But only seven of the eight are explained by taking the constant outside the operator ({{nowrap|as in &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;62}}); the exception is the fourth, in which the minus sign is not explained by that step alone, but ''is'' explained by the change in the cyclic order of the formal triple product. And if we add the two right-hand sides corresponding to each of the four left-hand sides, we get the identities in which both factors are variable&amp;mdash;as claimed {{nowrap|in &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;64}}.

If &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;65 leaves any doubt that Gibbs approved of formal products with the symbolic vector{{math| &amp;nabla;}} (albeit without using those terms), this is dispelled {{nowrap|by &amp;sect;&amp;#8202;166}}, where he writes:
&lt;blockquote&gt;166.&amp;#8201; To the equations in No.&amp;#8239;65 may be added many others&amp;hellip;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
followed by a list of seven identities terminated by &quot;etc.&quot; Six of the seven are beyond the scope of the present paper,{{efn|They involve ''dyadics'', i.e. 2nd-order tensors written in a vector-friendly notation. The fourth of the seven is
:{{math|&amp;nabla;('''&amp;tau;&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;&amp;omega;''') {{=}} &amp;nabla;'''&amp;tau;&amp;#8239;&amp;#11825;&amp;#8201;&amp;omega;''' + &amp;nabla;'''&amp;omega;&amp;#8201;&amp;#11825;&amp;#8201;&amp;tau;'''&amp;#8239;,}}
which is our ({{EquationNote|68}}) expressed in terms of the dyadics {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;tau;'''}} and{{math| &amp;nabla;'''&amp;omega;'''&amp;#8202;}}; the right-hand side is not to be confused with
:{{math|('''&amp;omega;&amp;#8202;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;)'''&amp;tau;''' + '''(&amp;tau;&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;)'''&amp;omega;'''&amp;#8239;,}}
which would contradict our ({{EquationNote|68}}).}} while the third of the seven is our ({{EquationNote|67c}}). After the list comes the smoking gun ({{nowrap|&amp;sect;&amp;#8202;166, continued}}):
&lt;blockquote&gt;The principle in all these cases is that if we have one of the operators&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;,}} {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;#8202;,}} {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8239; prefixed to a ''product'' of any kind, and we make any transformation of the expression which would he allowable if the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} were a ''vector'', (viz: by changes in the order of the ''factors'', in the signs of ''multiplication'', in the parentheses written or implied, etc.,) by which changes the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} is brought into connection with one particular factor, the expression thus transformed will represent the part of the value of the original expression which results from the variation of that factor.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The italics are mine, but I have refrained from italicizing those instances of the word &quot;factor&quot; which are not applicable to{{math| &amp;nabla;}}. In particular, at the stage when &quot;the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} is brought into connection with one particular factor,&quot; the &quot;part of the value&amp;hellip; which results from the variation of that factor&quot; evidently means the term of the sum {{nowrap|in &amp;sect;&amp;#8239;64}}&amp;#8202;&amp;mdash;which, as we have noted, amounts to a generalized product rule. But, according to the stated &quot;principle', we reach that stage by treating{{math| &amp;nabla;}} as a factor. I rest my case.

&lt;br /&gt;

Wilson ([[#wilson-1901|1901]], p.&amp;#8239;157) gives a comprehensive list of sum and product rules for the gradient, divergence, and curl, and properly states (p.&amp;#8239;158) that the rules may be proven &quot;most naturally&quot; from Gibbs's definitions of the operators&amp;mdash;our equations ({{EquationNote|58g}}), ({{EquationNote|60d}}), and ({{EquationNote|59c}}). Understandably, Wilson uses a {{big|&amp;Sigma;}} sign rather than implicit summation. Less understandably, and less fortunately, he does not sum over a numerical index; e.g., he defines the curl operator as
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\nabla\times
    \,=\, \textstyle\sum\,\mathbf{i}~\!\!\times\!\frac{\part}{\part x}
          \qquad\quad
  &lt;/math&gt;[sic]}}
and explains that &quot;The summation extends over {{math|''x'',&amp;#8239;''y'',&amp;#8239;''z''}}.&quot;&amp;#8201; With these definitions he proves our identities ({{EquationNote|71c}}) and ({{EquationNote|68}}) essentially as we have done, but inevitably with greater difficulty, which may explain why he then says &quot;The other formul&amp;aelig; are demonstrated in a similar manner&quot; before reverting to Gibbs's strategy of varying one factor at a time. He announces (p.&amp;#8239;159) that the variable held constant will be written as a subscript after the product, and he combines this notation with his {{big|&amp;Sigma;}} notation in a rigorous proof that varying one factor at a time is valid for our ({{EquationNote|68}}), i.e. the gradient of a dot-product. Noting that this result is analogous to
:&lt;math&gt;d(\mathbf{u}\cdot\mathbf{v})
    = \mathbf{u}\cdot d\mathbf{v} + d\mathbf{u}\cdot\mathbf{v} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
he then jumps to the conclusion that varying one factor at a time is valid for ''all''&amp;#8202; of his product rules&amp;mdash;notwithstanding that a small change in a vector is not related to its divergence or curl as a small change in a scalar is related to its gradient.

That ''per saltum''&amp;#8202; conclusion is his cue to go formal and symbolic. To obtain the curl of a cross-product [as in our ({{EquationNote|67c}})], he &quot;formally&quot; expands a vector triple product to obtain the curl when the first factor is constant, states the curl when the second factor is held constant, and adds the two partial curls ([[#wilson-1901|Wilson, 1901]], p.&amp;#8239;161). Next he gives various arrangements of our ({{EquationNote|8q}}), except that he presents the first vector not as strictly uniform, but as merely ''held'' constant for the gradient operation. He states in passing that a proof may be effected by &quot;expanding in terms of&amp;#8202; {{math|'''i'''&amp;#8202;,&amp;#8239;'''j''',&amp;#8239;'''k'''}}&quot;; but instead of such a proof, he offers a &quot;method of remembering the result&quot; by expanding the &quot;product&quot;&amp;#8239; {{math|'''u'''&amp;#8239;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;(&amp;nabla;&amp;#8239;&amp;times;&amp;#8239;'''v''')}}&amp;#8202; &quot;formally as if&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;,&amp;#8239;'''u'''&amp;#8202;,&amp;#8202;'''v'''}}&amp;#8202; were all real vectors&quot; (pp.&amp;#8239;161–2). Concerning the curl of the gradient, and the divergence of the curl (pp.&amp;#8239;167,&amp;#8239;168), he recommends expanding in terms of&amp;#8202; {{math|'''i'''&amp;#8202;,&amp;#8239;'''j''',&amp;#8239;'''k'''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8239; but does not elaborate. Concerning the curl of the curl, however, he shows what would happen if it were &quot;expanded formally according to the law of the triple vector product&quot; (p.&amp;#8239;169).

In defense of the &quot;formal product&quot; method, we should note that the operators {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;,}} {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;y&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;,}} and {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;}} are ''[[w:linearity|linear]]'', so that they are distributive over addition and may be permuted with multiplication by a constant, as if the operators themselves were multipliers (like components of vectors). They may be similarly permuted with other like operators&amp;mdash;explaining why the formal-product method correctly deals with the curl of the gradient, the divergence of the curl, and the curl of the curl. But such an operator ''cannot'' be permuted with multiplication by a ''variable'', because then the product rule of differentiation applies, yielding an extra term. The formal-product system responds to this difficulty by generalizing the product rule as in &amp;sect;&amp;sect;&amp;#8239;64&amp;#8239;&amp;amp;&amp;#8239;166 of Gibbs ([[#gibbs-1881-4|1881–84]]). As Borisenko &amp;amp; Tarapov put it ([[#borisenko-tarapov-68|1968]], p.&amp;#8239;169),
&lt;blockquote&gt;the operator {{math|&amp;nabla;}} acts on each factor separately with the other held fixed. Thus {{math|&amp;nabla;}} should be written after any factor regarded as a constant in a given term and before any factor regarded as variable.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
In this they differ inconsequentially from Gibbs, who requires that the operator be &quot;brought into connection&quot; with the factor considered variable.

To illustrate, let us find the gradient of a dot-product, essentially in the manner of Borisenko &amp;amp; Tarapov ([[#borisenko-tarapov-68|1968]], p.&amp;#8239;180), quoted by Tai ([[#tai-95|1995]], p.&amp;#8239;46; the next five equation numbers are Tai's). In this case the generalized product rule gives
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\nabla(\mathbf{A ~\!\!\cdot B})
    = \nabla(\mathbf{A}_c {\cdot}~\!\mathbf{B}) +
      \nabla(\mathbf{A} ~\!\!\cdot \mathbf{B}_c) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|7.26}}}}
where the subscript {{mvar|c}} marks the factor held ''constant'' during the differentiation. In Wilson's notation, this equation would be written
:{{midsize|&lt;math&gt;\nabla(\mathbf{A\cdot B})
    = \nabla(\mathbf{A ~\!\!\cdot B})_{\mathbf{A}} +
      \nabla(\mathbf{A ~\!\!\cdot B})_{\mathbf{B}} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
where a trailing subscript indicates which factor is held constant.&amp;#8201; In the ''Feynman'' subscript notation, the subscript is attached to the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} operator and indicates which factor is allowed to ''vary'', so that the same equation would be written
:{{midsize|&lt;math&gt;\nabla(\mathbf{A\cdot B})
    = \nabla_{\mathbf{B}}(\mathbf{A ~\!\!\cdot B}) +
      \nabla_{\!\mathbf{A}}(\mathbf{A ~\!\!\cdot B}) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
But, as we are discussing Borisenko &amp;amp; Tarapov, we press on with ({{EquationNote|7.26}}).&amp;#8201; By the algebraic identity
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{c}(\mathbf{a\cdot b})
    \,=\, (\mathbf{a\cdot c})\mathbf{b}
    \,-\, \mathbf{a}\times(\mathbf{b}\times\mathbf{c}) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|7.27}}}}
i.e.
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{c}(\mathbf{a\cdot b})
    \,=\, (\mathbf{a\cdot c})\mathbf{b}
    \,+\, \mathbf{a}\times(\mathbf{c}\times\mathbf{b}) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
we can say
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\nabla(\mathbf{A}_c {\cdot}~\!\mathbf{B})
    \,=\, (\mathbf{A}_c {\cdot}\nabla)\mathbf{B}
    \,+\, \mathbf{A}_c\times(\nabla\times\mathbf{B}) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|7.28}}}}
Similarly,&lt;ref&gt;In the next equation as printed in Borisenko &amp;amp; Tarapov ([[#borisenko-tarapov-68|1968]], p.&amp;#8239;180), the first cross should be &quot;&amp;equals;&quot;; Tai ([[#tai-95|1995]], p.&amp;#8239;46) corrects it.&lt;/ref&gt;
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\nabla(\mathbf{B}_c {\cdot}~\!\mathbf{A})
    \,=\, (\mathbf{B}_c {\cdot}\nabla)\mathbf{A}
    \,+\, \mathbf{B}_c\times(\nabla\times\mathbf{A}) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|7.29}}}}
Substituting ({{EquationNote|7.28}}) and ({{EquationNote|7.29}}) into ({{EquationNote|7.26}}), in which the order of the dot-products is immaterial, and dropping the {{mvar|c }}subscripts (because they are now outside the differentiations), we get the correct result
{{NumBlk|:|{{midsize|&lt;math&gt;\nabla(\mathbf{A{\cdot}B})
    =     (\mathbf{A}{\cdot}\nabla)\mathbf{B}
      +   (\mathbf{B}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla)\mathbf{A}
      +   \mathbf{A}{\times}(\nabla{\times}\mathbf{B})
      +   \mathbf{B}{\times}(\nabla{\times}\mathbf{A}) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|7.30}}}}
corresponding to our ({{EquationNote|68}}).

Tai ([[#tai-95|1995]], p.&amp;#8239;47) is unimpressed, asking why we cannot apply ({{EquationNote|7.27}}) directly to the left side of ({{EquationNote|7.26}}). The answer to that is obvious: on the left side, the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} operator is applied to a product of ''two variables'', and the variations of ''both'' must be taken into account. But there is a harder question which Tai does not ask: in ({{EquationNote|7.28}}), why can't we have {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;A'''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;}} instead of {{math|'''A'''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}}&amp;#8239;? (Or, in terms of Feynman subscripts, why can't we have {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;#11825;&amp;#8202;A'''}} instead of {{math|'''A&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;&lt;sub&gt;'''B'''&lt;/sub&gt;}}?) Because that would make the term vanish? Yes, it would; but, as there is only one variable factor on the left side, why do we need two terms on the right? Because the rule says {{math|&amp;nabla;}} should be written after the constant but before the variable? Yes, but that rule serves the purpose of varying ''each'' variable, whereas there is only one variable to vary on the left of ({{EquationNote|7.28}}). The same issue arises in ({{EquationNote|7.29}}). We cannot settle the question even by appealing to symmetry. Obviously the right side of ({{EquationNote|7.30}}), like the left, must be unchanged if we switch {{math|'''A'''}} and {{math|'''B'''}}; and indeed it is. But if the first term on the right of ({{EquationNote|7.28}}) and of ({{EquationNote|7.29}}) were to vanish, the necessary symmetry of ({{EquationNote|7.30}}) would be maintained. And unless I'm missing something, Tai's &quot;symbolic vector&quot; method does not circumvent the problem; Tai's &quot;Lemma 2&quot; ([[#tai-95|1995]], p.&amp;#8239;53) is the Gibbs&amp;#10744;Wilson method of &quot;varying one factor at a time&quot;, written with Feynman subscripts attached to the symbolic vector instead of the del operator.{{efn|I'm not missing the fact that Tai's symbolic vector, unlike the del operator, is subject to commutative and anticommutative laws. Neither do I see how it helps.}}

For another example of the same issue, consider the following two-liner offered by Panofsky &amp;amp; Phillips ([[#panofsky-phillips-62|1962]], pp.&amp;#8239;470–71) and rightly pilloried by Tai ([[#tai-95|1995]], pp.&amp;#8239;47–8):
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
  &amp;   \nabla{\times}(\mathbf{A}{\times}\mathbf{B})
   =  (\nabla{\cdot}\;\!\mathbf{B})\mathbf{A}
    - (\nabla{\cdot}    \mathbf{A})\mathbf{B}               &amp;&amp;[\mathsf{sic}] \\
  &amp;=  (\nabla{\cdot}\;\!\mathbf{B}_c ~\!\!)\mathbf{A}
    + (\nabla{\cdot}\;\!\mathbf{B}~\!\!)\mathbf{A}_c ~\!\!
    - (\nabla\mathbf{\cdot A}_c ~\!\!)\mathbf{B}
    - (\nabla\mathbf{\cdot A}~\!\!)\mathbf{B}_c \!\!\!\!\!\!\!&amp;&amp;[\mathsf{sic}].
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
If the first line were right, the authors would hardly bother to continue; but evidently it isn't, because it doesn't begin by &quot;varying one factor at a time&quot;. The second line does not follow from the first and includes divergences of constants, which ought to vanish but somehow apparently do not. Let's try again, this time sticking to the rules:
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
  &amp; \nabla\!\times\!(\mathbf{A}\!\times\!\mathbf{B})
  \,=\,   \nabla\!\times\!(\mathbf{A}_c \!\times\!\mathbf{B})
    \,+\, \nabla\!\times\!(\mathbf{A}\!\times\!\mathbf{B}_c) \\
  &amp;~=\,   (\nabla{\cdot}\;\!\mathbf{B})\mathbf{A}_c
        - (\mathbf{A}_c {\cdot}\nabla)\mathbf{B}
    \,+\, (\mathbf{B}_c {\cdot}\nabla)\mathbf{A}
        - (\nabla{\cdot}    \mathbf{A})\mathbf{B}_c \\
  &amp;~=\,   \mathbf{A}(\nabla{\cdot}\;\!\mathbf{B})
        - \mathbf{B}(\nabla{\cdot}    \mathbf{A})
    \,+\, (\mathbf{B\;\!\cdot}\nabla)\mathbf{A}
        - (\mathbf{A    \cdot}\nabla)\mathbf{B} \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
in agreement with our ({{EquationNote|67c}}). Here the first line comes from the generalized product rule, and the third is obtained from the second by rearranging terms and dropping the (now redundant) subscripts. The interesting line is the second, which is obtained from the first by expanding the formal vector triple products. But again, why must we have {{math|'''A'''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} and {{math|'''B'''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;,}} instead of {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;A'''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;}} and {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;B'''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;,}} which would make the middle two terms vanish? Again symmetry does not give an answer. The right-hand side, like the left, must change sign if we switch {{math|'''A'''}} and {{math|'''B'''&amp;#8202;}}; but the disappearance of the {{math|'''A'''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} and {{math|'''B'''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} terms would maintain the required (anti)symmetry. Funnily enough, the result would then agree with the incorrect first line given by Panofsky &amp;amp; Phillips (above). But then how would we know that it is incorrect?

The foregoing examples show that &quot;formal product&quot; arguments can be tenuous, even on their own terms. Before these examples, we might have been troubled by the omission of a general proof of the &quot;generalized&quot; product rule. After them, we might wonder whether the rule is even well defined.

I submit, however, that none of this matters. I submit that the popularity of using &quot;formal products&quot; with the del operator, in derivations of vector-analytic identities, is a reaction to the failure of early writers to use indicial notation in the Cartesian definitions of differential operators.{{efn|Indicial notation is standard in higher-order tensor analysis, which however tends not to use unit vectors of coordinate systems, and therefore tends not to encourage the indexing of unit vectors in elementary vector analysis&amp;mdash;whereas in the present paper, I have unapologetically indexed the unit vectors.}} The ensuing proliferation of terms in coordinate-based derivations led authors to seek shortcuts through &quot;formal products&quot; when more rigorous but no-less convenient shortcuts could have been taken through indicial notation, especially in combination with implicit summation. Our derivation of the gradient of a dot-product ({{EquationNote|68}}) is shorter than that of Borisenko &amp;amp; Tarapov, and even uses the right-hand sides of their identities ({{EquationNote|7.28}}) and ({{EquationNote|7.29}}), but obtains them rigorously with no ambiguity and no {{mvar|c &amp;#8202;}}subscripts. Our derivation of the curl of a cross-product ({{EquationNote|67c}}) takes six lines with a single column of &quot;&amp;equals;&quot; signs. Our subsequent formal-product derivation (not to be confused with the attempt of Panofsky &amp;amp; Phillips) seems to take only three lines; but it is only through our earlier indicial derivation that we have any confidence in our result (not to be confused with the result of Panofsky &amp;amp; Phillips). Our other indicial derivations of identities are shorter than the two just mentioned. Having amassed so comprehensive a collection of identities so rigorously with so little effort, I submit that the use of formal products, Wilson subscripts, {{mvar|c }}subscripts, and Feynman subscripts for this purpose is a historical aberration, to be deciphered in other people's writings but avoided in one's own.

That being said, it is one thing to conclude, as Tai duly does, that the del-cross and del-dot notations should not be interpreted as products in derivations and proofs, and another thing to allege, as Tai also does ([[#tai-95|1995]], p.&amp;#8239;22), that&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8202; are &quot;not compound operators&quot; but only &quot;assemblies&quot;, or in other words that &quot;{{math|&amp;#8202;&amp;nabla; }}is not a constituent of the divergence operator nor of the curl operator.&quot; Against the latter proposition, our equations ({{EquationNote|14}}), ({{EquationNote|61o}}), and ({{EquationNote|62o}}) have been ''derived'', not merely defined, and our derivation of ({{EquationNote|14}}) is as general as we could wish. Moreover, whereas ({{EquationNote|61o}}) and ({{EquationNote|62o}}) are for Cartesian coordinates, we shall see that they have counterparts in more general coordinates.

== General coordinates ==

From our initial definitions of the differential operators, we derived certain identities, from which we derived expressions for the operators in Cartesian coordinates, from which we derived more identities, from which we now hope to derive expressions for the operators in other coordinate systems. Cartesian coordinates are traditionally called {{math|''x'',&amp;#8239;''y'',&amp;#8239;''z'',}}&amp;#8201; which we renamed {{mvar|x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; where&amp;#8202; {{math|''i''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8239;1,&amp;#8202;2,&amp;#8202;3&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8201; respectively. The best-known 3D ''non''&amp;#8202;-Cartesian coordinate systems are the cylindrical coordinates {{math|(''&amp;rho;'',&amp;#8239;''&amp;phi;'',&amp;#8239;''z'')}} and the spherical coordinates {{math|(''r'',&amp;#8239;''&amp;theta;'',&amp;#8239;''&amp;phi;'')}}; we have already seen {{mvar|r}}&amp;#8202; in the guise of the magnitude of the position vector{{math| '''r'''}}.&amp;#8201; But now we want our coordinate system to be as general as possible&amp;mdash;with the Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical systems and many others, and even ''classes'' of systems, as special cases.

=== Natural and dual basis vectors ===

We shall call our general coordinates {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; where&amp;#8202; {{math|''i''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8239;1,&amp;#8202;2,&amp;#8202;3&amp;#8202;}};&amp;#8201; yes, for reasons which will emerge, we shall write the coordinate index as a {{nowrap|''super''&amp;#8202;script}}. But we shall write {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; for{{math| ''{{sfrac|&amp;part;|&amp;part;u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8202;}}''&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8202; relying on context to distinguish it from the special case{{mvar| {{sfrac|&amp;part;|&amp;part;x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202;}}.&amp;#8201; By describing the {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; as ''coordinates''&amp;#8239; we mean two things. First, for some domain of interest, the position vector is a smooth function
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r} = \mathbf{r}(u^1,u^2,u^3) \,,&lt;/math&gt;
which possesses partial derivatives w.r.t. its arguments. Second, for every position vector in the resulting range, there is only one ordered triplet&amp;#8239; {{math|(''u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;''&amp;#8202;)&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;(''u''&amp;sup1;,&amp;#8239;''u''&amp;sup2;,&amp;#8239;''u''&amp;sup3;),}}&amp;#8239; so that we can think of each coordinate as
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;u^i = u^i(\mathbf{r}) \,;&lt;/math&gt;}}
&amp;mdash;that is, we can think of each {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; as a scalar field, which possesses a gradient.{{efn|Hence we want each {{math|''u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;''('''r''')}} to be, as far as possible, a ''smooth'' function. This may require some tweaking of definitions. E.g., in cylindrical coordinates, the angular coordinate {{mvar|&amp;phi;}} must be confined to some 360&amp;deg; range in order to make it unique, and we don't want it jumping from the end of the range to the beginning within the region of interest.}} (I say &quot;think of&quot; because {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}}, being obviously dependent on a coordinate system, would not normally be considered a true scalar; but sometimes we need to treat the coordinate system itself as an object under study.)

These two properties of coordinates respectively suggest two simple ways of choosing basis vectors related to the coordinates: we shall define the '''natural basis''' vectors as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}_i := \part_i \mathbf{r} \,,
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|80a}}}}
and the '''dual basis''' vectors as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}^i := \nabla u^i .
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|80b}}}}
(We could ''normalize'' the natural basis vectors by dividing them by their magnitudes to obtain unit vectors; but, for the moment, we won't bother.) Just as we may think of each {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}} as a scalar field and inquire after its directional derivative or its gradient or its Laplacian, so we may think of each {{math|'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}} or{{math| '''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;}} as a vector field and inquire after its directional derivative or its curl or its divergence or its Laplacian&amp;mdash;because these properties, in combination with our stock of identities, might help us to express operators in general coordinates.

In Cartesian coordinates,&amp;#8201; {{math|'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}} and {{math|'''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;}} are both equal to the unit vector{{math| '''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;}}; thus, in Cartesian coordinates, the natural basis vectors are their own duals.&amp;#8201; In ''general'' coordinates,&amp;#8201; {{math|'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}} and {{math|'''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;}} may differ in both direction and magnitude and are not generally unit vectors. Nevertheless, even in general coordinates, there is a simple relation between the natural and dual basis vectors. Consider the dot-product
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}_i \cdot \mathbf{h}^j
    = \part_i\mathbf{r} \cdot \nabla u^j \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
If{{math|&amp;#8202; ''i&amp;#8239;&amp;ne;&amp;#8239;j''&amp;#8202;,}} then {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;'''r'''&amp;#8202;,}} being in a direction in which {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}} varies while each other {{mvar|u&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;}} does not, is tangential to a surface of constant {{mvar|u&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;}} and therefore normal to {{math|&amp;nabla;''u&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;'',}} so that the dot-product is zero. But by ({{EquationNote|26g}}),
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    du^i = \nabla u^i \cdot d\mathbf{r} \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
and if we vary {{math|'''r'''}} by varying {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}} while holding each other {{mvar|u&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;}} constant, we can divide by {{mvar|du&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}} and obtain
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    1 ~\!= \nabla u^i \cdot \part_i\mathbf{r}
      = \mathbf{h}^i \!\cdot \mathbf{h}_i
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}[with no summation].|{{EquationRef|81i}}}}
Putting the two cases together, we have
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}_i \cdot \mathbf{h}^j =~\! \delta_i^j
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|81}}}}
where the right-hand function, known as the '''Kronecker delta''' function, is defined by
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\delta_i^j = \delta_{ij} = \delta^{ij}
  =~&lt;/math&gt;}}&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases}
    0 &amp;\mathsf{if}~\, i \neq j \\
    1 &amp;\mathsf{if}~\, i = j \,.
  \end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|82}}}}
Obviously the function is symmetric: the indices {{mvar|i }}and{{mvar| j}}&amp;#8202; can be interchanged. If two lists of vectors are related so that the dot-product of the {{mvar|i&amp;#8202;}}th vector in one list and the {{mvar|j&amp;#8202;}}th in the other is{{mvar| &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;}}, the two lists are described as '''reciprocal'''. Thus the triplets {{math|('''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;)}} and {{math|('''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;)}} are '''reciprocal bases''': the dual basis is the reciprocal of the natural basis and vice versa. Hence, taking the natural basis as a reference, the dual basis is sometimes called &quot;the&quot; reciprocal basis.

In Cartesian coordinates, ({{EquationNote|81}}) becomes
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{e}_i ~\!\!\cdot \mathbf{e}_j =~\! \delta_{ij} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
So we have a relation for general coordinates ({{EquationNote|81}}) which is just as simple as its special case for Cartesian coordinates, ''provided that we use the natural basis for one factor and the dual basis for the other''. This will be a recurring pattern.

We have deduced the reciprocity relation ({{EquationNote|81}}) from prior definitions of the natural basis {{math|('''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;)}} and the dual basis {{math|('''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;)}}.&amp;#8201; This result has a partial converse, in that a reciprocity relation between bases is enough to define either basis in terms of the other&amp;mdash;as we shall see later. But first we proceed to components of vector fields.

=== Contravariant and covariant components ===

A '''coordinate grid''' is a set of intersecting curves such that on each curve, one coordinate varies while the others are constant. If we could somehow inscribe such a grid in an elastic medium, and then stretch and rotate the medium, the natural basis vectors{{math| '''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}} given by ({{EquationNote|80a}}) would stretch and rotate ''with the medium''. Accordingly, the ''natural'' basis is also called the '''covariant''' basis. But according to ({{EquationNote|81}}), the dot-product of a natural basis vector and a dual basis vector is '''invariant''' (independent of the coordinate system), so that the variation of one factor ''compensates''&amp;#8202; for the variation of the other. So, as the natural basis is &quot;covariant&quot; with the coordinate system, we say that the dual basis is '''contravariant''' with the coordinate system. Notice that the {{nowrap|''co''&amp;#8202;variant}} factor has a {{nowrap|''sub''&amp;#8202;script}} index (easily remembered because &quot;''co''&amp;#8202; rhymes with ''low''&amp;#8239;&quot;) whereas the {{nowrap|''contra''&amp;#8202;variant}} factor has a {{nowrap|''super''&amp;#8202;script}} index, and that one kind of variation must combine with the other in order to produce an {{nowrap|''in''&amp;#8202;variant}} result; these will be recurring patterns.

A vector field {{math|'''q'''}} may be expressed in components w.r.t. the natural (covariant) basis as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q} = q^i \mathbf{h}_i
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|83a}}}}
with summation, or in components w.r.t. the dual (contravariant) basis as
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q} = q_i \mathbf{h}^i
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|83b}}}}
with summation. If{{math| '''q'''}} is to be invariant (a true vector, existing independently of the coordinate system), the components must be contravariant in the former case and covariant in the latter, and accordingly are written with superscripts and subscripts respectively. In Cartesian coordinates, the two bases are the same, so that the components w.r.t. the two bases are also the same; that's why, in the above section on Cartesian coordinates, we got away with writing component indices as subscripts. We shall see later that we can do this with a somewhat wider class of coordinates than Cartesian. In ''general'' coordinates, however, the basis vectors have subscripts and the components have superscripts or vice versa, so that ''the index of implicit summation appears once as a superscript and once as a subscript''.

Taking dot-products of ({{EquationNote|83a}}) with{{math| '''h'''&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt;}}, applying ({{EquationNote|81}}), and noting that only one term on the right is non-zero, we obtain
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
     q^j =~\! \mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{h}^j .
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|83c}}}}
Similarly, taking dot-products of ({{EquationNote|83b}}) with{{math| '''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;}} yields
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
     q_j =~\! \mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{h}_j \,.
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|83d}}}}
These results depend on the reciprocity relation ({{EquationNote|81}}) but not on the earlier definitions of the bases to which that relation applies. They say:
* to find the contravariant components of a vector, take its dot-products with the contravariant basis vectors, and
* to find the covariant components of a vector, take its dot-products with the covariant basis vectors;
''or'', in terms of the bases themselves:
* to find the components of a vector w.r.t. either basis, take dot-products of that vector with the ''other'' basis.

If a particular {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}} has a particular name, such as{{mvar| &amp;theta;}} or{{mvar| &amp;phi;}}, then, if we're not using indexed summation, we may find it convenient to write that name in place of the index{{mvar| i}}&amp;#8202; in the superscript or subscript.

At the present level of generality, the basis vectors {{math|'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;,}} unlike their Cartesian counterparts {{math|'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;,}} are ''not''&amp;#8202; assumed to be uniform (i.e., '''homogeneous'''). One consequence of this general non-uniformity (inhomogeneity) is that, although we can say&amp;#8239; {{math|'''r'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8239; in Cartesian coordinates and&amp;#8239; {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''q&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8239; in general coordinates, we ''cannot'' say
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r} = u^i \mathbf{h}_i \qquad&lt;/math&gt;[''sic!''&amp;#8239;]}}
in general coordinates. For example, we have seen that in spherical coordinates the position vector {{math|'''r'''}} is simply {{math|''r''&amp;#8202;'''r'''&amp;#8202;&amp;#770;&amp;#8201;{{=}}&amp;#8201;''r''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''r''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;}};&amp;#8202; it is ''not''&amp;#8201; {{math|''r''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''r''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8202;''&amp;theta;''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''&amp;theta;''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8202;''&amp;phi;''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''&amp;phi;''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;,}} because {{mvar|&amp;theta;}} and {{mvar|&amp;phi;}} are encoded in the direction of{{math|&amp;#8202; '''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''r''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;}}.&amp;#8201; Similarly, in cylindrical coordinates the position vector {{math|'''r'''}} is {{math|''&amp;rho;''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''&amp;rho;''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8239;''z''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''z''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;}};&amp;#8202; it is ''not''&amp;#8201; {{math|''&amp;rho;''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''&amp;rho;''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8202;''&amp;phi;''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''&amp;phi;''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;+&amp;#8239;''z''&amp;#8202;'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''z''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;,}} because {{mvar|&amp;phi;}} is encoded in the direction of{{math|&amp;#8202; '''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''&amp;rho;''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;}}.&amp;#8201; In both examples, encoding one coordinate in the direction of another coordinate's unit vector is circular in that the said direction depends on the position vector, which is the very thing that we want to represent.

A non-uniform basis is not a ''global''&amp;#8202; basis. It cannot give a uniform representation of a uniform vector field, because the standard of representation changes; it is like having a compass whose orientation varies from place to place and&amp;#10744;or a measuring stick whose length varies from place to place. But it can serve as a '''local basis'''&amp;#8202;&amp;mdash;as in ({{EquationNote|83a}}) and ({{EquationNote|83b}}), each of which expresses a vector field at a given location in terms of a basis at that location, notwithstanding that the basis may be different at other locations. And although a local basis (as we have just seen) cannot generally represent the position vector in a non-circular manner, it ''can''&amp;#8202; represent a ''change''&amp;#8202; in the position vector. By the generality of the multivariate chain rule ({{EquationNote|75}}),
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \part_t \mathbf{r} = \part_i \mathbf{r} \,\part_t u^i .
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
Dividing by {{mvar|dt&amp;#8239;}} we get
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    d\mathbf{r} = \part_i \mathbf{r} \,du^i
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|84}}}}
or, substituting from ({{EquationNote|80a}}),
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    d\mathbf{r} = \mathbf{h}_i ~\!du^i .
  \qquad&lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|85}}}}
Thus the small changes in the coordinates{{mvar| u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; are the components of the true vector{{math| ''d''&amp;#8202;'''r'''}} w.r.t. the ''covariant''&amp;#8202; basis. That means the changes in the coordinates must be ''contravariant''. Here at last is the explanation why we write general coordinates with superscript indices. And again the point is moot for Cartesian coordinates, for which the covariant basis is also contravariant.

Since {{mvar|du&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; is contravariant,&amp;#8201; {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8202;'''r'''}}&amp;#8202; in ({{EquationNote|84}}) must be covariant in order to yield the true vector{{math| ''d''&amp;#8202;'''r'''}}. This vindicates our decision to write {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}} with a subscript. Recall, however, that {{mvar|&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; means{{math| ''{{sfrac|&amp;part;|&amp;part;u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8202;}}''&amp;#8202;}}. Thus ''the derivative w.r.t. the contravariant quantity is covariant''&amp;#8202;&amp;mdash;wherefore it is said that ''a superscript in the denominator of a derivative counts as a subscript in the derivative as a whole''.

In ({{EquationNote|85}}), the general term&amp;#8239; {{math|'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8201;''du&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;''}} (not the sum) is the displacement of{{math|&amp;#8202; '''r'''}} due to the small change {{mvar|du&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}} in the coordinate {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}}. The three such displacements of{{math|&amp;#8202; '''r'''}} make concurrent edges of a parallelepiped whose signed volume is
:&lt;math&gt;
  dV =~\! \mathbf{h}_1~\!du^1 \cdot~\!\mathbf{h}_2~\!du^2
          ~\!\!\times\mathbf{h}_3~\!du^3 \,;
  &lt;/math&gt;
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;dV = J \,du^1 du^2 du^3&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|86}}}}
where
:&lt;math&gt;J := \mathbf{h}_1 ~\!\!\cdot \mathbf{h}_2 \!\times~\!\!\mathbf{h}_3&lt;/math&gt;
or, to use a standard abbreviation for the scalar triple product,
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    J := [~\!\mathbf{h}_1 \mathbf{h}_2 \mathbf{h}_3] \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|87}}}}
{{mvar|J}}&amp;#8202; is called the '''Jacobian''' of the natural (covariant) basis. We describe the basis and the associated coordinate system as '''right-handed''' if this Jacobian is ''positive'', and '''left-handed''' if this Jacobian is ''negative''. Thus the handedness depends on the standard order in which we write the vectors; e.g., the standard Cartesian basis is right-handed because we write it as{{math| ('''i''',&amp;#8202;'''j''','''k''')}} but would be left-handed if we wrote it as{{math| ('''i''','''k''',&amp;#8202;'''j''')}}.

If the covariant basis is indeed a basis, its member vectors must not be coplanar; that is, {{mvar|J }}must not be zero. Hence, if the covariant basis is to be a local basis in some region of interest, {{mvar|J }}must not vanish anywhere in that region, and therefore must have the same sign throughout the region; that is, the handedness of the coordinate system must be the same throughout the region.

=== Properties of reciprocal bases ===

We have noted that formulae ({{EquationNote|83c}}) and ({{EquationNote|83d}}), for the components of a vector w.r.t. the covariant and contravariant bases, depend only on the reciprocity relation ({{EquationNote|81}}) between the bases. Now, retaining the designations &quot;covariant&quot; and &quot;contravariant&quot; for convenience, let us see what else we can deduce from that relation.

Most obviously, the reciprocity relation leads to a simple component-based expression for the dot-product of two vector fields, say {{math|'''v'''}} and{{math| '''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} provided that we use the contravariant components and covariant basis ({{EquationNote|83a}}) for one vector, and the covariant components and contravariant basis ({{EquationNote|83b}}) for the other:
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} \cdot \mathbf{q}
    =~\! v^i ~\!\mathbf{h}_i \cdot q_j \mathbf{h}^j
    =~\! v^i \,\mathbf{h}_i \!\cdot\! \mathbf{h}^j \,q_j
    =~\! v^i ~\!\delta_i^j ~\!q_j \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
whence selecting the non-zero terms gives
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} \cdot \mathbf{q}
    =~\! v^i q_i \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|88a}}}}
And the two vectors, being general, can swap roles in ({{EquationNote|83a}}) and ({{EquationNote|83b}}):
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} \cdot \mathbf{q}
    =~\! v_i q^i \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|88b}}}}

The cross-product needs a bit more preparation. First we define the '''permutation symbol''' {{mvar|&amp;epsiv;&lt;sub&gt;ijk&lt;/sub&gt;}} or{{mvar| &amp;epsiv;&lt;sup&gt;ijk&lt;/sup&gt;}} (also called the '''[[w:Tullio Levi-Civita|Levi-Civita]]''' symbol) as having the value&amp;#8202; {{math|+1}} if {{math|(''i'',&amp;#8201;''j'',&amp;#8239;''k'')}} is a permutation of {{math|(1,&amp;#8202;2,&amp;#8202;3)}} in the same cyclic order,&amp;#8201; {{math|&amp;minus;1 }}if {{math|(''i'',&amp;#8201;''j'',&amp;#8239;''k'')}} is a permutation of {{math|(1,&amp;#8202;2,&amp;#8202;3)}} in the reverse cyclic order, and {{math|0}} if {{math|(''i'',&amp;#8201;''j'',&amp;#8239;''k'')}} is not a permutation, i.e. if there is at least one repeated index. To put it more formally,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\epsilon_{ijk\!} = \epsilon^{ijk\!} =&lt;/math&gt;}}
  {{resize|&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases}
    +1 &amp;\mathsf{if}\,\,(i,j,k)\in\big\{(1,2,3),~\!(2,3,1),~\!(3,1,2)\big\}\\
    -1 &amp;\mathsf{if}\,\,(i,j,k)\in\big\{(3,2,1),~\!(1,3,2),~\!(2,1,3)\big\}\\
    \phantom{-}0 &amp;\mathsf{otherwise}.
  \end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|89}}}}
Note that because switching any two indices changes the cyclic order, ''switching any two indices changes the sign of the permutation symbol''. Now by ({{EquationNote|81}}),&amp;#8201; {{math|'''h'''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; }}is perpendicular to both {{math|'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; }}and{{math| '''h'''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;}}. So we can say
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{h}_2 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_3 =~\! \alpha_1 ~\!\mathbf{h}^1&lt;/math&gt;
where {{math|''&amp;alpha;''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; }}is a real variable to be determined. Taking dot-products with{{math| '''h'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}} and applying ({{EquationNote|81}}) and ({{EquationNote|87}}), we find that&amp;#8202; {{math|''&amp;alpha;''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;{{=}}&amp;#8239;''J''&amp;#8202;,}} so that
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}_2 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_3 =~\! J \mathbf{h}^1 .
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|90.1}}}}
By the generality of the vectors we can rotate the three indices, but the sign of the left-hand side changes if we swap the two indices on the left. All six cases are covered by
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}_i \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_j
    =~\! J \epsilon_{ijk\,} \mathbf{h}^k .
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|90a}}}}
Here we want only one term; but we need not specify &quot;no sum&quot;, because for given {{mvar|i&amp;#8202; }}and{{mvar| j}}&amp;#8201; the permutation symbol leaves only one non-zero term in the sum over{{mvar| k}}. In words, this result says that the cross-product of two covariant basis vectors, with their indices in the standard cyclic order, is the Jacobian times the contravariant basis vector with the omitted index. Similarly, or rather reciprocally,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}^i \!\times\!\mathbf{h}^j
    =~\! J' \epsilon^{ijk\,} \mathbf{h}_k \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|90b}}}}
where {{mvar|J&amp;prime;}}&amp;#8202; is the Jacobian ''of the contravariant basis''.

Equations ({{EquationNote|90a}}) and ({{EquationNote|90b}}), which we have obtained from the reciprocity relation ({{EquationNote|81}}), can be solved for {{math|'''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt; }}and{{math| '''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;}} respectively; but now we ''do'' suppress the implicit sum, because {{mvar|k}}&amp;#8202; is &quot;given&quot; instead of {{mvar|i&amp;#8202; }}and{{mvar| j&amp;#8239;}}:
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}^k = \tfrac{\,1\,}{J}~\! \mathbf{h}_i \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_j \quad
  &lt;/math&gt;}} [distinct {{math|''i'',&amp;#8201;''j'',&amp;#8239;''k''}}  in cyclic order];
  |{{EquationRef|90c}}}}
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}_k = \tfrac{1}{\,J'}~\! \mathbf{h}^i \!\times\!\mathbf{h}^j \quad
  &lt;/math&gt;}}[distinct {{math|''i'',&amp;#8201;''j'',&amp;#8239;''k''}}  in cyclic order].
  |{{EquationRef|90d}}}}
Thus ''a reciprocity relation between bases is enough to define either basis in terms of the other''&amp;mdash;as claimed above. If it is not convenient to suppress an implicit sum, the last two results can instead be written
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}^k =
      \tfrac{1}{2J}~\!\epsilon^{ijk\,}\mathbf{h}_i {\times}~\!\mathbf{h}_j
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|90e}}}}
and
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}_k =
      \tfrac{1}{2J'}~\!\epsilon_{ijk\,}\mathbf{h}^i {\times}~\!\mathbf{h}^j \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|90f}}}}
where the factor 2 in each denominator is needed because the right-hand side has two equal non-zero terms&amp;mdash;the sign of the permutation symbol compensating for the order of the cross-product.

Now we're ready to consider the cross-product of two vector fields. In terms of the covariant basis,
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\mathbf{v} \!\times\! \mathbf{q}
     =~\! v^i \mathbf{h}_i ~\!\!\times q^j \mathbf{h}_j
    &amp;=~\! v^i \,\mathbf{h}_i {\times}~\! \mathbf{h}_j \,q^j \\
    &amp;=~\! v^i J \epsilon_{ijk~\!} \mathbf{h}^k \;\!q^j \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
i.e.,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} \!\times\! \mathbf{q}
    =~\! J \epsilon_{ijk\,} v^i q^j \mathbf{h}^k .
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|91a}}}}
On the right, the two components and the basis vector are contravariant, but invariance is achieved by multiplying by the covariant Jacobian (which has three covariant factors). Similarly,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} \!\times\! \mathbf{q}
    =~\! J' \epsilon^{ijk} v_i q_j \;\!\mathbf{h}_k .
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|91b}}}}
On the right of ({{EquationNote|91a}}) or ({{EquationNote|91b}}), the implicit triple summation has 27 terms, of which only six&amp;mdash;corresponding to the six possible permutations of the three possible indices&amp;mdash;can be non-zero. Thus the factor following the Jacobian can be recognized as the familiar determinant whose columns (or rows), in cyclic order, are the components of{{math| '''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} the components of{{math| '''v'''&amp;#8202;,}} and the three basis vectors. In Cartesian coordinates, in which the Jacobians are equal to{{math| 1}} and we don't need the co&amp;#10744;contra distinction, both equations reduce to
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} \!\times\! \mathbf{q}
    =~\! \epsilon_{ijk\,} v_i q_j \;\!\mathbf{e}_k
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
&amp;mdash;a familiar result written in a possibly unfamiliar way.

The Jacobian of the contravariant basis is
:&lt;math&gt;J' =~\! \mathbf{h}^1 \cdot \mathbf{h}^2 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}^3&lt;/math&gt;
or, if we substitute from ({{EquationNote|90c}}),
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}J'
  &amp;= \frac{(\mathbf{h}_2 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_3)}{J} \cdot
     \frac{(\mathbf{h}_3 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_1)}{J} \times
     \frac{(\mathbf{h}_1 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_2)}{J} \\[.5ex]
  &amp;= \frac{(\mathbf{h}_2 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_3) \cdot
           (\mathbf{h}_3 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_1) \times
           (\mathbf{h}_1 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_2)}
          {J^3} \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
In the numerator, the cross-product of cross-products can be read as a vector triple product in which the first factor is a cross-product. Expanding that triple product and noting that one term is a scalar triple product with a repeated factor, we get
:&lt;math&gt;
    J' = \frac{(\mathbf{h}_3 \!\times\!\mathbf{h}_1) \cdot J\mathbf{h}_2}{J^3}
       = \frac{\,J^2}{~J^3 ~\!} = \frac{\,1\,}{J} \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;
so that we may write
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;J' =~\! J^{-1} &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|92}}}}
in ({{EquationNote|90b}}), ({{EquationNote|90d}}), ({{EquationNote|90f}}), and ({{EquationNote|91b}}). In words, ''the Jacobian of the reciprocal basis is the reciprocal of the Jacobian'' of the original basis. Therefore the two Jacobians have the same sign. Therefore ''a basis is right-handed if and only if its reciprocal is right-handed''. Thus the natural and dual bases of a coordinate system have the same handedness, and the handedness of either may be identified with the handedness of the coordinate system.

=== The gradient, del, and advection operators ===

Let {{mvar|p}}&amp;#8202; be a scalar field, and let{{mvar| s}}&amp;#8202; be arc length in the direction of the unit vector{{math| '''s&amp;#770;'''}}. By the multivariate chain rule ({{EquationNote|75}}),
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\part_s p
    &amp;= \part_i p \;\part_s u^i \\
    &amp;= \part_i p \;\mathbf{\hat{s}} \cdot \nabla u^i \\
    &amp;= \part_i p \;\mathbf{\hat{s}} \cdot \mathbf{h}^i \\
    &amp;=\mathbf{\hat{s}} \cdot \mathbf{h}^i \part_i p \,.
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
So&amp;#8202; {{math|'''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;p''}}&amp;#8239; is the vector whose (invariant) scalar component in the direction of any{{math| '''s&amp;#770;'''}} is the directional derivative of{{mvar| p}} in that direction; that is,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla p = \mathbf{h}^i \part_i p \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|93g}}}}
or, in operational terms,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \nabla =~\! \mathbf{h}^i \part_i \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|93o}}}}
Apart from the need to pair a superscript with a subscript, these two results look as simple as their Cartesian special cases ({{EquationNote|58g}}) and ({{EquationNote|58o}}).

If {{mvar|&amp;psi;}}&amp;#8202; is a generic field and {{math|'''q'''}} is a general vector in the direction of the same{{math| '''s'''&amp;#8202;}} then by definition ({{EquationNote|11}}),
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi
    &amp;= |\mathbf{q}| \,\part_s \psi \\
    &amp;= |\mathbf{q}| \,\part_i \psi \,\part_s u^i \\
    &amp;= \part_i \psi \;|\mathbf{q}| ~\!\part_s u^i \\
    &amp;= \part_i \psi \;\mathbf{q} \cdot \nabla u^i \\
    &amp;= \part_i \psi \;\mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{h}^i \\
    &amp;= \part_i \psi \;q^j \mathbf{h}_j \cdot \mathbf{h}^i \\
    &amp;= \part_i \psi \;q^j \epsilon_j^i \\
    &amp;= \part_i \psi \,q^i \,;
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
that is,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla\,\psi = q^i \part_i \psi \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|94}}}}
or, in operational terms,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{q}\;\!{\cdot}\nabla =~\! q^i \part_i \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|94o}}}}
These results likewise look as simple as their Cartesian special cases ({{EquationNote|64}}) and ({{EquationNote|64o}}).&amp;#8201; And by ({{EquationNote|88a}}), the {{math|'''q&amp;#11825;'''&amp;nabla;}} operator again turns out to be the formal dot-product of&amp;#8202; {{math|'''q'''}} and{{math| &amp;nabla;}}.

=== The curl and divergence operators ===

To express the curl of a vector field{{math| '''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} we choose the contravariant basis ({{EquationNote|83b}}) and apply identity ({{EquationNote|71c}}):
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    &amp;= \operatorname{curl} q_j \mathbf{h}^j \\
    &amp;= q_j \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{h}^j + \nabla q_j \times \mathbf{h}^j .
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
On the right, the first term vanishes because {{math|'''h'''&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; is {{math|&amp;nabla;''u&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;''}} (and the curl of a gradient is zero). Substituting from ({{EquationNote|93o}}) in the second term, we obtain
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    = \mathbf{h}^i \part_i q_j \times \mathbf{h}^j
    = \mathbf{h}^i {\times}~\! \mathbf{h}^j ~\!\part_i q_j
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
or, using ({{EquationNote|90b}}),
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    = J' \epsilon^{ijk\,} \mathbf{h}_k \part_i q_j \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|95}}}}
or, in a more familiar form,
:&lt;math&gt;
    \operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q} \,=\, J'\,
      \begin{vmatrix}
        \mathbf{h}_1 &amp; \part_1 &amp; q_1 \\
        \mathbf{h}_2 &amp; \part_2 &amp; q_2 \\
        \mathbf{h}_3 &amp; \part_3 &amp; q_3
      \end{vmatrix} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;
Formula ({{EquationNote|95}}) agrees with a result obtained by Tai with his &quot;symbolic vector&quot; method.&lt;ref&gt;[[#tai-95|Tai, 1995]], p.&amp;#8239;66, eq.&amp;#8239;9.41.&lt;/ref&gt; It is also what we would get by naively using ({{EquationNote|91b}}) to evaluate {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;&amp;#8202;'''q'''&amp;#8202;;}}&amp;#8201; it comes out so simply because each contravariant basis vector{{math| '''h'''&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt;}}&amp;#8202; is the actual gradient of{{mvar| u&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;}} and not (e.g.) merely a unit vector in the same direction (remember that {{mvar|q&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;}} is the component w.r.t.{{math| '''h'''&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8202;,}}&amp;#8202; not{{math| '''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;}}).

But ({{EquationNote|95}}) does not end in a subexpression for the operand{{math| '''q'''}}&amp;#8202; and therefore does not directly yield an expression for the curl ''operator''. To find this operator and the divergence operator, we return to the original definitions ({{EquationNote|4g}}), ({{EquationNote|4c}}), and ({{EquationNote|4d}}), noting that they can be combined as
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\nabla ~\!\!* \psi
    \,=\, \tfrac{1}{dV}\!\iint_{\delta S} (\mathbf{\hat{n}}~\!dS*\psi) \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|96}}}}
where {{math|&amp;lowast;}} may be a null for the gradient, a cross for the curl, or a dot for the divergence.{{efn|But not dot-del for the Laplacian, as in ({{EquationNote|19}}), because we want to use an elementary product rule inside the integral.}} Recalling that the value of this expression does not depend on the shape of{{mvar| dS&amp;#8202;}}, let{{mvar| dS&amp;#8202;}} be the parallelepiped defined by the six equicoordinate surfaces at {{mvar|u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt; }}and{{mvar| u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;+du&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}}, so that {{mvar|dV}}&amp;#8202; is given by ({{EquationNote|86}}). Then the contribution to the integral from the face at{{math| ''u''&amp;sup1;+''du''&amp;sup1; &amp;#8202;}}is
:&lt;math&gt;\Big[
    \big(\mathbf{h}_2 du^2 \!\times\! \mathbf{h}_3 du^3\big) * \psi
  \Big]_{u^1 + du^1}&lt;/math&gt;
where the square brackets and subscripting mean &quot;evaluated at&quot;. This can be written
:&lt;math&gt;du^2 du^3 \Big[
    (\mathbf{h}_2 {\times}~\! \mathbf{h}_3) * \psi
  \Big]_{u^1 + du^1}&lt;/math&gt;
or, by ({{EquationNote|90.1}}),
:&lt;math&gt;du^2 du^3 \big[J \mathbf{h}^1 ~\!\!* \psi \big]_{u^1 + du^1} \,.&lt;/math&gt;
Similarly, the contribution from the face at{{math| ''u''&amp;sup1;}} (where {{math|'''h'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}} points inward instead of outward) is
:&lt;math&gt;-du^2 du^3 \big[J \mathbf{h}^1 ~\!\!* \psi \big]_{u^1} \,.&lt;/math&gt;
The sum of the contributions from the two opposite faces can then be written
:&lt;math&gt;du^1 du^2 du^3 ~\!\part_1 \big(J \mathbf{h}^1 ~\!\!* \psi\big) ~,&lt;/math&gt;
so that when we add in the contributions from the other two pairs of opposite faces, the entire integral becomes
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    du^1 du^2 du^3 ~\!\part_i \big(J \mathbf{h}^i ~\!\!* \psi\big)
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
(with implicit summation over{{mvar| i}}). Substituting this and ({{EquationNote|86}}) into ({{EquationNote|96}}), we get
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\nabla ~\!\!* \psi
    = \tfrac{\,1\,}{J} ~\!\part_i \big(J \mathbf{h}^i ~\!\!* \psi\big) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|97}}}}
Now applying the product rule gives
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\nabla ~\!\!* \psi
    = \mathbf{h}^i ~\!\!* \part_i \psi
      + \tfrac{\,1\,}{J} ~\!\part_i(J \mathbf{h}^i) * \psi \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|98}}}}
Here the left-hand side is {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;lowast;''&amp;psi;''}}&amp;#8239; according to our original volume-based definition ({{EquationNote|4g}}) of the {{math|&amp;nabla; }}operator&amp;mdash;which is known to yield the curl or the divergence if&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;lowast;}} is a cross or a dot, respectively&amp;mdash;whereas the first term on the right is what we would get for {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;lowast;''&amp;psi;''}}&amp;#8239; by using our latest definition ({{EquationNote|93o}}) of the {{math|&amp;nabla; }}operator and allowing{{mvar| &amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; to &quot;pass by&quot; the star in the Wilsonian manner. So, if we can show that the second term on the right is zero, we shall have established the precise sense in which the del-cross and del-dot notations are valid in general coordinates. In that second term, by ({{EquationNote|90e}}),
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
    \part_i(J \mathbf{h}^i)
    &amp;= \part_i \big(
         \tfrac{\,1\,}{2}~\!\epsilon^{jki}\mathbf{h}_j {\times}~\!\mathbf{h}_k
       \big) \\
    &amp;= \tfrac{\,1\,}{2}~\!\epsilon^{jki}
       \part_i \big(\mathbf{h}_j {\times}~\!\mathbf{h}_k \big) \\[.5ex]
    &amp;= \tfrac{\,1\,}{2}~\!\epsilon^{jki}
       \big(\part_i \mathbf{h}_j \!\times~\!\!\mathbf{h}_k +
            \mathbf{h}_j \!\times~\!\!\part_i \mathbf{h}_k \big) \\[.5ex]
    &amp;= \tfrac{\,1\,}{2}~\!\epsilon^{jki}
       \big(\part_i \part_j \mathbf{r} ~\!\!\times\! \mathbf{h}_k +
            \mathbf{h}_j {\times}~\! \part_i \part_k \mathbf{r} \big) \,,
  \end{align}&lt;/math&gt;}}
where the last line follows by ({{EquationNote|80a}}). But the order of partial differentiation can be switched. So, in the sum over the permutations, for each term in{{math| ''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''r'''}}&amp;#8239; there is an equal term in{{math| ''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''r'''}}&amp;#8239; to which the permutation symbol attaches the opposite sign, so that the terms in{{math| ''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''r'''}}&amp;#8202; cancel. Similarly the terms in{{math| ''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''r'''}}&amp;#8202; cancel. Thus, as anticipated, the second term in ({{EquationNote|98}}) is zero and we have
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\nabla ~\!\!* \psi
    = \mathbf{h}^i ~\!\!* \part_i \psi \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|99}}}}

If&amp;#8202; {{math|&amp;lowast;}} is a null and {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a scalar field {{math|''p''&amp;#8202;,}} then ({{EquationNote|99}}) becomes ({{EquationNote|93g}}) and thus (fortunately!) confirms ({{EquationNote|93o}}) as the form of the del operator in general coordinates.

Now let {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} be a ''vector'' field {{math|'''q'''&amp;#8202;}}.&amp;#8201; If{{math|&amp;#8202; &amp;lowast;}} is a cross, then ({{EquationNote|99}}) becomes
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{q}
    = \mathbf{h}^i ~\!\!\times \part_i \mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|100c}}}}
or, in operational terms,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{curl}
    = \mathbf{h}^i ~\!\!\times \part_i \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|100o}}}}
If instead {{math|&amp;lowast;}} is a dot, ({{EquationNote|99}}) becomes
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
    = \mathbf{h}^i ~\!\!\cdot \part_i \mathbf{q}
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|101d}}}}
or, in operational terms,
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}
    = \mathbf{h}^i ~\!\!\cdot \part_i \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|101o}}}}
But if we take the {{math|&amp;nabla;}} operator as given by ({{EquationNote|93o}}) and try to construct the curl and divergence operators (in the ''same''&amp;#8202; coordinates) as {{math|&amp;nabla;&amp;#8202;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8202; and {{math|&amp;nabla;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8239; respectively, we get&amp;#8202; {{math|'''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8239;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;&amp;times;}}&amp;#8239; and&amp;#8239; {{math|'''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8239;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''&amp;#11825;'''}}&amp;#8239; respectively; and if we then let{{mvar| &amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}}&amp;#8202; &quot;pass by&quot; the cross and the dot, we get ({{EquationNote|100o}}) and ({{EquationNote|101o}}), or ({{EquationNote|100c}}) and ({{EquationNote|101d}}) if we include the operand{{math| '''q'''&amp;#8202;}}. Thus ''the del-cross and del-dot notations work in general coordinates''.

Equations ({{EquationNote|100c}}) to ({{EquationNote|101o}}) are apparently due to Tai ([[#tai-95|1995]], eqs.&amp;#8239;9.39, 9.40, 9.34, &amp;amp; 9.35, and text on p.&amp;#8239;66), who derives them, along with the corresponding form of the del operator (his eq.&amp;#8239;9.33), from volume-based definitions expressed in his &quot;symbolic vector&quot; notation. But he does not point out that the curl and divergence operators are obtainable from that del operator, as del-cross and del-dot, via the same &quot;pass by&quot; step that he condemns in the Cartesian context. Speaking of which, we should note that our equations ({{EquationNote|100c}}) to ({{EquationNote|101o}}), apart from the need to pair a superscript with a subscript, are as simple as their Cartesian special cases ({{EquationNote|59c}}), ({{EquationNote|59o}}), ({{EquationNote|60d}}), and ({{EquationNote|60o}}).

In ({{EquationNote|100c}}) and ({{EquationNote|101d}}), it goes without saying that&amp;#8202; {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''q'''}}&amp;#8202; must be evaluated correctly&amp;mdash;in particular, that if the operand is expressed in terms of non-uniform basis vectors, the non-uniformity must be taken into account. Formula ({{EquationNote|95}}), for the curl, does not suffer from this complication, because it is already expressed in components w.r.t. the contravariant basis (whose non-uniformity has already been taken into account). To obtain a similarly convenient formula for the divergence, we use components w.r.t. the {{nowrap|''co''&amp;#8202;variant}} basis (i.e., contravariant components): in ({{EquationNote|97}}), if{{math|&amp;#8202; &amp;lowast;}} is a dot and {{mvar|&amp;psi;}} is a vector field{{math| '''q'''&amp;#8202;,}} we have
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
    = \tfrac{\,1\,}{J} ~\!\part_i \big(J \mathbf{h}^i {\cdot}\, \mathbf{q}\big)
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
or, by ({{EquationNote|83c}}),
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}\mathbf{q}
    = \tfrac{\,1\,}{J} ~\!\part_i \big(J q^i \big) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|102d}}}}
This too agrees with Tai ([[#tai-95|1995]], p.&amp;#8239;65, eq.&amp;#8239;9.37).

=== The Laplacian ===

For a scalar operand, applying ({{EquationNote|101o}}) and reversing the &quot;pass by&quot;, we find that the Laplacian operator is
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}\nabla
    = \mathbf{h}^i \!\cdot \part_i \nabla
    = \mathbf{h}^i \part_i ~\!\!\cdot \nabla
    = \nabla {\cdot} \nabla = \nabla^2 .
&lt;/math&gt;}}
And by the linearity of the Laplacian, the{{math| &amp;nabla;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;}} formulation remains valid if the operand is a fixed linear combination of scalars&amp;mdash;including a vector field, because that is expressible (even if not actually expressed) w.r.t. a uniform basis. (And if it is expressed in terms of a non-uniform basis, the non-uniformity must be taken into account in differentiations.)

For the purpose of evaluation, however, we shall take a different approach. If{{mvar| &amp;psi;}}&amp;#8202; is a scalar field, its gradient as given by ({{EquationNote|93g}}) is&amp;#8202; {{math| '''h'''&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;&amp;psi;''&amp;#8202;,}} of which the {{mvar|i&amp;#8202;}}th contravariant component is{{math| '''h'''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt;'''&amp;#11825;&amp;#8239;h'''&amp;#8239;&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt;''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8239;&amp;psi;''&amp;#8202;,}} which takes the place of{{mvar| q&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;}} in ({{EquationNote|102d}}), so that the divergence of the gradient of{{mvar| &amp;psi; &amp;#8202;}}is
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;\triangle\psi
    = \tfrac{\,1\,}{J} ~\!\part_i
        \big(J \mathbf{h}^i {\cdot}~\! \mathbf{h}^j \part_j \psi \big) \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|103L}}}}
And this remains well-defined if{{mvar| &amp;psi;}}&amp;#8202; is a generic field.

=== Affine coordinates ===

If a basis is ''uniform'' (homogeneous), so is its Jacobian. Hence, by ({{EquationNote|90c}}) and ({{EquationNote|90d}}), the dual (contravariant) basis is uniform if and only if the natural (covariant) basis is uniform. A coordinate system in which these bases are uniform is described as '''affine'''. In affine coordinates,
* by ({{EquationNote|80a}}), {{math|''&amp;part;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;#8239;'''r''' }}is uniform, so that the curves on which only one coordinate varies are straight parallel lines; and
* by ({{EquationNote|80b}}), {{math|&amp;nabla;''u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;'' }}is uniform, so that the level surfaces of each coordinate (being perpendicular to {{math|&amp;nabla;''u&lt;sup&gt;i&lt;/sup&gt;''}}) are parallel planes.
Obviously Cartesian coordinates are affine; but one can also construct affine coordinate systems in which the three vectors of each basis are not mutually perpendicular and&amp;#10744;or the coordinates have different scales or different units.

We have noted above that the correct application of the del-cross, del-dot, and del-squared notations must allow for non-uniformity of the basis vectors. Obviously this issue does not arise in affine coordinates, including Cartesian coordinates. Hence, while these notations are not (as is sometimes alleged) invalid in other coordinate systems, it would be fair to say that they are safer and more convenient in affine coordinates, including Cartesian coordinates.

=== Orthogonal coordinates ===

We know, e.g. from ({{EquationNote|90a}}) and ({{EquationNote|90b}}), that if two bases are reciprocal, the cross-product of the {{mvar|i&amp;#8202;}}th and {{mvar|j&amp;#8202;}}th members of one basis is collinear with the {{mvar|k&amp;#8202;}}th member of the other, if {{math|''i'',&amp;#8201;''j'',&amp;#8239;''k''}}&amp;#8239; are distinct. But if the first basis is ''orthogonal'' (that is, if its three member vectors are mutually orthogonal), the same cross-product is also collinear with the {{mvar|k&amp;#8202;}}th member of the ''same'' basis, so that ''corresponding members of the two bases are collinear''. It follows that ''the natural basis of a coordinate system is orthogonal if and only if the dual basis is orthogonal''. And if the bases are orthogonal, the coordinate system itself is said to be '''orthogonal'''.

Cartesian coordinates are obviously both affine and orthogonal, and we have already implied that there is a class of coordinate systems that are affine but not orthogonal. The most widely-used class of non-Cartesian systems, however, contains the systems that are orthogonal but not affine; this class, of which the cylindrical and spherical systems are the best-known members, is the class of '''curvilinear orthogonal coordinates'''. But we shall drop the word ''curvilinear''&amp;#8202; in order to include Cartesian coordinates as a special case.

In orthogonal coordinates, expressing a member of one basis in terms of its reciprocal basis is especially simple because corresponding members of the two bases are collinear, wherefore we can say
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}^i =~\! \beta_i \mathbf{h}_i \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
where {{mvar|&amp;beta;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}} is a real variable to be determined (and the single index on the left-hand side means ''no summation''). Substituting this into ({{EquationNote|81i}}) gives
:{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \beta ~\!= 1/h_i^{~2}
  &lt;/math&gt;}}
where
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    h_i = \big|\mathbf{h}_i \big| \,,
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|104}}}}
so that
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    \mathbf{h}^i =~\! \mathbf{h}_i \big/ h_i^{~2} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|105}}}}
And substituting that into ({{EquationNote|83c}}), and comparing the result with ({{EquationNote|83d}}), we get
{{NumBlk|:|{{big|&lt;math&gt;
    q^i =~\! q_i \big/ h_i^{~2} \,.
  &lt;/math&gt;}}|{{EquationRef|106}}}}
If we now define
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\varepsilon \,=~\! \begin{cases}
    +1 &amp;\mathsf{for~a~right{\operatorname{-}}handed~system} \\[.5ex]
    -1 &amp;\mathsf{for~a~left{\operatorname{-}}handed~system} ~,
  \end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|107}}}}
then, due to the orthogonality, ({{EquationNote|87}}) and ({{EquationNote|92}}) are respectively reduced to
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    J = \varepsilon~\! h_1 h_2 h_3
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|108}}}}
and
{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;
    J' = \frac{\,1\,}{J} = \frac{1}{\varepsilon~\! h_1 h_2 h_3}
       = \frac{\varepsilon}{h_1 h_2 h_3}
  &lt;/math&gt;|{{EquationRef|108}}}}
&amp;mdash;although, for brevity, we might still leave things in terms of{{mvar| J}}.

At this point, we ''could''&amp;#8202; substitute ({{EquationNote|105}}) and ({{EquationNote|106}}) into earlier equations and obtain a suite of formulae for the differential operators in terms of the covariant basis and {{nowrap|''co''&amp;#8202;variant}} components! But we can avoid this confusing breach of convention by ''normalizing'' the basis vectors.

An '''orthonormal''' basis is one whose members are mutually orthogonal ''unit'' vectors. The assumption of unit vectors is introduced so late because it is more useful with orthogonality than without. If one basis consisted of unit vectors that were not all orthogonal, then their Jacobian would have an absolute value less than{{math| 1}} and at least one of their cross-products would have a magnitude less than{{math| 1&amp;#8202;,}} so that the reciprocal basis vectors given by ({{EquationNote|90c}}) or ({{EquationNote|90d}}) would not all be unit vectors. But if the basis{{math| ('''h'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;)}} consists of orthogonal unit vectors, equation ({{EquationNote|90d}}) implies that the reciprocal basis consists of the ''same'' vectors; and the converse is also true, by the symmetry of the reciprocity relations. Thus ''an orthonormal basis is its own reciprocal'', and ''the dual basis is orthonormal if and only if the natural basis is orthonormal''.

Hence, if the natural basis or the dual basis of an orthogonal coordinate system is ''normalized'' (replaced by unit vectors in the same directions), it becomes both the covariant basis and the contravariant basis, and the components of a vector w.r.t. that basis are both contravariant and covariant, so that it is immaterial whether the indices are superscripts or subscripts&amp;mdash;in which case we tend to choose subscripts. Hence it is indeed standard practice to normalize the basis vectors of orthogonal coordinate systems. This together with the prevalence of such coordinate systems helps to account for the familiarity of subscripts as indices, and for the jarring unfamilarity of superscript indices when general (possibly non-orthogonal) coordinates are encountered for the first time.

To normalize the covariant basis, let{{math| '''h&amp;#770;'''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;}} (as usual) be the unit vector in the direction of{{math|&amp;#8202; '''h&amp;#770;'''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;#8202;.}} Then, by ({{EquationNote|104}}),

::'''&amp;vellip;'''

'''[''To be continued.'']'''

== Additional information ==

=== Acknowledgment ===

Professor Chen-To Tai, {{serif|FIEEE}}, died in 2004.  He first came to my attention in 2018 through his paper &quot;On the presentation of Maxwell's theory&quot; (''Proc.&amp;#8239;{{serif|IEEE}}'', '''60'''(8):&amp;#8239;936–45, 1972). In nearly every place where I mention him here, even if I do not accept his conclusion, I am entirely indebted to his works for drawing my attention to the issue raised. In particular, it was he who alerted me to Gibbs's original definitions of the divergence and curl and their suitability for expression in indicial notation ([[#tai-95|Tai, 1995]], pp.&amp;#8239;17,&amp;#8239;21). And although he might not have been pleased, it was through him that I first knew with certainty that the del-dot and del-cross notations work in general coordinates (''ibid.'', pp.&amp;#8239;64–5).

=== Competing interests ===
None.

=== Ethics statement ===
This article does not concern research on human or animal subjects.

=== '''TO DO:''' ===

* Keywords
* Figure(s) &amp;amp; caption(s)
* Etc.!

== Notes ==

{{notelist|2}}

== References ==

{{reflist|3}}

== Bibliography ==

&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 111%&quot;&gt;

{{refbegin|indent=yes}}

*&lt;span id=&quot;axler-95&quot;&gt;S.J. Axler, 1995, &quot;Down with Determinants!&quot;&amp;#8201; ''American Mathematical Monthly'', vol.&amp;#8239;102, no.&amp;#8239;2 (Feb.&amp;#8239;1995), pp.&amp;#8239;139–54; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2975348 jstor.org/stable/2975348].&amp;#8201; (Author's preprint, with different pagination: [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265273063_Down_with_Determinants researchgate.net/publication/265273063_Down_with_Determinants].)&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;axler-23-&quot;&gt;S.J. Axler, 2023–, ''Linear Algebra Done Right'', 4th Ed., Springer; [https://linear.axler.net/ linear.axler.net] (open access).&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;baker-copson-39&quot;&gt;B.B. Baker and E.T. Copson, 1939, ''The Mathematical Theory of&amp;#8202; Huygens' Principle'', Oxford; 3rd Ed.&amp;#8201;(same pagination, with addenda), New York: Chelsea, 1987, [https://archive.org/details/mathematicaltheo0000bake archive.org/details/mathematicaltheo0000bake].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;borisenko-tarapov-68&quot;&gt;A.I. Borisenko and I.E.&amp;#8239;Tarapov (tr.&amp;#8239;&amp;amp; ed. R.A.&amp;#8239;Silverman), 1968, ''Vector and Tensor Analysis with Applications'', Prentice-Hall; reprinted New York: Dover, 1979, [https://archive.org/details/vectortensoranal0000bori archive.org/details/vectortensoranal0000bori].&lt;!-- Typo on p.180: First cross in equation before (4.93) should be &quot;=&quot;. --&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;born-wolf-02&quot;&gt;M.&amp;#8201;Born and E.&amp;#8239;Wolf, 2002, ''Principles of Optics'', 7th Ed., Cambridge, 1999 (reprinted with corrections, 2002).&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;broyden-75&quot;&gt;C.G. Broyden, 1975, ''Basic Matrices'', London: Macmillan.&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;feynman-63&quot;&gt;R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, &amp;amp; M.&amp;#8239;Sands, 1963 etc., ''The Feynman Lectures on Physics'', California Institute of Technology; [http://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/ feynmanlectures.caltech.edu].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;fletcher-74&quot;&gt;N.H. Fletcher, 1974, &quot;Adiabatic assumption for wave propagation&quot;, ''American Journal of Physics'', vol.&amp;#8239;42, no.&amp;#8239;6 (June 1974), pp.&amp;#8239;487–9; [https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1987757 doi.org/10.1119/1.1987757].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;gibbs-1881-4&quot;&gt;J.W. Gibbs, 1881–84, &quot;Elements of Vector Analysis&quot;, privately printed New Haven: Tuttle, Morehouse &amp;amp; Taylor, 1881 (&amp;sect;&amp;sect;&amp;#8239;1–101), 1884 (&amp;sect;&amp;sect;&amp;#8239;102–189, etc.), [https://archive.org/details/elementsvectora00gibb archive.org/details/elementsvectora00gibb]; published in ''The Scientific Papers of J.&amp;#8239;Willard Gibbs'' (ed. H.A.&amp;#8239;Bumstead &amp;amp; R.G.&amp;#8239;Van Name), New York: Longmans, Green, &amp;amp; Co., 1906, vol.&amp;#8239;2, [https://archive.org/details/scientificpapers02gibbuoft archive.org/details/scientificpapers02gibbuoft], pp.&amp;#8239;17–90.&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;hsu-84&quot;&gt;H.P. Hsu, 1984, ''Applied Vector Analysis'', Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; [https://archive.org/details/appliedvectorana00hsuh archive.org/details/appliedvectorana00hsuh].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;katz-79&quot;&gt;V.J. Katz, 1979, &quot;The history of Stokes' theorem&quot;, ''Mathematics Magazine'', vol.&amp;#8239;52, no.&amp;#8239;3 (May 1979), pp.&amp;#8239;146–56; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2690275 jstor.org/stable/2690275].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;kemin-et-al-00&quot;&gt;S. Kemin, X.&amp;#8239;Zhenting, T.&amp;#8239;Jinsheng, &amp;amp; H.&amp;#8239;Xuemei, 2000, &quot;The comprehension, some problems and suggestions to symbolic vector method and some defenses for Gibbs' symbol&quot;, ''Applied Mathematics and Mechanics'' (English Ed.), vol.&amp;#8239;21, no.&amp;#8239;5 (May 2000), pp.&amp;#8239;603–6; [https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02459044 doi.org/10.1007/BF02459044].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;kemmer-77&quot;&gt;N. Kemmer, 1977, ''Vector Analysis: A physicist's guide to the mathematics of fields in three dimensions'', Cambridge; [https://archive.org/details/isbn_0521211581 archive.org/details/isbn_0521211581].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;kreyszig-62-&quot;&gt;E. Kreyszig, 1962 etc., ''Advanced Engineering Mathematics'', New York: Wiley;&amp;#8201; 5th Ed., 1983;&amp;#8201; 6th Ed., 1988;&amp;#8201; 9th Ed., 2006;&amp;#8201; 10th Ed., 2011.&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;larmor-1904&quot;&gt;J. Larmor, 1904, &quot;On the mathematical expression of the principle of&amp;#8202; Huygens&quot; (read 8 Jan.&amp;#8239;1903), ''Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society'', Ser.&amp;#8239;2, vol.&amp;#8239;1 (1904), pp.&amp;#8239;1–13.&lt;!-- Listed as &quot;Issue 1&quot;; only issue for that volume. --&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;miller-91&quot;&gt;D.A.B. Miller, 1991, &quot;Huygens's wave propagation principle corrected&quot;, ''Optics Letters'', vol.&amp;#8239;16, no.&amp;#8239;18 (15 Sep.&amp;#8239;1991), pp.&amp;#8239;1370–72; [http://ee.stanford.edu/~dabm/146.pdf stanford.edu/~dabm/146.pdf].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;moon-spencer-65&quot;&gt;P.H. Moon and D.E.&amp;#8239;Spencer, 1965, ''Vectors'', Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;panofsky-phillips-62&quot;&gt;W.K.H. Panofsky and M.&amp;#8239;Phillips, 1962, ''Classical Electricity and Magnetism'', 2nd Ed., Addison-Wesley; reprinted Mineola, NY: Dover, 2005.&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;rocci-20&quot;&gt;A. Rocci, 2020, &quot;Back to the roots of vector and tensor calculus: Heaviside versus Gibbs&quot; (online 10 Nov.&amp;#8239;2020), ''Archive for History of Exact Sciences'', vol.&amp;#8239;75, no.&amp;#8239;4 (July 2021), pp.&amp;#8239;369–413. (Author's preprint, with different pagination: [https://arxiv.org/abs/2010.09679 arxiv.org/abs/2010.09679].)&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;tai-94&quot;&gt;C.-T. Tai, 1994, &quot;A survey of the improper use of &amp;nabla; in vector analysis&quot; (Technical Report RL&amp;#8239;909), Dept.&amp;#8201;of Electrical Engineering &amp;amp; Computer Science, University of Michigan; [https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/7869 hdl.handle.net/2027.42/7869].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;tai-95&quot;&gt;C.-T. Tai, 1995, &quot;A historical study of vector analysis&quot; (Technical Report RL&amp;#8239;915), Dept.&amp;#8201;of Electrical Engineering &amp;amp; Computer Science, University of Michigan; [https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/7868 hdl.handle.net/2027.42/7868].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;tai-fang-91&quot;&gt;C.-T. Tai and N.&amp;#8239;Fang, 1991, &quot;A systematic treatment of vector analysis&quot;, ''{{serif|IEEE}} Transactions on Education'', vol.&amp;#8239;34, no.&amp;#8239;2 (May 1991), pp.&amp;#8239;167–74; [https://doi.org/10.1109/13.81596 doi.org/10.1109/13.81596].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;wilson-1901&quot;&gt;E.B.&amp;#8201;Wilson, 1901, ''Vector Analysis: A text-book for the use of students of mathematics and physics'' (&quot;Founded upon the lectures of J.&amp;#8239;Willard Gibbs&amp;hellip;&quot;), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons; 12th printing, Yale University Press, 1958, [https://archive.org/details/vectoranalysiste0000gibb archive.org/details/vectoranalysiste0000gibb].&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;wrede-spiegel-10&quot;&gt;R.C.&amp;#8201;Wrede and M.R.&amp;#8239;Spiegel, 2010, ''Advanced Calculus'', 3rd Ed., New York: McGraw-Hill (Schaum's Outlines); [https://archive.org/details/schaumsoutlinesa0000wred archive.org/details/schaumsoutlinesa0000wred].&lt;/span&gt;

{{refend}}

&lt;/div&gt;

== Further reading ==

M.J. Crowe, &quot;A History of Vector Analysis&quot; (address at the University of Louisville, Autumn term, 2002), [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244957729_A_History_of_Vector_Analysis researchgate.net/publication/244957729_A_History_of_Vector_Analysis] (including much discussion of quaternions).

P. Lynch, &quot;Matthew O'Brien: An inventor of vector analysis&quot;, ''Bulletin of the Irish Mathematical Society'', No.&amp;#8239;74 (Winter 2014), pp.&amp;#8239;81–8; [https://doi.org/10.33232/BIMS.0074.81.88 doi.org/10.33232/BIMS.0074.81.88].

[[Category:Vector calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical physics]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1170" sha1="8ewmrnvdbsqaxohfw3u3kcqjj7uaa0q" xml:space="preserve">Here are various alternatives to &quot;he said&quot; that you can use to add variety to your dialogue attributions&lt;ref&gt;ChatGPT generated this text responding to the prompt: &quot;Provide a list of phrases to use as alternatives to &quot;he said&quot; in dialogue&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;: Choose the [[Writing/variety of pronouns|appropriate pronoun]] in each case. 

# '''He mentioned'''
# '''He remarked'''
# '''He commented'''
# '''He stated'''
# '''He declared'''
# '''He noted'''
# '''He added'''
# '''He reported'''
# '''He affirmed'''
# '''He conveyed'''
# '''He replied'''
# '''He responded'''
# '''He acknowledged'''
# '''He answered'''
# '''He uttered'''
# '''He voiced'''
# '''He articulated'''
# '''He disclosed'''
# '''He revealed'''
# '''He expressed'''
# '''He asserted'''
# '''He explained'''
# '''He narrated'''
# '''He recited'''
# '''He divulged'''
# '''He recounted'''
# '''He summarized'''
# '''He clarified'''
# '''He whispered'''
# '''He mumbled'''
# '''He shouted'''
# '''He exclaimed'''
# '''He muttered'''
# '''He interjected'''
# '''He suggested'''

Using a variety of these attributions can make your dialogue more engaging and prevent repetition.

{{CourseCat}}

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    <title>User:Jtneill/Publications/Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices: Motivation and emotion case study</title>
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      <comment>Copyediting. Added &quot;Using this case study&quot; based on material by the editors of https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/</comment>
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      <text bytes="22945" sha1="ny9f4rqwfrlblu1cgop4iv45gnzwkfe" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study}}
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[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|
Citation:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices: Motivation and emotion case study]. ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER]''. Open Educational Resources Collective, Council of Australian University Librarians.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Submitted 27/06/2024; 15/11/2024}}
{{center bottom}}

==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate

{{anchor|Bio}}
;Bio
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
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'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
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Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]]&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;[[w:Androgogy|Androgogy]] refers to methods and principles used in ''adult'' education and is used to distinguish the concepts being discussed from [[w:Pedagogy|pedagogy]], which is about ''child'' education.&lt;/ref&gt; philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
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'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Parodyfilm.png|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
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|-
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'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
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==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|right|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]


[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]

Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework units (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably a somewhat outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for online collaborative development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and the [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support the educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing of educators' wiki editing skills and confidence so that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of disposable assignments being submitted through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champions==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was: &quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].

==Advice/tips==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search. 
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v8i2.51

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Open education]]
[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Wikiversity]]</text>
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      <text bytes="22949" sha1="k2nnpkmrx0bmvqahj98abdny76torxp" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study}}
{{center top}}
[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|
Citation:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices: Motivation and emotion case study]. ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER]''. Open Educational Resources Collective, Council of Australian University Librarians.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Submitted 27/06/2024; 15/11/2024}}
{{center bottom}}

==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate

{{anchor|Bio}}
;Bio
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]]&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;[[w:Androgogy|Androgogy]] refers to methods and principles used in ''adult'' education and is used to distinguish the concepts being discussed from [[w:Pedagogy|pedagogy]], which is about ''child'' education.&lt;/ref&gt; philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Parodyfilm.png|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably a somewhat outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for online collaborative development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and the [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support the educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing of educators' wiki editing skills and confidence so that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of disposable assignments being submitted through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champions==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was: &quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].

==Advice/tips==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search. 
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v8i2.51

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

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[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|
Citation:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices: Motivation and emotion case study]. ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER]''. Open Educational Resources Collective, Council of Australian University Librarians.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Submitted 27/06/2024; 15/11/2024}}
{{center bottom}}

==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate

{{anchor|Bio}}
;Bio
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
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'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
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Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]]&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;[[w:Androgogy|Androgogy]] refers to methods and principles used in ''adult'' education and is used to distinguish the concepts being discussed from [[w:Pedagogy|pedagogy]], which is about ''child'' education.&lt;/ref&gt; philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
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'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Parodyfilm.png|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
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'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
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==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and the [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support the educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing of educators' wiki editing skills and confidence so that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of disposable assignments being submitted through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champions==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was: &quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].

==Advice/tips==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search. 
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v8i2.51

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

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{{center top}}
[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|
Citation:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices: Motivation and emotion case study]. ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER]''. Open Educational Resources Collective, Council of Australian University Librarians.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Submitted 27/06/2024; 15/11/2024}}
{{center bottom}}

==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate

{{anchor|Bio}}
;Bio
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]]&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;[[w:Androgogy|Androgogy]] refers to methods and principles used in ''adult'' education and is used to distinguish the concepts being discussed from [[w:Pedagogy|pedagogy]], which is about ''child'' education.&lt;/ref&gt; philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Antu kmplayer.svg|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing educators' wiki editing skills and confidence that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of students submitting disposable assignments through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champion statements==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==In practice==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search.
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v8i2.51

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Open education]]
[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Wikiversity]]</text>
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      <text bytes="22733" sha1="j64dbj7vw6sua6ij5i3age94ye9xsh6" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study}}
{{center top}}
[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|
Citation:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices: Motivation and emotion case study]. ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER]''. Open Educational Resources Collective, Council of Australian University Librarians.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Submitted 27/06/2024; 15/11/2024}}
{{center bottom}}

==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate

{{anchor|Bio}}
;Bio
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]] philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Antu kmplayer.svg|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing educators' wiki editing skills and confidence that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of students submitting disposable assignments through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champion statements==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==In practice==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search.
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v8i2.51

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Open education]]
[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Wikiversity]]</text>
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      <text bytes="22729" sha1="hh57lkrwk551eks4ofwrsby9oc5j3k3" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study}}
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[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|
Citation:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices: Motivation and emotion case study]. ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER]''. Open Educational Resources Collective, Council of Australian University Librarians.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Submitted 27/06/2024; 15/11/2024}}
{{center bottom}}

==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate

{{anchor|Bio}}
;Bio
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]] philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Antu kmplayer.svg|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing educators' wiki editing skills and confidence that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of students submitting disposable assignments through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champion statements==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==In practice==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search.
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1314199

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Open education]]
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[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|
Citation:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/]. In ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER: Australiasian case studies]''. Council of Australian University Librarians.}}
{{center bottom}}

==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate

{{anchor|Bio}}
;Bio
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
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'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
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Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]] philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
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'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Antu kmplayer.svg|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
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{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
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'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
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==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing educators' wiki editing skills and confidence that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of students submitting disposable assignments through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champion statements==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==In practice==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search.
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1314199

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

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{{center top}}
[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study]. In ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER: Australiasian case studies]''. Council of Australian University Librarians.}}
{{center bottom}}

==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate

{{anchor|Bio}}
;Bio
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]] philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Antu kmplayer.svg|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing educators' wiki editing skills and confidence that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of students submitting disposable assignments through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champion statements==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==In practice==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search.
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1314199

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Open education]]
[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Wikiversity]]</text>
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      <text bytes="22084" sha1="jiusi3jcsy4z9gixmqx6q8wgw7t19k8" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study}}
{{center top}}
[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study]. In ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER: Australiasian case studies]''. Council of Australian University Librarians.}}
{{center bottom}}

&lt;!-- ==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate
--&gt;
{{anchor|Bio}}

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]] philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Antu kmplayer.svg|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing educators' wiki editing skills and confidence that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of students submitting disposable assignments through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champion statements==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==In practice==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search.
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1314199

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Open education]]
[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Wikiversity]]</text>
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      <text bytes="22692" sha1="pgszm4tm9wme8rdqoyegafeek9la1ry" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study}}
{{center top}}
[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study]. In ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER: Australiasian case studies]''. Council of Australian University Librarians.}}
{{center bottom}}

&lt;!-- ==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate
--&gt;
{{anchor|Bio}}

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]] philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Antu kmplayer.svg|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
| {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
{{center top}}
'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
|}

==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing educators' wiki editing skills and confidence that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of students submitting disposable assignments through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champion statements==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==In practice==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search.
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1314199

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

==About the author==
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 75,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Open education]]
[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Wikiversity]]</text>
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{{center top}}
[[User:Jtneill|James T. Neill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[University of Canberra]]

{{notice|Neill, J. T. (2024). [https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/chapter/wikis-provide-a-rich-environment/ Wikis provide a rich environment for collaborative open educational practices:&lt;br&gt; Motivation and emotion case study]. In ''[https://oercollective.caul.edu.au/openedaustralasia/ Open Education Down UndOER: Australiasian case studies]''. Council of Australian University Librarians.}}
{{center bottom}}

&lt;!-- ==About==
;Themes
This chapter addresses the following primary book themes: 
* Authentic Assessment
* Collaboration
* Creation

;Case study area
* Undergraduate
--&gt;
{{anchor|Bio}}

==Overview==
[[w:Wiki|Wiki]]s provide a rich, but surprisingly underutilised digital environment for collaborative development of [[w:Open educational resources|open educational resources]] (OERs). Open wiki platforms, such as hosted by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] (WMF), can be used to engage in renewable (Grey, 2023) learning and assessment exercises with [[w:higher education|higher education]] students.

To demonstrate the educational potential of open wiki platforms, this chapter presents a [[w:Case study|case study]] of an [[Motivation and emotion/Book|ongoing project]] which has developed over 1,500 online, interactive, editable book chapters authored by students about the [[w:Psychology|psychological science]] of [[motivation and emotion]].

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
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'''Visit the''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Book designed by Benny Forsberg from the Noun Project.svg|80px|alt=Open book icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion book]]&lt;br&gt;(Wikiversity)
{{center bottom}}
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Each student develops an online book chapter about a unique topic as a learning and assessment exercise. This is an innovative alternative to traditional, disposable (Wiley, 2013) [[w:essay|essay]] writing.

The project's OER-enabled (Wiley &amp; Hilton, 2018) [[w:Andragogy|andragogical]] philosophical and educational principles, and its approach to scaffolding and student support, can be readily adapted across disciplines and levels of higher education (Neill, 2024).

Engaging students and educators in collaborative authoring via open wikis contributes maximally flexible and sustainable OERs to the [[w:knowledge commons|knowledge commons]] and develop students' [[w:21st century|21st century]] digital literacy and communication skills (Neill, 2024). Open wikis offer ideal platforms for open andragogy and [[w:Open educational practices|open educational practices]] because they provide resources that are free and open for anyone to edit and the licensing allows re-use for any purpose.

{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
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'''Watch a webinar''':&lt;br&gt;[[File:Antu kmplayer.svg|80px|alt=Film/movie icon.]]&lt;br&gt;[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]&lt;br&gt;(24 mins) (Neill, 2023)
{{center bottom}}
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{| style=&quot;width: 60%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|-
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'''Take a tour''':&lt;br&gt;Never heard of Wikiversity?&lt;br&gt;[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017 en.svg|80px|alt=Wikiversity logo. The top half represents a globe and the bottom half shows 4 pillars]]&lt;br&gt;Take a tour: [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Wikiversity: Introduction]]
{{center bottom}}
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==Using this case study==
This chapter provides an overview of how renewable assignments can be published openly using wikis. After reading this chapter:
* Academic staff will: Develop awareness of the benefits and processes for facilitating quality student authentic assessments published as OERs
* Library staff will: Learn strategies and techniques for working with students and academics to innovate and publish high quality student created content

==Key stakeholders==
&lt;!--  Who was involved? (Who had an impact on making it happen?) --&gt;
Key stakeholders for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and Emotion online book project]] are shown in an [[w:Onion model|onion model]] (see Figure 1):

[[File:Wiki project case study onion diagram.svg|center|thumb|220px|alt=An onion diagram showing 4 layers|'''Figure 1.''' Key stakeholders in student-authored open wiki projects.&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot; name=&quot;SVG&quot;&gt;The images used in this chapter are [[w:SVG|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG) which allows them to be edited, maximising their openness, accessibility, and utility.&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Wikimedia logo family complete-current.svg|thumb|220px|alt=11 Wikimedia sister project logos|'''Figure 2.''' Wikimedia sister project logos]]
* At the core is an inspired academic educator with [[w:Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] rooted in open andragogy (Clinton-Lisell, 2021).
* Second, there are cohorts of students enrolled in a specific university coursework unit (in this case, [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 7124 Motivation and Emotion] at the [[University of Canberra]]).
* Third, there is a broader community of people who voluntarily edit [[Wikiversity]] and its [[w:Wikimedia Foundation#Wikimedia projects|WMF sister projects]] (see Figure 2) and who contribute by responding to student questions, editing, and providing feedback.
* Finally, the broadest stakeholder group consists of all future users of the knowledge commons; these are people, but increasingly also [[w:Internet bot|bots]] that search for, access, and use free content on the internet.

This human-digital ecosystem provides a rich, holistic environment with dynamic nutrients (e.g., editable, flexible, sustainable, reliable) for facilitating immersive learning experiences for students and developing OERs.

==Background info==
&lt;!-- * What was the situation? --&gt;
The student-authored motivation and emotion book project was a response to some fundamental problems with widespread use of traditional, disposable essays in higher education. The project demonstrates how educators can guide student cohorts through simultaneous mass development of individually unique works in a publicly editable, wiki-based, online platform.

&lt;!-- What need was being addressed? (the “why”)
there was a line break halfway through the second bullet point starting at &quot;leading to repetition....&quot; --&gt;
[[File:Saucisses.svg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A simple icon image showing two sausages|'''Figure 3.''' Universities mass-produce traditional, disposable student essays like sausages in a factory. Alternatively, students can learn to create unique, gourmet, handmade sausages.]]

Use of disposable (Wiley, 2013) essays for assessment in higher education is problematic for several reasons:
* Traditional essays are typically hidden during the drafting process, limiting potential for formative feedback and peer-to-peer learning.
* Traditional essays usually involve an educator sets a single or small number of permissible topics, leading to repetition across students and over time, pumping out student essays like a sausage factory (see Figure 3). Cookie-cutter approaches to education can be demotivating for students as they lack authenticity and heighten the risk of [[w:Academic integrity|academic integrity]] violations such as [[w:Plagiarism|plagiarism]] and [[w:Contract cheating|contract cheating]].

* Traditional essays typically never see the light of day, even though their publication could potentially offer many benefits (Fatayer &amp; Tualaulelei, 2023; Weller, 2011)).
* Traditional essays are usually written individually, whereas much [[w:Professional writing|professional writing]] in the real world is collaborative and involves [[w:Version control|version tracking]], commenting, and interactive discussion.
* Traditional essays usually consist of plain text which does not use the rich, interactive potential of the internet (e.g., hyperlinks, images, multimedia, comments). Furthermore, a general skill that students arguably should learn during higher education is how to contribute to the knowledge commons.

Use of traditional essay writing in higher education is increasingly problematic and is arguably an outdated approach. With the advent of the internet, writing skills can be developed, and much other learning can be facilitated, by engaging students in making unique contributions to the knowledge commons. Open wikis offer an ideal tool for collaborative online development of OERs.

== Project description ==
&lt;!-- * What was included in the project --&gt;
The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion student-authored book project]] started in 2010, with approximately 100 to 150 students participating each year since. Each cohort of students author online book chapters about specific motivation and emotion topics as a major part of the assessment for a third year undergraduate psychology unit, [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion]].

The [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|unit's learning outcomes]] are to:
*Identify the major principles of motivation and emotion,
*Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour, and
*Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.

&lt;!-- * How was it implemented? --&gt;
The project is scaffolded (see Table 1) to support students' editing skills, enhance their confidence, and develop content (Neill, 2024):
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lectures]] introduce the rationale for a capstone-style, major project curated in a public space in order to develop and showcase students' writing and publishing skills and disciplinary knowledge.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]] teach useful skills such as creating a Wikiversity account, signing up to or negotiating a topic, basic wiki editing, and importing a template to help scaffold a chapter.

After selecting or negotiating a topic, students develop a chapter plan which is submitted as an early assessment. This helps students to develop their wiki editing skills by presenting headings and sub-headings, key points, and initial citations about the topic. Students are also taught how to contribute to other chapters by editing and commenting. These social contributions are logged on their user page and used as part of the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Marking criteria|marking criteria for the book chapter]] (Neill, 2024).

All book chapters have unique titles and sub-titles in the form of a question (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Music and study motivation|Music and study: What effect does music have on motivation to study?]]). Approved topics are listed in the volume's table of contents. All volumes can be searched and browsed via the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's home page]]. The book theme is &quot;Understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;.

In addition to written text, each chapter includes interactive &quot;learning features&quot; (e.g., internal and external hyperlinks, figures, tables, and quizzes). These features help to bring chapters to life and further distinguish the work from traditional essays. 

Once the final book chapter is submitted, students develop a three-minute multimedia overview of the chapter, a link to which is featured underneath the chapter's title and sub-title.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter Project Scaffolding.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item (weight)'''&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;The other 25% of the assessment is allocated to quizzes across the breadth of unit content.&lt;/ref&gt;
| style=&quot;width: 70%&quot;|'''Description'''
|-
|1: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]] (0%)
|Ungraded early assessment exercise. Create a Wikiversity account. Sign up to a major project topic. Ask clarifying questions.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|2: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]] (10%)
| Develop plan for book chapter: Overview, Headings, Key points, Figure, Learning feature, Resources, References, User page, Social contribution.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|3: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] (45%)
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|4: [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] (20%)
| Record and share a 3 minute online multimedia presentation focusing on key problems and answers provided by psychological science. Same topic as book chapter.
|}

==Key outcomes==
&lt;!-- * What was achieved? --&gt;
The key project outcomes are:
* high student satisfaction with novel, capstone experience
* development of students' disciplinary knowledge and [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] (including communication skills, global citizenship, and lifelong learning)
* contribution of OERs to the knowledge commons
* working demonstration of a renewable assessment alternative to traditional essay-based learning and assessment exercises in higher education (Neill, 2024).

These outcomes are mapped against 7 of the 17 United Nations' 2015 [[w:Sustainable Development Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] (see Table 2).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 2. Mapping of Student-developed OERs via Open Wikis to the Sustainable Development Goals&lt;ref group=&quot;footnote&quot;&gt;This table was developed with the [https://chatgpt.com/share/bcd37b79-3f18-4ccc-8013-985f16dfdcb2 assistance of ChatGPT 4o].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! SDG # !! SDG Name !! How Student-developed Open Wiki OERs Contribute
|-
| 4 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_4|Quality education]]||
* Innovative teaching and learning philosophy and practice
* Development of globally accessible OERs
* Active and lifelong learning opportunity
|-
| 5 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_5|Gender equality]]||
* Equal access to educational resources for all genders
* Students of all genders contribute to the knowledge commons
|-
| 8 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_8|Decent work and economic growth]]||
* Development of knowledge and skills needed in the workforce
* [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC-BY-SA 4.0] and [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.html GFDL] licensing allows commercial re-use, contributing to economic growth
|-
| 9 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_9|Industry, innovation, and infrastructure]]||
* Innovative connection between higher education and non-profit organisation (Wikimedia Foundation)
* Industry-relevant skills are developed through production of collaborative OERs
|-
| 10 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_10|Reduced inequality]]||
* Free and open access to educational resources
* Sharing of diverse topics, voices, and perspectives
|-
| 16 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_16|Peace, justice, and strong institutions]]||
* Transparently developed educational resources and practices
* Participatory and democratic engagement through open collaboration
|-
| 17 || [[w:Sustainable_Development_Goal_17|Partnerships for the goals]]||
* Open access syntheses of scientific knowledge
* Sharing of knowledge and resources using a multi-lingual platform
|}

&lt;!-- * What next? --&gt;
The next steps for the project are to:

* continue developing annual volumes about new motivation and emotion topics
* promote the model's philosophy and practice to encourage wider adoption
* support educators who are interested to adapt the model
* continue refining the model to respond to student feedback and institutional policy changes.

==Learning and recommendations==
&lt;!-- * How can others do this? --&gt;
Getting started with developing open wiki-based OER projects is straightforward. WMF wikis are free, stable, and open for anyone to edit. Content on these wikis is maximally editable and reusable, satisfying the criteria for free cultural works (Creative Commons, n.d.). Wikiversity is dedicated to teaching, learning, and research. Other WMF sister projects can also be used for specific educational projects, including [[b:|Wikibooks]], [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]], [[d:|Wikidata]], and [[w:|Wikipedia]].

&lt;!-- * Pitfalls to navigate? --&gt;
The main challenges to be navigated include:
* developing educators' open andragogical teaching philosophies and rationales for open wiki projects
* developing educators' wiki editing skills and confidence that they can support students
* considering intellectual property rights and copyright policies of higher education institutions and how they apply to staff and students
* willingness to step off the well-worn treadmill of students submitting disposable assignments through [[w:Learning management system|learning management system]]s.

==Champion statements==
&lt;!--
* What was the experience of those worked on the project?
* What did they say?
* Any reflections they have?
--&gt;
Student feedback about the motivation and emotion unit and its OER book chapter project is publicly [[Motivation and emotion/Evaluation|available]]. In 2023, 95% of students who responded to the official end-of-semester survey indicated that they were satisfied with:
* the quality of the unit
* how the staff in the unit supported their learning
* the unit helping them with their work-related goals.

A typical comment about the book chapter exercise was:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The book chapter is one of the most interesting assessment items in the psychology degree. It tests our knowledge of psychology theories and our ability to write for a different audience while allowing some exploration.&quot;[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1U4MVwt6ymws9TUqSWr2DaUK-o9sgkhUTs9_pfqEtF9o/edit?gid=1901570915#gid=1901570915].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==In practice==
Based on experiences guiding over 1,500 students in building wiki-based OERs as part of their learning and assessment, the following advice/tips are offered to educators:
* '''Teaching philosophy''': Develop a personal teaching philosophy which is explicit about your values. Include why you do (or don't) contribute OERs and engage students in renewable, OER-based assignments.
* '''Start small'''. Create a free WMF user account, then have a go at editing and asking questions. Start small, tinker, build your skills and confidence, iterate, reflect, and scale up over time.
* '''Community engagement''' Engage with the wiki editing community on the hosting platform via discussion, collaborative editing, and mentoring.
* '''Share actively''': Share about the OERs you are involved in developing via social media, seminars, teaching and learning journals, etcetera. They will also be discoverable via internet search.
* '''Scaffolded agency''': Allow students as much control and decision-making as possible, whilst also providing scaffolding and feedback.
* '''Foster community''': Communicate care and micro-encouragements towards students through helpful actions (e.g., likes, editing, and feedback). It is natural for students to be hesitant to engage at first, because of previous experiences of controlled, constrained forms of learning and assessment.
* '''Learning curve''': Developing open educational practice skills with open wikis may seem daunting and time-consuming at first, but wiki editing skills lead to many efficiencies and benefits in teaching, research, and social impact that pay off in the longer-term.

==Further resources==
* [[Main page|English Wikiversity]]
* [[Motivation and emotion]] - Homepage
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion - Book project]]
* [https://www.canberra.edu.au/unit/7124/4 Motivation and emotion - Unit description] (7124)

==Notes==
&lt;references group=&quot;footnote&quot; /&gt;

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Clinton-Lisell, V. (2021). Open pedagogy: A systematic review of empirical findings. ''Journal of Learning for Development'', ''8''(2), 255–268. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1314199

Creative Commons (n.d.). ''Understanding free cultural works''. https://creativecommons.org/public-domain/freeworks/

Fatayer, M., &amp; Tualaulelei, E. (2023). Making the most of cognitive surplus: Descriptive case studies of student-generated open educational resources. ''Education Sciences'', ''13''(10), 1011. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/13/10/1011

Grey, A. (2023, 4 May). Building-in student buy-in: Disposable vs renewable assignments. ''Pedagogy + Practice''. https://wordpress.kpu.ca/tlcommons/building-in-student-buy-in-disposable-vs-renewable-assignments

Neill, J. T. (2023, June 13). ''[[User:Jtneill/Presentations/Wikis in open education: A psychology case study|Wikis in open education: A psychology case study]]'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Webinar&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education Open Educational Practice Special Interest Group Webinar #4 2023: The untapped power of wikis for open education and information literacy.
 
Neill, J. T. (2024). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki: An open education case study]]. ''International Journal of Students as Partners'', ''8''(1), 224–232. https://doi.org/10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5417

Weller, M. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance. ''Revista Española de Pedagogía'', ''69''(249), 223–235. http://dx.doi.org/10.22550/2174-0909.3602

Wiley. D. (2013, 21 October). What is open pedagogy? ''Improving Learning''. https://opencontent.org/blog/archives/2975

Wiley, D., &amp; Hilton III, J. L. (2018). Defining OER-enabled pedagogy. ''International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning'', ''19''(4), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i4.3601

}}

==About the author==
[[User:Jtneill|James Neill]] is an Assistant Professor in the Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Health, [[University of Canberra]], Australia. He seeks to contribute [[open educational resources]] that are maximally reusable and editable by anyone via open wiki platforms. James is an [[Wikiversity:Main Page|English Wikiversity]] [[WV:Custodianship|custodian]] and [[WV:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] who has made [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikiversity.org/Jtneill over 70,000 edits since 2005]. Learn more about James' [[User:Jtneill/Teaching/Philosophy|teaching philosophy]].

[[Category:User:Jtneill/Publications/Open education]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}{{Image|float=right|pad=20px|name=Footprint water.png|width=300px|caption=Figure 1: water footprint}}'''Scenario:'''

You're exploring how university students’ water use habits relate to their broader attitudes towards sustainability. Specifically, you’ve noticed that some students leave taps running or wastewater during breaks, and you want to understand why this happens. You’re curious about the internal and external factors that influence this behaviour, like whether students are unaware of the environmental impact of their actions, or if they just don’t prioritize sustainability in their daily routines. Additionally, you want to investigate how their broader attitudes toward the environment influence their actions. You have come across an “integrated model” of behaviour. This model combines elements from various theories to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how people act. You think this model could be useful for analysing why students might neglect simple conservation practices like turning off taps, despite being able to adopt more sustainable habits.

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'''Focus questions:'''
* What is motivation?
* How is motivation influenced?
* What is the Comprehensive Action Determination Model (CADM)?
* What are the underpinning theories behind the CADM?
* How can the CADM be applied to understanding human motivation?

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== What is Motivation? ==
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|thumb|442x442px]]
To understand [[motivation]], we must first define behaviour. Behaviour can be defined as the way an individual acts, the way they talk, the way they communicate, and how they conduct themselves. Essentially, behaviour encompasses all our actions. Motivation, on the other hand, is the &quot;why&quot; behind our behaviour — the reasons underlying why we act in certain ways. Theorists explain motivation as the attribute that moves us to do or not to do something (Lai, 2011). The word ''motivation'' comes from the Latin verb ''movere'', meaning &quot;to move.&quot; This is a fitting term, as motivation is what moves a person to make certain choices, act, expend effort, and persist in those actions (Dörnyei &amp; Ushioda, 2021). Motivation also has significant effects on our [[Emotion|emotions]]. For example, when individuals achieve their set goals, they experience joy and satisfaction, which can further drive motivation in the future. However, the reverse can also occur: a lack of motivation can lead to negative emotions and frustration toward a certain behaviour, which may then affect future behaviour (Bradley &amp; Lang, 2007). Motivation is said to have three important components that drive behaviour: direction, intensity, and persistence. Direction refers to how motivation influences the choices we make and the goals we set. Intensity refers to how motivation influences how hard we work toward achieving our goals. Finally, persistence refers to how motivation affects how long we continue to work toward our goals (Dörnyei &amp; Ushioda, 2021). Over the years, many theories have been developed to understand motivation. These include Herzberg's [[wikipedia:Two-factor_theory|Two-Factor Theory]]  (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg et al., 2011), [[Self-determination theory|Self-Determination Theory]]  (Deci, 1972, 2000), and probably the most famous of them all, [[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs|Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]] (Maslow, 1943). As depicted in Figure 1, Maslow’s hierarchy is a 5-step pyramid where &quot;higher&quot; needs (such as self-actualization) can only be achieved by satisfying &quot;lower&quot; order needs (such as physiological needs). Theorists argue that it is unrealistic to create an elaborate super-theory to understand motivation due to its complexity and the countless variables that affect it. They contend that the complexity of motivation cannot be fully understood through a single theory or model (Dörnyei &amp; Ushioda, 2021). So, how can we understand human motivation? Are there any theories or models that can be applied to this complex phenomenon?

== Comprehensive Action Determination Model (CADM) ==
The Comprehensive Action Determination Model was first proposed by Klöckner and Blöbaum in 2010 (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). They argue that one of the main goals of [[environmental psychology]] is to understand what determines people's actions, particularly in relation to environmental influences. Klöckner and Blöbaum also note that several well-established models—or, as they term them, &quot;action models&quot; or &quot;action determination models&quot;—have been proposed. However, none of these models alone provide an adequate representation of the multiple factors that determine behaviour (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). They further argue that integrated approaches combining two models—the [[wikipedia:Theory_of_planned_behavior|Theory of Planned Behaviour]] (Ajzen, 1991) and the Norm-Activation Model (Schwartz, 1977)—have shown promise (Onwezen et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2017), especially when the concept of [[wikipedia:Habit|habit]] is incorporated (Klöckner et al., 2003). Additionally, Klöckner and Blöbaum highlight that the Ipsative Theory of Behaviour offers a valuable perspective on the situational determination of behaviour (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). However, while these theories (the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Norm-Activation Model) have proven successful in specific domains, all models exhibit limitations in other areas (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). The Comprehensive Action Determination Model unifies the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Norm-Activation Model, the Ipsative Theory of Behavior, and the concept of habit into one integrated framework. Klöckner and Blöbaum propose that combining these existing theories into a single model may result in a more universally applicable framework that accounts for all relevant factors and influences affecting behavior, thereby providing a comprehensive explanation of behavioral outcomes (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010).

=== Underpinning theories of CADM: ===
To understand the comprehensive action determination model, we must first understand the underpinning models, theories and theoretical concepts. As stated in the previous paragraph these are the theory of planned behaviour, the Norm-activation model, the Ipsative theory of behaviour and the theoretical concept of habit. 

==== Theory of Planned Behaviour: ====
[[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|405x405px]]
The [[wikipedia:Theory_of_planned_behavior|Theory of Planned Behaviour]] was first proposed by Ajzen in 1991 (Ajzen, 1991). The theory consists of three constructs: behavioural intention, attitude toward behaviour, and subjective norms. Firstly, behavioural intention refers to the motivation behind a behaviour; the stronger the intention, the more likely the behaviour is to be performed. Secondly, attitude refers to how positively or negatively a person evaluates a specific behaviour. Thirdly, subjective norms refer to the social pressures to perform or not perform a given behaviour. Perceived behavioural control is also a key construct in the Theory of Planned Behaviour, and it refers to how a person perceives the difficulty of performing a specific behaviour (Asare, 2015). The theory suggests that attitudes toward the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control all influence behavioural intention, which in turn leads to behaviour, as depicted in Figure 2. Klockner and Blobaum (2010) argue that the Theory of Planned Behaviour focuses too much on intention while neglecting the role of objective situational constraints, habits, and personal norms. This limitation is addressed in their Comprehensive Action Determination Model.

==== Norm-Activation Model: ====
The Norm-Activation Model ('''link to the wiki''') was first proposed by Schwartz in 1977 (Schwartz, 1977). The model suggests that behaviour is predicted by personal norms. Schwartz (1977) defines personal norms as “feelings of moral obligation, not as intentions” (Onwezen et al., 2013). The model posits that personal norms are influenced by two factors: awareness of consequences and awareness of needs (sometimes referred to as the ascription of responsibility). Awareness of consequences refers to the understanding that performing or not performing a certain behaviour leads to specific outcomes. Awareness of needs involves the feeling of responsibility to perform a particular behaviour (Onwezen et al., 2013; Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). As depicted in Figure 3, both awareness of consequences and awareness of needs predict personal norms, which in turn predict behaviour. Klockner and Blobaum (2010) identify limitations of the model, stating that “The Norm-Activation Model focuses on personal norms but underestimates the roles of habits, intentions, attitudes, and the situational context.”
[[File:Norm activation model.png|center|thumb|610x610px]]

==== Ipsative Theory of Behaviour: ====
The Ipsative theory of behaviour  was proposed by Frey (1988). The theory suggests that a person's behaviour can be limited or obstructed by the absence of genuine or perceived opportunities, influenced by both internal and external circumstances (Tanner, 1999). The theory consists of three presumptions about human behaviour. Firstly, objective constraints are assumed to influence behaviour. These constraints determine what a person can do, what they ought to do, or what they are permitted to do within a specific society. These variables make up the &quot;objective possibility set,&quot; which limits or hinders people's ability to engage in certain activities. Notably, these constraints exist independently of individual perceptions (Tanner, 1999). Secondly, ipsative constraints prevent the activation of alternative behaviours. Ipsative constraints form the &quot;ipsative possibility set,&quot; which individuals regard as relevant to their behavioural decisions (Tanner, 1999; Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). Finally, subjective constraints are believed to directly affect preferences rather than determining participation in specific actions. In essence, they influence a person's willingness to act (Tanner, 1999). Klockner and Blobaum (2010) argue that while the Ipsative theory of behaviour effectively outlines the objective and subjective aspects of situations as predictors of behaviour, it overlooks intentional, habitual, and normative processes.

==== Habits: ====
The theoretical concept of [[wikipedia:Habit|habit]] was incorporated into the Comprehensive Action Determination Model to address limitations found in the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Norm-Activation Model in predicting repetitive behaviours (Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). Habits can be defined as learned tendencies to repeat previous behaviours. They are activated by contextual elements that are often linked to past performances, such as specific locations, preceding actions in a sequence, and particular individuals (Woods &amp; Neal, 2007). The concept of habit was added to account for structural differences between actions that are frequent and those that are rare or performed for the first time. When decisions are frequently made with satisfying outcomes, the influence of decision-making in given situations decreases, resulting in more automated behavioural patterns (Triandis, 1979; Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). Klockner and Blobaum (2010) note that although the concept of habit recognizes the interaction between intentions and habits, it does not fully account for non-automatic situational facilitation, constraints on behaviour, or normative processes.

=== How does the CADM work? Figure4? ===
The Comprehensive Action Determination Model proposes that behaviour is determined by three possible direct sources or processes: habitual, intentional, and situational. Habitual processes include schemata, heuristics, and associations of behaviour; intentional processes include attitudes and intentions behind behaviour; and situational processes include both objective and subjective constraints on behaviour. A fourth process, the normative process, is also present, but it does not directly affect behaviour. Instead, it influences intentional and habitual processes. The normative process includes social norms, personal norms, and awareness of needs and consequences. Klockner and Blobaum (2010) explain that attitudes, subjective constraints (e.g., [[wikipedia:Perceived_control|perceived behavioural control]], [link to wiki]), and personal and social norms are used to generate intentions. They further explain that attitudes reflect cognitive and emotional beliefs about behaviour, while perceived behavioural control represents beliefs about the degree of control or determination one has over their actions. Additionally, personal and social norms shape the moral framework that guides the decision-making process leading to behaviour. Personal norms are rooted in an individual’s value system and can be seen as the motivations behind decision-making (Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). All these factors integrate in what Klockner and Blobaum (2010) describe as the &quot;integrating stage,&quot; which generates intentions just before behaviour occurs. However, the normative process also influences habits, as it has higher temporal stability compared to attitudes and perceived behavioural control. Situational processes and perceived behavioural control are also thought to activate personal norms by creating awareness of needs and consequences, which then generate the formation of intentions. Habitual and situational processes are believed to interfere with intentional processes and can moderate the influence of intentions on behaviour. Perceived behavioural control is essential for activating both normative and intentional processes. As a result, situational influences affect both normative and intentional processes. Furthermore, habits are said to form through the successful execution of behaviour in specific situations, meaning situational processes also influence habitual behaviours. Finally, behaviour influences changes in personal norms, and habits, in turn, affect future behaviour (Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010).
[[File:Comprehensive action determination model.png|center|thumb|508x508px]]
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}{{image|name= Comprehensive Action Determination Model water usage behaviour.png|width=450px|pad=20px|caption=Figure? Water drop|float=right}}'''Example:'''
Utilizing the scenario presented at the start of the chapter, we can apply the Comprehensive Action Determination Model to analyse the situation in greater depth. According to Klockner and Blobaum (2010), behaviour is primarily predicted by intentions and perceived behavioural control. Intentions, in turn, are generated from perceived behavioural control, social norms, and attitudes. In this scenario, habitual processes, such as water usage habits, directly predict the likelihood of engaging in water conservation efforts and moderate the relationship between intention and conservation behaviour. While personal norms are identified as predictors of intention, they do not directly predict conservation behaviour. Personal norms are shaped by awareness of environmental needs and consequences and are activated through perceived behavioural control, which creates a sense of moral obligation. Moreover, social norms influence personal norms, as they are internalized from broader societal expectations and adapted into an individual’s value system (Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). Personal norms, being a stable psychological construct, also influence the formation of habits. Klockner and Blobaum (2010) further argue that both subjective constraints (such as perceived behavioural control) and objective constraints (such as access to water-saving tools or technologies) are direct predictors of conservation behaviour. Since habits tend to demonstrate long-term stability, water usage habits (a habitual process) should be influenced by perceived behavioural control and the availability of water-saving options. Both perceived behavioural control and access to water-saving technologies also act as mediators in the relationship between intention and water conservation behaviour. In other words, individuals’ intentions to conserve water are likely influenced by their existing water-related habits and the perceived control they have over their water usage. Finally, conservation behaviour feeds back onto personal norms and habits

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=== Current research on the CADM: ===
Since its proposal in 2010, the Comprehensive Action Determination Model has gained some traction in recent literature. The research on this model is primarily focused on environmental behaviour (link to wiki) (Klockner, 2013). Environmental behaviour refers to actions, attitudes, and practices related to the environment. It encompasses how people interact with their physical surroundings, how they perceive environmental issues, and how their behaviours impact the environment, either positively or negatively. Current research applying the Comprehensive Action Determination Model includes studies on sustainable farming (Tan, 2024), food waste behaviour (Cheng et al., 2024), reducing personal clothing consumption (Joanes et al., 2020), and recycling behaviours (Klockner &amp; Oppedal, 2011; Fang et al., 2021; Ofstad et al., 2017). Research conducted by Tan (2024) on sustainable farming found that the Comprehensive Action Determination Model was the most effective model for analysing and predicting persistent agricultural practices, contributing to a deeper understanding of behavioural determinants in sustainable agriculture. Cheng and colleagues (2024) also found the Comprehensive Action Determination Model to be effective in exploring food waste behaviours. The model showed positive results in studies of recycling behaviour (Klockner &amp; Oppedal, 2011; Fang et al., 2021; Ofstad et al., 2017) and clothing consumption (Joanes et al., 2020). Although the Comprehensive Action Determination Model has shown notable success in recent applications and studies, it is important to recognize that the existing body of literature remains relatively limited. As such, there is a pressing need for further research to enhance the generalizability of these findings and ensure their applicability across a broader range of contexts and scenarios.

=== Limitations to the CADM: ===
The Comprehensive Action Determination Model (CADM) has two notable limitations: complexity and being data intensive. The model’s complex nature can be seen as a significant drawback. It can be difficult to interpret initially, as it combines elements from the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Norm-Activation Model, the Ipsative Theory of Behaviour, and the concept of habit. This complexity is further compounded by the presence of numerous variables that not only influence each other but also interact in intricate ways, with some variables acting as mediators, moderators, or both. These interrelationships make it challenging to fully understand how each factor contributes to the overall behaviour being studied. The interplay between these variables often requires careful analysis to untangle their individual and combined effects on the model’s outcomes. The complex nature of the Comprehensive Action Determination Model may not be practical in situations where quick decisions are needed, as the analysis of CADM is typically too thorough for such rapid decision-making. Secondly, the model is limited by its data-intensive nature. As noted earlier, its complexity means that analysing each variable within the dataset can be challenging. This data analysis process is often time-consuming and labour-intensive, making it difficult to replicate the model with different populations or in various contexts. The need for large, detailed datasets also poses challenges for scalability and generalization, further complicating its application across diverse groups or settings. As a result, its practical use may be constrained in environments where data availability is limited or where the computational resources required for analysis are not feasible.

== CADM and understanding human motivation ==

== Conclusion ==

* Why is motivation important and why understanding motivation is important?
* How is motivation influenced and how can the CADM help us understand these influences?
* In what other ways can the CADM be applied in understanding human emotions?
* Future research
* Take home messages: 
** 1. Motivation is a complex internal state that drives our behaviour and understanding motives is important. 
** 2. Utilizing models such as The CADM, theory of planned behaviour, and the Norm-activation model will help us understand human motivation

==Learning features==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Motivation is a predictor of behaviour: 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Exploring correlations between variables relating to certain behaviour is an application to the CADM
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Environmental behaviour|Environmental behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Environmental cues and habits|Environmental cues and habits]] (Book chapter, 2024)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Extrinsic motivation and antisocial behaviour in children|Extrinsic motivation and antisocial behaviour in children]] (Book chapter, 2015)
* [[Emotion]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=


}}

==External links==
* [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/motivation-how-to-get-started-and-staying-motivated Motivation] (Healthdirect)
* [[wikipedia:Theory_of_planned_behavior|Theory of planned behaviour]] (Wikipedia)

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    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Emotional literacy</title>
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      <timestamp>2024-11-08T09:41:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681815</origin>
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      <text bytes="16787" sha1="djqt1axcj491s13fv66cc4d8oxxw34a" xml:space="preserve">== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:RBasu3243278|Hi [[User:RBasu3243278|RBasu3243278]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:17, 31 July 2024 (UTC)
|}

:Thank you for the heads up, I will fix it when I have the time. [[User:RBasu3243278|RBasu3243278]] ([[User talk:RBasu3243278|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RBasu3243278|contribs]]) 00:05, 1 August 2024 (UTC)
::FYI, I've returned the page name to the original casing (i.e., sentence casing) as per the style being used for previous and current other chapters. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:48, 10 August 2024 (UTC)
::This is a reminder about using correct casing for the headings and sub-headings -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:16, 5 October 2024 (UTC)

==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|RBasu3243278}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:43, 10 August 2024 (UTC)

== Artical ==

Hi, @RBasu3243278

I Found this article which may be of interesting to you
Andrade, C., Tavares, M., Soares, H., Coelho, F., &amp; Tomás, C. (2022). Positive Mental Health and Mental Health Literacy of Informal Caregivers: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(22), 15276-. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215276

It explores how mental/ emotional health literacy, is linked to positive mental health outcome. this ties in well with your heading Improved Mental Health Why is emotional literacy important? [[User:U3236683|U3236683]] ([[User talk:U3236683|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3236683|contribs]]) 14:09, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:52, 23 August 2024 (UTC)
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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:34, 22 October 2024 (UTC)

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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:41, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth</title>
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      <text bytes="32046" sha1="rd2l01r5q8fi9pwg3l6mxp86ip6nwyi" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth:&lt;br&gt;What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/WBj3UtfLyy4}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Focus questions:

How can high developmental potential impact decision making?

What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?

How can TPD be motivational to individuals experiencing the disintegration of their personality?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Overview==
The Theory of positive disintegration (TPD) is a theory of personality development, developed by Polish psychologist Kazimierz Dąbrowski, in which emotions play an essential role in motivation. TPD theorizes that personality development progresses from a state of primary integration, in which decisions are based off of egocentrism, upward to intentional altruism and decisions influenced by empathy, compassion and self awareness. This ultimate level of personality development is known as secondary integration.

Between primary and secondary integration, there exist three stages of disintegration. Within these stages of disintegration, the initial personality of a person, shaped over the course of their life by biological impulse and social and environmental adherence, is dismantled, to be ultimately replaced by a conscious and self-aware, self-created personality. Dąbrowski theorized that for personality to develop in full, integrated aspects of personality based on instinct and social learning must be broken down, or ''disintegrated''. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)[[File:Battling PTSD (4949341330) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. War Veteran (Tense events contribute to multilevel disintegration)|238x238px]]Importantly, TPD posits that personality development does not follow a time schedule, nor is significantly aligned with physical developmental milestones, such as puberty, pregnancy or menopause, however these milestones may include stressors which may influence the onset or continuation of positive disintegration. Positive disintegration can frequently occur during periods of intense stress. See Figure 1  Whilst not following a time schedule, TPD postulates that it always progresses in the same sequence; the five stages of positive disintegration, always in the same order.

During these stages of personality disintegration, development forces the person to make decisions, early on being unilateral, with no clear right or wrong decision, and later being multilevel decisions, where morally right and wrong decisions exist. Ultimately, morally correct decisions will be chosen the vast majority of the time, allowing the person to progress to secondary integration.

Not all people who begin their journey through positive disintegration will complete their personality development. In fact, some may shift back and forth between stages and until finally completing the development of their ideal personality, and others may never complete this journey. Some people may never leave the first stage of primary disintegration. This is dependent on developmental potential. Developmental potential refers to the influence of biological impulse, social and environmental adherence, overexcitability, abilities and talents, and motivation. People with a high enough developmental potential will generally undergo a complete remodelling of their personality through positive disintegration, so much so, that when an individual with a high developmental potential does not undergo positive disintegration, it is a statistical outlier. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

Dąbrowski believed (Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970) that an individual must develop their own hierarchy of values and emotional reactions to develop their personality, as well as recognition, appreciation and utilisation of their own autonomy. The majority of psychological theories surrounding personality and individual differences do not consider emotional reaction and response to play a key role in its production, where TPD does. TPD proposes that the way one reacts to emotional stimuli contributes greatly to the creation of their individual ''personality ideal'', which acts as the end-goal of self-development.     

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Case study example:

When Wyoh was in high school, they began to question &quot;why?&quot;.
Why are people so cruel? Why do I have to go to school? Why do I have to wear these clothes when I'd rather wear what I want to?
As a response to this, Wyoh began to make decisions about what they did, based on their own interest, but also about what they thought was just and right. They started wearing lots of elastic wristbands and changed their hairstyle. Sometimes they would skip school because they thought it was not helpful or worth going. These decisions exist on a singular level. There was no &quot;right&quot; or &quot;wrong&quot; decision here. Their decisions had consequences, but did not greatly change the way they though of themself. In doing this, Wyoh had begun their journey into positive disintegration. 

Over the next few years, Wyoh would travel back and forth between states of primary integration and unilateral disintegration, without ever moving past this point. Wyoh made many friends from different cliques and social groups throughout high school, due to their ever changing personality.

When Wyoh started at university, it became clear that their decisions had clear impacts on not only themself, but others as well. Their decisions would have clear right and wrong alternatives, and over time, their decisions reflected their morals and expectations of themself. Wyoh had finally progressed into the third stage of positive disintegration.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Development potential ==
Dąbrowski ideated ''Development Potential (DP)'', a way of measuring a response to stimuli.(Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970). Whether positive or negative, a strong DP means that the environment will play little role in the personality development. A weak DP means that the environment plays a more significant role. Dąbrowski highlights three major aspects of development potential as ''Overexcitability, Abilities and Talents, and the 'Third Factor' -'' an increased drive for autonomous growth.  

=== Factors of development of personality ===
{{expand}}

==== First factor: biological impulse ====
People who direct their energy and talents to serve egocentric goals and their biological needs, based on survival and self advancement are highly guided by this factor. (Tillier, W., 1998).

==== Second factor: social/environmental adherence ====
The second factor, based on the social environment and peer pressure, encourages mob mentality through the restriction of individual expression and creativity. This discourages individual thought. Parallel to the hive-mind effect seen commonly in cults, social forces shape individual behaviour. Behaviour is not in line with free will concepts, instead being reflective or conducive of social norms. In this factor, talents, behaviours, and creative outlets are redirected to follow the existing social morals and values. (Tillier, W., 1998).

Whilst this sounds like it opposes free will, people influenced by this factor are likely to behave ethically, as their conscience is formed by social context, as long as the social standards within the society are ethical. The concern is when these standards are not ethical, or become corrupt. In this case, people who are influenced greatly by the second factor are not likely to act against the unethical standards of the group. David C. Thomasma argues people within a society face challenges which may either allow the individual to grow, or push them to decay, throughout the course of their lives. These challenges impede their free choices and their ability to make customarily good choices, or even just to make their own decisions at all. (Thomasma and Weisstub, 2004. p10).

In general, when socialization occurs within this factor without an individual examining themself, they live a life parallel to that of a drone — robotic. Dąbrowski argues that a significant majority of the general population are primarily motivated by the second factor.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Overexcitability (OE) ===
In the context of TPD, overexcitability refers to the ways in which 'gifted' individuals have an increased capacity for experiencing stimuli, whether internal or external. These individuals experience stimuli more intensely than others, and this overexcitability is a prerequisite to positive disintegration. (Mendaglio and Tillier, 2006).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}Research study 

A 2017 Hong Kong study was conducted on the relationship between Overexcitabilities (OEs) and creativity, aligning with the Dabrowski's theory. It found that individuals with higher levels of imaginational OE, followed by intellectual, emotional, sensual, and psychomotor OEs, tend to exhibit greater creativity with an astounding 71.8% accuracy rate among participants.

The research suggests that OEs can be a useful indicator for identifying creatively gifted individuals. However, the study's reliance on the overexcitability questionnaire two (OEQII) as the sole measure of OEs is a limitation. Future research should consider employing diverse assessment methods and acknowledge the inherent limitations of self-report measures.

Further, the study’s age range of the participants was a limitation as it only focused on students from grade 7-11. Which posits that the same research may be invalid in varying age ranges, future studies may benefit from gaining a broader understanding of the true relationship between OE and creativity (He et al., 2017).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Types of overexcitability ===
Overexcitability is a broad subject, leading Dabrowski (Dabrowski, K, 1996) and Piechowski (Piechowski, M., 1986) to divide the topic into five distinct types.

==== Psychomotor overexcitability ====
Psychomotor overexcitability refers to an increased amount of energy. This may look like increased psychomotor arousal, or nervousness. The individual may engage in more [[wikipedia:Stimming|self stimulatory behaviours]] (stimming, fidgeting), in order to address excess psychomotor energy. (Piechowski, M.,1986) 

==== Sensual overexcitability ====
Individuals with sensual overexcitability experience sensory pleasures more intensely than others. Piechowski, a close collaborator with Dabrowski, quotes a &quot;keen sensual alliveness&quot; (Piechowski, M., 1986, pp.90). He stated in his 1986 publication, that sensual OE is expressed through looking for sensual outlets for internal tensions, notably through overeating and sexual experience. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Imaginational overexcitability ====
People who experience this form of overexcitability have an increased sense of imagination. This presents as the individual having more expressive imagery, metaphorical thinking, fantastical thinking and animalistic thinking, which all may become obvious to others through the ways in which the individual tells stories, narrates their experiences and expresses themselves. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Intellectual overexcitability ====
Intellectually overexcited individuals have more mental activity than others, making their thinking patterns more theoretical. These individuals generally have a intense desire to learn and understand a range of topics or perhaps fewer niche ones. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Emotional overexcitability ====
Individuals who are emotionally overexcited experience intense emotional relationships, more so than the general population. These relationships are often formed with and by people and other living things, as well as places of interest. (Piechowski, M., 1979)

=== Dynamisms ===
[https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/ Dynamisms] are processes of change, or the forces by which change is manifested. In relation to TPD, dynamisms serve to develop objectivity within an individual, relieve tensions which may not be conducive to creative processes and create conditions which allow the individual to develop their personality in ways which are psychically healthy. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) 

Dąbrowski posits (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) that the overexcitability factors of Emotional, Intellectual and Imaginational are the ones which play the most significant role in forming the dynamisms that shape and direct the development of personality

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Emotional, intellectual, and imaginational overexcitability play the significant role in the formation of developmental dynamisms that shape and direct personality development&quot; (Dąbrowski, K., 1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Developmental dynamisms which lack organization, or are spontaneous, do not generally contribute to the process of positive disintegration. Conversely, developmental dynamisms that are organized, and encourage understanding and reconceptualization, greatly contribute to the process of positive disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Abilities and talents ===
Abilities and talents are specific to the individual. At low levels of personality development, individuals utilise their talents and abilities to support person-centred goals, such as to support their progression within social and workplace hierarchies. At higher levels of personality development, individuals no longer only use their abilities and talents egocentrically, rather implementing them into their own personal hierarchy of values, so that they may firstly express their vision of their ideal personality and worldview, and then secondly, achieve it. (Piechowski, M., 2002) 

=== (Not so) secret third factor of personality development- drive/motivation ===
When considering the broader topic of motivation, the third factor of developmental potential really answers the question: How can TPD be applied to personal growth?. Dąbrowski outlines the third factor of DP to be a drive or motivation towards the growth and autonomy of the individual. As such, he posited that this third factor plays along with the second, as it '''requires''' that the individual apply their talents, abilities and creativity to the broad context of their autonomous expression. Due to this, the individual would then by '''motivated''' to achieve more and to begin to imagine and ideally achieve goals beyond their own expectations.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Third factor vs free will ===
Whilst seemingly similar and interrelated, Dąbrowski argues that there is an important distinction to be made between the two. He posited that free will, as a concept, did not encapsulate motivation, as somebody may have free will, but not be motivated towards growth. His Third Factor refers to motivation specifically as a drive to become one's unadulterated and honest self. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

The motivation of an individual to reach self-actualization may be (and often is) so intense that they may put themselves in harms way to do so. Whilst talking about motivation - especially in the context of the Theory of Positive Disintegration - it is crucial to ensure that one does not encourage others to seek out risk taking behaviours. When communicating the fact that circumstances which are hazardous or dangerous can lead to '''some''' individuals becoming closer to achieving their 'true self', one must highlight that this book chapter does not recommend that people go out of their way to endanger themselves. Some people feel that no cost is beyond the reward of 'being their real self', and as such, is not perfectly aligned with the concept of free will, because some people believe that their isn't really a choice here, that they must become themselves, no matter what.

=== Development potential - bottom line ===
Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration says that individuals with a high enough DP most likely will undergo disintegration, and that high Developmental Potential is positively related to likelihood of disintegration of their personality. In fact, TPD considers the case of a high DP individual not undergoing personality disintegration as an outlier.(Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

== Multi-level approach to understanding positive disintegration ==
Dąbrowski describes the continuity of personality development through a multilevel approach. His theory posits that DP actually contributes to the catalysing of a crisis. Overexcitability and the Third Factor (motivation/drive) combine to contribute to an individual seeking out experience which are anxiety and depression inducing. Dąbrowski referred to this phenomenon as [[wikipedia:Neurosis|psychoneurosis]]. This psychoneurosis (neurosis) contributes to disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== The levels of positive disintegration ===
Dąbrowski developed a multi-level system for describing positive disintegration. The levels are as follows:

==== Level 1: primary/primitive integration ====
Dąbrowski believed that people whose lives are largely guided by either biological impulse or social/environmental adherence, or both, are likely to live in a state of primary/primitive integration. He referred to these people as the 'average people', as they represent the majority of the general population. Dąbrowski posited that being at level of one was to be in a state contrary to a healthy mental state. He also stated that the average person has a '''fairly high''' degree of primary integration, and a psychopath would have a '''very high''' degree of primary integration. This level is characterized by selfishness, egocentrism and self fulfilment. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Most people never break this level of integration down at all. Out of those who do, the majority return to this level after a brief period of disintegration (Nelson, K. C.,1989).

Whilst this state is not generally conducive to a positive mental state, Dąbrowski found that those who return to this state after disintegration may have worth and value as this state is predictable and has innate structural stability, and when the individual possesses qualities of kindness and empathy may often provide support to people experiencing disintegration.(Nelson, K. C.,1989). 

==== Level II: unilevel disintegration ====
This level is characterised by an initial crisis or crises. Often extreme, these crises are spontaneous, and unexpected. The individual is not prepared, nor taught to be, for these crises. Unilevel crises always, and only, exist on one level. There is no choice between better or worse. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Often, these crises coincide with developmental crises such as puberty or menopause. This is because these crises are more likely to occur when the individual is experiencing difficulty coping with external events. This means that the crisis commonly occurs in conjunction with psychological distress. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

At this time, dynamisms begin to come into play. During Unilevel Disintegration, these dynamisms occur with a lack of self control and self-consciousness, due to this, these dynamisms may contribute to the individual being put in risk taking situations or dangerous circumstances. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Unilevel crises present themselves in two distinct forms. The first is through ambitendencies, where the individual is presented with two options that they are equally attracted to and must decide on one. The second is ambivalences, where the individual has no preference between the two options. If the forces of development are intense enough, and/or the developmental potential of the individual is high enough, the individual will face an existential crisis. This is because their previously conceptions of reason does not account for their experience and there is no other possible explanation for the way that they are feeling.

At this point, the individual experiences a heightened sense of existential despair, so much so that it usually becomes the predominant emotion of the individual at the time. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

In response to this, the individual must then tear down their prescribed values and form their own. During this time, we get phases of social rebellion, as social norms no longer make sense to the individual.

This causes the individual to begin to assess other aspects of life and the existence of others and their lives, creating for themselves further crises. Dąbrowski does not suggest this be avoided. Dąbrowski encourages rebellion. He posit that these crises are representations of a strong potential for development of personality, as well as having strong potential for positive mental health consequences. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level II is a transitory period. Individuals who do not progress to level III will either regress back to level I, or never escape level II. A lack of escape from this level is seen through [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide suicide] or [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychosis]]. An unreasonable, and an rarely achievable amount of energy is required to progress to level III. When facing the transition (forward to level III, or backward to level I), an individual has to decide whether to follow their instincts (factor one of personality development), what they have been taught (factor two), or their heart — or dreams for their future (factor three). To progress to level III, the individual must transform their low level instincts, such as emotional reactions, into positive motivational forces, and resist what has been taught, instead following their inner sense of what is right.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level III: spontaneous multilevel disintegration ====
At this level, the individual is faced with crises that transcend horizontal levels. Two alternatives do not exist on the same level, instead, one alternative is a lower choice (staying the same, or not becoming a better person, actuality) and one is a higher choice (imagined ideals). These crises require imaginational OE to navigate, as an individual with a genuine need to become their true selves would choose the higher alternative every time, knowing innately that it is the right one to chase. This means overcoming the ambivalences and ambitendencies of level II. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

If the individual's actual behaviour does not reach the level of their ideal self, the self-seeking individual will be driven (third factor) to reassess and rebuild their life. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level III is where the individual finds their '''drive''' and '''motivation''' for development. All future future events in life will henceforth be in relation to their ideal self, and it becomes unreasonable to be positioned in ways that favour a lower course of action, when a higher goal can be imagined (imaginational OE). (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level IV: directed multilevel disintegration ====
In this level, development is no longer enacted upon the individual involuntarily or spontaneously, rather the individual reviews life consciously, from the multilevel perspective. In this level, the third factor begins its full emergence as the individual guides their own life, affirming and rejecting aspects and qualities of their life and environment. Lower views and reactions get replaced by cautiously examined ideals. The individual's behaviour becomes less reactive and automatic, rather being deliberate and reflective of their higher, chosen ideals. Individuals within the highest levels of personality development place responsibility on themselves for protection of others, and for justice.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level V: secondary integration ====
The fifth level is similar to the first level, in that the individual's personality is no longer in a state of disintegration. However, it varies from the first level, as the individual's behaviour is guided by decisions formed from a hierarchy of personal values. Very little inner conflict exists at this level, because the person's behaviour is based on their inner standard of how life is meant to be lived. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

People who are at the fifth level of personality development see problem solving as well as art as the most noble features of human life, and are often marked by their creative expression. This is likely due to how art is seen to capture the artists deep understanding of the subject, which generally tend to be suffering and sacrifice for artists at this level of personal development. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

== Key points ==
* '''TPD''' is a theory of personality development proposed by Kazimierz Dąbrowski, suggesting that psychological stress can lead to personal growth.
* '''Core concepts:'''
** '''Positive disintegration:''' The process of breaking down existing personality structures to create a more integrated and authentic self.  
** '''Developmental potential (DP):''' The individual's capacity for growth and resilience.  
** '''Overexcitability:''' Increased sensitivity to stimuli in areas like psychomotor, sensual, imaginational, intellectual, and emotional. 
** '''Dynamisms:''' Forces that shape personality development, including organized and spontaneous processes.
** '''Levels of positive disintegration:''' A multi-level approach to personality development, from primary integration to secondary integration.
* '''Key stages of personality development:'''
** '''Primary/primitive integration:''' Initial state characterized by conformity and adherence to social norms.  
** '''Unilevel disintegration:''' Crisis-filled period of questioning and challenging existing beliefs.
** '''Spontaneous multilevel disintegration:''' A deeper level of questioning and self-reflection.  
** '''Directed multilevel disintegration:''' Conscious and deliberate development of personality.  
** '''Secondary integration:''' A final state of integration based on personal values and ideals.
* '''TPD emphasizes:'''
** The importance of psychological stress for personal growth.
** The role of individual choice and autonomy in personality development.
** The connection between overexcitability and developmental potential.  
** The transformative power of crises and challenges. 
* '''Overall, TPD offers a unique perspective on personality development, suggesting that adversity can be a catalyst for positive change.''' 
The key points section of this book chapter utilises genAI for its summary.

== Quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Level II of personality development is characterized by multilevel crises:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration posits that to develop personality past social adherence, one must face hardship and crisis:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
TPD offers a valuable framework for understanding personal growth and development. By recognizing the role of disintegration and cultivating sensitivity, individuals can embark on a journey of self-discovery and self-actualization.

TPD can be applied to personal growth, as the theory itself is one that focuses on how life events and crises impact decision making, and how decision making impacts personal growth. This is seen through the five levels of positive disintegration, where the linear path of disintegration includes changes at each level, which push the individual to grow rather than to decay. 

This theory is important, as it is a reminder that setbacks and crises do not make life meaningless. TPD posits that for people with a high development potential, these crises can actually be the catalyst for development and may ultimately be what the individual needs to become their true self. 

TPD ideates that individuals should seek out experience rather than waiting for it to happen. This theory encourages individuals to take control of their own growth on a personal level, rather than looking to change the world.

TPD teaches that personal growth must be just that; personal. Whilst positive disintegration requires the same path to be taken to reach secondary integration, the decisions made and the length of time it takes will always be different, and as such, one individual can not intentionally push others towards their personal growth. 

The key takeaways for this chapter are as follows:

# To embrace disintegration, as it is a natural process and an opportunity to break free from patterns and limitations.
# To cultivate a sense of sensitivity in themselves, to recognise their strengths and sensitivities and use them for growth through self reflection and creativity.
# To seek depth within their lives, explore their emotions, feelings and experiences and to challenge their beliefs and explore new perspectives.
# To embrace challenges; to learn from setbacks and view them as opportunities for growth.

Next time life throws you a curveball, try to recall this theory. Will you accept challenges and view them as an opportunity for growth, or avoid the crisis to hold on to primary integration?

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psychological trauma|Psychological Trauma]] (Book chapter, 2022)
* [[wikipedia:Antifragility|Antifragility]]
* [[wikipedia:Michael_Fordham#De-integration_and_re-integration|De-Integration and re-integration]]
* [[wikipedia:Personal_development|Personal Development]]
* [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_growth|Post-Traumatic Growth]]
* [[wikipedia:Personality_psychology|Personality Psychology]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA

Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive disintegration. Boston, MA: Little Brown.

Dabrowski, K. , Kawczak, A. &amp; Piechowski, M. (1970). Mental growth through positive Disintegration. London: Gryf Publication Ltd.

Google AI. (2024) Gemini. [large language model] https://gemini.google.com/app

He, W., Wong, W., &amp; Chan, M. (2017). Overexcitabilities as important psychological attributes of creativity: A dabrowskian perspective. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25(6), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.006

Nelson, K. C. (1989). Dabrowski's theory of positive disintegration. ''Advanced Development'', ''1'', 1-14.

Piechowski, M. M. (1979). Developmental potential. &quot;New voices in counseling the gifted.

Piechowski, M. M. (2002). Experiencing in a Higher Key; Dabrowski's Theory of and for the Gifted. 

Schläppy M. L. (2019). Understanding Mental Health Through the Theory of Positive Disintegration: A Visual Aid. ''Frontiers in psychology'', ''10'', 1291. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01291

Third Factor (2024, October). Dabrowski's Dynamisms: Subject-Object in Oneself. Retrieved from https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/

Thomasma, D.C., (2004). Morality as Impulse and Ethics as “Thinking” about Morality. INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF ETHICS, LAW, AND THE NEW MEDICINE, 309, 10.

Tillier, W. (1998). The basic concepts of Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration. The Dabrowski Newsletter, 5, 1-5.

Weckowicz, T. E. (1988). Kazimierz Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration and the American Humanistic Psychology. ''Counseling and Values, 32, 2.'' https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.1988.tb00706.x

Wikipedia (2023, September 29). Positive disintegration. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration

Wikipedia (2024, September 29). Social learning theory. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory

Wikipedia (2024, October 1). Stimming. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimming
}}

==External links==
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration Positive Disintegration]
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory Social Learning Theory]
*[[wikipedia:Stimming|Self-Stimulatory Behaviours]]
*[[wikipedia:Social_osmosis|Social Osmosis]]
*[[wikipedia:Neurosis|Neurosis]]
*[https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide Suicide]
*[[wikipedia:Psychosis|Psychosis]]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Personal development]]
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      <text bytes="32325" sha1="ft25bqeth5srtcq52z504yk9v10xt86" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth:&lt;br&gt;What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/WBj3UtfLyy4}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Focus questions:

How can high developmental potential impact decision making?

What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?

How can TPD be motivational to individuals experiencing the disintegration of their personality?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Overview==
The Theory of positive disintegration (TPD) is a theory of personality development, developed by Polish psychologist [[wikipedia:Kazimierz_Dąbrowski|Kazimierz Dąbrowski]], in which emotions play an essential role in motivation. TPD theorizes that personality development progresses from a state of primary integration, in which decisions are based off of [[mwod:egocentrism#:~:text=noun,or%20in%20disregard%20of%20others|egocentrism]], upward to intentional [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ altruism] and decisions influenced by empathy, compassion and self awareness. This ultimate level of personality development is known as secondary integration.

Between primary and secondary integration, there exist three stages of disintegration. Within these stages of disintegration, the initial personality of a person, shaped over the course of their life by [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|biological impulse]] and social and environmental adherence, is dismantled, to be ultimately replaced by a conscious and self-aware, self-created personality. Dąbrowski theorized that for personality to develop in full, integrated aspects of personality based on instinct and social learning must be broken down, or ''disintegrated''. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)[[File:Battling PTSD (4949341330) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. War Veteran (Tense events contribute to multilevel disintegration)|238x238px]]Importantly, TPD posits that personality development does not follow a time schedule, nor is significantly aligned with physical developmental milestones, such as puberty, pregnancy or menopause, however these milestones may include stressors which may influence the onset or continuation of positive disintegration. Positive disintegration can frequently occur during periods of intense stress. See Figure 1. Whilst not following a time schedule, TPD postulates that it always progresses in the same sequence; the five stages of positive disintegration, always in the same order.

During these stages of personality disintegration, development forces the person to make decisions, early on being unilateral, with no clear right or wrong decision, and later being multilevel decisions, where morally right and wrong decisions exist. Ultimately, morally correct decisions will be chosen the vast majority of the time, allowing the person to progress to secondary integration.

Not all people who begin their journey through positive disintegration will complete their personality development. In fact, some may shift back and forth between stages and until finally completing the development of their ideal personality, and others may never complete this journey. Some people may never leave the first stage of primary disintegration. This is dependent on developmental potential. Developmental potential refers to the influence of biological impulse, social and environmental adherence, overexcitability, abilities and talents, and motivation. People with a high enough developmental potential will generally undergo a complete remodelling of their personality through positive disintegration, so much so, that when an individual with a high developmental potential does not undergo positive disintegration, it is a statistical outlier. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

Dąbrowski believed (Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970) that an individual must develop their own hierarchy of values and emotional reactions to develop their personality, as well as recognition, appreciation and utilisation of their own autonomy. The majority of psychological theories surrounding personality and individual differences do not consider emotional reaction and response to play a key role in its production, where TPD does. TPD proposes that the way one reacts to emotional stimuli contributes greatly to the creation of their individual ''personality ideal'', which acts as the end-goal of self-development.     

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Case study example:

When Wyoh was in high school, they began to question &quot;why?&quot;.
Why are people so cruel? Why do I have to go to school? Why do I have to wear these clothes when I'd rather wear what I want to?
As a response to this, Wyoh began to make decisions about what they did, based on their own interest, but also about what they thought was just and right. They started wearing lots of elastic wristbands and changed their hairstyle. Sometimes they would skip school because they thought it was not helpful or worth going. These decisions exist on a singular level. There was no &quot;right&quot; or &quot;wrong&quot; decision here. Their decisions had consequences, but did not greatly change the way they though of themself. In doing this, Wyoh had begun their journey into positive disintegration. 

Over the next few years, Wyoh would travel back and forth between states of primary integration and unilateral disintegration, without ever moving past this point. Wyoh made many friends from different cliques and social groups throughout high school, due to their ever changing personality.

When Wyoh started at university, it became clear that their decisions had clear impacts on not only themself, but others as well. Their decisions would have clear right and wrong alternatives, and over time, their decisions reflected their morals and expectations of themself. Wyoh had finally progressed into the third stage of positive disintegration.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Development potential ==
Dąbrowski ideated ''Development Potential (DP)'', a way of measuring a response to stimuli.(Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970). Whether positive or negative, a strong DP means that the environment will play little role in the personality development. A weak DP means that the environment plays a more significant role. Dąbrowski highlights three major aspects of development potential as ''Overexcitability, Abilities and Talents, and the 'Third Factor' -'' an increased drive for autonomous growth.  

==== First factor: biological impulse ====
People who direct their energy and talents to serve egocentric goals and their biological needs, based on survival and self advancement are highly guided by this factor. (Tillier, W., 1998).

==== Second factor: social/environmental adherence ====
The second factor, based on the social environment and peer pressure, encourages mob mentality through the restriction of individual expression and creativity. This discourages individual thought. Parallel to the hive-mind effect seen commonly in cults, social forces shape individual behaviour. Behaviour is not in line with free will concepts, instead being reflective or conducive of social norms. In this factor, talents, behaviours, and creative outlets are redirected to follow the existing social morals and values. (Tillier, W., 1998).

Whilst this sounds like it opposes free will, people influenced by this factor are likely to behave ethically, as their conscience is formed by social context, as long as the social standards within the society are ethical. The concern is when these standards are not ethical, or become corrupt. In this case, people who are influenced greatly by the second factor are not likely to act against the unethical standards of the group. David C. Thomasma argues people within a society face challenges which may either allow the individual to grow, or push them to decay, throughout the course of their lives. These challenges impede their free choices and their ability to make customarily good choices, or even just to make their own decisions at all. (Thomasma and Weisstub, 2004. p10).

In general, when socialization occurs within this factor without an individual examining themself, they live a life parallel to that of a drone — robotic. Dąbrowski argues that a significant majority of the general population are primarily motivated by the second factor.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Overexcitability (OE) ===
In the context of TPD, overexcitability refers to the ways in which 'gifted' individuals have an increased capacity for experiencing stimuli, whether internal or external. These individuals experience stimuli more intensely than others, and this overexcitability is a prerequisite to positive disintegration. (Mendaglio and Tillier, 2006).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}Research study 

A 2017 Hong Kong study was conducted on the relationship between Overexcitabilities (OEs) and creativity, aligning with the Dabrowski's theory. It found that individuals with higher levels of imaginational OE, followed by intellectual, emotional, sensual, and psychomotor OEs, tend to exhibit greater creativity with an astounding 71.8% accuracy rate among participants.

The research suggests that OEs can be a useful indicator for identifying creatively gifted individuals. However, the study's reliance on the overexcitability questionnaire two (OEQII) as the sole measure of OEs is a limitation. Future research should consider employing diverse assessment methods and acknowledge the inherent limitations of self-report measures.

Further, the study’s age range of the participants was a limitation as it only focused on students from grade 7-11. Which posits that the same research may be invalid in varying age ranges, future studies may benefit from gaining a broader understanding of the true relationship between OE and creativity (He et al., 2017).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Types of overexcitability ===
Overexcitability is a broad subject, leading Dabrowski (Dabrowski, K, 1996) and Piechowski (Piechowski, M., 1986) to divide the topic into five distinct types.

==== Psychomotor overexcitability ====
Psychomotor overexcitability refers to an increased amount of energy. This may look like increased psychomotor arousal, or nervousness. The individual may engage in more [[wikipedia:Stimming|self stimulatory behaviours]] (stimming, fidgeting), in order to address excess psychomotor energy. (Piechowski, M.,1986) 

==== Sensual overexcitability ====
Individuals with sensual overexcitability experience sensory pleasures more intensely than others. Piechowski, a close collaborator with Dabrowski, quotes a &quot;keen sensual alliveness&quot; (Piechowski, M., 1986, pp.90). He stated in his 1986 publication, that sensual OE is expressed through looking for sensual outlets for internal tensions, notably through overeating and sexual experience. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Imaginational overexcitability ====
People who experience this form of overexcitability have an increased sense of imagination. This presents as the individual having more expressive imagery, metaphorical thinking, fantastical thinking and animalistic thinking, which all may become obvious to others through the ways in which the individual tells stories, narrates their experiences and expresses themselves. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Intellectual overexcitability ====
Intellectually overexcited individuals have more mental activity than others, making their thinking patterns more theoretical. These individuals generally have a intense desire to learn and understand a range of topics or perhaps fewer niche ones. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Emotional overexcitability ====
Individuals who are emotionally overexcited experience intense emotional relationships, more so than the general population. These relationships are often formed with and by people and other living things, as well as places of interest. (Piechowski, M., 1979)

=== Dynamisms ===
[https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/ Dynamisms] are processes of change, or the forces by which change is manifested. In relation to TPD, dynamisms serve to develop objectivity within an individual, relieve tensions which may not be conducive to creative processes and create conditions which allow the individual to develop their personality in ways which are psychically healthy. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) 

Dąbrowski posits (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) that the overexcitability factors of Emotional, Intellectual and Imaginational are the ones which play the most significant role in forming the dynamisms that shape and direct the development of personality

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Emotional, intellectual, and imaginational overexcitability play the significant role in the formation of developmental dynamisms that shape and direct personality development&quot; (Dąbrowski, K., 1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Developmental dynamisms which lack organization, or are spontaneous, do not generally contribute to the process of positive disintegration. Conversely, developmental dynamisms that are organized, and encourage understanding and reconceptualization, greatly contribute to the process of positive disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Abilities and talents ===
Abilities and talents are specific to the individual. At low levels of personality development, individuals utilise their talents and abilities to support person-centred goals, such as to support their progression within social and workplace hierarchies. At higher levels of personality development, individuals no longer only use their abilities and talents egocentrically, rather implementing them into their own personal hierarchy of values, so that they may firstly express their vision of their ideal personality and worldview, and then secondly, achieve it. (Piechowski, M., 2002) 

=== (Not so) secret third factor of personality development- drive/motivation ===
When considering the broader topic of motivation, the third factor of developmental potential really answers the question: How can TPD be applied to personal growth?. Dąbrowski outlines the third factor of DP to be a drive or motivation towards the growth and autonomy of the individual. As such, he posited that this third factor plays along with the second, as it '''requires''' that the individual apply their talents, abilities and creativity to the broad context of their autonomous expression. Due to this, the individual would then by '''motivated''' to achieve more and to begin to imagine and ideally achieve goals beyond their own expectations.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Third factor vs free will ===
Whilst seemingly similar and interrelated, Dąbrowski argues that there is an important distinction to be made between the two. He posited that free will, as a concept, did not encapsulate motivation, as somebody may have free will, but not be motivated towards growth. His Third Factor refers to motivation specifically as a drive to become one's unadulterated and honest self. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

The motivation of an individual to reach self-actualization may be (and often is) so intense that they may put themselves in harms way to do so. Whilst talking about motivation - especially in the context of the Theory of Positive Disintegration - it is crucial to ensure that one does not encourage others to seek out risk taking behaviours. When communicating the fact that circumstances which are hazardous or dangerous can lead to '''some''' individuals becoming closer to achieving their 'true self', one must highlight that this book chapter does not recommend that people go out of their way to endanger themselves. Some people feel that no cost is beyond the reward of 'being their real self', and as such, is not perfectly aligned with the concept of free will, because some people believe that their isn't really a choice here, that they must become themselves, no matter what.

=== Development potential - bottom line ===
Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration says that individuals with a high enough DP most likely will undergo disintegration, and that high Developmental Potential is positively related to likelihood of disintegration of their personality. In fact, TPD considers the case of a high DP individual not undergoing personality disintegration as an outlier.(Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

== Multi-level approach to understanding positive disintegration ==
Dąbrowski describes the continuity of personality development through a multilevel approach. His theory posits that DP actually contributes to the catalysing of a crisis. Overexcitability and the Third Factor (motivation/drive) combine to contribute to an individual seeking out experience which are anxiety and depression inducing. Dąbrowski referred to this phenomenon as [[wikipedia:Neurosis|psychoneurosis]]. This psychoneurosis (neurosis) contributes to disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== The levels of positive disintegration ===
Dąbrowski developed a multi-level system for describing positive disintegration. The levels are as follows:

==== Level 1: primary/primitive integration ====
Dąbrowski believed that people whose lives are largely guided by either biological impulse or social/environmental adherence, or both, are likely to live in a state of primary/primitive integration. He referred to these people as the 'average people', as they represent the majority of the general population. Dąbrowski posited that being at level of one was to be in a state contrary to a healthy mental state. He also stated that the average person has a '''fairly high''' degree of primary integration, and a psychopath would have a '''very high''' degree of primary integration. This level is characterized by selfishness, egocentrism and self fulfilment. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Most people never break this level of integration down at all. Out of those who do, the majority return to this level after a brief period of disintegration (Nelson, K. C.,1989).

Whilst this state is not generally conducive to a positive mental state, Dąbrowski found that those who return to this state after disintegration may have worth and value as this state is predictable and has innate structural stability, and when the individual possesses qualities of kindness and empathy may often provide support to people experiencing disintegration.(Nelson, K. C.,1989). 

==== Level II: unilevel disintegration ====
This level is characterised by an initial crisis or crises. Often extreme, these crises are spontaneous, and unexpected. The individual is not prepared, nor taught to be, for these crises. Unilevel crises always, and only, exist on one level. There is no choice between better or worse. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Often, these crises coincide with developmental crises such as puberty or menopause. This is because these crises are more likely to occur when the individual is experiencing difficulty coping with external events. This means that the crisis commonly occurs in conjunction with psychological distress. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

At this time, dynamisms begin to come into play. During Unilevel Disintegration, these dynamisms occur with a lack of self control and self-consciousness, due to this, these dynamisms may contribute to the individual being put in risk taking situations or dangerous circumstances. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Unilevel crises present themselves in two distinct forms. The first is through ambitendencies, where the individual is presented with two options that they are equally attracted to and must decide on one. The second is ambivalences, where the individual has no preference between the two options. If the forces of development are intense enough, and/or the developmental potential of the individual is high enough, the individual will face an existential crisis. This is because their previously conceptions of reason does not account for their experience and there is no other possible explanation for the way that they are feeling.

At this point, the individual experiences a heightened sense of existential despair, so much so that it usually becomes the predominant emotion of the individual at the time. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

In response to this, the individual must then tear down their prescribed values and form their own. During this time, we get phases of social rebellion, as social norms no longer make sense to the individual.

This causes the individual to begin to assess other aspects of life and the existence of others and their lives, creating for themselves further crises. Dąbrowski does not suggest this be avoided. Dąbrowski encourages rebellion. He posit that these crises are representations of a strong potential for development of personality, as well as having strong potential for positive mental health consequences. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level II is a transitory period. Individuals who do not progress to level III will either regress back to level I, or never escape level II. A lack of escape from this level is seen through [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide suicide] or [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychosis]]. An unreasonable, and an rarely achievable amount of energy is required to progress to level III. When facing the transition (forward to level III, or backward to level I), an individual has to decide whether to follow their instincts (factor one of personality development), what they have been taught (factor two), or their heart — or dreams for their future (factor three). To progress to level III, the individual must transform their low level instincts, such as emotional reactions, into positive motivational forces, and resist what has been taught, instead following their inner sense of what is right.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level III: spontaneous multilevel disintegration ====
At this level, the individual is faced with crises that transcend horizontal levels. Two alternatives do not exist on the same level, instead, one alternative is a lower choice (staying the same, or not becoming a better person, actuality) and one is a higher choice (imagined ideals). These crises require imaginational OE to navigate, as an individual with a genuine need to become their true selves would choose the higher alternative every time, knowing innately that it is the right one to chase. This means overcoming the ambivalences and ambitendencies of level II. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

If the individual's actual behaviour does not reach the level of their ideal self, the self-seeking individual will be driven (third factor) to reassess and rebuild their life. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level III is where the individual finds their '''drive''' and '''motivation''' for development. All future future events in life will henceforth be in relation to their ideal self, and it becomes unreasonable to be positioned in ways that favour a lower course of action, when a higher goal can be imagined (imaginational OE). (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level IV: directed multilevel disintegration ====
In this level, development is no longer enacted upon the individual involuntarily or spontaneously, rather the individual reviews life consciously, from the multilevel perspective. In this level, the third factor begins its full emergence as the individual guides their own life, affirming and rejecting aspects and qualities of their life and environment. Lower views and reactions get replaced by cautiously examined ideals. The individual's behaviour becomes less reactive and automatic, rather being deliberate and reflective of their higher, chosen ideals. Individuals within the highest levels of personality development place responsibility on themselves for protection of others, and for justice.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level V: secondary integration ====
The fifth level is similar to the first level, in that the individual's personality is no longer in a state of disintegration. However, it varies from the first level, as the individual's behaviour is guided by decisions formed from a hierarchy of personal values. Very little inner conflict exists at this level, because the person's behaviour is based on their inner standard of how life is meant to be lived. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

People who are at the fifth level of personality development see problem solving as well as art as the most noble features of human life, and are often marked by their creative expression. This is likely due to how art is seen to capture the artists deep understanding of the subject, which generally tend to be suffering and sacrifice for artists at this level of personal development. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

== Key points ==
* '''TPD''' is a theory of personality development proposed by Kazimierz Dąbrowski, suggesting that psychological stress can lead to personal growth.
* '''Core concepts:'''
** '''Positive disintegration:''' The process of breaking down existing personality structures to create a more integrated and authentic self.  
** '''Developmental potential (DP):''' The individual's capacity for growth and resilience.  
** '''Overexcitability:''' Increased sensitivity to stimuli in areas like psychomotor, sensual, imaginational, intellectual, and emotional. 
** '''Dynamisms:''' Forces that shape personality development, including organized and spontaneous processes.
** '''Levels of positive disintegration:''' A multi-level approach to personality development, from primary integration to secondary integration.
* '''Key stages of personality development:'''
** '''Primary/primitive integration:''' Initial state characterized by conformity and adherence to social norms.  
** '''Unilevel disintegration:''' Crisis-filled period of questioning and challenging existing beliefs.
** '''Spontaneous multilevel disintegration:''' A deeper level of questioning and self-reflection.  
** '''Directed multilevel disintegration:''' Conscious and deliberate development of personality.  
** '''Secondary integration:''' A final state of integration based on personal values and ideals.
* '''TPD emphasizes:'''
** The importance of psychological stress for personal growth.
** The role of individual choice and autonomy in personality development.
** The connection between overexcitability and developmental potential.  
** The transformative power of crises and challenges. 
* '''Overall, TPD offers a unique perspective on personality development, suggesting that adversity can be a catalyst for positive change.''' 
The key points section of this book chapter utilises genAI for its summary.

== Quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Level II of personality development is characterized by multilevel crises:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration posits that to develop personality past social adherence, one must face hardship and crisis:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
TPD offers a valuable framework for understanding personal growth and development. By recognizing the role of disintegration and cultivating sensitivity, individuals can embark on a journey of self-discovery and self-actualization.

TPD can be applied to personal growth, as the theory itself is one that focuses on how life events and crises impact decision making, and how decision making impacts personal growth. This is seen through the five levels of positive disintegration, where the linear path of disintegration includes changes at each level, which push the individual to grow rather than to decay. 

This theory is important, as it is a reminder that setbacks and crises do not make life meaningless. TPD posits that for people with a high development potential, these crises can actually be the catalyst for development and may ultimately be what the individual needs to become their true self. 

TPD ideates that individuals should seek out experience rather than waiting for it to happen. This theory encourages individuals to take control of their own growth on a personal level, rather than looking to change the world.

TPD teaches that personal growth must be just that; personal. Whilst positive disintegration requires the same path to be taken to reach secondary integration, the decisions made and the length of time it takes will always be different, and as such, one individual can not intentionally push others towards their personal growth. 

The key takeaways for this chapter are as follows:

# To embrace disintegration, as it is a natural process and an opportunity to break free from patterns and limitations.
# To cultivate a sense of sensitivity in themselves, to recognise their strengths and sensitivities and use them for growth through self reflection and creativity.
# To seek depth within their lives, explore their emotions, feelings and experiences and to challenge their beliefs and explore new perspectives.
# To embrace challenges; to learn from setbacks and view them as opportunities for growth.

Next time life throws you a curveball, try to recall this theory. Will you accept challenges and view them as an opportunity for growth, or avoid the crisis to hold on to primary integration?

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psychological trauma|Psychological Trauma]] (Book chapter, 2022)
* [[wikipedia:Antifragility|Antifragility]]
* [[wikipedia:Michael_Fordham#De-integration_and_re-integration|De-Integration and re-integration]]
* [[wikipedia:Personal_development|Personal Development]]
* [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_growth|Post-Traumatic Growth]]
* [[wikipedia:Personality_psychology|Personality Psychology]]
* [[wikipedia:Kazimierz_Dąbrowski|Kazimierz Dabrowski]]
* [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|Biological impulse]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA

Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive disintegration. Boston, MA: Little Brown.

Dabrowski, K. , Kawczak, A. &amp; Piechowski, M. (1970). Mental growth through positive Disintegration. London: Gryf Publication Ltd.

Google AI. (2024) Gemini. [large language model] https://gemini.google.com/app

He, W., Wong, W., &amp; Chan, M. (2017). Overexcitabilities as important psychological attributes of creativity: A dabrowskian perspective. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25(6), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.006

Nelson, K. C. (1989). Dabrowski's theory of positive disintegration. ''Advanced Development'', ''1'', 1-14.

Piechowski, M. M. (1979). Developmental potential. &quot;New voices in counseling the gifted.

Piechowski, M. M. (2002). Experiencing in a Higher Key; Dabrowski's Theory of and for the Gifted. 

Schläppy M. L. (2019). Understanding Mental Health Through the Theory of Positive Disintegration: A Visual Aid. ''Frontiers in psychology'', ''10'', 1291. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01291

Third Factor (2024, October). Dabrowski's Dynamisms: Subject-Object in Oneself. Retrieved from https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/

Thomasma, D.C., (2004). Morality as Impulse and Ethics as “Thinking” about Morality. INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF ETHICS, LAW, AND THE NEW MEDICINE, 309, 10.

Tillier, W. (1998). The basic concepts of Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration. The Dabrowski Newsletter, 5, 1-5.

Weckowicz, T. E. (1988). Kazimierz Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration and the American Humanistic Psychology. ''Counseling and Values, 32, 2.'' https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.1988.tb00706.x

Wikipedia (2023, September 29). Positive disintegration. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration

Wikipedia (2024, September 29). Social learning theory. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory

Wikipedia (2024, October 1). Stimming. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimming
}}

==External links==
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration Positive Disintegration]
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory Social Learning Theory]
*[[wikipedia:Stimming|Self-Stimulatory Behaviours]]
*[[wikipedia:Social_osmosis|Social Osmosis]]
*[[wikipedia:Neurosis|Neurosis]]
*[https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide Suicide]
*[[wikipedia:Psychosis|Psychosis]]
*[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ Altruism]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Personal development]]
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      <text bytes="32321" sha1="dwi5ido6xlp2tmtxjdi9078leeqxe1j" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth:&lt;br&gt;What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/WBj3UtfLyy4}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Focus questions:

How can high developmental potential impact decision making?

What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?

How can TPD be motivational to individuals experiencing the disintegration of their personality?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Overview==
The Theory of positive disintegration (TPD) is a theory of personality development, developed by Polish psychologist [[wikipedia:Kazimierz_Dąbrowski|Kazimierz Dąbrowski]], in which emotions play an essential role in motivation. TPD theorizes that personality development progresses from a state of primary integration, in which decisions are based off of [[mwod:egocentrism#:~:text=noun,or%20in%20disregard%20of%20others|egocentrism]], upward to intentional [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ altruism] and decisions influenced by empathy, compassion and self awareness. This ultimate level of personality development is known as secondary integration.

Between primary and secondary integration, there exist three stages of disintegration. Within these stages of disintegration, the initial personality of a person, shaped over the course of their life by [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|biological impulse]] and social and environmental adherence, is dismantled, to be ultimately replaced by a conscious and self-aware, self-created personality. Dąbrowski theorized that for personality to develop in full, integrated aspects of personality based on instinct and social learning must be broken down, or ''disintegrated''. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)[[File:Battling PTSD (4949341330) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. War Veteran (Tense events contribute to multilevel disintegration)|238x238px]]Importantly, TPD posits that personality development does not follow a time schedule, nor is significantly aligned with physical developmental milestones, such as puberty, pregnancy or menopause, however these milestones may include stressors which may influence the onset or continuation of positive disintegration. Positive disintegration can frequently occur during periods of intense stress. See Figure 1. Whilst not following a time schedule, TPD postulates that it always progresses in the same sequence; the five stages of positive disintegration, always in the same order.

During these stages of personality disintegration, development forces the person to make decisions, early on being unilateral, with no clear right or wrong decision, and later being multilevel decisions, where morally right and wrong decisions exist. Ultimately, morally correct decisions will be chosen the vast majority of the time, allowing the person to progress to secondary integration.

Not all people who begin their journey through positive disintegration will complete their personality development. In fact, some may shift back and forth between stages and until finally completing the development of their ideal personality, and others may never complete this journey. Some people may never leave the first stage of primary disintegration. This is dependent on developmental potential. Developmental potential refers to the influence of biological impulse, social and environmental adherence, overexcitability, abilities and talents, and motivation. People with a high enough developmental potential will generally undergo a complete remodelling of their personality through positive disintegration, so much so, that when an individual with a high developmental potential does not undergo positive disintegration, it is a statistical outlier. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

Dąbrowski believed (Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970) that an individual must develop their own hierarchy of values and emotional reactions to develop their personality, as well as recognition, appreciation and utilisation of their own autonomy. The majority of psychological theories surrounding personality and individual differences do not consider emotional reaction and response to play a key role in its production, where TPD does. TPD proposes that the way one reacts to emotional stimuli contributes greatly to the creation of their individual ''personality ideal'', which acts as the end-goal of self-development.     

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Case study example:

When Wyoh was in high school, they began to question &quot;why?&quot;.
Why are people so cruel? Why do I have to go to school? Why do I have to wear these clothes when I'd rather wear what I want to?
As a response to this, Wyoh began to make decisions about what they did, based on their own interest, but also about what they thought was just and right. They started wearing lots of elastic wristbands and changed their hairstyle. Sometimes they would skip school because they thought it was not helpful or worth going. These decisions exist on a singular level. There was no &quot;right&quot; or &quot;wrong&quot; decision here. Their decisions had consequences, but did not greatly change the way they though of themself. In doing this, Wyoh had begun their journey into positive disintegration. 

Over the next few years, Wyoh would travel back and forth between states of primary integration and unilateral disintegration, without ever moving past this point. Wyoh made many friends from different cliques and social groups throughout high school, due to their ever changing personality.

When Wyoh started at university, it became clear that their decisions had clear impacts on not only themself, but others as well. Their decisions would have clear right and wrong alternatives, and over time, their decisions reflected their morals and expectations of themself. Wyoh had finally progressed into the third stage of positive disintegration.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Development potential ==
Dąbrowski ideated ''Development Potential (DP)'', a way of measuring a response to stimuli.(Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970). Whether positive or negative, a strong DP means that the environment will play little role in the personality development. A weak DP means that the environment plays a more significant role. Dąbrowski highlights three major aspects of development potential as ''Overexcitability, Abilities and Talents, and the 'Third Factor' -'' an increased drive for autonomous growth.  

==== First factor: biological impulse ====
People who direct their energy and talents to serve egocentric goals and their biological needs, based on survival and self advancement are highly guided by this factor. (Tillier, W., 1998).

==== Second factor: social/environmental adherence ====
The second factor, based on the social environment and peer pressure, encourages mob mentality through the restriction of individual expression and creativity. This discourages individual thought. Parallel to the hive-mind effect seen commonly in cults, social forces shape individual behaviour. Behaviour is not in line with free will concepts, instead being reflective or conducive of social norms. In this factor, talents, behaviours, and creative outlets are redirected to follow the existing social morals and values. (Tillier, W., 1998).

Whilst this sounds like it opposes free will, people influenced by this factor are likely to behave ethically, as their conscience is formed by social context, as long as the social standards within the society are ethical. The concern is when these standards are not ethical, or become corrupt. In this case, people who are influenced greatly by the second factor are not likely to act against the unethical standards of the group. David C. Thomasma argues people within a society face challenges which may either allow the individual to grow, or push them to decay, throughout the course of their lives. These challenges impede their free choices and their ability to make customarily good choices, or even just to make their own decisions at all. (Thomasma and Weisstub, 2004. p10).

In general, when socialization occurs within this factor without an individual examining themself, they live a life parallel to that of a drone — robotic. Dąbrowski argues that a significant majority of the general population are primarily motivated by the second factor.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Overexcitability (OE) ===
In the context of TPD, overexcitability refers to the ways in which 'gifted' individuals have an increased capacity for experiencing stimuli, whether internal or external. These individuals experience stimuli more intensely than others, and this overexcitability is a prerequisite to positive disintegration. (Mendaglio and Tillier, 2006).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}Research study 

A 2017 Hong Kong study was conducted on the relationship between Overexcitabilities (OEs) and creativity, aligning with Dabrowski's theory. It found that individuals with higher levels of imaginational OE, followed by intellectual, emotional, sensual, and psychomotor OEs, tend to exhibit greater creativity with an astounding 71.8% accuracy rate among participants.

The research suggests that OEs can be a useful indicator for identifying creatively gifted individuals. However, the study's reliance on the overexcitability questionnaire two (OEQII) as the sole measure of OEs is a limitation. Future research should consider employing diverse assessment methods and acknowledge the inherent limitations of self-report measures.

Further, the study’s age range of the participants was a limitation as it only focused on students from grade 7-11. Which posits that the same research may be invalid in varying age ranges, future studies may benefit from gaining a broader understanding of the true relationship between OE and creativity (He et al., 2017).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Types of overexcitability ===
Overexcitability is a broad subject, leading Dabrowski (Dabrowski, K, 1996) and Piechowski (Piechowski, M., 1986) to divide the topic into five distinct types.

==== Psychomotor overexcitability ====
Psychomotor overexcitability refers to an increased amount of energy. This may look like increased psychomotor arousal, or nervousness. The individual may engage in more [[wikipedia:Stimming|self stimulatory behaviours]] (stimming, fidgeting), in order to address excess psychomotor energy. (Piechowski, M.,1986) 

==== Sensual overexcitability ====
Individuals with sensual overexcitability experience sensory pleasures more intensely than others. Piechowski, a close collaborator with Dabrowski, quotes a &quot;keen sensual alliveness&quot; (Piechowski, M., 1986, pp.90). He stated in his 1986 publication, that sensual OE is expressed through looking for sensual outlets for internal tensions, notably through overeating and sexual experience. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Imaginational overexcitability ====
People who experience this form of overexcitability have an increased sense of imagination. This presents as the individual having more expressive imagery, metaphorical thinking, fantastical thinking and animalistic thinking, which all may become obvious to others through the ways in which the individual tells stories, narrates their experiences and expresses themselves. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Intellectual overexcitability ====
Intellectually overexcited individuals have more mental activity than others, making their thinking patterns more theoretical. These individuals generally have a intense desire to learn and understand a range of topics or perhaps fewer niche ones. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Emotional overexcitability ====
Individuals who are emotionally overexcited experience intense emotional relationships, more so than the general population. These relationships are often formed with and by people and other living things, as well as places of interest. (Piechowski, M., 1979)

=== Dynamisms ===
[https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/ Dynamisms] are processes of change, or the forces by which change is manifested. In relation to TPD, dynamisms serve to develop objectivity within an individual, relieve tensions which may not be conducive to creative processes and create conditions which allow the individual to develop their personality in ways which are psychically healthy. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) 

Dąbrowski posits (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) that the overexcitability factors of Emotional, Intellectual and Imaginational are the ones which play the most significant role in forming the dynamisms that shape and direct the development of personality

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Emotional, intellectual, and imaginational overexcitability play the significant role in the formation of developmental dynamisms that shape and direct personality development&quot; (Dąbrowski, K., 1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Developmental dynamisms which lack organization, or are spontaneous, do not generally contribute to the process of positive disintegration. Conversely, developmental dynamisms that are organized, and encourage understanding and reconceptualization, greatly contribute to the process of positive disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Abilities and talents ===
Abilities and talents are specific to the individual. At low levels of personality development, individuals utilise their talents and abilities to support person-centred goals, such as to support their progression within social and workplace hierarchies. At higher levels of personality development, individuals no longer only use their abilities and talents egocentrically, rather implementing them into their own personal hierarchy of values, so that they may firstly express their vision of their ideal personality and worldview, and then secondly, achieve it. (Piechowski, M., 2002) 

=== (Not so) secret third factor of personality development- drive/motivation ===
When considering the broader topic of motivation, the third factor of developmental potential really answers the question: How can TPD be applied to personal growth?. Dąbrowski outlines the third factor of DP to be a drive or motivation towards the growth and autonomy of the individual. As such, he posited that this third factor plays along with the second, as it '''requires''' that the individual apply their talents, abilities and creativity to the broad context of their autonomous expression. Due to this, the individual would then by '''motivated''' to achieve more and to begin to imagine and ideally achieve goals beyond their own expectations.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Third factor vs free will ===
Whilst seemingly similar and interrelated, Dąbrowski argues that there is an important distinction to be made between the two. He posited that free will, as a concept, did not encapsulate motivation, as somebody may have free will, but not be motivated towards growth. His Third Factor refers to motivation specifically as a drive to become one's unadulterated and honest self. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

The motivation of an individual to reach self-actualization may be (and often is) so intense that they may put themselves in harms way to do so. Whilst talking about motivation - especially in the context of the Theory of Positive Disintegration - it is crucial to ensure that one does not encourage others to seek out risk taking behaviours. When communicating the fact that circumstances which are hazardous or dangerous can lead to '''some''' individuals becoming closer to achieving their 'true self', one must highlight that this book chapter does not recommend that people go out of their way to endanger themselves. Some people feel that no cost is beyond the reward of 'being their real self', and as such, is not perfectly aligned with the concept of free will, because some people believe that their isn't really a choice here, that they must become themselves, no matter what.

=== Development potential - bottom line ===
Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration says that individuals with a high enough DP most likely will undergo disintegration, and that high Developmental Potential is positively related to likelihood of disintegration of their personality. In fact, TPD considers the case of a high DP individual not undergoing personality disintegration as an outlier.(Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

== Multi-level approach to understanding positive disintegration ==
Dąbrowski describes the continuity of personality development through a multilevel approach. His theory posits that DP actually contributes to the catalysing of a crisis. Overexcitability and the Third Factor (motivation/drive) combine to contribute to an individual seeking out experience which are anxiety and depression inducing. Dąbrowski referred to this phenomenon as [[wikipedia:Neurosis|psychoneurosis]]. This psychoneurosis (neurosis) contributes to disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== The levels of positive disintegration ===
Dąbrowski developed a multi-level system for describing positive disintegration. The levels are as follows:

==== Level 1: primary/primitive integration ====
Dąbrowski believed that people whose lives are largely guided by either biological impulse or social/environmental adherence, or both, are likely to live in a state of primary/primitive integration. He referred to these people as the 'average people', as they represent the majority of the general population. Dąbrowski posited that being at level of one was to be in a state contrary to a healthy mental state. He also stated that the average person has a '''fairly high''' degree of primary integration, and a psychopath would have a '''very high''' degree of primary integration. This level is characterized by selfishness, egocentrism and self fulfilment. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Most people never break this level of integration down at all. Out of those who do, the majority return to this level after a brief period of disintegration (Nelson, K. C.,1989).

Whilst this state is not generally conducive to a positive mental state, Dąbrowski found that those who return to this state after disintegration may have worth and value as this state is predictable and has innate structural stability, and when the individual possesses qualities of kindness and empathy may often provide support to people experiencing disintegration.(Nelson, K. C.,1989). 

==== Level II: unilevel disintegration ====
This level is characterised by an initial crisis or crises. Often extreme, these crises are spontaneous, and unexpected. The individual is not prepared, nor taught to be, for these crises. Unilevel crises always, and only, exist on one level. There is no choice between better or worse. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Often, these crises coincide with developmental crises such as puberty or menopause. This is because these crises are more likely to occur when the individual is experiencing difficulty coping with external events. This means that the crisis commonly occurs in conjunction with psychological distress. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

At this time, dynamisms begin to come into play. During Unilevel Disintegration, these dynamisms occur with a lack of self control and self-consciousness, due to this, these dynamisms may contribute to the individual being put in risk taking situations or dangerous circumstances. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Unilevel crises present themselves in two distinct forms. The first is through ambitendencies, where the individual is presented with two options that they are equally attracted to and must decide on one. The second is ambivalences, where the individual has no preference between the two options. If the forces of development are intense enough, and/or the developmental potential of the individual is high enough, the individual will face an existential crisis. This is because their previously conceptions of reason does not account for their experience and there is no other possible explanation for the way that they are feeling.

At this point, the individual experiences a heightened sense of existential despair, so much so that it usually becomes the predominant emotion of the individual at the time. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

In response to this, the individual must then tear down their prescribed values and form their own. During this time, we get phases of social rebellion, as social norms no longer make sense to the individual.

This causes the individual to begin to assess other aspects of life and the existence of others and their lives, creating for themselves further crises. Dąbrowski does not suggest this be avoided. Dąbrowski encourages rebellion. He posit that these crises are representations of a strong potential for development of personality, as well as having strong potential for positive mental health consequences. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level II is a transitory period. Individuals who do not progress to level III will either regress back to level I, or never escape level II. A lack of escape from this level is seen through [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide suicide] or [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychosis]]. An unreasonable, and an rarely achievable amount of energy is required to progress to level III. When facing the transition (forward to level III, or backward to level I), an individual has to decide whether to follow their instincts (factor one of personality development), what they have been taught (factor two), or their heart — or dreams for their future (factor three). To progress to level III, the individual must transform their low level instincts, such as emotional reactions, into positive motivational forces, and resist what has been taught, instead following their inner sense of what is right.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level III: spontaneous multilevel disintegration ====
At this level, the individual is faced with crises that transcend horizontal levels. Two alternatives do not exist on the same level, instead, one alternative is a lower choice (staying the same, or not becoming a better person, actuality) and one is a higher choice (imagined ideals). These crises require imaginational OE to navigate, as an individual with a genuine need to become their true selves would choose the higher alternative every time, knowing innately that it is the right one to chase. This means overcoming the ambivalences and ambitendencies of level II. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

If the individual's actual behaviour does not reach the level of their ideal self, the self-seeking individual will be driven (third factor) to reassess and rebuild their life. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level III is where the individual finds their '''drive''' and '''motivation''' for development. All future future events in life will henceforth be in relation to their ideal self, and it becomes unreasonable to be positioned in ways that favour a lower course of action, when a higher goal can be imagined (imaginational OE). (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level IV: directed multilevel disintegration ====
In this level, development is no longer enacted upon the individual involuntarily or spontaneously, rather the individual reviews life consciously, from the multilevel perspective. In this level, the third factor begins its full emergence as the individual guides their own life, affirming and rejecting aspects and qualities of their life and environment. Lower views and reactions get replaced by cautiously examined ideals. The individual's behaviour becomes less reactive and automatic, rather being deliberate and reflective of their higher, chosen ideals. Individuals within the highest levels of personality development place responsibility on themselves for protection of others, and for justice.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level V: secondary integration ====
The fifth level is similar to the first level, in that the individual's personality is no longer in a state of disintegration. However, it varies from the first level, as the individual's behaviour is guided by decisions formed from a hierarchy of personal values. Very little inner conflict exists at this level, because the person's behaviour is based on their inner standard of how life is meant to be lived. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

People who are at the fifth level of personality development see problem solving as well as art as the most noble features of human life, and are often marked by their creative expression. This is likely due to how art is seen to capture the artists deep understanding of the subject, which generally tend to be suffering and sacrifice for artists at this level of personal development. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

== Key points ==
* '''TPD''' is a theory of personality development proposed by Kazimierz Dąbrowski, suggesting that psychological stress can lead to personal growth.
* '''Core concepts:'''
** '''Positive disintegration:''' The process of breaking down existing personality structures to create a more integrated and authentic self.  
** '''Developmental potential (DP):''' The individual's capacity for growth and resilience.  
** '''Overexcitability:''' Increased sensitivity to stimuli in areas like psychomotor, sensual, imaginational, intellectual, and emotional. 
** '''Dynamisms:''' Forces that shape personality development, including organized and spontaneous processes.
** '''Levels of positive disintegration:''' A multi-level approach to personality development, from primary integration to secondary integration.
* '''Key stages of personality development:'''
** '''Primary/primitive integration:''' Initial state characterized by conformity and adherence to social norms.  
** '''Unilevel disintegration:''' Crisis-filled period of questioning and challenging existing beliefs.
** '''Spontaneous multilevel disintegration:''' A deeper level of questioning and self-reflection.  
** '''Directed multilevel disintegration:''' Conscious and deliberate development of personality.  
** '''Secondary integration:''' A final state of integration based on personal values and ideals.
* '''TPD emphasizes:'''
** The importance of psychological stress for personal growth.
** The role of individual choice and autonomy in personality development.
** The connection between overexcitability and developmental potential.  
** The transformative power of crises and challenges. 
* '''Overall, TPD offers a unique perspective on personality development, suggesting that adversity can be a catalyst for positive change.''' 
The key points section of this book chapter utilises genAI for its summary.

== Quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Level II of personality development is characterized by multilevel crises:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration posits that to develop personality past social adherence, one must face hardship and crisis:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
TPD offers a valuable framework for understanding personal growth and development. By recognizing the role of disintegration and cultivating sensitivity, individuals can embark on a journey of self-discovery and self-actualization.

TPD can be applied to personal growth, as the theory itself is one that focuses on how life events and crises impact decision making, and how decision making impacts personal growth. This is seen through the five levels of positive disintegration, where the linear path of disintegration includes changes at each level, which push the individual to grow rather than to decay. 

This theory is important, as it is a reminder that setbacks and crises do not make life meaningless. TPD posits that for people with a high development potential, these crises can actually be the catalyst for development and may ultimately be what the individual needs to become their true self. 

TPD ideates that individuals should seek out experience rather than waiting for it to happen. This theory encourages individuals to take control of their own growth on a personal level, rather than looking to change the world.

TPD teaches that personal growth must be just that; personal. Whilst positive disintegration requires the same path to be taken to reach secondary integration, the decisions made and the length of time it takes will always be different, and as such, one individual can not intentionally push others towards their personal growth. 

The key takeaways for this chapter are as follows:

# To embrace disintegration, as it is a natural process and an opportunity to break free from patterns and limitations.
# To cultivate a sense of sensitivity in themselves, to recognise their strengths and sensitivities and use them for growth through self reflection and creativity.
# To seek depth within their lives, explore their emotions, feelings and experiences and to challenge their beliefs and explore new perspectives.
# To embrace challenges; to learn from setbacks and view them as opportunities for growth.

Next time life throws you a curveball, try to recall this theory. Will you accept challenges and view them as an opportunity for growth, or avoid the crisis to hold on to primary integration?

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psychological trauma|Psychological Trauma]] (Book chapter, 2022)
* [[wikipedia:Antifragility|Antifragility]]
* [[wikipedia:Michael_Fordham#De-integration_and_re-integration|De-Integration and re-integration]]
* [[wikipedia:Personal_development|Personal Development]]
* [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_growth|Post-Traumatic Growth]]
* [[wikipedia:Personality_psychology|Personality Psychology]]
* [[wikipedia:Kazimierz_Dąbrowski|Kazimierz Dabrowski]]
* [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|Biological impulse]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA

Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive disintegration. Boston, MA: Little Brown.

Dabrowski, K. , Kawczak, A. &amp; Piechowski, M. (1970). Mental growth through positive Disintegration. London: Gryf Publication Ltd.

Google AI. (2024) Gemini. [large language model] https://gemini.google.com/app

He, W., Wong, W., &amp; Chan, M. (2017). Overexcitabilities as important psychological attributes of creativity: A dabrowskian perspective. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25(6), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.006

Nelson, K. C. (1989). Dabrowski's theory of positive disintegration. ''Advanced Development'', ''1'', 1-14.

Piechowski, M. M. (1979). Developmental potential. &quot;New voices in counseling the gifted.

Piechowski, M. M. (2002). Experiencing in a Higher Key; Dabrowski's Theory of and for the Gifted. 

Schläppy M. L. (2019). Understanding Mental Health Through the Theory of Positive Disintegration: A Visual Aid. ''Frontiers in psychology'', ''10'', 1291. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01291

Third Factor (2024, October). Dabrowski's Dynamisms: Subject-Object in Oneself. Retrieved from https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/

Thomasma, D.C., (2004). Morality as Impulse and Ethics as “Thinking” about Morality. INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF ETHICS, LAW, AND THE NEW MEDICINE, 309, 10.

Tillier, W. (1998). The basic concepts of Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration. The Dabrowski Newsletter, 5, 1-5.

Weckowicz, T. E. (1988). Kazimierz Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration and the American Humanistic Psychology. ''Counseling and Values, 32, 2.'' https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.1988.tb00706.x

Wikipedia (2023, September 29). Positive disintegration. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration

Wikipedia (2024, September 29). Social learning theory. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory

Wikipedia (2024, October 1). Stimming. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimming
}}

==External links==
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration Positive Disintegration]
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory Social Learning Theory]
*[[wikipedia:Stimming|Self-Stimulatory Behaviours]]
*[[wikipedia:Social_osmosis|Social Osmosis]]
*[[wikipedia:Neurosis|Neurosis]]
*[https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide Suicide]
*[[wikipedia:Psychosis|Psychosis]]
*[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ Altruism]

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      <text bytes="32560" sha1="h242veeqmq5hq40j2qw759gxzx0yabz" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth:&lt;br&gt;What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?}}
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__TOC__{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Focus questions:

How can high developmental potential impact decision making?

What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?

How can TPD be motivational to individuals experiencing the disintegration of their personality?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Overview==
The Theory of positive disintegration (TPD) is a theory of personality development, developed by Polish psychologist [[wikipedia:Kazimierz_Dąbrowski|Kazimierz Dąbrowski]], in which emotions play an essential role in motivation. TPD theorizes that personality development progresses from a state of primary integration, in which decisions are based off of [[mwod:egocentrism#:~:text=noun,or%20in%20disregard%20of%20others|egocentrism]], upward to intentional [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ altruism] and decisions influenced by empathy, compassion and self awareness. This ultimate level of personality development is known as secondary integration.

Between primary and secondary integration, there exist three stages of disintegration. Within these stages of disintegration, the initial personality of a person, shaped over the course of their life by [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|biological impulse]] and social and environmental adherence, is dismantled, to be ultimately replaced by a conscious and self-aware, self-created personality. Dąbrowski theorized that for personality to develop in full, integrated aspects of personality based on instinct and social learning must be broken down, or ''disintegrated''. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)[[File:Battling PTSD (4949341330) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. War Veteran (Tense events contribute to multilevel disintegration)|238x238px]]Importantly, TPD posits that personality development does not follow a time schedule, nor is significantly aligned with physical developmental milestones, such as puberty, pregnancy or menopause, however these milestones may include stressors which may influence the onset or continuation of positive disintegration. Positive disintegration can frequently occur during periods of intense stress. See Figure 1. Whilst not following a time schedule, TPD postulates that it always progresses in the same sequence; the five stages of positive disintegration, always in the same order.

During these stages of personality disintegration, development forces the person to make decisions, early on being unilateral, with no clear right or wrong decision, and later being multilevel decisions, where morally right and wrong decisions exist. Ultimately, morally correct decisions will be chosen the vast majority of the time, allowing the person to progress to secondary integration.

Not all people who begin their journey through positive disintegration will complete their personality development. In fact, some may shift back and forth between stages and until finally completing the development of their ideal personality, and others may never complete this journey. Some people may never leave the first stage of primary disintegration. This is dependent on developmental potential. Developmental potential refers to the influence of biological impulse, social and environmental adherence, overexcitability, abilities and talents, and motivation. People with a high enough developmental potential will generally undergo a complete remodelling of their personality through positive disintegration, so much so, that when an individual with a high developmental potential does not undergo positive disintegration, it is a statistical outlier. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

Dąbrowski believed (Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970) that an individual must develop their own hierarchy of values and emotional reactions to develop their personality, as well as recognition, appreciation and utilisation of their own autonomy. The majority of psychological theories surrounding personality and individual differences do not consider emotional reaction and response to play a key role in its production, where TPD does. TPD proposes that the way one reacts to emotional stimuli contributes greatly to the creation of their individual ''personality ideal'', which acts as the end-goal of self-development.     

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Case study example:

When Wyoh was in high school, they began to question &quot;why?&quot;.
Why are people so cruel? Why do I have to go to school? Why do I have to wear these clothes when I'd rather wear what I want to?
As a response to this, Wyoh began to make decisions about what they did, based on their own interest, but also about what they thought was just and right. They started wearing lots of elastic wristbands and changed their hairstyle. Sometimes they would skip school because they thought it was not helpful or worth going. These decisions exist on a singular level. There was no &quot;right&quot; or &quot;wrong&quot; decision here. Their decisions had consequences, but did not greatly change the way they though of themself. In doing this, Wyoh had begun their journey into positive disintegration. 

Over the next few years, Wyoh would travel back and forth between states of primary integration and unilateral disintegration, without ever moving past this point. Wyoh made many friends from different cliques and social groups throughout high school, due to their ever changing personality.

When Wyoh started at university, it became clear that their decisions had clear impacts on not only themself, but others as well. Their decisions would have clear right and wrong alternatives, and over time, their decisions reflected their morals and expectations of themself. Wyoh had finally progressed into the third stage of positive disintegration.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Development potential ==
Dąbrowski ideated ''Development Potential (DP)'', a way of measuring a response to stimuli.(Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970). Whether positive or negative, a strong DP means that the environment will play little role in the personality development. A weak DP means that the environment plays a more significant role. Dąbrowski highlights three major aspects of development potential as ''Overexcitability, Abilities and Talents, and the 'Third Factor' -'' an increased drive for autonomous growth.  

==== First factor: biological impulse ====
People who direct their energy and talents to serve egocentric goals and their biological needs, based on survival and self advancement are highly guided by this factor. (Tillier, W., 1998).

==== Second factor: social/environmental adherence ====
The second factor, based on the social environment and peer pressure, encourages mob mentality through the restriction of individual expression and creativity. This discourages individual thought. Parallel to the hive-mind effect seen commonly in cults, social forces shape individual behaviour. Behaviour is not in line with free will concepts, instead being reflective or conducive of social norms. In this factor, talents, behaviours, and creative outlets are redirected to follow the existing social morals and values. (Tillier, W., 1998).

Whilst this sounds like it opposes free will, people influenced by this factor are likely to behave ethically, as their conscience is formed by social context, as long as the social standards within the society are ethical. The concern is when these standards are not ethical, or become corrupt. In this case, people who are influenced greatly by the second factor are not likely to act against the unethical standards of the group. David C. Thomasma argues people within a society face challenges which may either allow the individual to grow, or push them to decay, throughout the course of their lives. These challenges impede their free choices and their ability to make customarily good choices, or even just to make their own decisions at all. (Thomasma and Weisstub, 2004. p10).

In general, when socialization occurs within this factor without an individual examining themself, they live a life parallel to that of a drone — robotic. Dąbrowski argues that a significant majority of the general population are primarily motivated by the second factor.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Overexcitability (OE) ===
In the context of TPD, overexcitability refers to the ways in which 'gifted' individuals have an increased capacity for experiencing stimuli, whether internal or external. These individuals experience stimuli more intensely than others, and this overexcitability is a prerequisite to positive disintegration. (Mendaglio and Tillier, 2006).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}Research study 

A 2017 Hong Kong study was conducted on the relationship between Overexcitabilities (OEs) and creativity, aligning with Dabrowski's theory. It found that individuals with higher levels of imaginational OE, followed by intellectual, emotional, sensual, and psychomotor OEs, tend to exhibit greater creativity with an astounding 71.8% accuracy rate among participants.

The research suggests that OEs can be a useful indicator for identifying creatively gifted individuals. However, the study's reliance on the overexcitability questionnaire two (OEQII) as the sole measure of OEs is a limitation. Future research should consider employing diverse assessment methods and acknowledge the inherent limitations of self-report measures.

Further, the study’s age range of the participants was a limitation as it only focused on students from grade 7-11. Which posits that the same research may be invalid in varying age ranges, future studies may benefit from gaining a broader understanding of the true relationship between OE and creativity (He et al., 2017).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Types of overexcitability ===
Overexcitability is a broad subject, leading Dabrowski (Dabrowski, K, 1996) and Piechowski (Piechowski, M., 1986) to divide the topic into five distinct types.

==== Psychomotor overexcitability ====
Psychomotor overexcitability refers to an increased amount of energy. This may look like increased psychomotor arousal, or nervousness. The individual may engage in more [[wikipedia:Stimming|self stimulatory behaviours]] (stimming, fidgeting), in order to address excess psychomotor energy. (Piechowski, M.,1986) 

==== Sensual overexcitability ====
Individuals with sensual overexcitability experience sensory pleasures more intensely than others. Piechowski, a close collaborator with Dabrowski, quotes a &quot;keen sensual alliveness&quot; (Piechowski, M., 1986, pp.90). He stated in his 1986 publication, that sensual OE is expressed through looking for sensual outlets for internal tensions, notably through overeating and sexual experience. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Imaginational overexcitability ====
People who experience this form of overexcitability have an increased sense of imagination. This presents as the individual having more expressive imagery, metaphorical thinking, fantastical thinking and animalistic thinking, which all may become obvious to others through the ways in which the individual tells stories, narrates their experiences and expresses themselves. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Intellectual overexcitability ====
Intellectually overexcited individuals have more mental activity than others, making their thinking patterns more theoretical. These individuals generally have a intense desire to learn and understand a range of topics or perhaps fewer niche ones. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Emotional overexcitability ====
Individuals who are emotionally overexcited experience intense emotional relationships, more so than the general population. These relationships are often formed with and by people and other living things, as well as places of interest. (Piechowski, M., 1979)

=== Dynamisms ===
[https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/ Dynamisms] are processes of change, or the forces by which change is manifested. In relation to TPD, dynamisms serve to develop objectivity within an individual, relieve tensions which may not be conducive to creative processes and create conditions which allow the individual to develop their personality in ways which are psychically healthy. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) 

Dąbrowski posits (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) that the overexcitability factors of Emotional, Intellectual and Imaginational are the ones which play the most significant role in forming the dynamisms that shape and direct the development of personality

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Emotional, intellectual, and imaginational overexcitability play the significant role in the formation of developmental dynamisms that shape and direct personality development&quot; (Dąbrowski, K., 1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Developmental dynamisms which lack organization, or are spontaneous, do not generally contribute to the process of positive disintegration. Conversely, developmental dynamisms that are organized, and encourage understanding and reconceptualization, greatly contribute to the process of positive disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Abilities and talents ===
Abilities and talents are specific to the individual. At low levels of personality development, individuals utilise their talents and abilities to support person-centred goals, such as to support their progression within social and workplace hierarchies. At higher levels of personality development, individuals no longer only use their abilities and talents egocentrically, rather implementing them into their own personal hierarchy of values, so that they may firstly express their vision of their ideal personality and worldview, and then secondly, achieve it. (Piechowski, M., 2002) 

=== (Not so) secret third factor of personality development- drive/motivation ===
When considering the broader topic of motivation, the third factor of developmental potential really answers the question: How can TPD be applied to personal growth?. Dąbrowski outlines the third factor of DP to be a drive or motivation towards the growth and autonomy of the individual. As such, he posited that this third factor plays along with the second, as it '''requires''' that the individual apply their talents, abilities and creativity to the broad context of their autonomous expression. Due to this, the individual would then by '''motivated''' to achieve more and to begin to imagine and ideally achieve goals beyond their own expectations.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Third factor vs free will ===
Whilst seemingly similar and interrelated, Dąbrowski argues that there is an important distinction to be made between the two. He posited that free will, as a concept, did not encapsulate motivation, as somebody may have free will, but not be motivated towards growth. His Third Factor refers to motivation specifically as a drive to become one's unadulterated and honest self. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

The motivation of an individual to reach self-actualization may be (and often is) so intense that they may put themselves in harms way to do so. Whilst talking about motivation - especially in the context of the Theory of Positive Disintegration - it is crucial to ensure that one does not encourage others to seek out risk taking behaviours. When communicating the fact that circumstances which are hazardous or dangerous can lead to '''some''' individuals becoming closer to achieving their 'true self', one must highlight that this book chapter does not recommend that people go out of their way to endanger themselves. Some people feel that no cost is beyond the reward of 'being their real self', and as such, is not perfectly aligned with the concept of free will, because some people believe that their isn't really a choice here, that they must become themselves, no matter what.

=== Development potential - bottom line ===
Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration says that individuals with a high enough DP most likely will undergo disintegration, and that high Developmental Potential is positively related to likelihood of disintegration of their personality. In fact, TPD considers the case of a high DP individual not undergoing personality disintegration as an outlier.(Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

== Multi-level approach to understanding positive disintegration ==
Dąbrowski describes the continuity of personality development through a multilevel approach. His theory posits that DP actually contributes to the catalysing of a crisis. Overexcitability and the Third Factor (motivation/drive) combine to contribute to an individual seeking out experience which are anxiety and depression inducing. Dąbrowski referred to this phenomenon as [[wikipedia:Neurosis|psychoneurosis]]. This psychoneurosis (neurosis) contributes to disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== The levels of positive disintegration ===
Dąbrowski developed a multi-level system for describing positive disintegration. The levels are as follows:

==== Level 1: primary/primitive integration ====
Dąbrowski believed that people whose lives are largely guided by either biological impulse or social/environmental adherence, or both, are likely to live in a state of primary/primitive integration. He referred to these people as the 'average people', as they represent the majority of the general population. Dąbrowski posited that being at level of one was to be in a state contrary to a healthy mental state. He also stated that the average person has a '''fairly high''' degree of primary integration, and a psychopath would have a '''very high''' degree of primary integration. This level is characterized by selfishness, egocentrism and self fulfilment. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Most people never break this level of integration down at all. Out of those who do, the majority return to this level after a brief period of disintegration (Nelson, K. C.,1989).

Whilst this state is not generally conducive to a positive mental state, Dąbrowski found that those who return to this state after disintegration may have worth and value as this state is predictable and has innate structural stability, and when the individual possesses qualities of kindness and empathy may often provide support to people experiencing disintegration.(Nelson, K. C.,1989). 

==== Level II: unilevel disintegration ====
This level is characterised by an initial crisis or crises. Often extreme, these crises are spontaneous, and unexpected. The individual is not prepared, nor taught to be, for these crises. Unilevel crises always, and only, exist on one level. There is no choice between better or worse. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Often, these crises coincide with developmental crises such as puberty or menopause. This is because these crises are more likely to occur when the individual is experiencing difficulty coping with external events. This means that the crisis commonly occurs in conjunction with psychological distress. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

At this time, dynamisms begin to come into play. During Unilevel Disintegration, these dynamisms occur with a lack of self control and self-consciousness, due to this, these dynamisms may contribute to the individual being put in risk taking situations or dangerous circumstances. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Unilevel crises present themselves in two distinct forms. The first is through ambitendencies, where the individual is presented with two options that they are equally attracted to and must decide on one. The second is ambivalences, where the individual has no preference between the two options. If the forces of development are intense enough, and/or the developmental potential of the individual is high enough, the individual will face an existential crisis. This is because their previously conceptions of reason does not account for their experience and there is no other possible explanation for the way that they are feeling.

At this point, the individual experiences a heightened sense of existential despair, so much so that it usually becomes the predominant emotion of the individual at the time. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

In response to this, the individual must then tear down their prescribed values and form their own. During this time, we get phases of social rebellion, as social norms no longer make sense to the individual.

This causes the individual to begin to assess other aspects of life and the existence of others and their lives, creating for themselves further crises. Dąbrowski does not suggest this be avoided. Dąbrowski encourages rebellion. He posit that these crises are representations of a strong potential for development of personality, as well as having strong potential for positive mental health consequences. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level II is a transitory period. Individuals who do not progress to level III will either regress back to level I, or never escape level II. A lack of escape from this level is seen through [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide suicide] or [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychosis]]. An unreasonable, and an rarely achievable amount of energy is required to progress to level III. When facing the transition (forward to level III, or backward to level I), an individual has to decide whether to follow their instincts (factor one of personality development), what they have been taught (factor two), or their heart — or dreams for their future (factor three). To progress to level III, the individual must transform their low level instincts, such as emotional reactions, into positive motivational forces, and resist what has been taught, instead following their inner sense of what is right.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level III: spontaneous multilevel disintegration ====
At this level, the individual is faced with crises that transcend horizontal levels. Two alternatives do not exist on the same level, instead, one alternative is a lower choice (staying the same, or not becoming a better person, actuality) and one is a higher choice (imagined ideals). These crises require imaginational OE to navigate, as an individual with a genuine need to become their true selves would choose the higher alternative every time, knowing innately that it is the right one to chase. This means overcoming the ambivalences and ambitendencies of level II. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

If the individual's actual behaviour does not reach the level of their ideal self, the self-seeking individual will be driven (third factor) to reassess and rebuild their life. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level III is where the individual finds their '''drive''' and '''motivation''' for development. All future future events in life will henceforth be in relation to their ideal self, and it becomes unreasonable to be positioned in ways that favour a lower course of action, when a higher goal can be imagined (imaginational OE). (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level IV: directed multilevel disintegration ====
In this level, development is no longer enacted upon the individual involuntarily or spontaneously, rather the individual reviews life consciously, from the multilevel perspective. In this level, the third factor begins its full emergence as the individual guides their own life, affirming and rejecting aspects and qualities of their life and environment. Lower views and reactions get replaced by cautiously examined ideals. The individual's behaviour becomes less reactive and automatic, rather being deliberate and reflective of their higher, chosen ideals. Individuals within the highest levels of personality development place responsibility on themselves for protection of others, and for justice.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level V: secondary integration ====
The fifth level is similar to the first level, in that the individual's personality is no longer in a state of disintegration. However, it varies from the first level, as the individual's behaviour is guided by decisions formed from a hierarchy of personal values. Very little inner conflict exists at this level, because the person's behaviour is based on their inner standard of how life is meant to be lived. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

People who are at the fifth level of personality development see problem solving as well as art as the most noble features of human life, and are often marked by their creative expression. This is likely due to how art is seen to capture the artists deep understanding of the subject, which generally tend to be suffering and sacrifice for artists at this level of personal development. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

== Key points ==
* '''TPD''' is a theory of personality development proposed by Kazimierz Dąbrowski, suggesting that psychological stress can lead to personal growth.
* '''Core concepts:'''
** '''Positive disintegration:''' The process of breaking down existing personality structures to create a more integrated and authentic self.  
** '''Developmental potential (DP):''' The individual's capacity for growth and resilience.  
** '''Overexcitability:''' Increased sensitivity to stimuli in areas like psychomotor, sensual, imaginational, intellectual, and emotional. 
** '''Dynamisms:''' Forces that shape personality development, including organized and spontaneous processes.
** '''Levels of positive disintegration:''' A multi-level approach to personality development, from primary integration to secondary integration.
* '''Key stages of personality development:'''
** '''Primary/primitive integration:''' Initial state characterized by conformity and adherence to social norms.  
** '''Unilevel disintegration:''' Crisis-filled period of questioning and challenging existing beliefs.
** '''Spontaneous multilevel disintegration:''' A deeper level of questioning and self-reflection.  
** '''Directed multilevel disintegration:''' Conscious and deliberate development of personality.  
** '''Secondary integration:''' A final state of integration based on personal values and ideals.
* '''TPD emphasizes:'''
** The importance of psychological stress for personal growth.
** The role of individual choice and autonomy in personality development.
** The connection between overexcitability and developmental potential.  
** The transformative power of crises and challenges. 
* '''Overall, TPD offers a unique perspective on personality development, suggesting that adversity can be a catalyst for positive change.''' 
The key points section of this book chapter utilises genAI for its summary.

== Quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Level II of personality development is characterized by multilevel crises:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration posits that to develop personality past social adherence, one must face hardship and crisis:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
TPD offers a valuable framework for understanding personal growth and development. By recognizing the role of disintegration and cultivating sensitivity, individuals can embark on a journey of self-discovery and self-actualization.

TPD can be applied to personal growth, as the theory itself is one that focuses on how life events and crises impact decision making, and how decision making impacts personal growth. This is seen through the five levels of positive disintegration, where the linear path of disintegration includes changes at each level, which push the individual to grow rather than to decay. 

This theory is important, as it is a reminder that setbacks and crises do not make life meaningless. TPD posits that for people with a high development potential, these crises can actually be the catalyst for development and may ultimately be what the individual needs to become their true self. 

TPD ideates that individuals should seek out experience rather than waiting for it to happen. This theory encourages individuals to take control of their own growth on a personal level, rather than looking to change the world.

TPD teaches that personal growth must be just that; personal. Whilst positive disintegration requires the same path to be taken to reach secondary integration, the decisions made and the length of time it takes will always be different, and as such, one individual can not intentionally push others towards their personal growth. 

The key takeaways for this chapter are as follows:

# To embrace disintegration, as it is a natural process and an opportunity to break free from patterns and limitations.
# To cultivate a sense of sensitivity in themselves, to recognise their strengths and sensitivities and use them for growth through self reflection and creativity.
# To seek depth within their lives, explore their emotions, feelings and experiences and to challenge their beliefs and explore new perspectives.
# To embrace challenges; to learn from setbacks and view them as opportunities for growth.

Next time life throws you a curveball, try to recall this theory. Will you accept challenges and view them as an opportunity for growth, or avoid the crisis to hold on to primary integration?

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psychological trauma|Psychological Trauma]] (Book chapter, 2022)
* [[wikipedia:Antifragility|Antifragility]]
* [[wikipedia:Michael_Fordham#De-integration_and_re-integration|De-Integration and re-integration]]
* [[wikipedia:Personal_development|Personal Development]]
* [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_growth|Post-Traumatic Growth]]
* [[wikipedia:Personality_psychology|Personality Psychology]]
* [[wikipedia:Kazimierz_Dąbrowski|Kazimierz Dabrowski]]
* [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|Biological impulse]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA

Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive disintegration. Boston, MA: Little Brown.

Dabrowski, K. , Kawczak, A. &amp; Piechowski, M. (1970). Mental growth through positive Disintegration. London: Gryf Publication Ltd.

Google AI. (2024) Gemini. [large language model] https://gemini.google.com/app

He, W., Wong, W., &amp; Chan, M. (2017). Overexcitabilities as important psychological attributes of creativity: A dabrowskian perspective. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25(6), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.006

Mendaglio, S., &amp; Tillier, W. (2006). Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration and Giftedness: Overexcitability Research Findings. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30(1), 68–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320603000104


Nelson, K. C. (1989). Dabrowski's theory of positive disintegration. ''Advanced Development'', ''1'', 1-14.

Piechowski, M. M. (1979). Developmental potential. &quot;New voices in counseling the gifted.

Piechowski, M. M. (2002). Experiencing in a Higher Key; Dabrowski's Theory of and for the Gifted. 

Schläppy M. L. (2019). Understanding Mental Health Through the Theory of Positive Disintegration: A Visual Aid. ''Frontiers in psychology'', ''10'', 1291. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01291

Third Factor (2024, October). Dabrowski's Dynamisms: Subject-Object in Oneself. Retrieved from https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/

Thomasma, D.C., (2004). Morality as Impulse and Ethics as “Thinking” about Morality. INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF ETHICS, LAW, AND THE NEW MEDICINE, 309, 10.

Tillier, W. (1998). The basic concepts of Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration. The Dabrowski Newsletter, 5, 1-5.

Weckowicz, T. E. (1988). Kazimierz Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration and the American Humanistic Psychology. ''Counseling and Values, 32, 2.'' https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.1988.tb00706.x

Wikipedia (2023, September 29). Positive disintegration. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration

Wikipedia (2024, September 29). Social learning theory. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory

Wikipedia (2024, October 1). Stimming. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimming
}}

==External links==
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration Positive Disintegration]
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory Social Learning Theory]
*[[wikipedia:Stimming|Self-Stimulatory Behaviours]]
*[[wikipedia:Social_osmosis|Social Osmosis]]
*[[wikipedia:Neurosis|Neurosis]]
*[https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide Suicide]
*[[wikipedia:Psychosis|Psychosis]]
*[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ Altruism]

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__TOC__{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Focus questions:

How can high developmental potential impact decision making?

What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth?

How can TPD be motivational to individuals experiencing the disintegration of their personality?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Overview==
The Theory of positive disintegration (TPD) is a theory of personality development, developed by Polish psychologist [[wikipedia:Kazimierz_Dąbrowski|Kazimierz Dąbrowski]], in which emotions play an essential role in motivation. TPD theorizes that personality development progresses from a state of primary integration, in which decisions are based off of [[mwod:egocentrism#:~:text=noun,or%20in%20disregard%20of%20others|egocentrism]], upward to intentional [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ altruism] and decisions influenced by empathy, compassion and self awareness. This ultimate level of personality development is known as secondary integration.

Between primary and secondary integration, there exist three stages of disintegration. Within these stages of disintegration, the initial personality of a person, shaped over the course of their life by [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|biological impulse]] and social and environmental adherence, is dismantled, to be ultimately replaced by a conscious and self-aware, self-created personality. Dąbrowski theorized that for personality to develop in full, integrated aspects of personality based on instinct and social learning must be broken down, or ''disintegrated''. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)[[File:Battling PTSD (4949341330) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. War Veteran (Tense events contribute to multilevel disintegration)|238x238px]]Importantly, TPD posits that personality development does not follow a time schedule, nor is significantly aligned with physical developmental milestones, such as puberty, pregnancy or menopause, however these milestones may include stressors which may influence the onset or continuation of positive disintegration. Positive disintegration can frequently occur during periods of intense stress. See Figure 1. Whilst not following a time schedule, TPD postulates that it always progresses in the same sequence; the five stages of positive disintegration, always in the same order.

During these stages of personality disintegration, development forces the person to make decisions, early on being unilateral, with no clear right or wrong decision, and later being multilevel decisions, where morally right and wrong decisions exist. Ultimately, morally correct decisions will be chosen the vast majority of the time, allowing the person to progress to secondary integration.

Not all people who begin their journey through positive disintegration will complete their personality development. In fact, some may shift back and forth between stages and until finally completing the development of their ideal personality, and others may never complete this journey. Some people may never leave the first stage of primary disintegration. This is dependent on developmental potential. Developmental potential refers to the influence of biological impulse, social and environmental adherence, overexcitability, abilities and talents, and motivation. People with a high enough developmental potential will generally undergo a complete remodelling of their personality through positive disintegration, so much so, that when an individual with a high developmental potential does not undergo positive disintegration, it is a statistical outlier. (Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

Dąbrowski believed (Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970) that an individual must develop their own hierarchy of values and emotional reactions to develop their personality, as well as recognition, appreciation and utilisation of their own autonomy. The majority of psychological theories surrounding personality and individual differences do not consider emotional reaction and response to play a key role in its production, where TPD does. TPD proposes that the way one reacts to emotional stimuli contributes greatly to the creation of their individual ''personality ideal'', which acts as the end-goal of self-development.     

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}Case study example:

When Wyoh was in high school, they began to question &quot;why?&quot;.
Why are people so cruel? Why do I have to go to school? Why do I have to wear these clothes when I'd rather wear what I want to?
As a response to this, Wyoh began to make decisions about what they did, based on their own interest, but also about what they thought was just and right. They started wearing lots of elastic wristbands and changed their hairstyle. Sometimes they would skip school because they thought it was not helpful or worth going. These decisions exist on a singular level. There was no &quot;right&quot; or &quot;wrong&quot; decision here. Their decisions had consequences, but did not greatly change the way they though of themself. In doing this, Wyoh had begun their journey into positive disintegration. 

Over the next few years, Wyoh would travel back and forth between states of primary integration and unilateral disintegration, without ever moving past this point. Wyoh made many friends from different cliques and social groups throughout high school, due to their ever changing personality.

When Wyoh started at university, it became clear that their decisions had clear impacts on not only themself, but others as well. Their decisions would have clear right and wrong alternatives, and over time, their decisions reflected their morals and expectations of themself. Wyoh had finally progressed into the third stage of positive disintegration.

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== Development potential ==
Dąbrowski ideated ''Development Potential (DP)'', a way of measuring a response to stimuli.(Dabrowski, Kawczak, &amp; Piechowski, 1970). Whether positive or negative, a strong DP means that the environment will play little role in the personality development. A weak DP means that the environment plays a more significant role. Dąbrowski highlights three major aspects of development potential as ''Overexcitability, Abilities and Talents, and the 'Third Factor' -'' an increased drive for autonomous growth.  

==== First factor: biological impulse ====
People who direct their energy and talents to serve egocentric goals and their biological needs, based on survival and self advancement are highly guided by this factor. (Tillier, W., 1998).

==== Second factor: social/environmental adherence ====
The second factor, based on the social environment and peer pressure, encourages mob mentality through the restriction of individual expression and creativity. This discourages individual thought. Parallel to the hive-mind effect seen commonly in cults, social forces shape individual behaviour. Behaviour is not in line with free will concepts, instead being reflective or conducive of social norms. In this factor, talents, behaviours, and creative outlets are redirected to follow the existing social morals and values. (Tillier, W., 1998).

Whilst this sounds like it opposes free will, people influenced by this factor are likely to behave ethically, as their conscience is formed by social context, as long as the social standards within the society are ethical. The concern is when these standards are not ethical, or become corrupt. In this case, people who are influenced greatly by the second factor are not likely to act against the unethical standards of the group. David C. Thomasma argues people within a society face challenges which may either allow the individual to grow, or push them to decay, throughout the course of their lives. These challenges impede their free choices and their ability to make customarily good choices, or even just to make their own decisions at all. (Thomasma and Weisstub, 2004. p10).

In general, when socialization occurs within this factor without an individual examining themself, they live a life parallel to that of a drone — robotic. Dąbrowski argues that a significant majority of the general population are primarily motivated by the second factor.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Overexcitability (OE) ===
In the context of TPD, overexcitability refers to the ways in which 'gifted' individuals have an increased capacity for experiencing stimuli, whether internal or external. These individuals experience stimuli more intensely than others, and this overexcitability is a prerequisite to positive disintegration. (Mendaglio and Tillier, 2006).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}Research study 

A 2017 Hong Kong study was conducted on the relationship between Overexcitabilities (OEs) and creativity, aligning with Dabrowski's theory. It found that individuals with higher levels of imaginational OE, followed by intellectual, emotional, sensual, and psychomotor OEs, tend to exhibit greater creativity with an astounding 71.8% accuracy rate among participants.

The research suggests that OEs can be a useful indicator for identifying creatively gifted individuals. However, the study's reliance on the overexcitability questionnaire two (OEQII) as the sole measure of OEs is a limitation. Future research should consider employing diverse assessment methods and acknowledge the inherent limitations of self-report measures.

Further, the study’s age range of the participants was a limitation as it only focused on students from grade 7-11. Which posits that the same research may be invalid in varying age ranges, future studies may benefit from gaining a broader understanding of the true relationship between OE and creativity (He et al., 2017).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Types of overexcitability ===
Overexcitability is a broad subject, leading Dabrowski (Dabrowski, K, 1996) and Piechowski (Piechowski, M., 1986) to divide the topic into five distinct types.

==== Psychomotor overexcitability ====
Psychomotor overexcitability refers to an increased amount of energy. This may look like increased psychomotor arousal, or nervousness. The individual may engage in more [[wikipedia:Stimming|self stimulatory behaviours]] (stimming, fidgeting), in order to address excess psychomotor energy. (Piechowski, M.,1986) 

==== Sensual overexcitability ====
Individuals with sensual overexcitability experience sensory pleasures more intensely than others. Piechowski, a close collaborator with Dabrowski, quotes a &quot;keen sensual alliveness&quot; (Piechowski, M., 1986, pp.90). He stated in his 1986 publication, that sensual OE is expressed through looking for sensual outlets for internal tensions, notably through overeating and sexual experience. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Imaginational overexcitability ====
People who experience this form of overexcitability have an increased sense of imagination. This presents as the individual having more expressive imagery, metaphorical thinking, fantastical thinking and animalistic thinking, which all may become obvious to others through the ways in which the individual tells stories, narrates their experiences and expresses themselves. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Intellectual overexcitability ====
Intellectually overexcited individuals have more mental activity than others, making their thinking patterns more theoretical. These individuals generally have a intense desire to learn and understand a range of topics or perhaps fewer niche ones. (Nelson, K., 1989).

==== Emotional overexcitability ====
Individuals who are emotionally overexcited experience intense emotional relationships, more so than the general population. These relationships are often formed with and by people and other living things, as well as places of interest. (Piechowski, M., 1979)

=== Dynamisms ===
[https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/ Dynamisms] are processes of change, or the forces by which change is manifested. In relation to TPD, dynamisms serve to develop objectivity within an individual, relieve tensions which may not be conducive to creative processes and create conditions which allow the individual to develop their personality in ways which are psychically healthy. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) 

Dąbrowski posits (Dąbrowski, K., 1964) that the overexcitability factors of Emotional, Intellectual and Imaginational are the ones which play the most significant role in forming the dynamisms that shape and direct the development of personality

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Emotional, intellectual, and imaginational overexcitability play the significant role in the formation of developmental dynamisms that shape and direct personality development&quot; (Dąbrowski, K., 1996)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Developmental dynamisms which lack organization, or are spontaneous, do not generally contribute to the process of positive disintegration. Conversely, developmental dynamisms that are organized, and encourage understanding and reconceptualization, greatly contribute to the process of positive disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Abilities and talents ===
Abilities and talents are specific to the individual. At low levels of personality development, individuals utilise their talents and abilities to support person-centred goals, such as to support their progression within social and workplace hierarchies. At higher levels of personality development, individuals no longer only use their abilities and talents egocentrically, rather implementing them into their own personal hierarchy of values, so that they may firstly express their vision of their ideal personality and worldview, and then secondly, achieve it. (Piechowski, M., 2002) 

=== (Not so) secret third factor of personality development- drive/motivation ===
When considering the broader topic of motivation, the third factor of developmental potential really answers the question: How can TPD be applied to personal growth?. Dąbrowski outlines the third factor of DP to be a drive or motivation towards the growth and autonomy of the individual. As such, he posited that this third factor plays along with the second, as it '''requires''' that the individual apply their talents, abilities and creativity to the broad context of their autonomous expression. Due to this, the individual would then by '''motivated''' to achieve more and to begin to imagine and ideally achieve goals beyond their own expectations.(Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== Third factor vs free will ===
Whilst seemingly similar and interrelated, Dąbrowski argues that there is an important distinction to be made between the two. He posited that free will, as a concept, did not encapsulate motivation, as somebody may have free will, but not be motivated towards growth. His Third Factor refers to motivation specifically as a drive to become one's unadulterated and honest self. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

The motivation of an individual to reach self-actualization may be (and often is) so intense that they may put themselves in harms way to do so. Whilst talking about motivation - especially in the context of the Theory of Positive Disintegration - it is crucial to ensure that one does not encourage others to seek out risk taking behaviours. When communicating the fact that circumstances which are hazardous or dangerous can lead to '''some''' individuals becoming closer to achieving their 'true self', one must highlight that this book chapter does not recommend that people go out of their way to endanger themselves. Some people feel that no cost is beyond the reward of 'being their real self', and as such, is not perfectly aligned with the concept of free will, because some people believe that their isn't really a choice here, that they must become themselves, no matter what.

=== Development potential - bottom line ===
Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration says that individuals with a high enough DP most likely will undergo disintegration, and that high Developmental Potential is positively related to likelihood of disintegration of their personality. In fact, TPD considers the case of a high DP individual not undergoing personality disintegration as an outlier.(Dąbrowski, K., 1970)

== Multi-level approach to understanding positive disintegration ==
Dąbrowski describes the continuity of personality development through a multilevel approach. His theory posits that DP actually contributes to the catalysing of a crisis. Overexcitability and the Third Factor (motivation/drive) combine to contribute to an individual seeking out experience which are anxiety and depression inducing. Dąbrowski referred to this phenomenon as [[wikipedia:Neurosis|psychoneurosis]]. This psychoneurosis (neurosis) contributes to disintegration. (Dąbrowski, K., 1964).

=== The levels of positive disintegration ===
Dąbrowski developed a multi-level system for describing positive disintegration. The levels are as follows:

==== Level 1: primary/primitive integration ====
Dąbrowski believed that people whose lives are largely guided by either biological impulse or social/environmental adherence, or both, are likely to live in a state of primary/primitive integration. He referred to these people as the 'average people', as they represent the majority of the general population. Dąbrowski posited that being at level of one was to be in a state contrary to a healthy mental state. He also stated that the average person has a '''fairly high''' degree of primary integration, and a psychopath would have a '''very high''' degree of primary integration. This level is characterized by selfishness, egocentrism and self fulfilment. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Most people never break this level of integration down at all. Out of those who do, the majority return to this level after a brief period of disintegration (Nelson, K. C.,1989).

Whilst this state is not generally conducive to a positive mental state, Dąbrowski found that those who return to this state after disintegration may have worth and value as this state is predictable and has innate structural stability, and when the individual possesses qualities of kindness and empathy may often provide support to people experiencing disintegration.(Nelson, K. C.,1989). 

==== Level II: unilevel disintegration ====
This level is characterised by an initial crisis or crises. Often extreme, these crises are spontaneous, and unexpected. The individual is not prepared, nor taught to be, for these crises. Unilevel crises always, and only, exist on one level. There is no choice between better or worse. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Often, these crises coincide with developmental crises such as puberty or menopause. This is because these crises are more likely to occur when the individual is experiencing difficulty coping with external events. This means that the crisis commonly occurs in conjunction with psychological distress. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

At this time, dynamisms begin to come into play. During Unilevel Disintegration, these dynamisms occur with a lack of self control and self-consciousness, due to this, these dynamisms may contribute to the individual being put in risk taking situations or dangerous circumstances. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Unilevel crises present themselves in two distinct forms. The first is through ambitendencies, where the individual is presented with two options that they are equally attracted to and must decide on one. The second is ambivalences, where the individual has no preference between the two options. If the forces of development are intense enough, and/or the developmental potential of the individual is high enough, the individual will face an existential crisis. This is because their previously conceptions of reason does not account for their experience and there is no other possible explanation for the way that they are feeling.

At this point, the individual experiences a heightened sense of existential despair, so much so that it usually becomes the predominant emotion of the individual at the time. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

In response to this, the individual must then tear down their prescribed values and form their own. During this time, we get phases of social rebellion, as social norms no longer make sense to the individual.

This causes the individual to begin to assess other aspects of life and the existence of others and their lives, creating for themselves further crises. Dąbrowski does not suggest this be avoided. Dąbrowski encourages rebellion. He posit that these crises are representations of a strong potential for development of personality, as well as having strong potential for positive mental health consequences. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level II is a transitory period. Individuals who do not progress to level III will either regress back to level I, or never escape level II. A lack of escape from this level is seen through [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide suicide] or [[wikipedia:Psychosis|psychosis]]. An unreasonable, and an rarely achievable amount of energy is required to progress to level III. When facing the transition (forward to level III, or backward to level I), an individual has to decide whether to follow their instincts (factor one of personality development), what they have been taught (factor two), or their heart — or dreams for their future (factor three). To progress to level III, the individual must transform their low level instincts, such as emotional reactions, into positive motivational forces, and resist what has been taught, instead following their inner sense of what is right.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level III: spontaneous multilevel disintegration ====
At this level, the individual is faced with crises that transcend horizontal levels. Two alternatives do not exist on the same level, instead, one alternative is a lower choice (staying the same, or not becoming a better person, actuality) and one is a higher choice (imagined ideals). These crises require imaginational OE to navigate, as an individual with a genuine need to become their true selves would choose the higher alternative every time, knowing innately that it is the right one to chase. This means overcoming the ambivalences and ambitendencies of level II. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

If the individual's actual behaviour does not reach the level of their ideal self, the self-seeking individual will be driven (third factor) to reassess and rebuild their life. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

Level III is where the individual finds their '''drive''' and '''motivation''' for development. All future future events in life will henceforth be in relation to their ideal self, and it becomes unreasonable to be positioned in ways that favour a lower course of action, when a higher goal can be imagined (imaginational OE). (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level IV: directed multilevel disintegration ====
In this level, development is no longer enacted upon the individual involuntarily or spontaneously, rather the individual reviews life consciously, from the multilevel perspective. In this level, the third factor begins its full emergence as the individual guides their own life, affirming and rejecting aspects and qualities of their life and environment. Lower views and reactions get replaced by cautiously examined ideals. The individual's behaviour becomes less reactive and automatic, rather being deliberate and reflective of their higher, chosen ideals. Individuals within the highest levels of personality development place responsibility on themselves for protection of others, and for justice.(Nelson, K. C.,1989)

==== Level V: secondary integration ====
The fifth level is similar to the first level, in that the individual's personality is no longer in a state of disintegration. However, it varies from the first level, as the individual's behaviour is guided by decisions formed from a hierarchy of personal values. Very little inner conflict exists at this level, because the person's behaviour is based on their inner standard of how life is meant to be lived. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

People who are at the fifth level of personality development see problem solving as well as art as the most noble features of human life, and are often marked by their creative expression. This is likely due to how art is seen to capture the artists deep understanding of the subject, which generally tend to be suffering and sacrifice for artists at this level of personal development. (Nelson, K. C.,1989)

== Key points ==
* '''TPD''' is a theory of personality development proposed by Kazimierz Dąbrowski, suggesting that psychological stress can lead to personal growth.
* '''Core concepts:'''
** '''Positive disintegration:''' The process of breaking down existing personality structures to create a more integrated and authentic self.  
** '''Developmental potential (DP):''' The individual's capacity for growth and resilience.  
** '''Overexcitability:''' Increased sensitivity to stimuli in areas like psychomotor, sensual, imaginational, intellectual, and emotional. 
** '''Dynamisms:''' Forces that shape personality development, including organized and spontaneous processes.
** '''Levels of positive disintegration:''' A multi-level approach to personality development, from primary integration to secondary integration.
* '''Key stages of personality development:'''
** '''Primary/primitive integration:''' Initial state characterized by conformity and adherence to social norms.  
** '''Unilevel disintegration:''' Crisis-filled period of questioning and challenging existing beliefs.
** '''Spontaneous multilevel disintegration:''' A deeper level of questioning and self-reflection.  
** '''Directed multilevel disintegration:''' Conscious and deliberate development of personality.  
** '''Secondary integration:''' A final state of integration based on personal values and ideals.
* '''TPD emphasizes:'''
** The importance of psychological stress for personal growth.
** The role of individual choice and autonomy in personality development.
** The connection between overexcitability and developmental potential.  
** The transformative power of crises and challenges. 
* '''Overall, TPD offers a unique perspective on personality development, suggesting that adversity can be a catalyst for positive change.''' 
The key points section of this book chapter utilises genAI for its summary.

== Quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Level II of personality development is characterized by multilevel crises:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Dąbrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration posits that to develop personality past social adherence, one must face hardship and crisis:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
TPD offers a valuable framework for understanding personal growth and development. By recognizing the role of disintegration and cultivating sensitivity, individuals can embark on a journey of self-discovery and self-actualization.

TPD can be applied to personal growth, as the theory itself is one that focuses on how life events and crises impact decision making, and how decision making impacts personal growth. This is seen through the five levels of positive disintegration, where the linear path of disintegration includes changes at each level, which push the individual to grow rather than to decay. 

This theory is important, as it is a reminder that setbacks and crises do not make life meaningless. TPD posits that for people with a high development potential, these crises can actually be the catalyst for development and may ultimately be what the individual needs to become their true self. 

TPD ideates that individuals should seek out experience rather than waiting for it to happen. This theory encourages individuals to take control of their own growth on a personal level, rather than looking to change the world.

TPD teaches that personal growth must be just that; personal. Whilst positive disintegration requires the same path to be taken to reach secondary integration, the decisions made and the length of time it takes will always be different, and as such, one individual can not intentionally push others towards their personal growth. 

The key takeaways for this chapter are as follows:

# To embrace disintegration, as it is a natural process and an opportunity to break free from patterns and limitations.
# To cultivate a sense of sensitivity in themselves, to recognise their strengths and sensitivities and use them for growth through self reflection and creativity.
# To seek depth within their lives, explore their emotions, feelings and experiences and to challenge their beliefs and explore new perspectives.
# To embrace challenges; to learn from setbacks and view them as opportunities for growth.

Next time life throws you a curveball, try to recall this theory. Will you accept challenges and view them as an opportunity for growth, or avoid the crisis to hold on to primary integration?

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psychological trauma|Psychological Trauma]] (Book chapter, 2022)
* [[wikipedia:Antifragility|Antifragility]]
* [[wikipedia:Michael_Fordham#De-integration_and_re-integration|De-Integration and re-integration]]
* [[wikipedia:Personal_development|Personal Development]]
* [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_growth|Post-Traumatic Growth]]
* [[wikipedia:Personality_psychology|Personality Psychology]]
* [[wikipedia:Kazimierz_Dąbrowski|Kazimierz Dabrowski]]
* [[wikipedia:Impulsivity|Biological impulse]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA

Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive disintegration. Boston, MA: Little Brown.

Dabrowski, K. , Kawczak, A. &amp; Piechowski, M. (1970). Mental growth through positive Disintegration. London: Gryf Publication Ltd.

Google AI. (2024) Gemini. [large language model] https://gemini.google.com/app

He, W., Wong, W., &amp; Chan, M. (2017). Overexcitabilities as important psychological attributes of creativity: A dabrowskian perspective. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25(6), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.06.006

Mendaglio, S., &amp; Tillier, W. (2006). Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration and Giftedness: Overexcitability Research Findings. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30(1), 68–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320603000104


Nelson, K. C. (1989). Dabrowski's theory of positive disintegration. ''Advanced Development'', ''1'', 1-14.

Piechowski, M. M. (1979). Developmental potential. &quot;New voices in counseling the gifted.

Piechowski, M. M. (2002). Experiencing in a Higher Key; Dabrowski's Theory of and for the Gifted. 

Schläppy M. L. (2019). Understanding Mental Health Through the Theory of Positive Disintegration: A Visual Aid. ''Frontiers in psychology'', ''10'', 1291. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01291

Third Factor (2024, October). Dabrowski's Dynamisms: Subject-Object in Oneself. Retrieved from https://www.thirdfactor.org/subject-object-in-oneself/

Thomasma, D.C., (2004). Morality as Impulse and Ethics as “Thinking” about Morality. INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF ETHICS, LAW, AND THE NEW MEDICINE, 309, 10.

Tillier, W. (1998). The basic concepts of Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration. The Dabrowski Newsletter, 5, 1-5.

Weckowicz, T. E. (1988). Kazimierz Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration and the American Humanistic Psychology. ''Counseling and Values, 32, 2.'' https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.1988.tb00706.x

Wikipedia (2023, September 29). Positive disintegration. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration

Wikipedia (2024, September 29). Social learning theory. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory

Wikipedia (2024, October 1). Stimming. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimming
}}

==External links==
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_disintegration Positive Disintegration]
*[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory Social Learning Theory]
*[[wikipedia:Stimming|Self-Stimulatory Behaviours]]
*[[wikipedia:Social_osmosis|Social Osmosis]]
*[[wikipedia:Neurosis|Neurosis]]
*[https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide Suicide]
*[[wikipedia:Psychosis|Psychosis]]
*[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/ Altruism]

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      <text bytes="15753" sha1="equminwajeax681fd1weeu9rjzedr6l" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|U3242288}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:* Breadth vs. depth. This is a broad topic, which is fine, but it will need to be an overview, with embedded links to more specific chapters. However, if you find that you are interested in a specific aspect of this topic we can also tailor a different, more specific topic.
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Life satisfaction]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Personality]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:23, 6 August 2024 (UTC)

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# Partial development of key points for some sections, with some relevant citations
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# It is unclear whether the best available psychological theory and research has been consulted in the preparation of this plan
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - A relevant figure is presented, captioned, and cited
# Consider the difference between happiness and life satisfaction
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# One use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of example(s)/case study(ies)
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Are there any systematic reviews about this topic?
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to External links
# For [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style], check and correct:
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
# External links
## Excellent
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Brief description about self – consider expanding
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# Link provided to book chapter
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# One out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence
# The other types of contribution are making:
## comments on chapters (past or current)
## posts about the unit or project on other platforms
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:56, 18 August 2024 (UTC)

== Sub-heading suggestion ==

Hi! Your page is looking great, and the information provided is very interesting. I noticed that under your heading 'Relationship between personality and life satisfaction' you have a lot of smaller headings, I would recommend changing them to actual sub-headings that way they appear in the contents on the side. Looking forward to seeing the final version! [[User:Tatteredwing|Tatteredwing]] ([[User talk:Tatteredwing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tatteredwing|contribs]]) 00:04, 2 October 2024 (UTC)

== Feedback ==

Hi,

I have added some clarification templates through your chapter for your consideration. Your discussion of research is great and provides a great opportunity to discuss avenues for future research. Hope this helps!

Chelsea [[User:U3216883|U3216883]] ([[User talk:U3216883|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216883|contribs]]) 01:33, 2 October 2024 (UTC)

== Feedback ==

Hi @[[User:U3242288|U3242288]]

Really nice chapter! I just read through it and i thought i might provide some feedback.

One big thing that stood out to me while I was reading was that some sections were quite large without much to break them up, such as quizzes or figures for example. I noticed that all but one of your quiz question were located at the end of the chapter, and a thought they might be more valuable if you spaced them out throughout the chapter, like what  you did with the first quiz, having the content related to the info before it.

overall great chapter I enjoyed reading it. [[User:U3230258|U3230258]] ([[User talk:U3230258|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3230258|contribs]]) 22:35, 5 October 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FLife_satisfaction_and_personality&amp;diff=2670326&amp;oldid=2665773 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Explains the problem or phenomenon
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds effectively on related chapters and Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists are to help clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Some use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent review of relevant research
# Excellent critical thinking about relevant research is evident
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent integration between theory and research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is very good
## Use active (e.g., &quot;this chapter explores&quot;) rather than passive voice (e.g., &quot;this chapter has explored&quot; or &quot;this chapter will explore&quot;) [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/]
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Figures are briefly captioned
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.). For example:
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Separate page numbers using an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
### Move non-peer-reviewed sources to the external links section
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of image(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Very good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
# The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the relationship between personality and life satisfaction
# The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also, external links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Also include links to related book chapters
# Good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Could be more focused on the relationship between personality and life satisfaction
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~13 logged, very useful, mostly major social contributions with direct links to evidence
# Thanks very much for your contributions
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:00, 13 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a very good presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes good use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent take-home message(s)
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Very good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well practiced and/or performed
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was very good to excellent
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented on one slide (table) could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is well produced using simple tools
# Hide the recording bar
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:51, 7 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>equminwajeax681fd1weeu9rjzedr6l</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Role-playing games, motivation, and emotion</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>306758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681809</id>
      <parentid>2676415</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T09:11:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681809</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16129" sha1="etgdjn4d5yuk01anycd1192uhslmkfo" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|AndreaChau}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Games]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:06, 6 August 2024 (UTC)

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:AndreaChau|Hi [[User:AndreaChau|AndreaChau]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:37, 5 October 2024 (UTC)
|}
&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and sub-title are correctly worded and formatted
# Note that I've made very minor changes to the sub-title meaning (same purpose/meaning)
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Excellent – Well developed 2-level heading structure. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic.
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Good alignment between focus questions and heading structure
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help catch reader interest
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Promising development of key points for each section, with relevant citations
# For sections which include sub-sections, include the key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Then focus most of the content on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title.
# The definitional material about types of RPGs could be efficiently summarised in a table
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Good balance of theory and research
&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use APA style 7th edition for citations with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year)
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# I recommend using the [https://unicanberra.instructure.com/courses/15707/external_tools/262?display=borderless Studiosity] service and/or a service like [https://www.grammarly.com/ Grammarly] to help improve the quality of written expression such as checking grammatical and spelling errors
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Well developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# A relevant figure is presented and captioned
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Caption could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Include in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Placeholder use of one or more scenarios/examples/case studies 
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Consider including one or more quiz question(s) about the take-home messages
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Excellent
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent – used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# One out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making:
## comments on chapters (past or current)
## posts about the unit or project on other platforms
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:23, 23 August 2024 (UTC)

== Figure 2 discrepancy ==

Hello,

The image you used for figure 2 to represent an online RPG is actually from a 1997 single-player RPG, final fantasy 7. The final fantasy game you're looking for is final fantasy 14 :3 it's very confusing considering ff15 is back to a single-player game, just wanted to let you know if you wanted more accuracy :3 [[User:U3249300|U3249300]] ([[User talk:U3249300|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3249300|contribs]]) 13:53, 4 October 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FRole-playing_games%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2676414&amp;oldid=2665839 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Explains the problem or phenomenon reasonably well
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds effectively on related chapters and Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Use tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent review of relevant research
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses about effects/impacts?
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Very good critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Claims are well referenced
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent integration between theory and research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is excellent
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar, spelling, and proofreading are excellent
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Basic use of captions
### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.)
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use very good/ APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Separate page numbers using an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Very good use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Embedded links to Wikipedia --&gt;
# Very good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features - Embedded links to Wikiversity --&gt;
# No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Basic use of image(s)
# No use of table(s)
# Good use of feature box(es)
# Reasonably good use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~14 logged, useful, mostly moderate to major social contributions with direct links to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:40, 26 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a very good to excellent presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide(s) convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
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|3=
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&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
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|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
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# Audio communication is well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Very good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well practiced and/or performed
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
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# Overall, visual display quality is excellent
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is well produced using simple tools
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link from the book chapter is provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
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}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:11, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Kiara Stone (UC)</title>
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      <text bytes="12492" sha1="nef7bg61q7v1ksx24owfynx4s327cp4" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello everyone 

I am Kiara. I am in my final year of a Bachelor of Science in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am looking forward to contributing to the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024|Motivation and Emotion Book 2024]].

== Hobbies ==
Things I like to do:

* Hang out with my cat - her name is Saffron
* Listen to music
* Read fantasy books

== Book chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Theoretical domains framework|Theoretical domains framework]]

=== My pages ===
[[33 Theories making up the theoretical domains framework]]

[[TDF Michie et al. (2005) example questions]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FAbusive_supervision&amp;diff=2646140&amp;oldid=2644778 12:12, 15/09/2024, Informed and suggested they were missing a introductory paragraph in Abusive supervision chapter (2023)] 
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FStretch_goals&amp;diff=2646180&amp;oldid=2578608 12:24, 15/09/2024, Made a suggestion about how to make the introduction more engaging to readers in Stretch goals (2023)]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FEgo_death&amp;diff=2646222&amp;oldid=2628182 12:37, 15/09/2024, They had a definition but had not referenced it I asked if it was factual and if so it should have a reference in Ego death chapter (2023)] 
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FMultiple_selves_theory%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2646236&amp;oldid=2641523 12:41, 15/09/2024, Made a suggestion about how to make the introduction more engaging to readers in Multiple selves theory, motivation, and emotion chapter (2023)]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FImpact_bias&amp;diff=2666536&amp;oldid=2641796 13:10, 07/10/2024, APA formatted reference list and added in missing DOIs in Impact bias chapter (2023)]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FAbusive_supervision&amp;diff=2666562&amp;oldid=2666257 14:38, 07/10/2024, APA formatted reference list, alphabetised and corrected DOIs in Abusive supervision chapter (2023) (references that required retrieval dates weren't edited)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FDeath_drive&amp;diff=2666597&amp;oldid=2582103 15:33, 07/10/2024, Fixed formatting of test your knowledge box and therefore fixed conclusion and references formatting in Death drive chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FDeath_drive&amp;diff=2666634&amp;oldid=2666597 16:03, 07/10/2024, APA formatted reference list, alphabetised, added DOIs, corrected authors referenced names in Death drive chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FIntertemporal_choice&amp;diff=2667234&amp;oldid=2665859 06:43, 08/10/2024, APA formatted reference list, alphabetised and corrected DOIs in Intertemporal choice chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FLearning_motivation_and_chatbots&amp;diff=2667259&amp;oldid=2657185 07:35, 08/10/2024, APA formatted reference list in Learning motivation and chatbots chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FNovelty-variety_as_a_psychological_need&amp;diff=2667294&amp;oldid=2578613 08:34, 08/10/2024, APA formatted reference list in Novelty-variety as a psychological need chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FPhysiological_needs&amp;diff=2667316&amp;oldid=2578325 09:02, 08/10/2024, APA formatted reference list and re-did book reference in Physiological needs chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FSport_injury_recovery_motivation&amp;diff=2667362&amp;oldid=2642090 10:13, 08/10/2024, APA formatted reference list and added DOI in Sport injury recovery motivation chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FFunctional_imagery_training&amp;diff=2667457&amp;oldid=2544383 14:26, 08/10/2024, APA formatted reference list, added correct article authors and fixed DOI in Functional imagery training chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FRevenge_motivation&amp;diff=2667467&amp;oldid=2451497 14:58, 08/10/2024, APA formatted reference list and added DOI in Revenge motivation chapter (2022)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDialectical_behaviour_therapy_and_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2668733&amp;oldid=2648986 19:57, 10/10/2024, Suggested 3 resources (journal articles) on discussion page, and reworded the suggestions title for Dialectical behaviour therapy and emotion regulation chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivational_dimensional_model_of_affect&amp;action=history 20:06, 10/10/2024, Added the quick start template guide to Motivational dimensional model of affect chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivational_dimensional_model_of_affect&amp;action=history 20:22, 10/10/2024, Started the discussion page of helpful resources and suggested a journal article for the Motivational dimensional model of affect chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Citizen_science_motivation&amp;action=history 22:19, 10/10/2024, Added the quick start template guide to Citizen science motivation chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Citizen_science_motivation&amp;action=history 22:58, 10/10/2024, Started the discussion page of helpful resources and suggested a journal article for the Citizen science motivation chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FDark_tetrad_and_motivation&amp;diff=2672344&amp;oldid=2605523 15:08, 15/10/2024, APA formatted reference list and alphabetised in Dark tetrad and motivation chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FVideo_conferencing_fatigue&amp;diff=2672354&amp;oldid=2548019 15:30, 15/10/2024, APA formatted reference list, added page numbers and volume and fixed blog reference in Video conferencing fatigue (2022)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FFreedom_and_motivation&amp;diff=2672356&amp;oldid=2544109 15:51, 15/10/2024, APA formatted last reference list in Freedom and motivation chapter (2021)] [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FFreedom_and_motivation&amp;diff=2673552&amp;oldid=2544109 (realised I made a mistake and fixed it up on 18/10/2024, 17:17)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&amp;diff=2672363&amp;oldid=2614941 16:38, 15/10/2024, APA formatted reference, alphabetised, corrected book references, fixed blog post, added in journal and DOI in To-do lists chapter (2021)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FMultiple_selves_theory%2C_motivation%2C_and_emotion&amp;diff=2672372&amp;oldid=2646236 17:13, 15/10/2024, APA formatted reference and added missing DOIs in chapter Multiple selves theory, motivation, and emotion (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FEpisodic_memory_and_planning&amp;diff=2672770&amp;oldid=2548001 21:41, 16/10/2024, APA formatted reference list, alphabetised, rewrote references, fixed DOI links in Episodic memory and planning chapter (2021)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Reflected_glory&amp;action=history 21:47, 16/10/2024, Added the quick start template guide to Reflected glory chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Reflected_glory&amp;action=history 21:55, 16/10/2024, Started the discussion page of helpful resources and suggested 2 journal articles for the Reflected glory chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FHumility&amp;diff=2673565&amp;oldid=2666177 17:52, 18/10/2024, APA formatted references, fixed DOIs, author names and book references in Humility chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Surrender_motivation&amp;action=history 17:58, 18/10/2024, Added quick start template guide to Surrender motivation chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Domestic_energy_conservation_motivation&amp;action=history 18:00, 18/10/2024, Added quick start template guide to Domestic energy conservation motivation chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Polyvagal_theory&amp;action=history 18:03, 18/10/2024, Added quick start template guide to Polyvagal theory chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Polyvagal_theory&amp;action=history 18:09, 18/10/2024, Started the discussion page of helpful resources and suggested a journal article for the Polyvagal theory chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Affect_heuristic&amp;action=history 18:12, 18/10/2024, Added quick start template guide to Affect heuristic chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Reflected_glory&amp;action=history 18:19, 18/10/2024, Started discussion page and suggested 2 journal articles for the Affect heuristic chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Biofeedback_and_emotion&amp;action=history 18:24, 18/10/2024, Added quick start template guide to Biofeedback and emotion chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Emotional_usability&amp;action=history 18:28, 18,10,2024, Added quick start template guide to Emotional usability chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FHedonic_adaptation_prevention_model&amp;diff=2673638&amp;oldid=2452808 19:23, 18/10/2024, APA formatted references, added missing DOIs in chapter, fixed author names and fixed book references in Hedonic adaptation prevention model chapter (2022)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Aversion_to_happiness&amp;action=history 23:50, 19/10/2024, Added quick start template guide to Aversion to happiness chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Noise_and_emotion&amp;action=history 23:52, 19/10/2024, Added quick start template guide to Noise and emotion (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Neurodiversity_and_emotion&amp;action=history 23:54, 19/10/2024, Added quick start template guide to Neurodiversity and emotion (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FCommitment_bias&amp;diff=2674448&amp;oldid=2638157 23:50, 20/10/2024, APA formatted references, fixed italics and capital letters, and added DOI in Commitment bias chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2023%2FPlacebo_effect_and_emotion&amp;diff=2674451&amp;oldid=2580190 00:14, 21/10/2024, APA formatted reference list, fixed italics, corrected book citation, corrected doi links in Placebo effect and emotion chapter (2023)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDark_triad_and_power_seeking_motivation&amp;diff=2674475&amp;oldid=2650712 01:01, 21/10/2024, APA formatted reference list, made DOI links, fixed italics and capitalisations, added page numbers and alphabetised for Dark triad and power seeking motivation chapter (2025)]
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Warm-glow_giving,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;action=history 01:06, 21/20/2024, Added quick start template guide to Warm-glow giving, motivation, and emotion chapter (2025).]</text>
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      <text bytes="28989" sha1="i4x6fhckumar9j0gpol3s5x08hudxgw" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Theoretical domains framework: &lt;br&gt; What is the TDF and how can it be used to guide behaviour change?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/ywrUVPwqlcA}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Consider this scenario: A 46 year old man is committed to quitting smoking but struggles to reduce the number of cigarettes he has a day. He understands the importance of quitting smoking and how it will improve his health and wellbeing but does not know what is stopping him from quitting completely. How does the theoretical domains framework explain this behaviour? Often people are unaware of the barriers and facilitators that affect one's ability to change their behaviour.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Thinking thought bubble.png|thumb|253x253px|''Figure 1.'' Person thinking about why they are having trouble changing their behaviour.]] 

Have you ever tried to change a behaviour and found it difficult to do so and don't know why (see Figure 1)? You might be experiencing unknown barriers or facilitators influencing your behaviour change journey. The theoretical domains framework (TDF) is a [[Psychology|psychological]] framework that aims to identify barriers and facilitators of a specific behaviour one is trying to change and to help guide that behaviour change through providing theoretically evidence-based interventions (Atkins et al., 2017). There are a large number of [[wikipedia:Behavioural_change_theories|behaviour change theories and models]] that can help one guide their behaviour change journey (Atkins et al., 2017). The TDF aims to use most of these theories to create an implementation framework that helps the effectiveness of implementation interventions when individuals use them (Atkins et al., 2017). The TDF can help in many aspects of behaviour change; independent specific behaviour change, [[wikipedia:Public_health_intervention|health interventions]] and [[wikipedia:Organizational_behavior|behaviour change in organisations]] (Atkins et al., 2017). This chapter aims to explain what the TDF is, how it works and how it can be used to guide behaviour change.  {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the TDF?
* How can the TDF be used to guide behaviour change?
* What are the limitations of the TDF?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is the TDF? ==
The TDF is an in-depth psychological theory and [[wikipedia:Implementation_research|implementation science]] based framework which identifies barriers and facilitators that influence specific unwanted or desired behaviours; guiding which behavioural intervention techniques should be implemented to reduce the influence that the barrier has on the behaviour and change the behaviour (Atkins et al., 2017). It was originally developed by a group consisting of health psychology theorists (who were interested in theories related to behaviour change and implementation), [[wikipedia:Health_services_research|health service researchers,]] and [[wikipedia:Health_psychology|health psychologists]] (Michie et al., 2005). This collaborative group aimed to provide a solution to the ineffective [[wikipedia:Evidence-based_practice|evidence-based]] implementations that were resulting in poor health outcomes through simplifying the large number of behaviour change theories by making the theories more accessible and useable for other fields of study (Michie et al., 2005). This first version of the TDF used [[33 Theories making up the theoretical domains framework|33 psychological behaviour change theories]] and 128 constructs (aspects within the theories) that were grouped into 12 domains (categories); (Michie et al., 2005). 

7 years later Cane et al. (2012) evaluated the TDF, testing its [[wikipedia:Validity_(statistics)|validity]] and resulting in an updated TDF version 2 which has a stronger research foundation and revises the original 12 domains into 14 and 128 constructs to 84. This TDF establishes that the barriers and facilitators influencing specific behaviours can be identified easily through one of the 14 theoretical domains (through asking participants previously developed interview questions) and can then help guide behaviour change through helping develop or recommend implementation strategies (Atkins et al., 2017). Current research of which most use the second version of the TDF shows that the TDF can be used throughout implementation and behaviour change areas including but not limited to: 
*Determinants of clinical trial participant dropout (Newlands et al., 2021).
*Identifying determinants of medication adherence (Minian et al., 2024).
*Barriers to health practitioners’ participation in vaccination administration (el Hajj et al., 2022).
*Determinants affecting health behaviour change, for example physical activity (Brown et al., 2024).

=== Theoretical Constructs ===

The theories behind the motivation and ability of individuals to change their behaviour either from stopping an unwanted behaviour or adapting a desired new behaviour has been in debate and researched for centuries (Atkins et al., 2017). A huge number of behaviour change theories have been developed from this research (Atkins et al., 2017). The TDF uses a combination of 33 psychological and organisational behaviour change theories to create a theoretical viewpoint which identifies a broad range of barriers and facilitators affecting behaviour change, which further informs implementation of behaviour change interventions and how to make them more effective (Cane et al., 2012).

Each domain is separated into constructs, through which behaviour change implementation programs can be applied to specific behaviours (Cane et al., 2012). When exploring behaviour and change in behaviour, these domains ensure that no theoretical construct of behaviour change has been missed (Atkins et al., 2017). The domains cover a wide coverage of potential implementation problems related to behaviour change implementation programs (Atkins et al., 2017). Notably some theories and constructs overlap (Atkins et al., 2017) see Table 1. 

'''Table 1'''

''The Refined Theoretical Domains Framework (2nd version)'' 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!TDF Domain (definition)
!Construct
|-
|1. Knowledge 
(An awareness of the existence of something)
|Knowledge (including knowledge of condition/scientific rationale)
Procedural knowledge

Knowledge of task environment

|-
|2. Skills 
(An ability or proficiency acquired through practice)
|Skills

Skills development

Competence

Ability

Interpersonal skill

Practice

Skill assessment 
|-
|3. Social/professional role and identity 
(A coherent set of behaviours and displayed personal qualities of an individual in a social or work setting)
|Professional identity 

Professional role

Social identity

Identity 

Professional boundaries

Professional confidence

Group identity

Leadership

Organisational commitment 
|-
|4. Beliefs about capabilities  
(Acceptance of the truth, reality or validity about an ability, talent or facility that a person can put to constructive use)
|Self-confidence 

Perceived competence 

Self-efficacy

Perceived behavioural control

Beliefs 

Self-esteem

Empowerment

Professional confidence
|-
|5. Optimism
(The confidence that things will happen for the best or that desired goals will be attained) 
|Optimism 

Pessimism

Unrealistic optimism 

Identity 
|-
|6. Beliefs about Consequences 
(Acceptance of the truth, reality, or validity about outcomes of a behaviour in a given situation)
|Beliefs 

Outcome expectancies 

Characteristics of outcome expectancies 

Anticipated regret

Consequents
|-
|7. Reinforcement
(Increasing the probability of a response by arranging a dependent relationship, or contingency, between the response and a given stimulus)
|Rewards (proximal / distal, valued / not valued, probable / improbable)

Incentives

Punishment

Consequences

Reinforcement

Contingencies

Sanctions 
|-
|8. Intentions
(A conscious decision to perform a behaviour or a resolve to act in a certain way)
|Stability of intentions

Stages of change model

Transtheoretical model and stages of change
|-
|9. Goals 
(Mental representations of outcomes or end states that an individual wants to achieve)
|Goals (distal / proximal)

Goal priority

Goal / target setting

Goals (autonomous / controlled)

Action planning

Implementation intention 
|-
|10. Memory, attention and decision processes 
(The ability to retain information, focus selectively on aspects of the environment and choose between two or more alternatives)
|Memory 

Attention

Attention control 

Decision making

Cognitive overload / tiredness
|-
|11. Environment context and resources 
(Any circumstance of a person’s situation or environment that discourages or encourages the development of skills and abilities, independence, social competence and adaptive behaviour)
|Environmental Stress

Resources / material resources 

Organisational culture / climate

Salient events / critical incidents

Person x environment interaction

Barriers and facilitators 
|-
|12. Social influences 
(Those interpersonal processes that can cause individuals to change their thoughts, feelings, or behaviours)
|Social pressure

Social norms

Group conformity

Social comparisons

Group norms

Social support 

Power 

Intergroup conflict

Alienation

Group identity

Modelling
|-
|13. Emotion
(A complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioural, and physiological elements, by which the individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event)
|Fear 

Anxiety

Affect

Stress

Depression

Positive / negative affect

Burn-out
|-
|14. Behavioural regulation
(Anything aimed at managing or changing objectively observed or measured actions)
|Self-monitoring 

Breaking habit

Action planning
|}

''Note.'' From &quot;Validation of the theoretical domains framework for use in behaviour change and implementation research&quot; by J. Cane, D. O'Connor and S. Michie, 2012, ''Implementation Science'', ''7(''1), p. 13-14 (https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-7-37). Copyright 2012 by BioMed Central Ltd.

==== How the TDF uses theoretical constructs ====
These domains are then used to develop interview questions for the constructs (Michie et al., 2005). These construct interviews provide clear direct insights into which domains are most relevant for implementation of the specific unwanted or desired behaviours and guide towards potential intervention strategies (Michie et al., 2005). It is important to note that not all research using the TDF will be related to every single domain and only some questions will need to be developed and used (Atkins et al., 2017). Michie et al. (2005) developed [[TDF Michie et al. (2005) example questions|example questions]] associated with some constructs that apply to the TDF version 2.

=== Test yourself ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jill is a participant in a research project and has been asked &quot;Do you know how to take blood from a patient?&quot;. To which domain is this question related?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Skills
- Social influences
- Optimism

{Claire is a part of the same research project and gets asked &quot;How confident are you performing CPR?&quot;. To which domain is this question related? 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Knowledge 
+ Beliefs about capabilities
- Emotion
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title=Case Study}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
 
A new and more effective medication has been suggested to a doctor to prescribe for patients diagnosed with the flu. Although the doctor has since seen patients with the flu, the doctor has provided previous treatment options and has not prescribed the new medication. Upon interviewing the doctor two explanations arose as to why the new medication had not been prescribed. 

The first was in relation to domain 4 (beliefs about consequences). It was identified that the doctor was unsure about prescribing the new medication due to their belief of the potential unknown side effects. The second possible explanation was identified in relation to domain 13 (emotion). Due to the product being new and the uncertainty of its effectiveness the doctor found it stressful prescribing the medication. 
Suggestions for the doctor to help change their behaviour and prescribe the new medication would be to actively seek out the research surrounding the medication and also to ask other health practitioners in the area their viewpoints on the effectiveness and known side effects of the new medication.
&lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

== How does the TDF guide behaviour change? ==

Due to its simplicity and usability, the TDF has been used across a broad range of fields including psychology, health, organisational theory, and implementation theory (Atkins et al., 2017). The TDF can guide behaviour change through identification of barriers and facilitators and suggesting evidence-based behaviour change interventions (Atkins et al., 2017). The TDF can also guide behaviour change through fixing implementation problems, and helping develop new effective behaviour implementation frameworks (Atkins et al., 2017). 
[[File:Questionnaire-checklist.png|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Interview example identifying which domain the barriers and facilitators are apart of.]]

=== Identification of barriers and facilitators ===
As previously discussed one of the main strengths of the TDF is the broad psychological and organisation behaviour change theoretical coverage which allows for easy identification of barriers of desired behaviours and facilitators of unwanted behaviours (McGowan et al., 2020). Researchers identify these barriers and facilitators by conducting interviews using questions associated with the domains (see Figure 2); (Michie et al., 2005). By identifying these influences on behaviour, the TDF then allows for mapping to evidence-based interventions which guide one's behaviour change journey (Atkins et al., 2017). These implementations are more likely to be effective in guiding behaviour change as they use theories that focus on the specific behaviours being targeted and determinants influencing the behaviour (Atkins et al., 2017). 

==== Research Examples: ====

* A study by Newlands et al. (2021) used the TDF to identify the barriers and facilitators related to keeping participants in clinical trials (specifically follow up clinical appointments and final questionnaires). These barriers were categorised into the following domains; knowledge, beliefs about their capabilities and beliefs about consequences in relation to performing the behaviour or not. Now a guide for behavioural implementation in new research, it also helps steer which evidence-based science implementation will help increase clinical participant retention (Newlands et al., 2021).
* A study by Debono et al. (2024) used the TDF to identify the barriers to the nurse use or non use of electronic medication management systems. The two main barrier domains were environmental context and resources and social/professional role and identity. The identification of these two domains enabled the researchers to suggest the following. The implementation of hand-held electronic medication systems with greater portability and easier cleaning addressed the environmental domain (Debono et al., 2024). The implementation of social process of encouragement (team and managerial support) was aimed at the domain of social/professional role and identity (Debono et al., 2024).
*A study by el Hajj et al. (2022) used the TDF to identify the barriers related to community pharmacists' participation in vaccine administration. The five domains identified were knowledge, skills, belief about capabilities, environmental resources and behaviour regulation (el Hajj et al., 2022). The implementation of more thorough training, improving organisational structures, equipping pharmacies with more appropriate resources will address these four domains (el Hajj et al., 2022). 
 {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title=Case Study}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
 
You have been trying to improve your physical activity by aiming to go to the gym. However, when you deicide to go you sit in the carpark and can not enter the gym. You are unaware of why this is the case and would like to change your behaviour and attend the gym. 

You have heard about the TDF and have decided to try and use it to guide changing your behaviour. Although you do not have any questions ready you know that you can use Michie et al. (2005). You go down the list of domains and find that you relate to domain 4 (beliefs about capabilities). You ask yourself the questions from the list and realise that the barrier you face is that you do not feel comfortable or confident attending the gym. 

After identifying those barriers you decide to look up potential solutions. You decide on getting a personal trainer. The next day you park outside the gym and instead of staying in your car you get out, go into the gym, meet the trainer and start exercising. You have been going to the gym consistently for three months now. You have used the TDF to identify your barriers and change your behaviour to attend the gym.

&lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

=== Develop and fix implementations ===
As the TDF identifies the determinants influencing a specific behaviour, researchers are able to understand in more depth the mechanisms related to behaviour change and how it is influenced (Atkins et al., 2017). This allows researchers to understand the gaps and problems within the evidence-based behaviour change interventions (French et al., 2012). Through identifying the problems related to current evidence-based practice behaviour change interventions, the TDF can help identify which related techniques will help an individual to change their behaviour (French et al., 2012). These techniques can then help researchers develop new implementation programs and improve current behaviour change implementation programs by adding new developed techniques for behaviour change (French et al., 2012). 

==== Research Examples: ====
* In a study by French et al. (2012) the TDF identified theoretical behaviour change components to help create a four step method framework designed to be adaptable to specific behaviours presented by healthcare clinicians. The TDF helped in developing this implementation program as it was the theory informed behaviour change framework that in step two identified the barriers and facilitators (French et al., 2012). In step three the TDF helped informed behaviour change techniques related to step two (French et al., 2012).
* In a study by Haskell et al. (2021), the TDF was used as a guide to identify barriers associated with poor management of infant bronchitis and design an implementation program. The TDF helped develop the implementation through step two (identifying barriers and facilitators) and step three (selecting which behaviour change techniques to implement); (Haskell et al., 2021). A six step behaviour change framework was then developed to guide an increase in the effectiveness of improved management along with de-implementing past techniques that do not guide behaviour change well (Haskell et al., 2021).
* In a study by Craig et al. (2017), the TDF was used as a guide to identify barriers related to healthcare worker behaviours in emergency department triage. The TDF helped develop the implementation through step two (identifying barriers and facilitators) and step three (selecting which behaviour change techniques to implement); (Craig et al., 2017). Once the TDF identified the barriers the researchers developed a successful implementation intervention to help guide the clinicians behaviours to improve triage, treatment and transfer of patients (Craig et al., 2017).

== What are the limitations of the TDF? ==
[[File:Caution.svg|thumb|''Figure 3.'' Remember the TDF has limitations.|center]]

Whilst the TDF has been shown to be effective in guiding behaviour change it is important to highlight that the TDF has limitations (see Figure 3). The limitations include:

* The TDF identifies the barriers and facilitators associated with one’s ability and motivation to change a behaviour however, the TDF does not establish the cause of why these barriers and facilitators (Atkins et al., 2017). If these causes are not addressed the TDF will be ineffective (Atkins et al., 2017). 
* Whilst the framework is effective independently, the research shows that TDF is even more effective for behaviour change when implemented with another behaviour change theory model such as the COM-B or behaviour change wheel (Atkins et al., 2017).
* The interviewing process for the TDF can be time consuming for candidates who may experience participant fatigue when answering the questions. (Atkins et al., 2017). This could mean that the information gathered is not completely accurate potentially reducing the effectiveness of the TDF (Atkins et al., 2017).
* There have been issues with researchers coding the interview questions into the allocated 14 domains as domains often overlap (Little et al., 2015). This can cause problems when identifying the barriers and facilitators associated with the behaviour change (Little et al., 2015).

==Conclusion==
The TDF is an in-depth psychological behaviour change theory and implementation science based framework which identifies barriers and facilitators that influence specific unwanted or desired behaviours; guiding which behavioural intervention techniques should be implemented to overcome the barrier or facilitator and change the behaviour (Atkins et al., 2017). The TDF can guide behaviour change by identifying barriers and facilitators of a specific behaviour that one is trying to change and provide evidenced-based interventions specific to the behaviour (Atkins et al., 2017). The TDF can also guide behaviour change by finding problems in behaviour change implementations and providing solutions to help develop new implementations strategies (Atkins et al., 2017). There are some limitations of the TDF including not being able to determine the cause of barriers and facilitators, being time consuming, coding difficulties, overlapping of theoretical constructs and domains (Little et al., 2015). The research suggests that the TDF is more effective in collaboration with other behaviour change models (Atkins et al., 2017). People throughout their lifetime will most likely want to change a behaviour at some point. Using the TDF can be useful in identifying potential personal barriers and facilitators for a specific behaviour and then choosing suitable behaviour change interventions before commencing one's behaviour change journey (Atkins et al., 2017).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Many people encounter reasons as to why they cannot change a behaviour. If you are having trouble making a behaviour change, consider using the TDF to help you.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Behavioural activation and motivation|Behavioural activation and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[wikipedia:Behavioural_change_theories|Behaviour change theories]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Health belief model|Health belief model]] (Book chapter, 2023)
* [[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Sedentary behaviour change|Sedentary behaviour change]] (Book chapter, 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Self-perception theory and motivation for positive change|Self-perception theory and motivation for positive change]] (Book chapter, 2018)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Atkins, L., Francis, J., Islam, R., O’Connor, D., Patey, A., Ivers, N., Foy, R., Duncan, E. M., Colquhoun, H., Grimshaw, J. M., Lawton, R., &amp; Michie, S. (2017). A guide to using the theoretical domains framework of behaviour change to investigate implementation problems. ''Implementation Science'', ''12''(1), Article 77. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-017-0605-9

Brown, C., Richardson, K., Halil-Pizzirani, B., Atkins, L., Yücel, M., &amp; Segrave, R. A. (2024). Key influences on university students’ physical activity: A systematic review using the theoretical domains framework and the COM-B model of human behaviour. ''BMC Public Health'', ''24''(1), 418–423. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-17621-4

Cane, J., O’Connor, D., &amp; Michie, S. (2012). Validation of the theoretical domains framework for use in behaviour change and implementation research. ''Implementation Science'', ''7''(1), Article 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-7-37

Craig, L. E., Taylor, N., Grimley, R., Cadilhac, D. A., McInnes, E., Phillips, R., Dale, S., O’Connor, D., Levi, C., Fitzgerald, M., Considine, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Gerraty, R., Cheung, N. W., Ward, J., &amp; Middleton, S. (2017). Development of a theory-informed implementation intervention to improve the triage, treatment and transfer of stroke patients in emergency departments using the theoretical domains framework (TDF): The T3 trial. ''Implementation Science'', ''12''(1), Article 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-017-0616-6

Debono, D., Taylor, N., Lipworth, W., Greenfield, D., Travaglia, J., Black, D., &amp; Braithwaite, J. (2024). Applying the theoretical domains framework to identify barriers and targeted interventions to enhance nurses’ use of electronic medication management systems in two Australian hospitals. ''Implementation Science'', ''12''(1), Article 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-017-0572-1

el Hajj, M. S., Al‐Ziftawi, N., Stewart, D., &amp; Al‐Khater, D. M. A. Y. (2022). Community pharmacists’ participation in adult vaccination: A cross‐sectional survey based on the theoretical domains framework. ''British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology'', ''89''(2), 773–786. https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.15529

French, S. D., Green, S. E., O’Connor, D. A., McKenzie, J. E., Francis, J. J., Michie, S., Buchbinder, R., Schattner, P., Spike, N., &amp; Grimshaw, J. M. (2012). Developing theory-informed behaviour change interventions to implement evidence into practice: A systematic approach using the theoretical domains framework. ''Implementation Science'', ''7''(1), Article 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-7-38

Haskell, L., Tavender, E. J., Wilson, C. L., O’Brien, S., Babl, F. E., Borland, M. L., Cotterell, E., Sheridan, N., Oakley, E., &amp; Dalziel, S. R. (2021). Development of targeted, theory-informed interventions to improve bronchiolitis management. ''BMC Health Services Research'', ''21''(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-021-06724-6

Little, E. A., Presseau, J., &amp; Eccles, M. P. (2015). Understanding effects in reviews of implementation interventions using the theoretical domains framework. ''Implementation Science'', ''10''(1), Article 90. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-015-0280-7

McGowan, L. J., Powell, R., &amp; French, D. P. (2020). How can use of the theoretical domains framework be optimized in qualitative research? A rapid systematic review. ''British Journal of Health Psychology'', ''25''(3), 677–694. https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/bjhp.12437

Michie, S., Johnston, M., Abraham, C., Lawton, R., Parker, D., &amp; Walker, A. (2005). Making psychological theory useful for implementing evidence based practice: A consensus approach. ''Quality and Safety in Health Care'', ''14''(1), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1136/qshc.2004.011155

Minian, N., Wong, M., Hafuth, S., Rodak, T., Rahimi, A., Gjomema, D., Rose, J., Zawertailo, L., Ratto, M., &amp; Selby, P. (2024). Identifying determinants of varenicline adherence using the theoretical domains framework: A rapid review. ''BMC Public Health'', ''24''(1), Article 679. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18139-z

Newlands, R., Duncan, E., Presseau, J., Treweek, S., Lawrie, L., Bower, P., Elliott, J., Francis, J., MacLennan, G., Ogden, M., Wells, M., Witham, M. D., Young, B., &amp; Gillies, K. (2021). Why trials lose participants: A multitrial investigation of participants’ perspectives using the theoretical domains framework. ''Journal of Clinical Epidemiology'', ''137'', 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2021.03.007


}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BmhtlmaO-4 Approaches to behaviour change] (NHS England workforce, training and Education x youtube)
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_ariely_how_to_change_your_behavior_for_the_better?subtitle=en How to change your behavior for the better] (TED.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xp0O2vi8DX4 How to motivate yourself to change your behavior] (TEDx Talks x Youtube)
* [https://vimeo.com/324121601 Theoretical domains framework and behaviour change wheel] (Vimeo x Mater research institute UQ)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kCOOWEERO7M Using the theoretical domains framework in implementation research] (Australian Institute of Health Innovation x YouTube)


[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Behaviour]]
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      <text bytes="32749" sha1="qf3ens4oyj7xkmof20vadn4k2id5hx2" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Orthorexia and emotion:&lt;br&gt;What are the emotional risk factors and consequences of orthorexia?}}
{{MECR3|https://youtu.be/acoSaNd1Ga4}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Mental Health - The Noun Project.svg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1.''' Understanding the brain and it's connection to mental health.]]

;Case study

A 20-year old woman, Evangeline, was presented to the hospital, under the request of her doctor, with issues regarding rapid weight loss, constant fatigue, bodily discomfort, anaemia, chills, and hair loss. At first mental health professionals suspected anorexia nervosa; however, upon further assessment Evangeline claimed that she did not fear gaining weight, or that she did not have a distorted view of her body, therefore, she was given the diagnosis of Orthorexia nervosa after she reported on her excessive healthy eating habits. Proclaiming she was too fearful of being unhealthy and would remove specific food groups, such as sugar, nuts, certain meats and dairy products, from her diet due to fear of developing a chronic illness{{g}}.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[w:Orthorexia_nervosa|Orthorexia nervosa]]  is an emerging eating disorder that is characterised by obsession with healthy eating, and fixation on the purity of the food consumed (Herman &amp; Polivy, 2002). Although orthorexia is not defined as a proper eating disorder within the DSM-IV {{ic|explain abbreviation}}, it is an ongoing conversation in the mental health community; as orthorexia has related concepts of distorted eating behaviours (Messer et al,. 2022). Studies show that orthorexia is strongly motivated by extreme healthy eating; individuals with orthorexia exhibit extreme dietary rules often evading entire food groups and being increasingly hyper-aware of the nutritional content{{f}}. However, the question remains &quot;what are the emotional contributions of orthorexia?&quot; and &quot;what are the ramifications of orthorexia?&quot;.        

This chapter discusses the complexity of orthorexia and emotion. In particular, gaining insight into psychological science, and individual characteristics of eating disorders{{g}}. We continue to further dive into the emotional risk factors of orthorexia, the consequences of orthorexia including mental health disorders that can further develop due to the eating disorder, and the role of media and social influences. Furthermore, we explore the emotional and physiological advantages of healthy dieting and compare a healthy dieting mindset to those suffering orthorexia.        

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Focus questions:'''
*What is Orthorexia nervosa?
*What are the physiological and emotional consequences of orthorexia?
*What are the emotional influences that cause someone to develop orthorexia?
*What are the emotional risk factors?
*What are the strategies for treating orthorexia?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Eating disorders ==
[[File:Symptoms-lost-appetite.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Food aversion which is a common symptom of an eating disorder.]]

The prevalence of [[Eating Disorders|eating disorders]] are{{g}} constantly growing, particularly amongst western societies (Polivy &amp; Herman, 2002). Eating disorders are behavioural conditions that present in an individual's disturbance in eating behaviours, often caused by experiencing distressing thoughts and emotions; to which may lead to a change in eating behaviours, individuals exposed to trauma can be predisposed to developing eating disorders (Barthels et al., 2019).              

Eating disorders are the most life-threatening psychiatric disorder, as they impact the physical body and mental state of the individual and can often be difficult to treat at the same time (Qian et al., 2020), {{g}} anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are found to be the most common forms of distorted eating; however, over time the Diagnostic and statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; edition (DSM-IV) {{ic|use the current version}} has identified certain eating disorders that are not otherwise identified as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa are classified as EDNOS – eating disorder not otherwise specified (Qian et al., 2020).               


'''Table 1.'''

''Types of Eating Disorders''{{ic|Abbreviate this table; concentrate on orthorexia}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Common eating disorders 
!Definition of each of the following eating disorders 
|-
|'''[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459148/#:~:text=Anorexia%20nervosa%20is%20defined%20by,the%20seriousness%20of%20their%20condition. Anorexia Nervosa]'''
|Anorexia nervosa is often characterised when an individual has an obsessive fear of gaining weight and a distorted perception of their body, it is seen that this fear of gaining weight manifests itself through food restrictions and can coincide with an increased motive of physical activity (Eating disorder Victoria, 2024). A common behaviour found from those suffering from the illness is food restriction, whereby an individual may severely restrict their food intake and may follow or create rules surrounding the types of food they consume or how they might consume it (Moore &amp; Bokor, 2023). 
|-
|'''Bulimia Nervosa'''
|Bulimia nervosa is another common eating disorder found within the DSM-IV, it is characterised by a period of binge eating and followed by self-induced vomiting, periods of fasting, over-exercising or a misuse of laxatives which is used in efforts of avoiding weight gain after a binge (Jain &amp; Yilanli, 2023).
|-
|'''Binge Eating'''
|This psychiatric disorder follows episodes of binge eating. Binge eating involves a person eating an excessive amount of food, to which can occur during a small amount of time, or over an extended phase (Eating disorders Victoria, 2024). During these binge eating episodes, a person may not feel hunger or continue past the point of feeling hungry. It is a common occurrence for individuals to eat in secrecy and experience feelings of guilt, shame and disgust during or after a binge.
|-
|'''OSFED'''
|OSFED also referred to as Other Specified Feeding and Eating Disorder in the DSM-IV, includes eating disorders that share the concern about eating, body shape, and weight and also engage in disordered eating behaviours (Balasundaram &amp; Santhanam, 2023). A person with this diagnosis will often present signs of an eating disorder, however, may not meet all of the diagnostic criteria of, for instance, anorexia nervosa, or binge eating disorder. 
|-
|'''Orthorexia Nervosa'''
|Orthorexia nervosa is still a relatively new form of eating disorder, often associated with an obsessive preoccupation with healthy food consumption and a hyper fixation on food purity (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). Similar to anorexia nervosa, a person suffering orthorexia exhibit extreme dietary rules, avoid certain food groups and focus purely on nutritional contents of their food. Many individuals suffering this type of eating disorder hold a different motivation in comparison to those diagnosed with anorexia or bulimia, being that the desire is more to feel health and natural, rather than to lose weight (Saraswati &amp; Nagendraswamy, 2024). 
|}

As described in Table 1.{{g}} Orthorexia is a complex pathological obsession with proper nutrition, although orthorexia is not recognised as a psychiatric disorder {{g}} it is associated with attempts to maintain optimum health through a highly restrictive diet – which often leads to malnourishment, loss of relationships and the development of other psychiatric disorder, which is common amongst current eating disorders (Koven &amp; Abry, 2015){{rewrite}}. With regards to the diagnostic criteria of orthorexia nervosa, a lot of its symptoms do resemble that of obsessive-compulsive disorder and anorexia nervosa, {{g}} the following diagnostic criteria of orthorexia was proposed by Moroze et al 2014:

# Consuming a nutritionally unbalanced diet due to the preoccupying beliefs about food “purity”.
# Anxiety and worries about consuming impure or unhealthy foods and the effect of food quality on physical or mental health.
# Avoidance of food believed by the individual to be “unhealthy”, which may contain any preservatives or fats, additives, animal products or other ingredients that the individual may believe to be unhealthy.
# Individuals experience guilt or worries after consuming unhealthy foods or not adhering to their strict dietary rules.
# Intolerance to other’s food beliefs.
# Impairment of physical health due to nutritional imbalances.
# Severe distress or impairment of social or academic functioning due to obsessional thoughts and behaviours regarding the individual’s beliefs about “healthy” eating. 

Orthorexia has a profound impact on an individual’s psychological well-being, with many suffers of this disorder face extreme anxiety surrounding their food choices (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). Feelings of shame and guilt are common for those with orthorexia, a typical experience when the individual may deviate from their self-imposed dietary practices (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). Social isolation is an occurring aspect of orthorexia, {{g}} individuals avoid certain social situations where their food choices may be questioned or judged; furthermore, social gatherings that involve food can lead suffers of orthorexia to feel immense anxiety around the purity of food (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). 

{{RoundBoxTop}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Orthorexia nervosa is a disorder that can be defined within the DSM-IV.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Individuals diagnosed with an eating disorder often experience distressing thoughts.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Healthy dieting vs. unhealthy dieting ==
[[File:Harvard food pyramid.png|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Healthy eating pyramid - a visual guide to the recommended  proportions of food consumption. ]]

Diet provides a base structure to target the management and prevention of physical illness, as well as health mental illness; research has shown associations between healthy eating habits and positive mental well-being (Collins et al., 2020). Traditionally, the approaches to weight loss or health improvement are for a person to restrict their calorie in-take and increase exercise. However, dieting in a healthy way is a lot more complex – individuals need to further consider the biological processes, food nutrition and the potential risks to the body’s physiology and mental health. 

==== Understanding healthy dieting ====
What constitutes as a healthy diet is continuously evolving as more research and evidence surfaces regarding the types of food groups that allow the body to absorb essential nutrients, that function in preventing health complications and improve mental well-being (Cena &amp; Calder, 2020). Furthermore, a healthy diet is defined as the appropriate consumption of macronutrients that support energetic and physiologic needs, whilst also needing sufficient hydration and micronutrients to support psychological and physiological development (Cena &amp; Calder, 2020). Macronutrients (compounds which are consume in larger quantities) are carbohydrates, proteins and fats, whereas micronutrients (consumed in smaller quantities, but are equally important) are vitamins, minerals and antioxidants (Savarino, Corsello &amp; Corsello, 2021).

From the perspective of health psychology, Ridder et al (2017) further define healthy eating behaviours as making conscious choices to avoid certain foods that may impact weight loss or cause harm to a person's health. Ridder et al (2017) also found through their analysis that adhering to recommended daily portions of food consumption, which can be represented using the health food pyramid (see Figure 3), increases life longevity and decreases the development of illnesses. Furthermore, Ridder et al (2017) and Kepka et al (2022) both emphasis{{sp}} that the health food pyramid promotes all food groups and does not label food as either “good” or “bad” rather encourages certain food groups to be either consumed more regularly or in moderation. However, research suggests that more people desire to change their diet with the intention of weight loss, rather than to better adhere to dietary recommendations with the intention to improve health (Ridder et al., 2017). In saying this, majority of people have difficulties maintaining weight loss long-term, or develop the risk of becoming too overly concerned with food. 

==== Consequences of extreme dieting ====
Being conscious of the food we consume plays an important role in the prevention of diseases and mental health illness (Kiss-Leizer &amp; Rigo, 2018). Calorie intake restriction has been a popular form of dieting for the purpose of weight loss or weight management (Ridder et al., 2017). Without the proper knowledge, people can cross the line of what is considered an appropriate diet and make dietary choice that have a negative impact on the body. As seen within those suffering orthorexia nervosa, extreme forms of dieting are typically motivated by the fear of contracting a chronic illness that is caused by unhealthy eating (Kiss-Leizer &amp; Rigo, 2018). Individuals with orthorexia may be fixated on only consuming raw or unprocessed food, with the intention to limit risk of food-related illnesses; orthorexia suffers are unknowingly engaging in calorie reduction (Leizer &amp; Rigo, 2018). 

The dependence on such a restrictive diet can result in an inadequate intake of essential nutrients and vitamins, often resulting in several nutritional and mineral deficiencies, that are vital for the body’s physiological functions and can further compromise a person’s quality of life (Chaki et al., 2013). Individuals with a prolonged adherence to restrictive diets are at risks of developing muscle weakening, osteoporosis, heart disease and a weakened immune system (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023; Wani et al., 2023).

{{RoundBoxTop}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Calorie deficit diet has the best results for long-term weight loss management.  
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{A restrictive diet results in an inadequate intake of essential nutrients. 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Emotional risk factors of orthorexia ==
[[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|left|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Physical sign of an individual experiencing emotional distress. ]]

[[w:Emotional_regulation|Emotional regulation]]  is a process in which an individual can express and regulate their emotions (Gross, 2003). Emotional dysregulation encompasses emotion description and identification (also known as alexithymia), regulation of negative emotions, and behaviour (Mitchell et al., 2024). Empirical research has found that individuals who display eating disorder related behaviours experience high levels of intense emotions, including having less adaptive strategies to regulate negative emotions and reframe{{sp}} from engaging in impulsive behaviours (Mitchell et al., 2024){{expand}}. Interpersonal experiences are often risk factors leading to emotional dysregulation and further influences the development of eating disorders, for instance, individuals’ exposure to abuse, trauma, or certain life stressors that are not easily controlled are all contributing factors (Trompeter et al., 2022){{expand}}.

==== Common aspects of the emotional dysregulation in Orthorexia nervosa ====
Individual's{{g}} suffering orthorexia nervosa has a fixation on &quot;clean eating&quot;, individual's{{g}} suffering this disorder often have an intense preoccupation with the quality of food or purity of food they are consuming (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). Perfectionism has been associated with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia; similarly, literature suggests that suffers of orthorexia also present with characteristics of perfectionism (Barnes &amp; Caltabiano, 2017). Many individuals with orthorexia showcase the personality type that is associated with perfectionism, being that these individuals have a strict adherence to rules, set high standards and expectations, experience excessive criticism of themselves and of others (Barnes &amp; Caltabiano, 2017). However, there are a lack of studies to suggest that perfectionism is correlated to orthorexia. In saying this, a study conducted by Koven &amp; Senbonmatsu (2013) had found a significant relationship between orthorexia nervosa and perfection, being that many individuals diagnosed with orthorexia also presented traits of obsessive-compulsive disorder. In orthorexia, individuals strive to eat the “perfect” diet and follow strict dietary food rules, therefore it seems plausible that perfectionism factors into the emotional dysregulation of orthorexia nervosa (Barnes &amp; Caltabiano, 2017).  

Fear and anxiety towards becoming sick or developing certain illnesses may reinforce the behaviour of excessive dieting. Factors of anxiety and fear within orthorexia suffers appears to present more as health motivation, being excessive dieting is used as a coping mechanism for anxiety or worry surrounding the potential development of illness (Barlow, Lee &amp; Saling, 2024). Yilmaz and Dundar (2022) have identified a prevalence of individuals with orthorexia exhibiting high anxiety scores, furthermore, the study also found a significant relationship between anxiety and the level of obsession with healthy eating; therefore, increasing the likelihood of developing orthorexia behaviours. Another study by Tragantzopoulou &amp; Giannouli (2024) conducted one-on-one interviews with 13 adults who self-reported obsessive eating behaviours (4 out of 13 adults were currently suffering a chronic health condition), to further understand the emotional triggers that cause orthorexia tendencies and whether this only affects individuals who are currently suffering a chronic illness. Interestingly, the findings revealed that regardless of whether participants were suffering from a chronic illness or not, excessive healthy eating practices was primarily motivated by anxiety around developing an illness.   

Emotional dysregulation and dysfunctional cognitive processes are widely documented in eating disorder literature. An individual that presents a high level of emotional comprehension, awareness and acceptance is able to effectively manage adverse emotional experiences and avoids engaging in maladaptive coping mechanisms (Gerges et al., 2023; Strahler et al., 2022). In most cases, individuals that{{g}} have difficulties in emotional regulation are at an increased risk of developing an eating disorder. Due to the discourse of dieting, avoidance of “impure” foods and harsh dietary restrictions is mainly caused by emotional dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies to relive stress (Gerges et al., 2023). 

==== Factors that contribute to the emotional dysregulation of Orthorexia nervosa ====
Social media has had a significant influence over dieting, being there {{awkward}} is a substantial number of unrealistic standards when it comes to body types and appearances. The media tends to label certain food groups as &quot;bad&quot; or &quot;unhealthy&quot;, {{g}} articles that contain information on types of diets may not have the appropriate certification on nutrition. An analysis conducted by Joshi &amp; Mohan (2018) found a lack of evidence to suggest the long-term benefits of calorie restriction, finding that such extreme diets are caused by the influence of socio-cultural factors and the role of media. Izydorczyk et al (2020) further expand on the influence that media has over ‘diet culture’, specifically promoting unrealistic body standards, or even labelling certain food groups as unhealthy. Sanchez-Ruiz et al (2001) conducted a study to test the impact of mass media and socio-cultural variable on eating behaviour in young adults, researchers found that media had a significant impact on eating related behaviours. Media tends to advertise false information on the nutritional facts of food and in most cases the media can utilise fear to motivate people into avoiding certain food groups (Izydorczyk et al., 2020).

Orthorexia nervosa is linked to attachment-related anxiety and avoidance according to a recent study by Strahler et al., 2022, {{g}} negative emotions that impact an individual’s emotional regulation competence can initiate the attachment system. The attachment theory refers to the relationship or bonds between child and their primary caregiver, depending to the type of relationship that is formed between the caregiver and child impacts the child’s future interpersonal attachments, how to express, experience and regulate their emotions (Yip et al., 2018). In relation to Strahler et al.,{{g}} 2022 review, individuals with insecure attachment styles formed in childhood were predicted to over-engage in emotional eating, while avoidant or fearful attachment patterns were found to have a higher likelihood of developing eating disorders such as anorexia and orthorexia nervosa. Anxious or avoidant attachment patterns that are linked to orthorexia nervosa are typically mediated by maladaptive coping strategies to ease emotional distress surrounding food (Strahler et al., 2022). In understanding this research, it is clear that the attachment theory has a significant effect on the development of orthorexia nervosa, particularly for those individuals with an anxious or avoidant style of attachment generally struggle to regulate emotions such as fear and express it through disordered eating.

== Treatment strategies ==
In using psychoeducation, it informs individuals of the potential consequences when engaging in excessive dieting. Furthermore, it provides information on the nature of orthorexia nervosa and the underlying impacts it can further cause on mental well-being. Individuals who are at risk of developing orthorexia nervosa often exhibit personality characteristics as such perfectionism, neuroticism and obsessive-compulsive behaviours – all of which can manifest itself into disordered eating behaviours. Psychoeducation can challenge an individual's thoughts and beliefs surrounding their distorted eating behaviours; furthermore, psychoeducation is useful to for individuals to understand the socio-cultural influences of excessive dieting and this can foster into strict and harmful dieting behaviours.{{f}}

==== Cognitive behavioural therapy ====
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) offers intervention, that is evidenced based, and targets maladaptive behaviours and thoughts related to Orthorexia nervosa (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). CBT requires individuals with orthorexia to monitor their dietary patterns and emotional responses to assess and become more aware of triggers or stressors that contribute to orthorexia behaviours (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). This provides an opportunity where individuals learn to identify and restructure unhealthy thoughts on food, and further assists with managing anxiety and distress related emotions. Once individuals suffering from orthorexia are able to understand their thoughts and beliefs regarding healthy and unhealthy forms of dieting and food, they are able to modify maladaptive behaviours and emotional responses; this allows individuals to foster more posi tive diet habits and promotes mental well-being (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). 

==== Acceptance-based therapy and mindfulness practices ====
Emerging therapeutic approach for orthorexia nervosa patients, {{g}}involves remaining aware of the present moment, acceptance of one's thoughts and feelings, and sensations throughout the body. The approach teaches individuals to detach themselves from any distressing thoughts and emotions that may be experienced, whilst observing their thoughts and fears regarding food or their dietary habits. Acceptance-based therapy with the added component of mindfulness practices, encourages individuals to accept their vulnerabilities and imperfections without being critical or judgmental of themselves (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). The goal of these exercises is to allow individuals to remain present and be mindful of thoughts, feelings and potential maladaptive actions that may occur when faced during distressing events. This approach works on fostering self-compassion and resilience to reduce the need for dietary perfectionism and anxieties surrounding the “purity” of food; this further challenges the beliefs associated with orthorexia nervosa (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
;Case study

After Evangeline's doctor had discussed with her the symptoms and the health consequences of orthorexia nervosa, she was encouraged to seek treatment to manage the effects that the disorder was having on her mental health. After some consideration and medical advice from her doctor, Evangeline decided to commit to cognitive behavioural therapy and trial medication to manage her anxiety. 

Through committing to weekly therapy session, Evangeline was tasked to monitor her eating patterns and has been able to identify triggers and emotional responses that cause her to engage in her orthorexia tendencies. From there Evangeline has been able to alter her behaviours and thoughts and form more adaptive ways of coping.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
Orthorexia has not yet been defined as a psychiatric disorder due to a lack of clear diagnostic criteria, which makes it difficult for mental health professionals to differentiate between excessive healthy eating as a form of obsession-compulsive behaviour or a proper eating disorder (Horovitz &amp; Argyrides, 2023). This book chapter discusses the role of emotional dysregulation which is a common factor found from those suffering with orthorexia, individuals that struggle to coping with stressors tend to engage in maladaptive behaviours to manage. Furthermore, Strahler et al (2022) found that emotional dysregulation is said to be influenced by attachments formed between a primary caregiver and child. Being, that avoidant and insecure attachment styles are predictors in eating disorder, especially orthorexia. Through understanding the causes and risks factors of orthorexia, treatment strategies such as cognitive behavioural therapy and acceptance-based therapy have been utilised to aid individuals combat the disorder.  

Research continues to highlight concerns surrounding the impacts of media, specifically how media promotes &quot;good&quot; and &quot;bad&quot; foods without the proper certifications which can impact individuals who already engage in strict dietary behaviours. However, it is also important to understand that not all diets have consequences, the food pyramid in particular serves as a guide in which food groups should be consume more so than others; benefits of the food pyramid include representing all food groups without the negative label. 

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Trauma and emotion|Trauma and emotion]] (Book chapter 2023)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Emotional eating|Emotional eating]] (Book chapter 2021)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|Food and fear]] (Book chapter 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter 2016)    

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Akel, M., Brytek-Matera, A., Hallit, S., &amp; Obeid. (2021). Orthorexia nervosa and its association with alexithymia, emotion dysregulation and disordered eating attitudes among Lebanese adults. Eating and Weight Disorders, (26), 2607-2616, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-021-01112-9.

Barthels, F., Barrada, J., &amp; Roncero, M. (2019). Orthorexia nervosa and healthy orthorexia as new eating styles. PLOS ONE, (7)14, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219609.

Cena, H., &amp; Calder, P. C. (2020). Defining a Healthy Diet: Evidence for The Role of Contemporary Dietary Patterns in Health and Disease. Nutrients, 12(2), 334-. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020334

Chaki, B., Pal, S., &amp; Bandyopadhyay, A. (2013). Exploring scientific legitimacy of orthorexia nervosa: a newly emerging eating disorder. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 8(4), 1045–1053. https://doi.org/10.4100/jhse.2013.84.14

Collins, S., Dash, S., &amp; Hoare, E. (2020). Diet and mental health during emerging adulthood: a systematic review. Sage Journals, 10(3), https://doi.org/10.1177/216769682094302

Eating disorders Victoria. (2024). ''Eating disorders explained''. https://www.eatingdisorders.org.au/eating-disorders-a-z/eating-disorders-explained/

Herman, P., &amp; Polivy, J. (2002). Causes of eating disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 187-213. 

Izydorczyk, B., Sitnik-Warchulska, K., Lizinczyk, S., &amp; Lipowska, M. (2020). Socio-cultural standards promoted by the mass media as predictors of restrictive and bulimic behaviour. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00506

Joshi, S., &amp; Mohan, V. (2018). Pros &amp; cons of some popular extreme weight-loss diets. Indian Journal of Medical Research (New Delhi, India : 1994), 148(5), 642–647. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1793_18

Kepka, A., Ochocinska, A., Borzym-Kluczyk, M., Chojnowska, S., Skorupa, E., Przychodzen, M., &amp; Waszkiewicz, N. (2022). Healthy food pyramid as well as physical and mental activity in the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease. Nutrients, 14, 1534, https://doi.org/ 10.3390/nu14081534.

Koven, N. S., &amp; Abry, A. W. (2015). The clinical basis of orthorexia nervosa: emerging perspectives. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 385–394. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S61665

Kiss-Leizer, M., &amp; Rigo, A. (2019). People behind unhealthy obsession to health food: the personality profile of tendency to orthorexia nervosa. Eat Weight Disord, 24, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-018-0527-9

Moroze, R. M., Dunn, T. M., Craig Holland, J., Yager, J., &amp; Weintraub, P. (2015). Microthinking About Micronutrients: A Case of Transition From Obsessions About Healthy Eating to Near-Fatal “Orthorexia Nervosa” and Proposed Diagnostic Criteria. Psychosomatics (Washington, D.C.), 56(4), 397–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psym.2014.03.003

Ridder, D., Kroese, F., Evers, C., Adriaanse, M., &amp; Gillebaart, M. (2017). Healthy diet: health impact, prevalence, correlates, and interventions. Psychology and Health, 32(8), https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2017.1316849

Sanchez-Ruiz, M. J., El-Jor, C., Abi Kharma, J., Bassil, M., &amp; Zeeni, N. (2019). Personality, emotion-related variables, and media pressure predict eating disorders via disordered eating in Lebanese university students. Eating and Weight Disorders, 24(2), 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-017-0387-8

Savarino, G., Corsello, A., &amp; Corsello, G. (2021). Macronutrient balance and micronutrient amounts through growth and development. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 47(1), 109–109. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-021-01061-0

Strahler, J., Wachten, H., Neuhofer, S., &amp; Zimmermann, P. (2022). Psychological correlates of excessive healthy and Orthorexia eating: emotion and regulation, attachment, and anxious-depressive-stress symptomatology. Frontiers in Nutrition, (9), 817047,  https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.817047. 

Tragantzopoulou, P., &amp; Giannouli, V. (2024). Unveiling Anxiety Factors in Orthorexia Nervosa: A Qualitative Exploration of Fears and Coping Strategies. Healthcare (Basel), 12(9), 925-. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12090925

Wani, M., Chakole, S., Agrawal, S., Gupta, A., Chavada, J., Pathade, A. G., &amp; Yelne, S. (2023). Unveiling Skin Manifestations: Exploring Cutaneous Signs of Malnutrition in Eating Disorders. Curēus (Palo Alto, CA), 15(9), e44759–e44759. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.44759

Yip, J., Ehrhardt, K., Black, H., &amp; Walker, D. O. (2018). Attachment theory at work: A review and directions for future research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(2), 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2204

Yung, J. J., &amp; Tabri, N. (2022). The association of perfectionism, health‐focused self‐concept, and erroneous beliefs with orthorexia nervosa symptoms: A moderated mediation model. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 55(7), 892–901. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23719

}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.eatingdisorders.org.au/eating-disorders-a-z/orthorexia/ Orthorexia Eating Disorders] - eating disorders Victoria
* [https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/dysregulation Emotional dysregulation] - Medical news
* [https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/orthorexia-nervosa-101 Orthorexia nervosa, symptoms &amp; treatment] - Healthline  

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Eating]]
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    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Vagus nerve and stress</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
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      <text bytes="21692" sha1="0be7hfe59dza6zr63mm9ju1j8f8h1qb" xml:space="preserve">== Suggestions==
Hi, great work so far. Your chapter is well-structured, beginning with an accessible introduction and progressing into the scientific aspects of the vagus nerve and stress. The case study of Jenny adds a relatable, practical application of the theory, making the content more engaging for readers. You may want to include more recent studies and citations that jump into vagus nerve stimulation techniques, particularly those used in clinical practice. This would enhance the practical applicability for readers interested in therapeutic approaches. Also don't forget to move any non peer reviewed articles from the reference section to the external links section for example, Youtube sources. 
Best of luck! [[User:U3243508|U3243508]] ([[User talk:U3243508|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3243508|contribs]]) 10:32 , 26 September 2024 (UTC)

==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|Princess Brutus}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physiological]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stress]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:26, 10 August 2024 (UTC)

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:Princess Brutus|Hi [[User:Princess Brutus|Princess Brutus]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:32, 5 October 2024 (UTC)
|}

== Further suggestion of useful wikipage ==

Hi @Princess Brutus! I myself have a medical background and have encountered many patients who suffer with vagus nerve related issues. I am very curious and excited to see how you develop your research and add to this topic, especially with the focal point being the impact of stress on the vagus nerve. Your research will no doubt be greatly impactful and enlightening. Good luck to you and all the best with your studious endeavours! [[User:Mkatemoore|Mkatemoore]] ([[User talk:Mkatemoore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mkatemoore|contribs]]) 10:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
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# Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
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# Use 3rd person perspective (except 1st/2nd person can work for feature boxes/scenarios)

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# ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Then focus most of the content on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title.
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
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# Does the Conclusion plan include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.

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## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]

# I don't think is ChatGPT 2 is available. Check which model was used. Ideally, link to the conversations to foster transparency. Follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity.

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# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter submission, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:12, 3 September 2024 (UTC)

== General Feedback ==

&lt;nowiki&gt;The chapter on the vagus nerve and stress is well-organised and engaging. The introduction effectively draws readers in with a relatable scenario, making complex concepts more accessible. The structure, with clear subheadings and case studies like Jenny’s, helps break down the information logically, allowing for a good flow of ideas. The scientific basis, especially the use of stress theories like the Cognitive Appraisal Theory, is well-integrated, but could be further deepened. A stronger link between these theories and the vagus nerve’s role in stress management would enhance the theoretical depth. Additionally, the case study could benefit from more detail on how interventions related to the vagus nerve might improve outcomes. Overall, the chapter does a great job of explaining the physiological and psychological importance of the vagus nerve in stress responses. Great work! (~~~~ = Cophiesollins 12:24, 04 October 2024 (UTC)) &lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:Cophiesollins|Cophiesollins]] ([[User talk:Cophiesollins|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cophiesollins|contribs]]) 02:26, 4 October 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
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# Overall, this is a basic, but sufficient chapter
# I suspect that some of this chapter is based on unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Insufficient use of primary, peer-reviewed sources as citations (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
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# Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Word_count|maximum word count]]. The content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes.
# Some material is repetitive (e.g., 10th cranial nerve)
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FVagus_nerve_and_stress&amp;diff=2676182&amp;oldid=2665388 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Basic
# Remove sub-headings
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box; also include a relevant image (fixed)
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Explains the problem or phenomenon
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic; it seems likely that much of this content was generated by genAI as there is little evidence of reading of the best psychological theory and research about the topic
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds on one previous, related chapter and/or Wikipedia article
# Build more strongly on related chapters and/or Wikipedia articles (e.g., by embedding links to other chapters)
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Promising depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
# Use tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Some use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Basic review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Basic critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Many claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Basic integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Reasonably good summary and conclusion
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is basic
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is poorly structured. Review the skills taught in Tutorial 2.
## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics and/or bold)
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use insufficient APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### Learn when to use parentheses and when not to
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use good APA style:
### Use author initials rather than first names
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Include hyperlinked dois (fixed)
### Move non-peer reviewed links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Basic use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Embedded links to Wikipedia --&gt;
# One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features - Embedded links to Wikiversity --&gt;
# No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Basic use of image(s)
# No use of table(s)
# Reasonably good use of feature box(es)
# Basic use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Over word count; not used for marking purposes
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Over word count; not used for marking purposes
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~6 logged, useful, moderate social contributions just before the due date with direct links to evidence
# The contributions are formulaic, suggesting that [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI]] may have been used without acknowledgement. If so, this would violate academic integrity principles.
# Note that the eportfolio link is not accessible
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:40, 26 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a good presentation
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation
## The title and sub-title are displayed and paraphrased
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides basic practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides a reasonably good summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides basic take-home message(s)
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# Make fewer references to the book chapter; concentrate on addressing the topic
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes good use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Reasonably good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# Check and correct pronunciation for acetylcholine
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was reasonably good
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is reasonably good
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good/ use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is mostly sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
#&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide mostly makes it reasonably easy to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is supplemented in a good way by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is well produced using simple tools
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# The copyrights of some image creators appear to have been violated by reusing without permission
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:57, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>0be7hfe59dza6zr63mm9ju1j8f8h1qb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>306991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681788</id>
      <parentid>2676921</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T04:17:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681788</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19067" sha1="jk6llahdhxdju19pn0jaemtidx9j7ex" xml:space="preserve">== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:U3239156dej|Hi [[User:U3239156dej|U3239156dej]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:21, 10 August 2024 (UTC)
|}

==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|U3239156dej}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Biofeedback]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physiological]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:18, 11 August 2024 (UTC)

:Hi all, not sure if this is the place to post but you should at the term Heart Rate Fragmentation (HRF)!! [[User:U3190194|U3190194]] ([[User talk:U3190194|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3190194|contribs]]) 02:14, 25 September 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and sub-title are correctly worded and formatted
## User name removed – authorship is as per the list of topics and the page's editing history
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# Promising 2-level heading structure – could benefit from further development by expanding the structure
# Be careful to distinguish between HR and HRV in the headings - the topic is HRV
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Adopt closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section
# Move the scenario or case study into a feature box to help catch reader interest
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings is recommended
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section, with relevant citations
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
## What might the take-home, practical messages be? (What are the answer(s) to the question(s) in the sub-title and/or focus questions?)
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# A relevant is presented and captioned
# It is unclear how the figure relates to HRV and ER
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of example(s)/case study(ies)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Promising use of table(s)
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# Consider including quiz question(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Are there any systematic reviews about this topic?
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# For [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style], check and correct:
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
# See also
## Very good
## There are two see also sections - merge
## Use alphabetical order
# External links
## Excellent
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# Link provided to book chapter
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# One out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence
# The other two types of contribution are making:
## comments on chapters
## posts about the unit or project on other platforms
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:37, 18 August 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a reasonably good chapter. It makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Basic use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# In some places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. The content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes.
# This chapter &quot;[[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]]&quot; (i.e., too much single-concept description/preamble) before starting to directly tackle the target topic
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FHeart_rate_variability_and_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2676920&amp;oldid=2676647 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Basic focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# A reasonably good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., about ER). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on  [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question).
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds reasonably well on related chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Reasonably good depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Promising use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
# The tables are lengthy and the chapter is over the maximum word count; consider abbreviating to key info
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# In some places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Reasonably good review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# In some places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Basic critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Some claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Basic integration between theory and
research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
# Reasonably good summary and conclusion
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is basic
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags)
## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., HRV), use it consistently aftwarwards
### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and remove double spaces) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Use double (not single) quotation marks &quot;to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression&quot; (APA 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Reasonably well captioned
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use basic APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### Make correct use of full steps e.g., (Ernst., 2017) -&gt; (Ernst, 2017)
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use very good APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Very good use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of figure(s)
# Promising use of table(s)
# Reasonably good use of feature box(es)
# Reasonably good use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
# The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Excellent use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Excellent use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~2 logged minor contributions with direct links to evidence
# ~1 logged social contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:43, 27 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a very good presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent take-home message(s)
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good/ use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Very good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well practiced and/or performed
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was very good
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is very good
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is supplemented in a very good way by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is well produced using simple tools
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Promising use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link from the book chapter is provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Partial image attribution. Inactive hyperlinks. Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:17, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>jk6llahdhxdju19pn0jaemtidx9j7ex</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Bottom-line mentality and motivation</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>307004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681795</id>
      <parentid>2677988</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T05:37:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681795</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="17706" sha1="59snnidx5vmgzouwjqogo3ri5i66kd1" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|Biancaguina}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Leadership]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Productivity]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:09, 10 August 2024 (UTC)

== Case study ==
Hi @[[User:Biancaguina|Biancaguina]] - you've done a really great job! 

You mentioned that you were looking into case studies - You might be able to look at the way HP approached leadership. You can find a link here to a forbes article [https://www.forbes.com/sites/workday/2019/01/09/the-business-case-for-positive-company-culture/ here] which speaks about it a bit more in detail - but in short, when they split in 2015, they prioritised leadership, including diversity.

Theres some other case studies [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/company-case-studies-show-paying-positive-attention-marcy here] on linked in - like a CEO implementing mindfulness practices in the workplace, and that &quot;''Paying Positive Attention to Employees Can Improve The Bottom Line&quot;.''

Goodluck with it - looking forward to reading!

Mel [[User:U3225022|U3225022]] ([[User talk:U3225022|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3225022|contribs]]) 12:13, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

:I've also fixed your hanging indent. You mentioned this was something you needed fixing :) [[User:U3225022|U3225022]] ([[User talk:U3225022|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3225022|contribs]]) 12:22, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title is correctly worded and formatted
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Excellent – Well developed 3-level heading structure. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic.
# I think you could be probably drop the 3rd level of heading, to avoid being overly complicated. The 2-level heading structure has sufficient depth.
# The Enron case study probably doesn't warrant a separate heading, but it could be usefully incorporated into the most relevant other section
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Consider adopting closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent - Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, relevant psychological theory/research, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section
# Add an image to the scenario or case study to help attract reader interest
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Focus questions are well developed, but consider alignment between the focus questions and top-level headings
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section, with relevant citations
# For sections which include sub-sections, include the key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# As you get to know the literature better, you might find general motivational theories (such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs to be less relevant), so be prepared to let go of more general material in favour of more specific material
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Probably theory-strong and research-weak at the moment; strive for an integrated balance (see marking criteria)
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, write in your own words
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Under developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - A relevant figure is presented, captioned, and cited
# Make sure to cite all figures (e.g., see Figure 1) - note capitalisation
# Consider increasing image size for diagrams with text from to make it easier to view
6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Promising use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of example(s)/case study(ies)
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Good
# Needs copyediting
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Are there any systematic reviews about this topic?
# For [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style], check and correct:
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting]
## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable)
## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
# External links
## Very good
## Move academic peer-reviewed sources into References and cite
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent – used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
# Add description about self
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# Link provided to book chapter
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# One type of contribution (direct edit) made without direct links to evidence of changes
# How to make other types of contributions and how to provide direct links to was covered in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03]]. Looking ahead to the book chapter submission, see more about how to make [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:29, 18 August 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FBottom-line_mentality_and_motivation&amp;diff=2677987&amp;oldid=2676671 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are clear and relevant
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds reasonably well on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Some use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Very good review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent integration between theory and research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
# Clear take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is excellent
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
## The grammar for a small number of sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.)
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
## Direct quotes need page numbers – even better, communicate about concepts in your own words
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Use this format for captions: ''Figure X''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.)
### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use very good APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Very good use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Good use of figure(s)
# No use of table(s)
# Very good use of feature box(es)
# Very good use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Excellent use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Basic use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Add more links
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~1 logged contribution with direct links to evidence
# ~3 logged social contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:21, 2 November 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a basic presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title is displayed
## The sub-title is display very briefly
## The title and sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# There is too much content; summarise
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides basic practical advice
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was reasonably good
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality. Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is supplemented in a basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is basically produced using simple tools
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Kids --&gt;
# The presentation is incorrectly categorised as being for kids. This creates limitations, such as being unable to add the presentation to a playlist. [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9528076 More info].
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:37, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>59snnidx5vmgzouwjqogo3ri5i66kd1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Groups and individual motivation reduction</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>307181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681698</id>
      <parentid>2669722</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T21:12:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681698</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16700" sha1="cv1txi4q1lay7hc11jthqawbgvxpg3w" xml:space="preserve">== How have you experienced these psychological theories of groups? ==

How have you experienced these psychological theories of groups? What are some other case studies we could apply them to? [[User:U3216883|U3216883]] ([[User talk:U3216883|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216883|contribs]]) 04:35, 14 August 2024 (UTC)

==Case studies==
Hi Chelsea, I've just finished reading your chapter, and it looks amazing! It was interesting, easy to read and contained a lot of great theoretical information. The only thing I was wondering about were the case studies. It seems like you have used a lot of real-life examples for the case study sections, which is great, but perhaps you could also provide some more hypothetical situations for the reader to keep in the back of their minds as they read through each section and try to form their answers based on the information you give them. This could make the reader think and comprehend a bit more as they go through your chapter. Well done!--[[User:U3236447|U3236447]] ([[User talk:U3236447|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3236447|contribs]]) 03:54, 2 October 2024 (UTC)

== Feedback on book chapter ==

Please leave constructive feedback on how I might improve this book chapter below. Thanks! [[User:U3216883|U3216883]] ([[User talk:U3216883|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216883|contribs]]) 04:37, 14 August 2024 (UTC)

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:U3216883|Hi [[User:U3216883|U3216883]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:57, 14 August 2024 (UTC)
|}

:Thanks @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] so much for the feedback! Really appreciate it :) [[User:U3216883|U3216883]] ([[User talk:U3216883|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216883|contribs]]) 23:14, 14 August 2024 (UTC)


&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title is correctly worded and formatted
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# Excellent – Well developed 2-level heading structure. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic.
# Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings

&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Good alignment between focus questions and heading structure
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent - Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, relevant psychological theory/research, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section, with relevant citations
# Consider using &quot;people&quot; instead of &quot;individuals&quot; in some places to help avoid overuse of the latter
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Good balance of theory and research
&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use APA style 7th edition for citations with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year)
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Well developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# A relevant figure is presented, captioned, and cited
# Caption could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Promising use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikiversity pages; also consider embedding interwiki links to relevant Wikipedia articles (e.g., for more info about the case study topics)
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Excellent use of example(s)/case study(ies)
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Promising use of table(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# For [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style], check and correct:
## Remove publication location (not part of APA style 7th ed. - was part of 6th ed.)
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
# External links
## Excellent
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent – used effectively
# Remember to use edit summaries
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Link(s) provided to professional profile(s)
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# Link provided to book chapter
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:00, 17 August 2024 (UTC)

== Feedback and thank yous ==

Hi! 

I just wanted to return the favor. I read your chapter and I have to say I am wowed at how professional and readable your chapter is. I really enjoyed your use of real world cases of group thinking and just how dangerous it can be. Sentences flow nicely, chapter was readable and enjoyable. I had my partner look over it to see if it would make sense to a layperson and they understood it as well, so good job! And I just wanted to thank you for your reading, it was very helpful and I really appreciated it  [[User:Joan-E-1405|Joan-E-1405]] ([[User talk:Joan-E-1405|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Joan-E-1405|contribs]]) 23:26, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

:Thank you so so much @[[User:Joan-E-1405|Joan-E-1405]], this feedback is so sweet and a much-needed confidence boost! I really appreciate you (and your partner!) taking the time to read over it :) [[User:U3216883|U3216883]] ([[User talk:U3216883|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216883|contribs]]) 02:04, 4 October 2024 (UTC)

== Feedback ==

Hi!

This chapter looks amazing! Your integration of case studies and use of feature boxes and tables enhances your information throughout the chapter.

One super minor change to consider is changing the colour of your feature boxes so that all the case studies, quiz and 'think about it' boxes have their own colours to help with continuity. 

Even with that I still think your chapter looks amazing! It is clear you have put a lot of time and effort into it. 

&lt;nowiki&gt;Good luck with the rest of the semester ~~~U3228753&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:U3228753|U3228753]] ([[User talk:U3228753|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3228753|contribs]]) 07:59, 5 October 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Very good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# Several older references are used, which is fine, but they should also be supplemented by more recent relevant citations where possible
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FGroups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&amp;diff=2669721&amp;oldid=2659708 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds effectively on related chapters and Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists are to help clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent review of relevant research
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Very good critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
# Claims are well referenced
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent integration between theory and research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Very good summary and conclusion
# Key points are reasonably well summarised
# Be wary of overly strident recommendations
# What are the take-home message(s) for each focus question?
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is excellent
## Use active (e.g., &quot;this chapter explores&quot;) rather than passive voice (e.g., &quot;this chapter has explored&quot; or &quot;this chapter will explore&quot;) [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/]
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar, spelling, and proofreading are excellent
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Figures are very well captioned
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use (close to) APA style or wiki style
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.).
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use excellent APA style
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Good use of image(s)
# Excellent use of table(s)
# Excellent use of feature box(es)
# Excellent use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Very good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also, external links --&gt;
# Excellent use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
# Excellent use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~30+ logged, useful, moderate to major social contributions with direct links to evidence
# Thanks very much for your extensive contributions
# Contributions made across three platforms
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:33, 12 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a very good presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes good use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of citations to support claims
# A lot of the citations are quite old; ideally, show familiarity with more recent literature as well
# Use APA style for citations (e.g., use alphabetical order for multiple citations)
# Check and correct formatting of references (e.g., Psychologic -&gt; Psychological)
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of one or more examples
# Be wary of advancing specific political viewpoints implicitly or explicitly as this risks undermining the communication of the message
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides a very good summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent take-home message(s)
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/ use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Very good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well practiced and/or performed
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative use of text and animation
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Also provide links to each image (e.g., in the description).
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:12, 7 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>cv1txi4q1lay7hc11jthqawbgvxpg3w</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Temporal motivation theory</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>307282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681802</id>
      <parentid>2672362</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T07:48:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681802</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16205" sha1="aqozpl1xifj07v4c4nwohqh454avxtq" xml:space="preserve">==Suggested changes==

Hey {{ping|UC3236663}} Excellent topic, I did notice that in the temporal motivation theory heading, there was a subheading that could be converted to the main heading, as it moves on to talk about another aspect as opposed to the theory itself. Consider making the 'Integration with Other Theories' as a main heading and then its subsequent headings as second-level rather than third-level headings. I hope this makes sense and might make the document easier to navigate and read! I hope this is helpful. -3230259

==Students can relate==
This is SO interesting and almost therapeutic, coming from an extremely indecisive individual and chronic procrastinator. I assume a lot of us are guilty of prioritising shorter/quicker tasks over the bigger assessment items that only end up causing us more stress when we tackle them last minute and unprepared :( --[[User:Ebrixon|Ebrixon]] ([[User talk:Ebrixon|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ebrixon|contribs]]) 13:48, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:UC3236663|Hi [[User:UC3236663|UC3236663]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:34, 15 October 2024 (UTC)
|}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and/or sub-title were not correctly worded and/or formatted (fixed)
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# Promising 2-level heading structure – could benefit from further development and/or refinement
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Adopt closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
# Very good
# OK
# Basic
# Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# Move the scenario or case study into a feature box (with an image) to the start of this section to help catch reader interest
# Move the second scenario into a subsequent section
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A description of the problem/topic is provided
# Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections.
# Use present rather than future tense
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings is recommended
# Drop the focus question about the case study; case study is for illustrative purposes
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section
&lt;!-- Citations --&gt;
# Good use of citations
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples

&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use APA style 7th edition for citations (e.g., do not include initials)
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# For sections which include sub-sections, include the key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings

# Avoid overcapitalisation (APA style) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion is well developed
# What might the take-home, practical messages be? (What are the answer(s) to the question(s) in the sub-title and/or focus questions?)
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - One or more relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# The figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
# Cite each figure using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1 i.e., do not use italics)
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# One use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of one or more scenarios/examples/case studies
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Good
## Move academic sources into references and cite in the chapter
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Include source in brackets after link
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Good
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Brief description about self – consider expanding
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:10, 1 September 2024 (UTC)

== General feedback ==

Your chapter on '''Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT)''' is clear, engaging, and well-structured. I love the practical examples, such as the case study, really help in explaining how TMT applies to everyday decision-making and procrastination. The integration of psychological theories strengthens your argument. It would be great to see some more specific strategies for overcoming procrastination using TMT insights to enhance practical applicability. Great job overall! [[User:Cophiesollins|Cophiesollins]] ([[User talk:Cophiesollins|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cophiesollins|contribs]]) 05:48, 4 October 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Very good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# Use of academic, peer-reviewed citations could be improved in some places (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FTemporal_motivation_theory&amp;diff=2672361&amp;oldid=2662232 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the problem or phenomenon
# Avoid repeating same material later
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear and interesting focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds effectively on related chapters and Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists etc. to help clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Good review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Insufficient critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## discussing the direction of relationships
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Some claims are unreferenced (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Very good integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is very good
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## See earlier comments about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{grammar}} tags)
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')
[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g.,) - needs comma
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Figures are very well captioned
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.)
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use very good APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Excellent use of image(s)
# No use of table(s)
# Excellent use of feature box(es)
# Excellent use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also, external links --&gt;
# Very good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Use alphabetical order
# Good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use sentence casing
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~5 logged, useful, minor social contributions with direct links to evidence
# Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:34, 15 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a reasonably good presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes no explicit use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides basic practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides basic (wordy) take-home message(s)
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Reasonably good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well practiced and/or performed
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was reasonably good
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# Some of the font size and line spacing could be larger to make it easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
## The visual communication is supplemented in a basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/ matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link from the book chapter is provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Links are not active
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:48, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>aqozpl1xifj07v4c4nwohqh454avxtq</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Intrinsic motivation and creativity</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>307361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681807</id>
      <parentid>2671965</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T08:20:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681807</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16663" sha1="m2jiawyrcszlcapud5i8bs5s6j442lv" xml:space="preserve">== Suggestions==
Hey, great job so far. Your chapter is well-structured, starting with an accessible introduction and smoothly transitioning into the scientific discussion on intrinsic motivation and creativity. To further enhance the depth and insightfulness of your work, consider incorporating more recent studies and citations, especially those that explore how intrinsic motivation fosters creativity in various contexts. You could include more practical examples and techniques for enhancing intrinsic motivation, which would also increase the practical value for readers looking to apply these concepts in real-world scenarios. Well done! --[[User:Princess Brutus|Princess Brutus]] ([[User talk:Princess Brutus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Princess Brutus|contribs]]) 08:08, 6 October 2024 (UTC)

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:Trodrickk|Hi [[User:Trodrickk|Trodrickk]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:31, 18 August 2024 (UTC)
|}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title is correctly worded and formatted
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Under-developed, 1-level heading structure – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s)
# Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with up to a similar number of sub-headings for large sections
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Very good - Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, relevant psychological theory/research, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Focus questions could be improved by:
## Unpacking the first question - this is the core topic
## The second question is less relevant (not part of the topic) - there are other chapters that could be linked to address this question in-depth, although a brief explanation would be useful
## The third question is a bit vague/general - make sure the focus questions directly relate to the sub-title for the chapter
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Promising development of key points for each section, with relevant citations
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Good balance of theory and research
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - A relevant figure is presented, captioned, and cited
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# One use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of example(s)/case study(ies)
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# Consider including more examples/case studies, quiz question(s), table(s) etc.
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
# Good to see identification of a relevant meta-analysis
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# For [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style], check and correct:
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
# See also
## Not developed
# External links
## Not developed
# I get the sense that you may have not have completed Tutorial 2
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Good
# Use headings as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# Link provided to book chapter
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence – this was covered in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03]]. Looking ahead to the book chapter submission, see how to earn marks for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:31, 18 August 2024 (UTC)


== Suggestions ==

For factors affecting intrinsic motivation and creativity, maybe flesh out why controlling managerial styles negatively influence it- such as promoting effort vs. the result, also evaluation and competition may be related. This may also be applied to other environments. You could also look into the effect of external events such as COVID, social media etc in terms of if it is helpful vs unhelpful to creativity.

Hope this was a useful brainstorm

--[[User:U3229132|U3229132]] ([[User talk:U3229132|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3229132|contribs]]) 00:59, 27 September 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a good to very good chapter that uses psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem. The main issue is that is well over the maximum word count.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Very good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Well over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Word_count|maximum word count]]. The content beyond 4,000 words (including the Conclusion) has been ignored for marking purposes.
# This chapter &quot;[[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]]&quot; (i.e., too much single-concept description/preamble) before starting to directly tackle the target topic
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FIntrinsic_motivation_and_creativity&amp;diff=2671964&amp;oldid=2660740 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Solid
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Briefly explains the problem or phenomenon
# Probably overly focused on questions rather than describing the phenomenon
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Basic focus questions
# Given the various questions in the Overview, the focus questions are surprisingly basic/simplistic and don't really unpack the topic (the sub-title)
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# A very good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# There is too much background explanation of IM and C as stand-alone constructs; concentrate on their relationship
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds reasonably well on related chapters and/or Wikipedia articles; could do this more to reduce overall word count
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Very good depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Use tables, figures, and/or lists are to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Very good review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Consider expanding the detail about key systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area
# Note that in some places there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Very good critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Very good integration between theory and research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Basic summary and conclusion
# Address the focus questions
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is very good
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. incredibly) in science-based communication
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## See earlier comments about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for some sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{grammar}} tags)
# Spelling
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Use double (not single) quotation marks &quot;to introduce a word or phrase used as an ironic comment, as slang, or as an invented or coined expression&quot; (APA 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Figures are reasonably well captioned
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.)
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use basic APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Separate page numbers using an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Basic use of image(s)
# No use of table(s)
# Basic use of feature box(es)
# Basic use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Very good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also, external links --&gt;
# Basic use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles
## Use sentence casing
## Use alphabetical order
# Basic use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use sentence casing
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link (do not hyperlink the sources)
## Include at least 3 resources
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~5 logged, useful mostly moderate social contributions with direct links to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:49, 14 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a basic presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed but only roughly narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# Establish a context for the presentation such as through an example
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation somewhat addresses address the topic
# There is too much emphasis on background theory
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of relevant psychological theory
# There is too much focus on general motivation theory and too little on the relationship between IM and creativity which is only addressed in the last 30 seconds
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes good use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes insufficient use of examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well practiced and/or performed
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is somewhat matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is reasonably good
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it reasonably easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is supplemented in a basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is well produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is reasonably well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# Good use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:20, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>m2jiawyrcszlcapud5i8bs5s6j442lv</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Motivation in retirement</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>307377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681781</id>
      <parentid>2674361</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T03:34:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681781</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15143" sha1="0z1cpkvtdlfvze8odm5cl3w5she9w1p" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and sub-title are correctly worded and formatted
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# Basic, 1-level heading structure – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Consider adopting closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
&lt;!-- Other ---&gt;
# Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with up to a similar number of sub-headings for large sections
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is planned
# Description of the problem/topic should be brief and evocative. Keep this section user-friendly. Move detail into subsequent section.
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Promising development of key points for each section, with relevant citations
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Strive for an integrated balance of theory and research
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# A relevant figure is presented and captioned
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Caption could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# One use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of example(s)/case study(ies)
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# Consider including quiz question(s), table(s) etc.
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Are there any systematic reviews about this topic?
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# For [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style], check and correct:
## alphabetical order
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
# See also
## Not developed
# External links
## Not developed
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Created – minimal, but sufficient
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Very brief description about self – consider expanding
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# One out of three types of contributions made with with indirect link(s) to evidence
# The three types of contribution are making:
## direct improvements to other book chapters (past or current)
## comments on chapters (past or current)
## posts about the unit or project on other platforms
# If adding the second or subsequent link to a page (or a talk/discussion page), create a direct link like / Add direct links to evidence. To do this: View the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and then use this website address as a direct link to evidence for listing on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:55, 18 August 2024 (UTC)

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:U3243172|Hi [[User:U3243172|U3243172]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:07, 6 October 2024 (UTC)
|}
:: Also note to use default heading styles (e.g., remove bold) -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:07, 6 October 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a good to very good chapter. It makes excellent use of psychological theory and basic use of research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Very good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Word_count|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FMotivation_in_retirement&amp;diff=2674360&amp;oldid=2664134 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Reasonably good
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Briefly explains the problem or phenomenon
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Provide focus questions in a feature box to help guide the reader and structure the chapter
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds on one previous, related chapter and/or Wikipedia article
# Build more strongly on related chapters and/or Wikipedia articles (e.g., by embedding links to other chapters)
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Excellent depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Use tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Basic review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any more details about systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Insufficient critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## discussing the direction of relationships
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Basic integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is good
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics and/or bold)
## See earlier comments about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use very good APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use basic APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
# Move non-peer reviewed links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Basic use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Links --&gt;
# One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Basic use of image(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Basic use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use alphabetical order
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# No use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~2 logged social contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:37, 20 October 2024 (UTC)


Detailed example
Detailed example
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a basic presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation
## The title and sub-title are displayed and somewhat narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A basic context for the presentation is established
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes no use of examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides a basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion narration provides very good take-home message(s); also summarise messages visually
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# Anatomy or autonomy?
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good way by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is reasonably well produced using simple tools
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Kids --&gt;
# The presentation is incorrectly categorised as being for kids. This creates limitations, such as being unable to add the presentation to a playlist. [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9528076 More info].
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:34, 8 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>0z1cpkvtdlfvze8odm5cl3w5she9w1p</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Gut-brain axis and emotion</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>307518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681665</id>
      <parentid>2677495</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T21:00:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681665</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16329" sha1="mrg0wwm9eumheuxrazu57i8v4w0bi7z" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and sub-title are correctly worded and formatted
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# Promising 2-level heading structure – could benefit from further development and/or refinement
# Basic, 2-level heading structure – could benefit from further development (expand)
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Good alignment between focus questions and heading structure
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent - Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, relevant psychological theory/research, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section, with relevant citations
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Promising balance of theory and research
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# Is some of this [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] (e.g., https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FGut-brain_axis_and_emotion&amp;diff=2646438&amp;oldid=2646426)? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Underway
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - One or more relevant figure(s) is/are presented, captioned, and cited
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# The figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of one or more scenarios/examples/case studies
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Are there any systematic reviews about this topic?
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## provide the full journal titles

## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Excellent
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Basic
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Brief description about self – consider expanding
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
# Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
# Add link to book chapter
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:24, 26 August 2024 (UTC)

== resources on bidirectional communication and gut ==

Hi, interesting read! I just recently read something about bidirectional communication between cortical region and limbic system, and emotion regulation. I found these two resources might be helpful to dive the topic further. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0013469452900734 Some psychiatric implications of physiological studies on frontotemporal portion of limbic system (Visceral brain) - ScienceDirect]  [https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3071 Gut feelings: the emerging biology of gut–brain communication | Nature Reviews Neuroscience] 

All the best! [[User:Stluciamolly|Stluciamolly]] ([[User talk:Stluciamolly|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Stluciamolly|contribs]]) 13:05, 29 September 2024 (UTC)

:Thank you, this and your last suggestion are really interesting ill definitely look into that point of view!!  [[User:U3239091|U3239091]] ([[User talk:U3239091|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3239091|contribs]]) 04:28, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

== some thoughts ==

Hi, I find this topic very interesting. If it was me, I would talk about the bidirectional communication, and that cognitive appraisal may be a cause to gut-feeling. Cognitive appraisal influences cortical region and limbic system (emotional brain)---this is how I might start to explore the role of brain-gut axis in the emotion. The &quot;gut&quot; sits in the limbic system, as part of the neurological system, instead of being a separated physical entity that is influenced by or influence the &quot;brain&quot;. What do you think?

This is the article I first found about the bidirectional link between cognition and emotion. [https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/6789831 Rethinking Feelings: An fMRI Study of the Cognitive Regulation of Emotion | MIT Press Journals &amp; Magazine | IEEE Xplore]

All the best! [[User:Stluciamolly|Stluciamolly]] ([[User talk:Stluciamolly|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Stluciamolly|contribs]]) 01:28, 30 September 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Very good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# In some places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FGut-brain_axis_and_emotion&amp;diff=2677494&amp;oldid=2676162 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are clear and relevant
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds effectively on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful/ depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Excellent use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# In some places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent review of relevant research
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# In some places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Reasonably good [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Some claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent integration between theory and research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
# Clear take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is very good
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for some sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Very well captioned
### Use this format for captions: ''Figure X''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Use APA style for captions ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]])
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, talics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use good APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
### Do not include author first name or initials
### Use ampersand (&amp;) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and &quot;and&quot; outside parentheses
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use excellent APA style:
### Provide full journal titles
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Excellent use of figure(s)
# Excellent use of table(s)
# Excellent use of feature box(es)
# Excellent use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Excellent use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Excellent use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~7 logged, useful, mostly moderate contributions with direct links to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:23, 31 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A basic context for the presentation is established
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good/ use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:00, 7 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 02</title>
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      <text bytes="53294" sha1="k3xvmycpcxx71u9viv6v1s29rr0pwgs" xml:space="preserve">[[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 01|1 &lt;&lt;&lt;]] — [[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 03|&gt;&gt;&gt; 3]]

= 2. The Beginnings of the New Religion: Muḥammad in Mecca =
This session explores Muḥammad's religious development within the Ḥanīfic milieu, his followers, and his confrontations with opponents in Mecca up to 622. His early religious message is then reconstructed on the basis of Qur'anic statements. Finally, the new forms of worship that defined the emerging religious community are discussed.

== 2.1. Muḥammad, His Early Followers, and Opponents According to Arabic Sources ==
=== 2.1.1. The Nature of the Sources ===
Muḥammad's life is illuminated by a large number of Arabic sources. The most prominent and earliest extant biographical work dedicated solely to his person is known as the [[w:Al-Sirah_al-Nabawiyyah_(Ibn_Hisham)|''Sīrah'']] of [[w:Ibn_Hisham|Ibn Hishām]] (d. 834). In addition to this, there are several other biographical and historiographical works, such as the [[w:History_of_the_Prophets_and_Kings|universal chronicle]] by [[w:Al-Tabari|Abū Jaʿfar Ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī]] (d. 923). These works primarily consist of individual reports (''akhbār'', sing. ''khabar''), each focusing on specific individuals, groups, or events. A formal feature of these reports is that each contains two parts: the main text concerning the event and the preceding chain of transmission ([[w:Isnad|isnād]]). These chains of transmission reveal that the authors of these works drew their information from a wealth of earlier sources, which have not been preserved independently. The ''Sīrah'' of Ibn Hishām and al-Ṭabarī’s reports on the life of the Prophet, for example, are based on a no longer extant work by the scholar [[w:Ibn_Ishaq|Ibn Isḥāq]] (d. 767), who served at the court of the Abbasid caliph [[w:Al-Mansur|al-Manṣūr]]. He and other authors who did not rely on Ibn Isḥāq obtained much of their information from [[w:Ibn_Shihab_az-Zuhri|Ibn Shihāb al-Zuhrī]] (d. 742), a scholar at the [[w:Umayyad_dynasty|Umayyad]] court. Al-Zuhrī, in turn, drew on earlier authorities. The written tradition was therefore preceded by a longer tradition that was largely oral.
&lt;!-- linked Al-Sirah_al-Nabawiyyah_(Ibn_Hisham), History_of_the_Prophets_and_Kings, and Ibn_Shihab_az-Zuhri --&gt;

In addition to the individual accounts, the previously mentioned works include genealogies, poems, documents, and several lists of names of individuals who participated in specific events. This material is often presented without the inclusion of an isnād, but this does not necessarily make it less authentic. However, some of the reports found in the Arabic sources have a legendary character. They primarily served to demonstrate Muḥammad's elevated religious rank. Setting aside such accounts containing miraculous elements, it is possible to reconstruct Muḥammad's life and the events surrounding him with reasonable accuracy based on the aforementioned sources.

=== 2.1.2. Muḥammad and His Religious Development ===
Al-Ṭabarī quotes the historian and genealogist [[w:Hisham_ibn_al-Kalbi|Ibn al-Kalbī]] (d. 819), who states that Muḥammad was born in the 42nd year following the accession of the Sasanian ruler [[w:Khosrow_I|Khosrow I Anushirvan]], thus dating his birth to 573 CE. Muḥammad's father, [[w:Abdullah_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib|ʿAbdallāh]], from the [[w:Banu_Hashim|Banū Hāshim]] clan, died shortly before his son's birth while on a business trip. Muḥammad lived for a time with his mother, [[w:Amina_bint_Wahb|Āmina]], and her family, who belonged to the [[w:Banu_Zuhrah|Banū Zuhrah]] clan. At the age of six, Muḥammad lost his mother as well, leading him to come under the care of his paternal grandfather [[w:Abd_al-Muttalib|ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib]], who at that time was the ḥakam of the Banū Hāshim and held the office of ''siqāyah'', responsible for providing water to pilgrims. He is also credited with the restoration of the [[w:Zamzam_Well|Zamzam well]] at the Kaaba, from which the pilgrims were supplied with water. Following the death of ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib two years later, Muḥammad was taken into the household of his paternal uncle [[w:Abū_Tālib_ibn_ʿAbd_al-Muttalib|Abū Ṭālib]], who inherited the leadership of the clan from his father and worked as a merchant.
&lt;!-- linked Banu_Zuhrah --&gt;

[[File:The House of Khadijah, The Prophet Mohammad's Wife in Mecca after Demolition 01.jpg|thumb|Khadījah's house in Mecca was revered as a sacred site by Muslims for centuries. After it was destroyed by the [[w:Wahhabism|Wahhabis]] in 1925, excavations were conducted in December 1989.]]
When Muḥammad was about 25 years old, a wealthy widow named [[w:Khadija_bint_Khuwaylid|Khadījah]] asked him to act as her representative on a trip to Syria. Khadījah was pleased by the manner in which Muḥammad executed her commission and proposed marriage to him. This marriage marked a significant turning point in Muḥammad's life. According to Arab custom, as a minor, Muḥammad had not inherited anything from his mother or grandfather. However, his marriage to Khadījah, which likely followed an uxorilocal arrangement, provided him with the necessary capital to establish himself as a merchant. This “ascent” is referenced in the following Qur'anic verses according to Islamic tradition: {{quote|Did He not find [you] an orphan and protect ([you])? Did He not find [you] wandering and direct ([you])? Did He not find [you] destitute and enrich ([you])?
[https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/93/verse/6/print – Q 93:6-8.]}}
Through his marriage to Khadījah, Muḥammad was wealthy enough to relieve his uncle Abū Ṭālib, who had fallen into debt, by taking his still young son [[w:Ali|ʿAlī]] into his household.

At a certain point, Muḥammad seems to have come into contact with the [[w:Hanif|Ḥanīfs]]. Several traditions report that it was the Ḥanīf [[w:Zayd_ibn_Amr|Zayd ibn ʿAmr]] who influenced him to refrain from consuming meat from animals sacrificed to idols. At some point, he also seems to have begun engaging in particular religious practices. The following words are transmitted from [[w:Aisha|ʿĀ'isha bint Abī Bakr]], Muḥammad's later wife:
{{quote|Thenceforth solitude became dear to him, and he used to seclude himself in the cave of Ḥirā', where he would engage in tahannuth (and that is a worship for a number of nights) before returning to his family and getting provisions again for this purpose. He would then return to Khadījah and take provisions for a like period.
– [[w:Sahih_al-Bukhari|Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī]] }}
&lt;!-- linked Zayd_ibn_Amr
-used the text from https://sunnah.com/muslim:160a for the hadith
--&gt;
The tahannuth was a form of pious exercise practiced primarily by the Ḥanīfs during Muḥammad's time. It was dedicated to the veneration of the sacred precinct of Mecca and was performed during the summer. In addition to weeks of seclusion on [[w:Jabal_al-Nour|Jabal al-Nūr]] (Mountain of Light), it involved giving alms. It is also known that Muḥammad observed a several-day fast during the summer month of [[w:Sha%27ban|Shaʿbān]] at that time.
&lt;!-- I looked at the wiki.de article on “Berg Hira”. In English sources, the Berg is called “Jabal al-Nūr” or “Mountain of Light” and Hira is only used for the cave, whereas in German Hira seems to be used for both. So I translated it as it is used in the English-speaking world --&gt;

[[File:Intheroadofhiracave.JPG|thumb|Jabal al-Nūr (Mountain of Light), where Muḥammad withdrew before receiving his first revelations, according to Islamic tradition.]] 
According to Arabic tradition, during one of his devotional retreats in [[w:Jabal_al-Nour#Cave_of_Hira|Cave of Ḥirā']] on Jabal al-Nūr, Muḥammad had a religious experience that deeply unsettled him. The precise nature of this experience is challenging to reconstruct. In [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/53/verse/3/print Surah 53:3-18] of the Qur'an, we find a striking account of a vision that may possibly describe this initial experience. According to this, Muḥammad saw a figure that “grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon,” then approached and descended “till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer.” This figure, characterized by “mighty powers and vigor,” communicated with him through revelation (''waḥy'') and taught him something. The figure that Muḥammad saw is not specified in the Qur'anic account.
&lt;!-- For “Wie dieses religiöse Erlebnis genau aussah, ist nur noch schwer zu rekonstruieren”, I used “The precise nature of this experience is challenging to reconstruct” as “looked like” sounds too informal in English. 
-Wrote Cave of Ḥirā' in Jabal al-Nūr for Berg Ḥirā' here --&gt;

Muḥammad himself appears to have been uncertain about the identity of the figure he had seen during his experience. According to Arabic sources, he, or rather his wife Khadījah, consulted a man named [[w:Waraqah_ibn_Nawfal|Waraqah ibn Nawfal]] regarding the experience. Waraqah is also associated with the Ḥanīfs but is said to have converted to Christianity and to have been knowledgeable about the “holy scriptures.” He reportedly interpreted Muḥammad's experience to mean that the “great law” (''an-nāmūs al-akbar''), which had previously been revealed to Moses, was now revealed to him. If this account reflects a real incident, it provides further evidence of the significant influence of the Ḥanīfs in the milieu in which Islam emerged. Waraqah's words likely reinforced Muḥammad's belief that he had received a religious message during his experience in the Cave of Ḥirā'.
&lt;!-- “dass er bzw. seine Frau Chadīdscha einen Mann namens Waraqa ibn Naufal aufsuchte”. Bzw, as in “or”, “and/or”, or “or rather”? as I see bzw. listed in Duden as: oder; oder vielmehr, genauer gesagt --&gt;
 
=== 2.1.3. The New Community === 
According to Arab sources, Khadījah helped her husband come to terms with his alarming experiences within a religious context and continued to support him whenever he encountered rejection from his surroundings. It is widely accepted that she was the first person to believe in his religious message. However, there is disagreement concerning who the first man to believe in Muḥammad's proclamation was. Some sources suggest it was his young cousin ʿAlī, who was about nine years old at the time, while others propose it was [[w:Zayd_ibn_Haritha_al-Kalbi|Zayd ibn Ḥārithah]], a freed slave living with Muḥammad. Due to his young age, ʿAlī’s effectiveness was certainly limited. Another individual mentioned in this context is the cloth merchant [[w:Abu_Bakr|Abū Bakr ibn Abī Quḥāfa]]. He had connections to the Ḥanīf [[w:Umayya_ibn_Abi_as-Salt|Umayya ibn Abī Al-Ṣalt]], who had been anticipating the arrival of a prophet. Abū Bakr appears to have played a pivotal role in spreading Muḥammad’s message. In his biography of the Prophet, Ibn Hishām names five individuals who joined Muḥammad due to his persuasion. Abū Bakr evidently held considerable influence in Meccan society at the time.
&lt;!-- “aufgrund seiner Werbung”: direct word translations for Werbung do not work here in English. Would persuasion (an active effort to convince and influence) or appeal (a positive pull due to his character and actions), or perhaps invitation (as there is a list of people who became Muslims at the invitation of Abu Bakr) be appropriate? --&gt;

Muḥammad himself seems to have been initially reserved in disseminating his message. Arabic reports state that for roughly three years after his prophetic calling, he shared the revelations he received only with his family and a few chosen friends. It was only later, around 613 CE, that he began to preach publicly. When the Prophet had gathered nearly 40 followers, he reportedly made the house of a certain [[w:Al-Arqam_ibn_Abi_al-Arqam|al-Arqam]] the center of his preaching activities. Al-Arqam was a young man belonging to the influential Makhzūm clan. His father had likely already passed away, and he himself appears to have been quite wealthy. His house was evidently large enough to accommodate Muḥammad's followers and was located near the center of Mecca. For a time, it became the center of the new religious movement. Although Muḥammad did not reside in this house, he gathered there with his followers for worship.
&lt;!-- &quot;Berufungserlebnis”: “calling experience” would be the literal translation, but that does not fully make sense to me. Would prophetic calling be an acceptable translation here? --&gt;

In his biography of the Prophet, Ibn Hishām provides a list titled al-Sābiqūn al-Awwalūn (“the earliest forerunners”), naming 53 individuals who were among Muḥammad’s earliest followers. The fact that some of these individuals later played no significant role suggests that the list contains authentic early records. Thus, conclusions can be drawn about the types of people who were among the first to support the new religious movement. A notable aspect of the composition of Muḥammad’s earliest followers is that young people clearly dominated. Almost all were under the age of 30 when they joined Muḥammad, with only a few being older than 35. Among the early followers were also several young women and girls, such as [[w:Asma_bint_Abi_Bakr|Asmāʾ]] and [[w:Aisha|ʿĀʾisha]], the daughters of Abū Bakr.
&lt;!-- the English article for Sābiqūn is a general article on Early Muslims and does not have Ibn Hisham's list as in the German article. Should this be linked? https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslims

&quot;authentisches frühes Material”: would authentic early records or accounts work instead of “material”? --&gt;

Another notable feature is the wide distribution of followers across the various clans of the Quraysh. Among them were members of the two powerful clans of [[w:Abd_Shams_ibn_Abd_Manaf|ʿAbd Shams]] and [[w:Banu_Makhzum|Makhzūm]], rivals for the leadership of the city of Mecca, as well as members of the less influential clans of Zuhrah, [[w:Banu_Taym|Taym]], and [[w:Banu_Adi|ʿAdī]]. However, it was typically only individual members of these clans who joined Muḥammad. Additionally, a number of men were only indirectly connected to these clans. They were slaves or freedmen of clan members and were thus in a disadvantaged position. Finally, there were also men from other parts of Arabia who joined Muḥammad. One example is [[w:Abu_Dharr_al-Ghifari|Abū Dharr]] from the [[w:Banu_Ghifar|Ghifār clan]], which was settled far to the north of Mecca. Even before his contact with Muḥammad, he is said to have worshipped Allāh as the monotheistic God and rejected idol worship. After coming to Mecca and joining Muḥammad, he returned to the Ghifār clan, reportedly converting half of them to Muḥammad's teachings.
&lt;!-- Linked Banu Adi, Taym, and Ghifar --&gt;

A considerable number of Muḥammad’s followers, like Muḥammad himself, were active as merchants. Examples include Abū Bakr, [[w:Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Awf|ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf]], and [[w:Uthman|ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān]], the latter of whom was a cloth merchant and would later play a crucial political role after the Prophet’s death. Thus, early Islam was predominantly a religion of merchants. Numerous reports attest to the great willingness among Muḥammad's wealthier followers to dedicate their personal wealth to the community and to support its poorer members: [[w:Khalid_ibn_Sa%27id|Khālid ibn Saʿīd]] of the ʿAbd Shams clan gifted Muḥammad several slaves he had inherited from his father after joining him; Abū Bakr is said to have given Abū Dharr two garments to improve his material condition when he came to Mecca and joined the community. This solidarity among Muḥammad’s early followers may have been one of the reasons for the strong appeal of his new religion. Moreover, the relationships among Muḥammad’s followers were further strengthened through marital ties. For instance, the Prophet married his own daughter [[w:Ruqayya_bint_Muhammad|Ruqayya]] to ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān.
&lt;!-- Linked Ruqayya --&gt;

Some of Muḥammad's early followers brought their own religious convictions, thereby exerting influence on the development of Islam. Particular mention should be made of [[w:Uthman_ibn_Maz%27un|ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn]] of the [[w:Banu_Jumah|Jumah clan]], who is reported to have had ascetic tendencies even before Muḥammad’s emergence and to have abstained from intoxicating beverages [[w:Khamr|(''khamr'')]]. This stance greatly set him apart from the other companions of the Prophet, who, at that time, continued to have drinking feasts and would thus frequently arrive at prayer intoxicated (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/4/verse/43/print Q 4:43]). Several years later, however, a general prohibition on intoxicating beverages was imposed on the Prophet's followers (cf. [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/5/verse/90/print Q 5:90]). In other respects, however, ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn’s ascetic ideas were evidently rejected. It is reported that in response to Muḥammad’s sermons on the Day of Judgment, he refrained from eating meat and abstained from sexual activity, and even considered self-[[w:Castration|castration]]. When other companions of the Prophet sought to follow his example, the Prophet forbade such forms of asceticism. The Qur’anic verse, “O ye who believe! Forbid not the good things which Allah hath made lawful for you” ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/5/verse/87/print Q 5:87]), was revealed in this context, according to Islamic tradition. Some of Muḥammad's earliest followers also had ties to the [[w:Hanif|Ḥanīfic]] milieu. For example, his follower [[w:Sa%27id_ibn_Zayd|Saʿīd ibn Zayd]] was the son of the Ḥanīf [[w:Zayd_ibn_Amr|Zayd ibn ʿAmr]].
&lt;!-- Linked ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn, Banu Jumah, Khamr, Saʿīd ibn Zayd, and Zayd ibn ʿAmr --&gt;

=== 2.1.4. Muḥammad’s Opponents in Mecca ===
Muḥammad's public preaching in Mecca, including at the markets held in the lead-up to the [[w:Hajj|Ḥajj]], attracted considerable attention, with many men and women embracing his message. However, over time, opposition to his movement gradually emerged from within the [[w:Quraysh|Quraysh]]. A key factor was that Muḥammad, in the name of Allāh, criticized the deities worshipped by the Quraysh alongside Allāh and spoke of the eternal damnation of their forefathers, having died in a state of disbelief. This is said to have provoked a faction within the Quraysh to actively oppose him, leading to Muḥammad losing a substantial number of his early followers. Historical sources recount that a delegation of the Quraysh approached Muḥammad’s uncle, Abū Ṭālib, to voice their grievances concerning Muḥammad’s actions. Among them was al-Walīd ibn al-Mughīra, the Ḥakam of the [[w:Banu_Makhzum|Makhzūm clan]]. Another figure was [[w:Nadr_ibn_al-Harith|Al-Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith]], a wealthy merchant from the ʿAbd al-Dār clan, who maintained trade relations with Persia and was well-acquainted with Persian epic traditions. Al-Nadr openly ridiculed the accounts Muḥammad recited, dismissing them as nothing more than “legends of the ancients” (''asāṭīr al-awwalīn''), and through his more entertaining narratives, he drew away some of Muḥammad’s listeners—a dynamic likely reflected in the Qur'an (Q [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/68/verse/15/print 68:15]; [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/83/verse/13/print 83:13]).

[[File:LocationAksumiteEmpire.png|thumb|Approximate Location of the Kingdom of Aksum]]
Initially, opposition to the new religious proclamation remained verbal. However, the tone of the polemics against Muḥammad grew increasingly hostile over time. [[w:Amr_ibn_Hisham|Abū Jahl]] from the Makhzūm clan was particularly prominent in this regard. Upon learning that someone had joined Muḥammad, he would confront them aggressively. If the person was a merchant, he would add: “By God, we will make sure that your goods do not sell, and we will destroy your property.” Other companions of Muḥammad, such as Khabbāb ibn al-Aratt, who lacked tribal protection in Mecca, were subjected to torture in an attempt to force them to renounce their faith. Other companions of Muḥammad, such as [[w:Khabbab_ibn_al-Aratt|Khabbāb ibn al-Aratt]], who lacked protection in Mecca, were subjected to torture in an effort to coerce them into renouncing their faith. Amid increasing oppression by their Meccan opponents, around 615, approximately 70 of Muḥammad's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian [[w:Kingdom_of_Aksum|Kingdom of Aksum]], seeking the protection of its ruling Christian king, which was no longer guaranteed to them in Mecca. Sympathies toward Christianity may have also played a role in this emigration, as it is reported that the ascetic [[w:Uthman_ibn_Maz%27un|ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn]] led the group of emigrants. Some of them later converted to Christianity, thereby severing their ties with the Muslim community. However, a decisive factor in choosing Ethiopia as a place of refuge may have been the close trade relations between the Quraysh and the Kingdom of Aksum. Consequently, this migration established a second Muslim community in exile in Ethiopia, in addition to the original community in Mecca.
&lt;!-- Linked ʿUthmān ibn Maẓʿūn --&gt;

According to [[w:Ibn_Ishaq|Ibn Isḥāq]], as reported by [[w:Al-Tabari|al-Ṭabarī]], after many of his followers emigrated, Muḥammad expressed a desire to reconcile with his tribe. It was in this context that he reportedly received a revelation, the first two verses of which stated: “Have y[ou] thought upon Al-Lāt and al-ʿUzzā and Manāt, the third, the other?” These two verses are found in the Qur’an (Q [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/53/verse/19/print 53:19f]). They were followed, according to Ibn Ishaq, by two others that Muḥammad proclaimed but that were not included in the Qur’an: “These are the exalted ''gharānīq'' whose intercession is accepted (by Allāh).” The term ''gharānīq'' (literally “cranes”), as noted in [[w:Hisham_ibn_al-Kalbi|Ibn al-Kalbī]]’s Book of Idols, was used by the Quraysh to invoke the deities [[w:Al-Lat|al-Lāt]], [[w:Al-Uzza|al-ʿUzzā]], and [[w:Manat_(goddess)|Manāt]] during the circumambulation of the Kaaba, hoping for their intercession with Allāh. Ibn Isḥāq further recounts that the Quraysh merchants understood Muḥammad's pronouncement as an acknowledgment of the three deities. When he prostrated out of fear of God, they are said to have followed his example. However, later—according to some accounts, that same evening—Muḥammad realized that these final verses did not originate from Allāh; rather, they had been given to him by [[w:Satan|Satan]]. If this account reflects a real event, it suggests that Muḥammad initially regarded the ''gharānīq'' verses, later known as the [[w:Satanic_Verses|Satanic Verses]], as divine revelation, only to subsequently declare them not to be part of the revelation. Al-Ṭabarī cites this account in his commentary on the Qur’an as an explanation for the following Qur’anic verse:
{{quote|Never sent We a messenger or a prophet before [you] but when He recited (the message) Satan proposed (opposition) in respect of that which he recited thereof. But Allah abolishe[s] that which Satan propose[s]. Then Allah establishe[s] His revelations.
[https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/22/verse/52/print – Q 22:52]}}
The incident of the whispering of the “satanic verses” appears to be attested in the Qur’an itself, as no other event aligns as precisely with this text. It is reported that some of the Muslim exiles in Ethiopia returned to Mecca after rumors spread that the Quraysh had accepted Islam, following this incident. This indicates that Muḥammad maintained his [[w:Henotheism|henotheistic]] compromise for longer than just one day. For a time, he was apparently willing to tolerate belief in the intercession of lesser deities as a compromise. However, the fact that he later declared these verses invalid indicates that the compromise ultimately proved unsatisfactory for him.
&lt;!-- I have a Q/remark on the premise that he was willing to compromise. I have read of the controversy of these verses, but usually that is whether it actually happened or not. Isn’t the statement that he was willing to compromise but then changed his mind speculative? I am not able to follow the evidence for that. It also creates a strong subtext here that the decisions come from him as a person, rather than the involvement of Satan and divine correction thereof, as in the verse quoted above. --&gt;

Following the end of this episode, the Quraysh intensified their measures against Muḥammad. Around 616, Abū Jahl persuaded most of the Meccan clans to sever business and marriage ties with Banū Hāshim. The boycott reportedly lasted over two years, though it may not have been strictly enforced, as the Banū Hāshim do not seem to have suffered greatly from it. Eventually, around 619, it was completely lifted when various clans grew weary of it. Muḥammad’s ability to continue propagating his religion despite the boycott can be attributed to the concept of collective responsibility, which encompassed the principle of [[w:Feud#Blood_feuds|blood feud]]. Although the clan did not approve of his religious activities, they were more willing to submit to the boycott imposed by the other clans rather than deny Muḥammad their support. In particular, Abū Ṭālib, who was still the head of the Hāshim clan at that time, proved to be a steadfast protector of Muḥammad, despite likely never having converted to Islam himself.

=== 2.1.5. The Search for External Allies ===
In 619, Muḥammad suffered a severe blow with the deaths of his uncle Abū Ṭālib and his wife Khadījah in quick succession. [[w:Abu_Lahab|Abū Lahab]], another of Muḥammad’s uncles, succeeded Abū Ṭālib as the head of the Hāshim clan. He was evidently responsible for the significant decline in Muḥammad's position in Mecca. During the boycott, Abū Lahab had left the Banū Hāshim and married one of [[w:Abu_Sufyan_ibn_Harb|Abū Sufyān]]’s sisters from the [[w:Banu_Abd-Shams|ʿAbd Shams clan]], which was as influential in Mecca’s commercial sphere as Abū Jahl and equally opposed to Muḥammad. Upon assuming leadership of the Banū Hāshim, Abū Lahab initially promised to protect Muḥammad as Abū Ṭālib had done. However, shortly after, when Muḥammad claimed that his grandfather [[w:Abd_al-Muttalib|ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib]] was in hell —a statement that insulted the entire clan— Abū Lahab used it as a pretext to withdraw his protection without any loss of honor. As a result, Muḥammad, who was prohibited by Abū Lahab from preaching, no longer had the opportunity to publicly propagate his religion. His exasperation is reflected in [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/111/verse/1/print Surah 111], where both Abū Lahab and his wife are reproached.

[[File:طريق الطائف1.JPG|thumb|The road from Mecca to [[w:Taif|al-Ṭā'if]] today presents a steep incline that must be overcome to reach the destination.]]
During this time, [[w:Khawlah_bint_Hakim|Khawlah bint al-Ḥakīm]], a loyal follower of Muḥammad, arranged a new marriage for him with [[w:Sawdah_bint_Zam%27ah|Sawdah bint Zamʿah]], the widow of an emigrant who had died during the exile in Abyssinia. Muḥammad also married [[w:Aisha|ʿĀ'isha]], the daughter of his companion Abū Bakr; however, due to her tender age, she initially remained in her father's household. With the aim of securing new allies, Muḥammad engaged with several nomadic tribes that frequented the markets surrounding Mecca. He also traveled to the neighboring city of [[w:Taif|al-Ṭā'if]] to negotiate with its inhabitants. However, his efforts proved unsuccessful. The precariousness of his situation becomes evident as, upon his return to Mecca, he had to seek the protection guarantee from the leader of another clan before he could enter the city. Only the third person he approached, [[w:Mu%E1%B9%AD%CA%BDim_ibn_%CA%BDAdi|Muṭʿim ibn ʿAdī]], agreed to offer him protection, albeit under certain conditions.
&lt;!-- linked Khawlah_bint_Hakim, Sawdah bint Zamʿah, and Muṭʿim ibn ʿAdī --&gt;

Among the individuals Muḥammad likely encountered around 620 at the markets surrounding Mecca was a group of six men from the city of [[w:Medina|Yathrib]]. They were captivated by the way Muḥammad presented his new monotheistic religion and decided to follow him. After returning to Yathrib, they began spreading his teachings there. During the pilgrimage of 621, five of these men returned, bringing seven other men with them. At that time, tensions existed between the [[w:Banu_Aws|Aws]] and [[w:Banu_Khazraj|Khazraj]] tribes living in Yathrib, which were also linked to the unsettled status of the Jewish tribes residing in the oasis. Around 617, a major [[w:Yawm_al-Buath|battle]] had taken place at Buʿāth, in the southeastern part of the oasis, involving most of Yathrib’s inhabitants. Since a formal peace agreement had not been concluded after the battle, the threat of renewed blood feuds persisted. Through the new community with Muḥammad and by joining his religion, the envoys from Yathrib likely hoped to mend the rift that divided their society. While the six men Muḥammad had met in 620 all belonged to the Khazraj tribe, members of the Aws tribe also participated in the 621 meeting.
&lt;!-- linked Yawm_al-Buath --&gt;

At a remote location called ʿAqabah, the twelve men pledged to receive Muḥammad and his followers and to protect them as they would their own wives and children (hence ''bayʿat al-nisāʾ'' “Pledge of the Women”). On this occasion, Muḥammad's followers from Yathrib likely received the title [[w:Ansar_(Islam)|Anṣār]] (“Helpers”). Islamic tradition associates this event with [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/61/verse/14/print Qur'anic verse 61:14], in which believers are called to be “Helpers of God” (''anṣār Allāh''), akin to how the disciples of Jesus were Helpers of God, as referenced in the same verse. According to Ibn Isḥāq, Muḥammad sent one of his Meccan followers, [[w:Mus%27ab_ibn_Umayr|Muṣʿab ibn ʿUmayr]], to Yathrib along with the twelve men and instructed him “to recite the Qurʾān to them, teach them Islam, and instruct them in the religion.” Muṣʿab ibn ʿUmayr, was to serve them as an [[w:Imam|Imām]], acting as a role model and an example. In this way, a third community of Muḥammad's followers was established in Yathrib, alongside those in Mecca and Ethiopia.
&lt;!-- 
-Huldigung der Frauen: the English translation for ‘Huldigung’ comes up as ‘homage’, which is commonly used as paying one’s respect today, but I do see that historically it was used as “a formal public acknowledgement of feudal allegiance” as well. I translated it as a pledge here due to more widely known meaning.
-This is a personal Q: I am confused about the term bayʿat al-nisāʾ as women do not seem to play a role here or do they? 
--&gt;

During the Hajj of the following year (June 622), a [[w:Second_pledge_at_al-Aqabah|second meeting]] took place at al-ʿAqabah, this time attended by 73 men from Yathrib. They swore an oath of loyalty to Muḥammad, not only pledging obedience but also vowing to fight for him. This oath thus became known as the ''bayʿat al-ḥarb'' (“Pledge of War”). From that point on, Muslims began traveling to Medina in groups. In September 622, Muḥammad and his companion Abū Bakr secretly left Mecca and journeyed to Yathrib. This migration of the Prophet from Mecca is known as the [[w:Hijrah|Hijrah]] (literally “severance”) and marked the beginning of a new chapter in the history of the new religion.
&lt;!-- linked Second_pledge_at_al-Aqabah --&gt;

== 2.2. The Key Themes of Muḥammad's Early Message ==
=== 2.2.1. The Qur’an as a Source for the Development of Muḥammad’s Message ===
If we seek to understand the message with which Muḥammad came forward in Mecca, the best answer is to be found in the Qur'an, particularly in the sections attributed to the Meccan period. The distinction between the “Meccan” and “Medinan” parts of the Qur’an originates from premodern Muslim scholars, who developed a chronology of the Qur’an. Broadly speaking, this chronology can be summarized as follows: the earliest [[w:Surah|surahs]] are placed at the end, while many of those at the beginning are from the later stages of Muḥammad's prophetic mission. Consequently, to approach the historical order of the surahs, one must read the Qur’an from back to front.
&lt;!-- I cannot find a direct equivalent of this article: 
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_Korantextes#N%C3%B6ldekes_Chronologie
However, there are these two separate ones that talk about Nöldeke's chronology: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meccan_surah#Chronological_order_of_Meccan_surahs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medinan_surah
or there is a more general one under https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran#Text_and_arrangement where the reader could read and click on both Meccan and Medinan surahs.--&gt;

[[File:Theodor Nöldeke - Orientalische Studien.jpg|thumb|150px|[[w:Theodor_Nöldeke|Theodor Nöldeke]]]]
Building on the material developed by Muslim scholars, the German Orientalist [[w:Theodor_Nöldeke|Theodor Nöldeke]] compiled a “History of the Qur’an” in 1860, which he published as a book. In this work, he introduced further refinements to the Meccan surahs, distinguishing them into three successive periods (early, middle, and late Meccan) based on stylistic and thematic characteristics. The early Meccan surahs are characterized by their highly poetic form, bold imagery, and short, rhythmic verses, often commencing with a series of oaths. In the middle Meccan period, the verses gradually increase in length, and the name of God, al-Raḥmān, becomes predominant. In the late Meccan period, the verses become even longer, and the style more prosaic, resembling that of the Medinan period. Although Nöldeke’s chronology of the Qur’an has been challenged in certain respects, it remains largely accepted as a working hypothesis in Western Islamic scholarship. It is important to note that, in this chronology, the surahs do not have a uniform origin. The chronological classification applies solely to the main body of each surah, as individual passages may be interpolations from earlier or later periods. Based on Nöldeke’s chronology, additional literary features of the individual Qur’anic periods have been identified. For instance, [[w:Angelika_Neuwirth|Angelika Neuwirth]] has demonstrated that similitudes and parables, which emerge as new elements of preaching in the middle Meccan period, are later explicitly referenced in the Qur'an itself during the late Meccan period under the term ''mathal'' (e.g., in [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/2/verse/26/print Q 2:26]). 
&lt;!-- “nicht aus einem Guss sind”: this seems to mean not homogeneous, so I translated it as “do not have a uniform origin”. --&gt;

In recent years, [[w:Nicolai_Sinai|Nicolai Sinai]] has developed a more refined chronology for the early Meccan surahs. Based on Nöldeke's chronology and Sinai's subsequent improvements, the chronological order of the Qur'anic surahs is as follows:
&lt;!-- linked Nicolai Sinai --&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| Early Meccan Period || I 105, 106, 95, 102, 103, 104, 107, 99, 100, 101, 111, 93, 94, 108, 97  – II 73, 81-82, 84-96 – IIIa 53, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80 – IIIb 51, 52, 55, 56, 68, 69, 70, 83 − Not categorized by Sinai: 112, 109, 113, 114, 1
|-
| Middle Meccan Period || 54, 37, 71, 76, 44, 50, 20, 26, 15, 19, 38, 36, 43, 72, 67, 23, 21, 25, 17, 27, 18
|-
| Late Meccan Period || 32, 41, 45, 16, 30, 11, 14, 12, 40, 28, 39, 29, 31, 42, 10, 34, 35, 7, 46, 6, 13
|-
| Medinan Period || 2, 98, 64, 62, 8, 47, 3, 61, 57, 4, 65, 59, 33, 63, 24, 58, 22, 48, 66, 60, 110, 49, 9, 5
|}
In the following sections, I will use this chronological framework as the basis for describing the development of Muḥammad’s message. As an exception, Qur’anic quotations will appear without the customary prefix “Q”.

=== 2.2.2. Statements about God === 
To correctly understand the Qur’anic statements, it is crucial to grasp the communicative structure outlined here: God directly addresses Muḥammad and humanity, often using the first person (“I” or “we”) throughout these texts. In a number of passages of the Qur’an, God reminds people of His blessings in this form. He demonstrates to them that He has provided a dwelling place, created them in pairs, established day and night, and brings forth rain so that nature may renew itself ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/78/verse/6/print 78:6-16]).
&lt;!-- Ihm wird vor Augen gehalten: Ihm as in humanity? I translated it as “them”, referring to people. --&gt;

Even though God speaks directly according to the communication structure outlined in the Qur'an, He is also addressed and referred to by various names within it. In the earliest parts of the Qur'an, the name [[w:Rabb|Rabb]], meaning “Lord,” is used almost exclusively. This term originally derives from the legal context of slavery and signifies dependence. In one of the earliest surahs, Muḥammad is reminded that his Lord found him as a poor orphan and enriched him ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/93/verse/6/print 93:6-8]). The term ''Rabb'' also appears with additional qualifiers in several passages, such as “Lord of the House” ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/106/verse/3/print 106:3]), undoubtedly referring to the Kaaba, and in other instances as “Lord of the East and the West” ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/73/verse/9/print 73:9]) or “Lord of Sirius” ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/53/verse/49/print 53:49]). The latter expression implicitly asserts a claim to sole authority, as [[w:Yagh%C5%ABth|Yaghūth]] was considered the “Lord of Sirius” in pagan times (see above, [[The Bamberg Introduction to the History of Islam (BIHI) 01#1.3.3. Ancient Arabian Paganism and the Sacred Sites of Mecca|1.3.3.]]).
&lt;!--Linked Yaghūth--&gt;

[[File:Basmala.svg|thumb|The Basmala in contemporary print]]
[[File:Basmala in a Turkish Dolmus.jpg|thumb|A Basmala written in Latin script on a Turkish [[w:Dolmu%C5%9F|dolmuş]].]]
Even in the early Meccan period, God is occasionally referred to by the name Allāh. For instance, [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/95/verse/8/print 95:8] asks, “Is not Allah the most conclusive of all judges?” And in [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/85/verse/8/print 85:8-9], Allāh is described as the Mighty (''al-ʿazīz'') and Praiseworthy (''al-ḥamīd''), to Whom the Sovereignty of the heavens and the earth belongs. From the Middle Meccan period onward, Raḥmān, another name for God, already found in ancient South Arabian inscriptions, becomes predominant. During this period, it is said that Raḥmān created humans from clay and [[w:Jinn|jinn]] from smokeless fire ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/55/verse/14/print 55:14f]) and placed a lamp and a luminous moon in the heavens ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/25/verse/61/print 25:61]). Both divine names, Allāh and Raḥmān, also appear in the invocation formula, which is encountered for the first time at the beginning of a letter attributed to [[w:Solomon|Solomon]] in [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/27/verse/30/print 27:30]: ''Bi-smi l-Lāhi r-Raḥmāni r-raḥīm'', “In the name of Allāh, ar-Raḥmān, the Merciful.” This phrase, known as the [[w:Basmala|Basmala]], was later placed at the beginning of nearly every surah in the Qur’an and continues to play an essential role in both Muslim worship and daily life to this day. For example, it is intended to be placed at the beginning of every text. The attribute ''raḥīm'' may have been added to emphasize the aspect of compassion (''raḥma'') in the divine name. Divine compassion and mercy became central themes of the Qur'anic message during the Middle Meccan period. The sending of Muḥammad to humanity is also described as an act of divine mercy during this time ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/21/verse/107/print 21:107]).

The use of different names for God may have been confusing for some contemporaries. This is countered in [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/17/verse/110/print 17:110] with a clear statement: “Cry unto Allah, or cry unto Raḥmān, unto whichsoever y[ou] cry. His are the most beautiful names.” This clarified that both names refer to the one God and that the use of different names for God is permissible, even desired. God is ascribed numerous other attributes in the Qur’an, which were also understood as such divine names. Reflection on these [[w:Names_of_God_in_Islam|Beautiful Names of God]] (''asmāʾ Allāh al-ḥusnā'') later became an essential aspect of Islamic theology and spirituality.

Over time, Muḥammad's monotheism took on increasingly strict forms. As early as verse [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/73/verse/9/print 73:9], which originates from the early Meccan period, the phrase “There is no god but Him” (''lā ilāha illā huwa'') appears. Toward the end of the early Meccan period, it was said the other gods were merely names that people and their forefathers had invented ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/53/verse/23/print 53:23]). Verse [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/37/verse/35/print 37:35], which originates from the Middle Meccan period, suggests that Muḥammad was now using the formula 'There is no god but Allah' (''lā ilāha illā Llāh'') in his preaching, a phrase that would later become part of the [[w:Shahada|Islamic creed]]. Alongside the repeated emphasis on God's oneness, the opposing belief in “partners of God” who could limit His power was sharply condemned. By the late Meccan period, the term [[w:Mushrikites|mushrikūn]] (“associators”) became commonly used for those who held such beliefs. [[w:Shirk_(Islam)|Shirk]], the act of “associating partners with God,” is described in a passage from the Medinan period as the only sin that God does not forgive ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/4/verse/48/print 4:48]).
&lt;!-- Pickthall translates aufgebracht as just “named”. I have looked at other translations. The majority has translated it as “invented”. I also saw one (Yusuf Ali) as “devised” which seems proper here as well  --&gt;

=== 2.2.3. The Judgment, the Hellfire, and the Garden ===
One of Muhammad’s most significant messages was the impending Judgment of humankind, which the Qur’an also refers to as [[w:Din_(Arabic)|Dīn]] (see [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/107/verse/1/print 107:1]). In vivid imagery, the Day of Judgment (''yawm al-dīn'') is depicted as a cataclysm of cosmic proportions. The seas are poured forth ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/82/verse/3/print 82:3]); the mountains become as carded wool ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/101/verse/5/print 101:5]). The earth quakes ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/79/verse/6/print 79:6f]) and is ground to atoms ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/89/verse/21/print 89:21]), casting out all that was in her ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/84/verse/4/print 84:4]). The sun is overthrown ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/81/verse/1/print 81:1]);  the stars are put out ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/77/verse/8/print 77:8]); the heaven is cleft asunder ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/82/verse/1/print 82:1]), opening as gates ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/78/verse/19/print 78:19]). The event is preceded by the trumpet blast ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/74/verse/8/print 74:8f]). Mankind is as thickly-scattered moths ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/101/verse/4/print 101:4]), isolated and with family bonds severed ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/80/verse/34/print 80:34-37]). Only God knows when the “Hour” (''sāʿa'') will come, at which this apocalyptic scenario will unfold ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/79/verse/42/print 79:42-44]). The disaster that will befall humanity on the Day of Judgment is illustrated multiple times through the fate of ancient Arab tribes, such as [[w:ʿĀd|ʿĀd]] and [[w:Thamud|Thamūd]] ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/69/verse/4/print 69:4-10]).
&lt;!--
-Pickthall translated &quot;din&quot; as religion here though most of other translators use &quot;Judgment&quot;. Would you like a different translation to be linked only for this one or a note added? 
-Die Erde bebt (79:6f): Pickthall's as well as 6 other translations, have translated this as a blast of the horn. Only 2 (A. Maududi (Tafhim commentary) &amp; Yusuf Ali -Yusuf Ali) mention or allude to an earthquake. Could another verse be used here instead? After a quick search, perhaps https://corpuscoranicum.de/de/verse-navigator/sura/22/verse/1/print ?
--&gt;

The Day of Judgment is also a Day of Resurrection (''yawm al-qiyāmah''; see [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/75/verse/1/print 75:1]). The graves are overturned ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/82/verse/4/print 82:4]), and crumbled bones are restored to their first state ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/79/verse/10/print 79:10f]). One single shout is enough, and the people are awakened ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/79/verse/13/print 79:13f]). Even down to the fingers, their bones are restored ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/75/verse/3/print 75:3f]). At the Judgment itself, angels will come rank upon rank ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/89/verse/22/print 89:22]). God will be on His throne for Judgment, and all people will be exposed before Him ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/69/verse/17/print 69:17f]). Their good and bad deeds will be weighed to distinguish between them ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/99/verse/7/print 99:7-8]), and even hidden thoughts (''sarāʾir'') will also be searched out ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/86/verse/9/print 86:9]). Those whose scales are heavy will be rewarded, and those whose scales are light will be punished ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/101/verse/6/print 101:6-10]). During this “reckoning” (''ḥisāb''), each person will be shown what was recorded in a book (''kitāb'') throughout their life. Whoever is given his account in his right hand, will receive an easy reckoning, but whoever is given his account behind their back, will face misfortune ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/84/verse/7/print 84:7-11]). Thus, on that day, there will be faces bright as dawn and rejoicing, and others with dust and veiled in darkness ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/80/verse/38/print 80:38-42]).
&lt;!-- 
-Wherever you used direct wording from the Quran, I aligned those to Pickthall’s. Below, I list what differs from the German translation:
-Fingerspitzen (75:3f): Pickthall uses fingers here, but there are translations that state fingertips in English as well. 
-Engel in Reihen (89:22): Pickthall translates as ranks and not rows; majority of the translations use ranks. 
-Menschen werden vorgeführt (69:17f): Pickthall translated it as “being exposed”; most translations use “brought”. Though it alludes to the same thing, it could lead to other interpretations as well. 
-Gesichter, auf denen schmutzige Trübung liegt (80:38-42): with dust &amp; veiled in darkness. 
-you switch from present tense to future tense mid paragraph here. I mirrored that. 
--&gt;

[[File:Muhammad sees the sinners and demons in Hell during the Miraj.gif|thumb|Illustration of the Hellfire in a Manuscript on Muhammad’s [[w:Isra%27_and_Mi%27raj|Isrāʾ and Miʿrāj]], from [[w:Herat|Herat]], 1436, now housed in the [[w:Bibliothèque_nationale_de_France|Bibliothèque Nationale de France]] in Paris.]]
Those condemned in the Judgment can expect hellfire (''jaḥīm'') ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/102/verse/6/print 102:6]). This hellfire will first be visible on the Day of Judgment ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/79/verse/36/print 79:36]). The condemned shall burn in this Fire of God (''nār Allāh''), with its flames closing in on them in outstretched columns ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/104/verse/6/print 104:6-9]). Those who burn in this Great Fire remain in a state between life and death ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/87/verse/12/print 87:12f]). No one can escape this fire ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/82/verse/16/print 82:16]) that shrivels the man and leaves nothing ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/74/verse/28/print 74:28f]). Those condemned to this place, also called [[w:Jahannam|Jahannam]], for ages, have nothing to taste but boiling water and a paralyzing cold ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/78/verse/21/print 78:21-26]). Their food is bitter thorn-fruit that satisfies no hunger ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/88/verse/6/print 88:6f]) and only causes choking ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/73/verse/13/print 73:13]).
&lt;!-- 
-dessen Hitze die Haut versengt (74:28f): Pickthall, “shrivelleth the man”; others translated it as “scorching the skin”, which would be clearer and closer to the German. 
-Either zu trinken (78:21-26): Pickthall, “a paralysing cold”. Others, “pus.”
-für Ewigkeiten verbannt sind (78:21-26): Pickthall uses “for ages”. Most translations are &quot;for ages&quot;. The German on Corpus states “Sie werden (unabsehbare) Zeiträume in ihr verweilen”
-dorniges Gestrüpp (88:6-7): Pickthall ,“bitter thorn-fruit”. Others translate it as “foul, thorny shrub”, “poisonous, thorny plant”, “bitter dry thorns”, etc. 
--&gt;

Only those who believe and do good are exempt from this punishment ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/103/verse/3/print 103:3]). They are granted an unfailing reward ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/95/verse/6/print 95:6]). They return to their Lord content in His good pleasure, and enter His Garden ([[w:Jannah|Jannah]]; [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/89/verse/27/print 89:27-30]). This place of delight (''naʿīm''), which the righteous shall enter ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/82/verse/13/print 82:13]), is described ever more resplendently over time. It comprises multiple gardens with vineyards ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/78/verse/32/print 78:32]), date-palm, pomegranate trees ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/55/verse/68/print 55:68]), and abundant springs ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/55/verse/66/print 55:66]). The inhabitants of these gardens are provided with fruits and meat as they desire, a drink that does not lead to vanity or sin, and menservants, beautiful like hidden pearls, who move around them ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/52/verse/22/print 52:22-24]). Couches, cushions, and spread-out carpets are ready for them ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/88/verse/12/print 88:12-16]). There, they will be wedded to lovely, wide-eyed [[w:Houri|houris]] (''ḥūr ʿīn'') ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/52/verse/20/print 52:20]), who are female beings untouched by both humans and jinn ([https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/55/verse/70/print 55:70-74]).
&lt;!-- 
-linked (55:66).
-verdienter Lohn zuteilwerden (95:6): Pickthall uses “unfailing reward,” meaning a reward that is constant, unending, and dependable. All 8 English translations I looked at had similar translations here. 
-dazu einen Trank, der nicht berauscht (52:22-24): “hand a cup wherein is neither vanity nor cause of sin.”
--&gt;

[[Category:Islamic Studies]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Machiavellianism and power motivation</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>308308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681573</id>
      <parentid>2675971</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T20:25:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multimedia presentation feedback</comment>
      <origin>2681573</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="14157" sha1="ic38ifeu34dru5rtdmy41kd1gus6cpw" xml:space="preserve">== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:Joan-E-1405|Hi [[User:Joan-E-1405|Joan-E-1405]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:18, 24 September 2024 (UTC)
|}

== Feedback ==

Hi @[[User:Joan-E-1405|Joan-E-1405]],

I've had a read of your chapter and it's coming together very nicely! I loved your integration of theory and research. I have added a couple of comments for you to consider and I hope these are helpful :) Where I have put the 'factual' comment, I thought your argument could be strengthened with a citation of a source. Perhaps to make the research section even stronger, you could add how many participants were included. Well done, and I look forward to seeing your final book chapter! [[User:U3216883|U3216883]] ([[User talk:U3216883|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216883|contribs]]) 23:03, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

== General feedback ==

Your chapter on '''Machiavellianism and Power Motivation''' is fascinating and well-organised, especially with the practical examples and strong integration of theories. It really sheds light on how Machiavellian traits manifest in everyday settings. I’d love to see some quiz questions added to engage readers even more and reinforce key concepts! [[User:Cophiesollins|Cophiesollins]] ([[User talk:Cophiesollins|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cophiesollins|contribs]]) 05:52, 4 October 2024 (UTC)

== Feedback :3 ==

I'm a fan of this chapter! My only real critique is the text under heading &quot;The impact of Machiavellianism in the workplace&quot; is a little long without something breaking it up in the middle. Maybe a case study in the middle could break it up? [[User:U3249300|U3249300]] ([[User talk:U3249300|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3249300|contribs]]) 09:45, 5 October 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
# The main area for potential improvement is aspects of the quality of written expression
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FMachiavellianism_and_power_motivation&amp;diff=2675970&amp;oldid=2665291 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via an excellent case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image, although a picture of a workplace might work better to help attract reader interest
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the problem or phenomenon
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds reasonably well on related chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent review of relevant research
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Very good critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Some claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{fact}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent integration between theory and research
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Very good summary and conclusion
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is very good
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Very well captioned
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Add an APA style caption to each table
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, talics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use reasonably good APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
### Use ampersand (&amp;) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and &quot;and&quot; outside parentheses
### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use very good APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Very good use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Embedded links to Wikipedia --&gt;
# Very good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features - Embedded links to Wikiversity --&gt;
# No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Good use of image(s)
# Very good use of table(s)
# Very good use of feature box(es)
# Excellent use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Very good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Very good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Very good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~14 logged, useful, mostly moderate social contributions with direct links to evidence
# Approx a third of logged social contributions did not provide [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:20, 25 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a reasonably good presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an (albeit extreme) example
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides a basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides good take-home message(s)
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# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of narrated audio
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# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Very good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration could benefit from further practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was good
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
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&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
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# The visual communication is supplemented in a basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
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# The presentation is well produced using simple tools
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# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link from the book chapter is provided
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Kids --&gt;
# The presentation is incorrectly categorised as being for kids. This creates limitations, such as being unable to add the presentation to a playlist. [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9528076 More info].
|8=
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# Two different (incompatible) copyright licenses for the presentation are provided in the description but not the meta-data
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:25, 7 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ic38ifeu34dru5rtdmy41kd1gus6cpw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Abusive relationships and emotional dependency</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>308915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681792</id>
      <parentid>2681210</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T05:08:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>49.180.211.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Working on Disorganised-Disorientated Attachment paragraph</comment>
      <origin>2681792</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="28655" sha1="q43916zxo3qr4mrve2dkb5wj4tayj1v" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Abusive relationships and emotional dependency:&lt;br&gt;What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?}}
{{MECR3|https://youtu.be/C6RDIcVIdR0}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Edwina has been in a romantic relationship with Zack for 2 months now, where in the beginning he appeared to be a good person, however over time she has come to realise he is the complete opposite; Zack has slowly isolated Edwina from her friends and family, heavily controls her social media, forbids her to go places without his permission, even if it's the grocery store, and criticises and insults her if she goes against his wishes. Edwina is extremely unhappy in this relationship, however due to being emotionally dependent on Zack, she feels trapped and unable to leave the relationship. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:NounProject Abuse.png|thumb|Figure 1. Depicting two figures; one of them is being abused by the other.]]
This chapter aims to the significant link between abusive relationships and emotional dependency; The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022) defines partner emotional abuse as “when a person is subjected to certain behaviours or actions that are aimed at preventing or controlling their behaviour, causing them emotional harm or fear”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/domestic-violence-experiences-partner-emotional-abuse#cite-window1.|title=Domestic Violence: Experiences of Partner Emotional Abuse {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=2022-08-24|website=www.abs.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; (see Figure 1). The document further highlights that these actions are &quot;characterised in nature by their intent to manipulate, control, isolate or intimidate the person they are aimed at&quot;. Emotional dependency can be referred to as “a chronic pattern of unmet affective demands, which individuals desperately seek to meet through close interpersonal relationships”. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dependencia%20emocional.%20Caracter%C3%ADsticas%20y%20tratamiento&amp;author=J%20Castell%C3%B3&amp;publication_year=2005&amp;|title=Google Scholar|website=scholar.google.com|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; To further understand the connection between abusive relationships and emotional dependency, this chapter focuses on what specific psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency, and how these mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships. (see Figure 2)

{{robelbox|theme=9|title=Focus questions:|icon=Nuvola_apps_kwrite.png|iconwidth=48px}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
* What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency?
* How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships?
* How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}[[File:Sunrise lovers.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Two people in a romantic relationship. Emotional dependency and abuse can be present in these types of relationships.]]

== What are some psychological mechanisms that drive emotional dependency? ==
Psychological mechanisms that significantly drive emotional dependency include attachment theory, low self-esteem, and codependency. Attachment theory is a key psychological mechanism that focuses on different attachment styles that may affect individuals in relationships. Additionally, individuals with low self-esteem tend to seek acceptance from others in order to validate themselves - codependency can complicate this; due to codependent individuals prioritising their partner's needs over their own, it results in individuals being heavily reliant on their relationship for their sense of identity. Overall, these mechanisms significantly promote emotional dependency, can further result in a toxic cycle for individuals.

=== [[w:Attachment_Theory|Attachment Theory]] ===
A fundamental psychological mechanism that is linked to emotional dependency is the attachment theory. An accredited psychoanalyst [[w:John_Bowlby|John Bowlby]] established this theory in order to investigate the intimate relationships and bonds between individuals, as well as relationships between parents and children and their link to relationships later in life&lt;ref&gt;Bowlby, J. (1969). ''Attachment and loss'' (No. 79). Random House. &lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby's second novel also explained how individuals are born with an attachment behavioural system which incites them to seek intimacy and closeness to attachment figures &lt;ref&gt;Bowlby J. Attachment and loss, Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.) New York: Basic Books; 1982. https://mindsplain.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ATTACHMENT_AND_LOSS_VOLUME_I_ATTACHMENT.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby’s theory critically explores the emotional bonds and relationships between individuals through 4 main attachment styles:

==== Secure Attachment ====
This attachment style involves individuals being capable of setting healthy boundaries, able to feel safe and stable in their relationships with others, has a good sense of self-worth, able to adequately deal with disappointments and obstacles, and can express their thoughts and feelings adequately.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Stephanie, a 28 year old art teacher, and Toby, a 29 year old business owner, have been together since graduating from university. Both individuals came from families who encouraged emotional communication, which has allowed for them to have a healthy and meaningful relationship. In their relationship, they calmly and effectively communicate their feelings openly, value and respect each other’s independence, and have confidence and trust in one another as they know time apart will not weaken their bond.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Anxious Attachment ====
Anxious attachment is when “individuals worry about being underappreciated or abandoned by their romantic partners”, “are heavily fixated on their partner and their relationship”, and crave being “closer to their partners emotionally to feel more secure”. Anxious individuals also tend to have low self-esteem, but think highly of their intimate partners. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).

Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S. further researched through an “Attachment Diathesis-Stress Process Model” how people who have an anxious attachment think and behave when they encounter stress and/or arguments with their romantic partners. The key findings when researching this that the study found when anxious individuals are extremely distraught when removed or have to consider being removed from their partner, that these individuals display high levels of stress and dysfunctional behaviours when encountering relationship problems, and how certain events when transitioning to parenthood may incite or increase the main concerns of individuals with this attachment style.

The study explores in depth of insecure attachment styles, limitations of the study that can be identified are that the study heavily focuses on specific stress situations which may not fully present the extent of stress responses that can be seen in these relationships. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Holly, a 21 year old university student, and Ryan, a 22 year old electrician have been in a relationship for 7 months. Holly has an anxious attachment style which plays a role in their relationship. An example of this in their relationship could include a situation where Ryan has explained to Holly that he is going to take her to a nice dinner out, however he has to be asleep by 10pm to wake up early for work. They have a nice night together, however as time grows closer to 10pm and Ryan reminds Holly he has to sleep soon, it makes Holly question if he even wants to hang out with her and even wants to be with her, even though he has a valid reason to go to bed early. This leads to Holly panicking and having an emotional outburst stating “you act like you don’t even want to hang out with me anymore!” and “all you do is prioritise work over me!”{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Avoidant-Dismissive Attachment ====
This attachment style mainly consists of individuals facing challenges with emotional intimacy (Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S., 2017), and being heavily independent and not fond of the idea of being too romantically invested in someone (Pettigrew TF, 2016).

This can be demonstrated through a relevant study by Mikulincer M and Shaver PR (2007), where the main focus is on investigating the attachment theory, including avoidant attachment where it found individuals who scored high with this attachment style tend to exhibit strategies to deactivate the relationship, such as not allowing their partner to be close to them, distancing themselves from their partner and not communicating what they want in a relationship. 

The topic of debate to how avoidant attachment styles change is explored in a longitudinal study; the study explored the different levels of attachment change over time and how avoidant attachment levels tend to “start low” in childhood” however “gradually increase over time”, in contrast to anxious attachment styles where they “start and remain low across time”. (Theisen, J.C., et., 2018){{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Dan, a 20 year old rugby league player, and Rita, a 21 year old university student, have been seeing each other for 4 months now. Dan is well-known for having usual romantic flings and can never commit to anyone fully, due to the idea of relying on or being relied on is suffocating to him. So when Rita hints to him of when he is going to officially ask her out, he dismisses it and replies with “can we not talk about this please? Like why do you want to rush things, like can’t you just see how things go?” Additionally, Dan enjoys spending time with Rita however likes to keep to his routine, such as playing rugby and going out drinking with friends every weekend, separate from their relationship - one day, Rita asked Dan if she can come watch his rugby game then afterwards they go out to dinner together to celebrate. Dan replies with “no that’s a bit weird for you to come to my games, you’re not even my girlfriend. Besides, I go out every weekend with my friends after the games so it’s not going to work”. This is degrading to Rita who feels like Danl is emotionally distant and is unwilling to completely invest in being in a relationship with her.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Disorganised-Disorientated Attachment ====
Disorganised attachment stems from childhood where the “child's attachment figure or parent is observably frightened or frightening when a child needs comforting or reassurance”. (M.J Lawler and E.B Talbot, 2012). These characteristics later appear in adult relationships where individuals have a “severe disturbance in threat responding, social cognition and identity development” which can further lead to the “ risk for personality disorders”. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017).

A 2017 latent class analysis focused on researching the disorganised attachment style in adults in order to provide a clear understanding of “severity and stylistic differences in disorganised attachment than has been previously articulated”. The study found through the following attachment styles: secure, insecure, disorganised-oscillating, and disorganised-impoverished that the disorganised-oscillating class was “characterised by elevations on contradictory and preoccupied styles”, while the disorganised-impoverished class portrayed signs of “impoverished and dismissive styles”. This further enables readers to view the different attachment disorganisation patterns in adults, which differentiate based on severity and interpersonal styles. Overall, the study highly recommends early intervention for caregivers in order to prevent this attachment style developing. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Angelina, a 23 year old public servant, and Ed, a 24 year old physiotherapist have been in a relationship for 9 months now. Angelina has developed this attachment style, which has caused a strain on her and Ed’s relationship: For example, Angelina often moves from wanting to be very close to Ed to pushing him away when he gets too close. This can be seen one night, at dinner where Angelina tells Ed how much she loves and appreciates him. The next conversation shifts to Ed saying how he has to go on a work AFL trip to help strap players for a month, to which triggers Angelina’s mood to change. She suddenly believes and voices to Ed that he wants to go on this work trip to purposefully avoid her, and that he doesn’t want to be around her anymore.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What attachment style is most likely to be upset when removed from a partner?}

- Avoidant 
+ Anxious
- Disorganised
- Applies to any of the above

{What is the Attachment Theory about?}

- Focuses on different attachment styles 
- Focuses on romantic relationships and how they link to their childhood 
- Links to the concept of emotional dependency
+ Applies to any of the above 

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. A person looking into the mirror not liking their image and questioning their self-esteem.]]

=== Low self-esteem ===
A primary psychological device that influences emotional dependency is '''low [[w:Self-esteem|self-esteem]]'''{{f}} (see Figure 3). 

Low self-esteem is characterised as when “people have a poor opinion of themselves” and tend to have characteristics such as:

* Not liking themselves too much
* Thinking other people do not like them because you’re “unlikeable” or “damaged”
* Thinking of themselves as not being able to be loved or worthy of love
'''Low self-esteem components that incite emotional dependency:'''

===== '''Seeking external validation:''' =====
A 2018 observational study{{f}} examined whether low self-esteem was linked to the use and consequences of indirect support seeking during interactions in romantic relationships. The study proved that people with low self-esteem tend to “utilise indirect support” which may backfire “negative partner support” instead, and further “undermine the feelings of acceptance that low self-esteem individuals crave”, overall demonstrating how low self-esteem individuals can be emotionally dependent through heavily desiring external validation.

[[File:Lonely boy.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Person sitting alone, which is a key component of what people with low self-esteem fear.]]

===== '''Fear of [[w:Abandonment_(emotional)|abandonment]] and [[w:_Social_rejection|rejection]]:''' =====
According to a 2022 paper{{f}}, low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are typically seen in individuals who have abandonment and rejection issues. The paper outlines how these individuals often internalise abandonment and rejection, believing it was their fault that they are inadequate of being loved and cared about. This negative perception of themselves can lead to a permanent sense of inadequacy and self-doubt, which can impact various areas of their lives, such as their perspective of their careers, platonic relationships, and romantic relationships (Cruz et al., 2022). (See Figure 4).

===== '''Difficulty setting boundaries and prioritising personal needs:''' =====
Due to individual’s{{g}} having a low sense of worth about themselves, it may result in having difficulty establishing boundaries and prioritising their own personal needs. Many individuals with this issue tend to feel angry at themselves and others, and have a feeling of not being in control{{f}}.

=== [[w:Codependency|Codependency]] ===
A major psychological mechanism that causes emotional dependency is codependency{{f}}.

Codependency is defined as “codependency is a theory that attempts to explain imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive behaviour”. It can also be referred to from a relationship context as consisting of “unhealthy ‘clinginess’ and needy behaviour, “where one person does not have self-sufficiency or autonomy”, and that they must rely on their partner to feel complete.

==== Codependency and its link to [[w:Domestic_violence|domestic violence]] ====
A psychological review highlighted how psychological factors, such as codependency, “contribute to domestic-partner abuse risk”, explaining how “high levels of emotional dependency in an abused partner may reduce the likelihood that the victimised person will terminate the relationship”.{{f}}

'''Codependency IS NOT limited to occurring to just women:'''

{{g}}Article{{f}} outlines how the concept of codependency used to be interpreted as a woman being codependent on a man, however in modern society, we have come to realise that men can also be codependent. 

==== Codependency is often unrecognisable ====
Codependent individuals tend to seek help for stress and depression related symptoms, and may only receive symptomatic help such as anxiety medication, which can overall mask the true underlying reason for their emotions and behaviour.

[[File:BPD 1.png|thumb|Figure 5. A person with Borderline Personality Disorder chasing after another person, which clearly shows codependency.]]

'''Codependency and [[w:Borderline_Personality_Disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]] (BPD)'''

Research has shown links between codependency and BPD through identifying key traits such as emotional dependency, mood instability, and impulsiveness which are fundamental aspects of BPD. Individuals with BPD can display intense emotional dependency on their romantic partners, which further represents how they may demonstrate codependent behaviour and how they may rely on external relationships to provide [[w:Emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]], reassurance and [[w:Identity_(social_science)|identity]] (see Figure 5). 

== How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships? ==
[[File:Cycle of Abuse.png|thumb|512x512px|Figure 6. A diagram of the cycle of abuse. Trauma can further continue this cycle.]]
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is '''trauma bonding'''. 

Trauma bonding, which is where “a person forms a deep emotional attachment with someone that causes them harm”, allows for abusive relationships to occur through establishing a psychological and emotional attachment between the victim and the perpetrator.{{f}}

This is extremely difficult to stop due to several dynamics:

==== Intermittent reinforcement ====
Intermittent reinforcement consists of continuous cruel treatment with occasional moments of random affection. Research{{f}} outlines how this unpredictably keeps victims craving and clinging onto occasional moments of affection, which is very similar to someone gambling in hope that they'll win. An example of this can include when the perpetrator gives gifts to their partner after abusing them, or the perpetrator giving a kind response to their partner when they usually respond in a different manner. Despite the current emotional damage occurring, this type of reinforcement continues to trap victims in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

==== Distorted sense of self-worth ====
Over a course of time, victims may start to believe they “somehow deserve the abuse” they are receiving, and through the abuser “destroy[ing] any sense of self-esteem they once had”, it leads them to “believe that they don’t deserve any better”.{{f}}
{{f}}
==== Trauma-related attachment ====
As a result of the relationship being “centred around a shared [[w:Traumatic_event|traumatic experience]]”, it may leave the victim feeling a sense of empathy or responsibility towards their abuser, which allows for the [[w:Cycle_of_abuse|cycle of abuse]] to continue (see Figure 6).{{f}}

=== [[w:Fear|Fear]] and [[w:Learned_helplessness|learned helplessness]] ===
A critical device used to perpetuate abusive relationships is fear and learned helplessness.{{f}}

==== '''Fear''' ====
Fear is referred to as “a basic, intense [[w:Emotion|emotion]] aroused by the detection of imminent threat”.{{f}}

The main following dynamics that display how fear is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''[[w:Intimidation|Intimidation]] and [[w:Control|Control]]''''' ======
Perpetuators tend to plant fear in relationships to maintain control, which leads to victims fearing that their abuser will physically harm, emotionally manipulate or retaliate against them if they leave the relationship{{f}}

====== '''[[w:Social_isolation|''Isolation'']]''' ======
Due to abusers isolating their partner from their family and friends, it results in the victim to rely significantly on the abuser and have fear of being alone if they were to leave the relationship.{{f}}

==== Learned helplessness ====
In addition to this, learned helplessness is characterised as “behaviour exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control”.{{f}}

The key dynamics that present how learned helplessness is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''Repeated [[w:Trauma|trauma]]''''' ======
This involves victims dealing with continuous [[w:Abuse|abuse]] and feeling powerless to change their circumstances, which may lead to them developing a sense of learned helplessness, where they believe that no matter what they say or do, the situation won’t change for the better.{{f}}

====== '''''Self-esteem erosion''''' ======
This involves constant belittling and manipulation by the abuser which can affect a victim’s self-worth, resulting in them feeling unworthy of a healthier relationship or them believing that they deserve the abuse.{{f}}

====== '''''Inability to take control of situation''''' ======
This includes victims feeling paralysed and lacking the ability to make decisions; they may wait for an external change to occur that may never come, which keeps them trapped in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

=== [[w:Gaslighting|Gaslighting]] and [[w:Manipulation|manipulation]] ===
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is gaslighting and manipulation.{{f}}

==== Gaslighting ====
Gaslighting is also referred to as an abuse tactic that is employed to plant doubt in the victim’s thoughts and emotions, which often escalates in trusted relationships. It can also undermine accomplishments, create codependency, and damage [[w:Mental_health|mental health]], which may lead to the victim having a distorted and confused reality. Overall, this may result in victims struggling to seek help due to feelings of guilt and manipulation, which complicates their recovery.{{f}}

Research{{f}} shows the '''following warning signs of what gaslighters do to their victims''' include:

* “Tell white lies”
* “Deny something even when you have proof”
* “Make you doubt your own judgement” 
* “Make you mistrust others or lose interest in people and things that take your attention away from them”
* “Wear you down and make you feel exhausted or hopeless”

==== Manipulation ====
Manipulation is defined as “an action designed to influence or [[w:Control|control]] another, usually in an underhanded or unfair manner which facilitates one's personal aims&quot; (see Figure 7).{{f}} 

[[File:Manipulation-.png|thumb|Figure 7. A hand controlling which alludes to someone being controlled, which is a manipulation tactic.]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Types of Manipulation{{f}}
!Having Control over Location
|Manipulators may physically take victims to places they are unfamiliar with, or emotionally try to bring victims out of their comfort zone. The abuser does this in order to feel a sense of control.
|-
!Manipulating Facts
|Manipulators will be dishonest with victims, make excuses, and blame them. Occasionally, these types of abusers will share some truth to their facts to strategically manipulate you.
|-
!Being [[w:Passive-Aggressive_behavior|Passive-Aggressive]]
|Manipulators will voice subtle, indirect negative feelings towards victims to undermine them. 
|-
!Guilt and Sympathy
|Manipulators tend to make their victims feel guilty or have sympathy towards them in order to receive what they want.
|-
!Use of Silent Treatment
|Abusers use this withdrawal tactic to punish their victims
|-
!Use of Comparison
|Abusers may compare their victims to someone else to further evoke an upsetting or uncomfortable reaction from victims, or make them feel insecure about something.
|-
![[w:Love_bombing|Love-bombing]]
|Manipulators use this common abuse tactic to give enormous amounts of praise and affection to speed up their relationship between them and their victim. This causes the victim to be heavily attached to their abuser, which allows for the abuser to easily discard them later on.
|}
{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What is sadism?}

- Someone who experiences pain when others experience pain
+ Someone who derives pleasure out of others suffering
- Someone who tries to help others when they are sad
- someone who notices when others are sad 

{Who is most likely to engage in manipulation?}

- Coaches
+ Males
- Females

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships? ==
According to an [https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Australian psychology article], some ways to break free from emotional dependency to form healthy relationships include:

# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Identifying your Attachment Style]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Improving your Self-Esteem]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Spending Time with Friends and Family]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Having Calm and Honest Communication with your Partner]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Setting and Upholding Healthy Boundaries]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Working with a Therapist through these Issues]'''

== Conclusion ==
This chapter establishes the significant connection between emotional dependency and abusive relationships, which is key for creating healthier relationships with others. Through being aware of what psychological mechanisms {{ic|what are they?}} drive emotional dependency and how these mechanisms can incite abusive relationships, it allows for individuals to start working towards strategies to remove themselves from emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships. It is through these devices that individuals are capable in understanding the crucial link between emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships in order from them to foster healthier romantic relationships.

== External Links ==
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/manipulation 

https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/

https://barbaraoakley.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/000Chapter-1-Pathological-Altruism-Oakley-Knafo-McGrath.pdf

https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/trauma-bonding#takeaway

https://www.helpguide.org/relationships/social-connection/attachment-and-adult-relationships

https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419874843

https://www.healthline.com/health/low-self-esteem#defining-low-self-esteem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

[http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/docs_menu/parents_carers_and_families/domestic_and_family_violence/dv_line.html/ Domestic Violence NSW]

== See also ==

* [[w:Psychological_abuse|Psychological abuse]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|Emotional abuse]] (Book Chapter 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Aggression in intimate relationships|Aggression in intimate relationships]] (Book Chapter 2014)

== References ==
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Abuse]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]]
[[Category:Moivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681793</id>
      <parentid>2681792</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T05:25:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>49.180.211.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Worked on low self-esteem article</comment>
      <origin>2681793</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="28627" sha1="2k2xsksoo6jit0r6zg1mud123cy8dev" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Abusive relationships and emotional dependency:&lt;br&gt;What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?}}
{{MECR3|https://youtu.be/C6RDIcVIdR0}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Edwina has been in a romantic relationship with Zack for 2 months now, where in the beginning he appeared to be a good person, however over time she has come to realise he is the complete opposite; Zack has slowly isolated Edwina from her friends and family, heavily controls her social media, forbids her to go places without his permission, even if it's the grocery store, and criticises and insults her if she goes against his wishes. Edwina is extremely unhappy in this relationship, however due to being emotionally dependent on Zack, she feels trapped and unable to leave the relationship. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:NounProject Abuse.png|thumb|Figure 1. Depicting two figures; one of them is being abused by the other.]]
This chapter aims to the significant link between abusive relationships and emotional dependency; The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022) defines partner emotional abuse as “when a person is subjected to certain behaviours or actions that are aimed at preventing or controlling their behaviour, causing them emotional harm or fear”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/domestic-violence-experiences-partner-emotional-abuse#cite-window1.|title=Domestic Violence: Experiences of Partner Emotional Abuse {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=2022-08-24|website=www.abs.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; (see Figure 1). The document further highlights that these actions are &quot;characterised in nature by their intent to manipulate, control, isolate or intimidate the person they are aimed at&quot;. Emotional dependency can be referred to as “a chronic pattern of unmet affective demands, which individuals desperately seek to meet through close interpersonal relationships”. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dependencia%20emocional.%20Caracter%C3%ADsticas%20y%20tratamiento&amp;author=J%20Castell%C3%B3&amp;publication_year=2005&amp;|title=Google Scholar|website=scholar.google.com|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; To further understand the connection between abusive relationships and emotional dependency, this chapter focuses on what specific psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency, and how these mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships. (see Figure 2)

{{robelbox|theme=9|title=Focus questions:|icon=Nuvola_apps_kwrite.png|iconwidth=48px}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
* What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency?
* How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships?
* How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}[[File:Sunrise lovers.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Two people in a romantic relationship. Emotional dependency and abuse can be present in these types of relationships.]]

== What are some psychological mechanisms that drive emotional dependency? ==
Psychological mechanisms that significantly drive emotional dependency include attachment theory, low self-esteem, and codependency. Attachment theory is a key psychological mechanism that focuses on different attachment styles that may affect individuals in relationships. Additionally, individuals with low self-esteem tend to seek acceptance from others in order to validate themselves - codependency can complicate this; due to codependent individuals prioritising their partner's needs over their own, it results in individuals being heavily reliant on their relationship for their sense of identity. Overall, these mechanisms significantly promote emotional dependency, can further result in a toxic cycle for individuals.

=== [[w:Attachment_Theory|Attachment Theory]] ===
A fundamental psychological mechanism that is linked to emotional dependency is the attachment theory. An accredited psychoanalyst [[w:John_Bowlby|John Bowlby]] established this theory in order to investigate the intimate relationships and bonds between individuals, as well as relationships between parents and children and their link to relationships later in life&lt;ref&gt;Bowlby, J. (1969). ''Attachment and loss'' (No. 79). Random House. &lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby's second novel also explained how individuals are born with an attachment behavioural system which incites them to seek intimacy and closeness to attachment figures &lt;ref&gt;Bowlby J. Attachment and loss, Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.) New York: Basic Books; 1982. https://mindsplain.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ATTACHMENT_AND_LOSS_VOLUME_I_ATTACHMENT.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby’s theory critically explores the emotional bonds and relationships between individuals through 4 main attachment styles:

==== Secure Attachment ====
This attachment style involves individuals being capable of setting healthy boundaries, able to feel safe and stable in their relationships with others, has a good sense of self-worth, able to adequately deal with disappointments and obstacles, and can express their thoughts and feelings adequately.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Stephanie, a 28 year old art teacher, and Toby, a 29 year old business owner, have been together since graduating from university. Both individuals came from families who encouraged emotional communication, which has allowed for them to have a healthy and meaningful relationship. In their relationship, they calmly and effectively communicate their feelings openly, value and respect each other’s independence, and have confidence and trust in one another as they know time apart will not weaken their bond.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Anxious Attachment ====
Anxious attachment is when “individuals worry about being underappreciated or abandoned by their romantic partners”, “are heavily fixated on their partner and their relationship”, and crave being “closer to their partners emotionally to feel more secure”. Anxious individuals also tend to have low self-esteem, but think highly of their intimate partners. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).

Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S. further researched through an “Attachment Diathesis-Stress Process Model” how people who have an anxious attachment think and behave when they encounter stress and/or arguments with their romantic partners. The key findings when researching this that the study found when anxious individuals are extremely distraught when removed or have to consider being removed from their partner, that these individuals display high levels of stress and dysfunctional behaviours when encountering relationship problems, and how certain events when transitioning to parenthood may incite or increase the main concerns of individuals with this attachment style.

The study explores in depth of insecure attachment styles, limitations of the study that can be identified are that the study heavily focuses on specific stress situations which may not fully present the extent of stress responses that can be seen in these relationships. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Holly, a 21 year old university student, and Ryan, a 22 year old electrician have been in a relationship for 7 months. Holly has an anxious attachment style which plays a role in their relationship. An example of this in their relationship could include a situation where Ryan has explained to Holly that he is going to take her to a nice dinner out, however he has to be asleep by 10pm to wake up early for work. They have a nice night together, however as time grows closer to 10pm and Ryan reminds Holly he has to sleep soon, it makes Holly question if he even wants to hang out with her and even wants to be with her, even though he has a valid reason to go to bed early. This leads to Holly panicking and having an emotional outburst stating “you act like you don’t even want to hang out with me anymore!” and “all you do is prioritise work over me!”{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Avoidant-Dismissive Attachment ====
This attachment style mainly consists of individuals facing challenges with emotional intimacy (Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S., 2017), and being heavily independent and not fond of the idea of being too romantically invested in someone (Pettigrew TF, 2016).

This can be demonstrated through a relevant study by Mikulincer M and Shaver PR (2007), where the main focus is on investigating the attachment theory, including avoidant attachment where it found individuals who scored high with this attachment style tend to exhibit strategies to deactivate the relationship, such as not allowing their partner to be close to them, distancing themselves from their partner and not communicating what they want in a relationship. 

The topic of debate to how avoidant attachment styles change is explored in a longitudinal study; the study explored the different levels of attachment change over time and how avoidant attachment levels tend to “start low” in childhood” however “gradually increase over time”, in contrast to anxious attachment styles where they “start and remain low across time”. (Theisen, J.C., et., 2018){{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Dan, a 20 year old rugby league player, and Rita, a 21 year old university student, have been seeing each other for 4 months now. Dan is well-known for having usual romantic flings and can never commit to anyone fully, due to the idea of relying on or being relied on is suffocating to him. So when Rita hints to him of when he is going to officially ask her out, he dismisses it and replies with “can we not talk about this please? Like why do you want to rush things, like can’t you just see how things go?” Additionally, Dan enjoys spending time with Rita however likes to keep to his routine, such as playing rugby and going out drinking with friends every weekend, separate from their relationship - one day, Rita asked Dan if she can come watch his rugby game then afterwards they go out to dinner together to celebrate. Dan replies with “no that’s a bit weird for you to come to my games, you’re not even my girlfriend. Besides, I go out every weekend with my friends after the games so it’s not going to work”. This is degrading to Rita who feels like Danl is emotionally distant and is unwilling to completely invest in being in a relationship with her.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Disorganised-Disorientated Attachment ====
Disorganised attachment stems from childhood where the “child's attachment figure or parent is observably frightened or frightening when a child needs comforting or reassurance”. (M.J Lawler and E.B Talbot, 2012). These characteristics later appear in adult relationships where individuals have a “severe disturbance in threat responding, social cognition and identity development” which can further lead to the “ risk for personality disorders”. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017).

A 2017 latent class analysis focused on researching the disorganised attachment style in adults in order to provide a clear understanding of “severity and stylistic differences in disorganised attachment than has been previously articulated”. The study found through the following attachment styles: secure, insecure, disorganised-oscillating, and disorganised-impoverished that the disorganised-oscillating class was “characterised by elevations on contradictory and preoccupied styles”, while the disorganised-impoverished class portrayed signs of “impoverished and dismissive styles”. This further enables readers to view the different attachment disorganisation patterns in adults, which differentiate based on severity and interpersonal styles. Overall, the study highly recommends early intervention for caregivers in order to prevent this attachment style developing. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Angelina, a 23 year old public servant, and Ed, a 24 year old physiotherapist have been in a relationship for 9 months now. Angelina has developed this attachment style, which has caused a strain on her and Ed’s relationship: For example, Angelina often moves from wanting to be very close to Ed to pushing him away when he gets too close. This can be seen one night, at dinner where Angelina tells Ed how much she loves and appreciates him. The next conversation shifts to Ed saying how he has to go on a work AFL trip to help strap players for a month, to which triggers Angelina’s mood to change. She suddenly believes and voices to Ed that he wants to go on this work trip to purposefully avoid her, and that he doesn’t want to be around her anymore.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What attachment style is most likely to be upset when removed from a partner?}

- Avoidant 
+ Anxious
- Disorganised
- Applies to any of the above

{What is the Attachment Theory about?}

- Focuses on different attachment styles 
- Focuses on romantic relationships and how they link to their childhood 
- Links to the concept of emotional dependency
+ Applies to any of the above 

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. A person looking into the mirror not liking their image and questioning their self-esteem.]]

=== Low self-esteem ===
A primary psychological device that influences emotional dependency is '''low [[w:Self-esteem|self-esteem.]]'''Self-esteem can be defined as “a person's positive or negative attitude toward oneself as well as a person's favourable or unfavourable view of himself or herself”. It can also be characterised as an individual considering themselves as “worthy or unworthy”. (Mittal, E and Rani, T., 2022). (see Figure 3). Some low self-esteem components that incite emotional dependency include: 

===== '''Seeking external validation:''' =====
A 2018 observational study{{f}} examined whether low self-esteem was linked to the use and consequences of indirect support seeking during interactions in romantic relationships. The study proved that people with low self-esteem tend to “utilise indirect support” which may backfire “negative partner support” instead, and further “undermine the feelings of acceptance that low self-esteem individuals crave”, overall demonstrating how low self-esteem individuals can be emotionally dependent through heavily desiring external validation.

[[File:Lonely boy.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Person sitting alone, which is a key component of what people with low self-esteem fear.]]

===== '''Fear of [[w:Abandonment_(emotional)|abandonment]] and [[w:_Social_rejection|rejection]]:''' =====
According to a 2022 paper{{f}}, low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are typically seen in individuals who have abandonment and rejection issues. The paper outlines how these individuals often internalise abandonment and rejection, believing it was their fault that they are inadequate of being loved and cared about. This negative perception of themselves can lead to a permanent sense of inadequacy and self-doubt, which can impact various areas of their lives, such as their perspective of their careers, platonic relationships, and romantic relationships (Cruz et al., 2022). (See Figure 4).

===== '''Difficulty setting boundaries and prioritising personal needs:''' =====
Due to individual’s{{g}} having a low sense of worth about themselves, it may result in having difficulty establishing boundaries and prioritising their own personal needs. Many individuals with this issue tend to feel angry at themselves and others, and have a feeling of not being in control{{f}}.

=== [[w:Codependency|Codependency]] ===
A major psychological mechanism that causes emotional dependency is codependency{{f}}.

Codependency is defined as “codependency is a theory that attempts to explain imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive behaviour”. It can also be referred to from a relationship context as consisting of “unhealthy ‘clinginess’ and needy behaviour, “where one person does not have self-sufficiency or autonomy”, and that they must rely on their partner to feel complete.

==== Codependency and its link to [[w:Domestic_violence|domestic violence]] ====
A psychological review highlighted how psychological factors, such as codependency, “contribute to domestic-partner abuse risk”, explaining how “high levels of emotional dependency in an abused partner may reduce the likelihood that the victimised person will terminate the relationship”.{{f}}

'''Codependency IS NOT limited to occurring to just women:'''

{{g}}Article{{f}} outlines how the concept of codependency used to be interpreted as a woman being codependent on a man, however in modern society, we have come to realise that men can also be codependent. 

==== Codependency is often unrecognisable ====
Codependent individuals tend to seek help for stress and depression related symptoms, and may only receive symptomatic help such as anxiety medication, which can overall mask the true underlying reason for their emotions and behaviour.

[[File:BPD 1.png|thumb|Figure 5. A person with Borderline Personality Disorder chasing after another person, which clearly shows codependency.]]

'''Codependency and [[w:Borderline_Personality_Disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]] (BPD)'''

Research has shown links between codependency and BPD through identifying key traits such as emotional dependency, mood instability, and impulsiveness which are fundamental aspects of BPD. Individuals with BPD can display intense emotional dependency on their romantic partners, which further represents how they may demonstrate codependent behaviour and how they may rely on external relationships to provide [[w:Emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]], reassurance and [[w:Identity_(social_science)|identity]] (see Figure 5). 

== How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships? ==
[[File:Cycle of Abuse.png|thumb|512x512px|Figure 6. A diagram of the cycle of abuse. Trauma can further continue this cycle.]]
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is '''trauma bonding'''. 

Trauma bonding, which is where “a person forms a deep emotional attachment with someone that causes them harm”, allows for abusive relationships to occur through establishing a psychological and emotional attachment between the victim and the perpetrator.{{f}}

This is extremely difficult to stop due to several dynamics:

==== Intermittent reinforcement ====
Intermittent reinforcement consists of continuous cruel treatment with occasional moments of random affection. Research{{f}} outlines how this unpredictably keeps victims craving and clinging onto occasional moments of affection, which is very similar to someone gambling in hope that they'll win. An example of this can include when the perpetrator gives gifts to their partner after abusing them, or the perpetrator giving a kind response to their partner when they usually respond in a different manner. Despite the current emotional damage occurring, this type of reinforcement continues to trap victims in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

==== Distorted sense of self-worth ====
Over a course of time, victims may start to believe they “somehow deserve the abuse” they are receiving, and through the abuser “destroy[ing] any sense of self-esteem they once had”, it leads them to “believe that they don’t deserve any better”.{{f}}
{{f}}
==== Trauma-related attachment ====
As a result of the relationship being “centred around a shared [[w:Traumatic_event|traumatic experience]]”, it may leave the victim feeling a sense of empathy or responsibility towards their abuser, which allows for the [[w:Cycle_of_abuse|cycle of abuse]] to continue (see Figure 6).{{f}}

=== [[w:Fear|Fear]] and [[w:Learned_helplessness|learned helplessness]] ===
A critical device used to perpetuate abusive relationships is fear and learned helplessness.{{f}}

==== '''Fear''' ====
Fear is referred to as “a basic, intense [[w:Emotion|emotion]] aroused by the detection of imminent threat”.{{f}}

The main following dynamics that display how fear is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''[[w:Intimidation|Intimidation]] and [[w:Control|Control]]''''' ======
Perpetuators tend to plant fear in relationships to maintain control, which leads to victims fearing that their abuser will physically harm, emotionally manipulate or retaliate against them if they leave the relationship{{f}}

====== '''[[w:Social_isolation|''Isolation'']]''' ======
Due to abusers isolating their partner from their family and friends, it results in the victim to rely significantly on the abuser and have fear of being alone if they were to leave the relationship.{{f}}

==== Learned helplessness ====
In addition to this, learned helplessness is characterised as “behaviour exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control”.{{f}}

The key dynamics that present how learned helplessness is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''Repeated [[w:Trauma|trauma]]''''' ======
This involves victims dealing with continuous [[w:Abuse|abuse]] and feeling powerless to change their circumstances, which may lead to them developing a sense of learned helplessness, where they believe that no matter what they say or do, the situation won’t change for the better.{{f}}

====== '''''Self-esteem erosion''''' ======
This involves constant belittling and manipulation by the abuser which can affect a victim’s self-worth, resulting in them feeling unworthy of a healthier relationship or them believing that they deserve the abuse.{{f}}

====== '''''Inability to take control of situation''''' ======
This includes victims feeling paralysed and lacking the ability to make decisions; they may wait for an external change to occur that may never come, which keeps them trapped in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

=== [[w:Gaslighting|Gaslighting]] and [[w:Manipulation|manipulation]] ===
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is gaslighting and manipulation.{{f}}

==== Gaslighting ====
Gaslighting is also referred to as an abuse tactic that is employed to plant doubt in the victim’s thoughts and emotions, which often escalates in trusted relationships. It can also undermine accomplishments, create codependency, and damage [[w:Mental_health|mental health]], which may lead to the victim having a distorted and confused reality. Overall, this may result in victims struggling to seek help due to feelings of guilt and manipulation, which complicates their recovery.{{f}}

Research{{f}} shows the '''following warning signs of what gaslighters do to their victims''' include:

* “Tell white lies”
* “Deny something even when you have proof”
* “Make you doubt your own judgement” 
* “Make you mistrust others or lose interest in people and things that take your attention away from them”
* “Wear you down and make you feel exhausted or hopeless”

==== Manipulation ====
Manipulation is defined as “an action designed to influence or [[w:Control|control]] another, usually in an underhanded or unfair manner which facilitates one's personal aims&quot; (see Figure 7).{{f}} 

[[File:Manipulation-.png|thumb|Figure 7. A hand controlling which alludes to someone being controlled, which is a manipulation tactic.]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Types of Manipulation{{f}}
!Having Control over Location
|Manipulators may physically take victims to places they are unfamiliar with, or emotionally try to bring victims out of their comfort zone. The abuser does this in order to feel a sense of control.
|-
!Manipulating Facts
|Manipulators will be dishonest with victims, make excuses, and blame them. Occasionally, these types of abusers will share some truth to their facts to strategically manipulate you.
|-
!Being [[w:Passive-Aggressive_behavior|Passive-Aggressive]]
|Manipulators will voice subtle, indirect negative feelings towards victims to undermine them. 
|-
!Guilt and Sympathy
|Manipulators tend to make their victims feel guilty or have sympathy towards them in order to receive what they want.
|-
!Use of Silent Treatment
|Abusers use this withdrawal tactic to punish their victims
|-
!Use of Comparison
|Abusers may compare their victims to someone else to further evoke an upsetting or uncomfortable reaction from victims, or make them feel insecure about something.
|-
![[w:Love_bombing|Love-bombing]]
|Manipulators use this common abuse tactic to give enormous amounts of praise and affection to speed up their relationship between them and their victim. This causes the victim to be heavily attached to their abuser, which allows for the abuser to easily discard them later on.
|}
{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What is sadism?}

- Someone who experiences pain when others experience pain
+ Someone who derives pleasure out of others suffering
- Someone who tries to help others when they are sad
- someone who notices when others are sad 

{Who is most likely to engage in manipulation?}

- Coaches
+ Males
- Females

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships? ==
According to an [https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Australian psychology article], some ways to break free from emotional dependency to form healthy relationships include:

# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Identifying your Attachment Style]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Improving your Self-Esteem]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Spending Time with Friends and Family]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Having Calm and Honest Communication with your Partner]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Setting and Upholding Healthy Boundaries]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Working with a Therapist through these Issues]'''

== Conclusion ==
This chapter establishes the significant connection between emotional dependency and abusive relationships, which is key for creating healthier relationships with others. Through being aware of what psychological mechanisms {{ic|what are they?}} drive emotional dependency and how these mechanisms can incite abusive relationships, it allows for individuals to start working towards strategies to remove themselves from emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships. It is through these devices that individuals are capable in understanding the crucial link between emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships in order from them to foster healthier romantic relationships.

== External Links ==
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/manipulation 

https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/

https://barbaraoakley.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/000Chapter-1-Pathological-Altruism-Oakley-Knafo-McGrath.pdf

https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/trauma-bonding#takeaway

https://www.helpguide.org/relationships/social-connection/attachment-and-adult-relationships

https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419874843

https://www.healthline.com/health/low-self-esteem#defining-low-self-esteem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

[http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/docs_menu/parents_carers_and_families/domestic_and_family_violence/dv_line.html/ Domestic Violence NSW]

== See also ==

* [[w:Psychological_abuse|Psychological abuse]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|Emotional abuse]] (Book Chapter 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Aggression in intimate relationships|Aggression in intimate relationships]] (Book Chapter 2014)

== References ==
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Abuse]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]]
[[Category:Moivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
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      <text bytes="28629" sha1="b7pprng7qdhu7i71lcaa9qigkm6ycei" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Abusive relationships and emotional dependency:&lt;br&gt;What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?}}
{{MECR3|https://youtu.be/C6RDIcVIdR0}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Edwina has been in a romantic relationship with Zack for 2 months now, where in the beginning he appeared to be a good person, however over time she has come to realise he is the complete opposite; Zack has slowly isolated Edwina from her friends and family, heavily controls her social media, forbids her to go places without his permission, even if it's the grocery store, and criticises and insults her if she goes against his wishes. Edwina is extremely unhappy in this relationship, however due to being emotionally dependent on Zack, she feels trapped and unable to leave the relationship. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:NounProject Abuse.png|thumb|Figure 1. Depicting two figures; one of them is being abused by the other.]]
This chapter aims to the significant link between abusive relationships and emotional dependency; The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022) defines partner emotional abuse as “when a person is subjected to certain behaviours or actions that are aimed at preventing or controlling their behaviour, causing them emotional harm or fear”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/domestic-violence-experiences-partner-emotional-abuse#cite-window1.|title=Domestic Violence: Experiences of Partner Emotional Abuse {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=2022-08-24|website=www.abs.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; (see Figure 1). The document further highlights that these actions are &quot;characterised in nature by their intent to manipulate, control, isolate or intimidate the person they are aimed at&quot;. Emotional dependency can be referred to as “a chronic pattern of unmet affective demands, which individuals desperately seek to meet through close interpersonal relationships”. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dependencia%20emocional.%20Caracter%C3%ADsticas%20y%20tratamiento&amp;author=J%20Castell%C3%B3&amp;publication_year=2005&amp;|title=Google Scholar|website=scholar.google.com|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; To further understand the connection between abusive relationships and emotional dependency, this chapter focuses on what specific psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency, and how these mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships. (see Figure 2)

{{robelbox|theme=9|title=Focus questions:|icon=Nuvola_apps_kwrite.png|iconwidth=48px}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
* What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency?
* How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships?
* How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}[[File:Sunrise lovers.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Two people in a romantic relationship. Emotional dependency and abuse can be present in these types of relationships.]]

== What are some psychological mechanisms that drive emotional dependency? ==
Psychological mechanisms that significantly drive emotional dependency include attachment theory, low self-esteem, and codependency. Attachment theory is a key psychological mechanism that focuses on different attachment styles that may affect individuals in relationships. Additionally, individuals with low self-esteem tend to seek acceptance from others in order to validate themselves - codependency can complicate this; due to codependent individuals prioritising their partner's needs over their own, it results in individuals being heavily reliant on their relationship for their sense of identity. Overall, these mechanisms significantly promote emotional dependency, can further result in a toxic cycle for individuals.

=== [[w:Attachment_Theory|Attachment Theory]] ===
A fundamental psychological mechanism that is linked to emotional dependency is the attachment theory. An accredited psychoanalyst [[w:John_Bowlby|John Bowlby]] established this theory in order to investigate the intimate relationships and bonds between individuals, as well as relationships between parents and children and their link to relationships later in life&lt;ref&gt;Bowlby, J. (1969). ''Attachment and loss'' (No. 79). Random House. &lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby's second novel also explained how individuals are born with an attachment behavioural system which incites them to seek intimacy and closeness to attachment figures &lt;ref&gt;Bowlby J. Attachment and loss, Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.) New York: Basic Books; 1982. https://mindsplain.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ATTACHMENT_AND_LOSS_VOLUME_I_ATTACHMENT.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby’s theory critically explores the emotional bonds and relationships between individuals through 4 main attachment styles:

==== Secure Attachment ====
This attachment style involves individuals being capable of setting healthy boundaries, able to feel safe and stable in their relationships with others, has a good sense of self-worth, able to adequately deal with disappointments and obstacles, and can express their thoughts and feelings adequately.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Stephanie, a 28 year old art teacher, and Toby, a 29 year old business owner, have been together since graduating from university. Both individuals came from families who encouraged emotional communication, which has allowed for them to have a healthy and meaningful relationship. In their relationship, they calmly and effectively communicate their feelings openly, value and respect each other’s independence, and have confidence and trust in one another as they know time apart will not weaken their bond.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Anxious Attachment ====
Anxious attachment is when “individuals worry about being underappreciated or abandoned by their romantic partners”, “are heavily fixated on their partner and their relationship”, and crave being “closer to their partners emotionally to feel more secure”. Anxious individuals also tend to have low self-esteem, but think highly of their intimate partners. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).

Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S. further researched through an “Attachment Diathesis-Stress Process Model” how people who have an anxious attachment think and behave when they encounter stress and/or arguments with their romantic partners. The key findings when researching this that the study found when anxious individuals are extremely distraught when removed or have to consider being removed from their partner, that these individuals display high levels of stress and dysfunctional behaviours when encountering relationship problems, and how certain events when transitioning to parenthood may incite or increase the main concerns of individuals with this attachment style.

The study explores in depth of insecure attachment styles, limitations of the study that can be identified are that the study heavily focuses on specific stress situations which may not fully present the extent of stress responses that can be seen in these relationships. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Holly, a 21 year old university student, and Ryan, a 22 year old electrician have been in a relationship for 7 months. Holly has an anxious attachment style which plays a role in their relationship. An example of this in their relationship could include a situation where Ryan has explained to Holly that he is going to take her to a nice dinner out, however he has to be asleep by 10pm to wake up early for work. They have a nice night together, however as time grows closer to 10pm and Ryan reminds Holly he has to sleep soon, it makes Holly question if he even wants to hang out with her and even wants to be with her, even though he has a valid reason to go to bed early. This leads to Holly panicking and having an emotional outburst stating “you act like you don’t even want to hang out with me anymore!” and “all you do is prioritise work over me!”{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Avoidant-Dismissive Attachment ====
This attachment style mainly consists of individuals facing challenges with emotional intimacy (Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S., 2017), and being heavily independent and not fond of the idea of being too romantically invested in someone (Pettigrew TF, 2016).

This can be demonstrated through a relevant study by Mikulincer M and Shaver PR (2007), where the main focus is on investigating the attachment theory, including avoidant attachment where it found individuals who scored high with this attachment style tend to exhibit strategies to deactivate the relationship, such as not allowing their partner to be close to them, distancing themselves from their partner and not communicating what they want in a relationship. 

The topic of debate to how avoidant attachment styles change is explored in a longitudinal study; the study explored the different levels of attachment change over time and how avoidant attachment levels tend to “start low” in childhood” however “gradually increase over time”, in contrast to anxious attachment styles where they “start and remain low across time”. (Theisen, J.C., et., 2018){{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Dan, a 20 year old rugby league player, and Rita, a 21 year old university student, have been seeing each other for 4 months now. Dan is well-known for having usual romantic flings and can never commit to anyone fully, due to the idea of relying on or being relied on is suffocating to him. So when Rita hints to him of when he is going to officially ask her out, he dismisses it and replies with “can we not talk about this please? Like why do you want to rush things, like can’t you just see how things go?” Additionally, Dan enjoys spending time with Rita however likes to keep to his routine, such as playing rugby and going out drinking with friends every weekend, separate from their relationship - one day, Rita asked Dan if she can come watch his rugby game then afterwards they go out to dinner together to celebrate. Dan replies with “no that’s a bit weird for you to come to my games, you’re not even my girlfriend. Besides, I go out every weekend with my friends after the games so it’s not going to work”. This is degrading to Rita who feels like Danl is emotionally distant and is unwilling to completely invest in being in a relationship with her.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Disorganised-Disorientated Attachment ====
Disorganised attachment stems from childhood where the “child's attachment figure or parent is observably frightened or frightening when a child needs comforting or reassurance”. (M.J Lawler and E.B Talbot, 2012). These characteristics later appear in adult relationships where individuals have a “severe disturbance in threat responding, social cognition and identity development” which can further lead to the “ risk for personality disorders”. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017).

A 2017 latent class analysis focused on researching the disorganised attachment style in adults in order to provide a clear understanding of “severity and stylistic differences in disorganised attachment than has been previously articulated”. The study found through the following attachment styles: secure, insecure, disorganised-oscillating, and disorganised-impoverished that the disorganised-oscillating class was “characterised by elevations on contradictory and preoccupied styles”, while the disorganised-impoverished class portrayed signs of “impoverished and dismissive styles”. This further enables readers to view the different attachment disorganisation patterns in adults, which differentiate based on severity and interpersonal styles. Overall, the study highly recommends early intervention for caregivers in order to prevent this attachment style developing. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Angelina, a 23 year old public servant, and Ed, a 24 year old physiotherapist have been in a relationship for 9 months now. Angelina has developed this attachment style, which has caused a strain on her and Ed’s relationship: For example, Angelina often moves from wanting to be very close to Ed to pushing him away when he gets too close. This can be seen one night, at dinner where Angelina tells Ed how much she loves and appreciates him. The next conversation shifts to Ed saying how he has to go on a work AFL trip to help strap players for a month, to which triggers Angelina’s mood to change. She suddenly believes and voices to Ed that he wants to go on this work trip to purposefully avoid her, and that he doesn’t want to be around her anymore.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What attachment style is most likely to be upset when removed from a partner?}

- Avoidant 
+ Anxious
- Disorganised
- Applies to any of the above

{What is the Attachment Theory about?}

- Focuses on different attachment styles 
- Focuses on romantic relationships and how they link to their childhood 
- Links to the concept of emotional dependency
+ Applies to any of the above 

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. A person looking into the mirror not liking their image and questioning their self-esteem.]]

=== Low self-esteem ===
A primary psychological device that influences emotional dependency is '''low [[w:Self-esteem|self-esteem.]]'''Self-esteem can be defined as “a person's positive or negative attitude toward oneself as well as a person's favourable or unfavourable view of himself or herself”. It can also be characterised as an individual considering themselves as “worthy or unworthy”. (Mittal, E and Rani, T., 2022). (see Figure 3). Some low self-esteem components that incite emotional dependency include: 

===== '''Seeking external validation:''' =====
A 2018 observational study aimed to prove that low self-esteem was linked to the use and consequences of indirect support seeking during interactions in romantic relationships. The study proved that people with low self-esteem tend to “utilise indirect support” which may backfire “negative partner support” instead, and further “undermine the feelings of acceptance that low self-esteem individuals crave”, overall demonstrating how low self-esteem individuals can be emotionally dependent through heavily desiring external validation. ().

[[File:Lonely boy.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Person sitting alone, which is a key component of what people with low self-esteem fear.]]

===== '''Fear of [[w:Abandonment_(emotional)|abandonment]] and [[w:_Social_rejection|rejection]]:''' =====
According to a 2022 paper{{f}}, low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are typically seen in individuals who have abandonment and rejection issues. The paper outlines how these individuals often internalise abandonment and rejection, believing it was their fault that they are inadequate of being loved and cared about. This negative perception of themselves can lead to a permanent sense of inadequacy and self-doubt, which can impact various areas of their lives, such as their perspective of their careers, platonic relationships, and romantic relationships (Cruz et al., 2022). (See Figure 4).

===== '''Difficulty setting boundaries and prioritising personal needs:''' =====
Due to individual’s{{g}} having a low sense of worth about themselves, it may result in having difficulty establishing boundaries and prioritising their own personal needs. Many individuals with this issue tend to feel angry at themselves and others, and have a feeling of not being in control{{f}}.

=== [[w:Codependency|Codependency]] ===
A major psychological mechanism that causes emotional dependency is codependency{{f}}.

Codependency is defined as “codependency is a theory that attempts to explain imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive behaviour”. It can also be referred to from a relationship context as consisting of “unhealthy ‘clinginess’ and needy behaviour, “where one person does not have self-sufficiency or autonomy”, and that they must rely on their partner to feel complete.

==== Codependency and its link to [[w:Domestic_violence|domestic violence]] ====
A psychological review highlighted how psychological factors, such as codependency, “contribute to domestic-partner abuse risk”, explaining how “high levels of emotional dependency in an abused partner may reduce the likelihood that the victimised person will terminate the relationship”.{{f}}

'''Codependency IS NOT limited to occurring to just women:'''

{{g}}Article{{f}} outlines how the concept of codependency used to be interpreted as a woman being codependent on a man, however in modern society, we have come to realise that men can also be codependent. 

==== Codependency is often unrecognisable ====
Codependent individuals tend to seek help for stress and depression related symptoms, and may only receive symptomatic help such as anxiety medication, which can overall mask the true underlying reason for their emotions and behaviour.

[[File:BPD 1.png|thumb|Figure 5. A person with Borderline Personality Disorder chasing after another person, which clearly shows codependency.]]

'''Codependency and [[w:Borderline_Personality_Disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]] (BPD)'''

Research has shown links between codependency and BPD through identifying key traits such as emotional dependency, mood instability, and impulsiveness which are fundamental aspects of BPD. Individuals with BPD can display intense emotional dependency on their romantic partners, which further represents how they may demonstrate codependent behaviour and how they may rely on external relationships to provide [[w:Emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]], reassurance and [[w:Identity_(social_science)|identity]] (see Figure 5). 

== How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships? ==
[[File:Cycle of Abuse.png|thumb|512x512px|Figure 6. A diagram of the cycle of abuse. Trauma can further continue this cycle.]]
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is '''trauma bonding'''. 

Trauma bonding, which is where “a person forms a deep emotional attachment with someone that causes them harm”, allows for abusive relationships to occur through establishing a psychological and emotional attachment between the victim and the perpetrator.{{f}}

This is extremely difficult to stop due to several dynamics:

==== Intermittent reinforcement ====
Intermittent reinforcement consists of continuous cruel treatment with occasional moments of random affection. Research{{f}} outlines how this unpredictably keeps victims craving and clinging onto occasional moments of affection, which is very similar to someone gambling in hope that they'll win. An example of this can include when the perpetrator gives gifts to their partner after abusing them, or the perpetrator giving a kind response to their partner when they usually respond in a different manner. Despite the current emotional damage occurring, this type of reinforcement continues to trap victims in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

==== Distorted sense of self-worth ====
Over a course of time, victims may start to believe they “somehow deserve the abuse” they are receiving, and through the abuser “destroy[ing] any sense of self-esteem they once had”, it leads them to “believe that they don’t deserve any better”.{{f}}
{{f}}
==== Trauma-related attachment ====
As a result of the relationship being “centred around a shared [[w:Traumatic_event|traumatic experience]]”, it may leave the victim feeling a sense of empathy or responsibility towards their abuser, which allows for the [[w:Cycle_of_abuse|cycle of abuse]] to continue (see Figure 6).{{f}}

=== [[w:Fear|Fear]] and [[w:Learned_helplessness|learned helplessness]] ===
A critical device used to perpetuate abusive relationships is fear and learned helplessness.{{f}}

==== '''Fear''' ====
Fear is referred to as “a basic, intense [[w:Emotion|emotion]] aroused by the detection of imminent threat”.{{f}}

The main following dynamics that display how fear is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''[[w:Intimidation|Intimidation]] and [[w:Control|Control]]''''' ======
Perpetuators tend to plant fear in relationships to maintain control, which leads to victims fearing that their abuser will physically harm, emotionally manipulate or retaliate against them if they leave the relationship{{f}}

====== '''[[w:Social_isolation|''Isolation'']]''' ======
Due to abusers isolating their partner from their family and friends, it results in the victim to rely significantly on the abuser and have fear of being alone if they were to leave the relationship.{{f}}

==== Learned helplessness ====
In addition to this, learned helplessness is characterised as “behaviour exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control”.{{f}}

The key dynamics that present how learned helplessness is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''Repeated [[w:Trauma|trauma]]''''' ======
This involves victims dealing with continuous [[w:Abuse|abuse]] and feeling powerless to change their circumstances, which may lead to them developing a sense of learned helplessness, where they believe that no matter what they say or do, the situation won’t change for the better.{{f}}

====== '''''Self-esteem erosion''''' ======
This involves constant belittling and manipulation by the abuser which can affect a victim’s self-worth, resulting in them feeling unworthy of a healthier relationship or them believing that they deserve the abuse.{{f}}

====== '''''Inability to take control of situation''''' ======
This includes victims feeling paralysed and lacking the ability to make decisions; they may wait for an external change to occur that may never come, which keeps them trapped in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

=== [[w:Gaslighting|Gaslighting]] and [[w:Manipulation|manipulation]] ===
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is gaslighting and manipulation.{{f}}

==== Gaslighting ====
Gaslighting is also referred to as an abuse tactic that is employed to plant doubt in the victim’s thoughts and emotions, which often escalates in trusted relationships. It can also undermine accomplishments, create codependency, and damage [[w:Mental_health|mental health]], which may lead to the victim having a distorted and confused reality. Overall, this may result in victims struggling to seek help due to feelings of guilt and manipulation, which complicates their recovery.{{f}}

Research{{f}} shows the '''following warning signs of what gaslighters do to their victims''' include:

* “Tell white lies”
* “Deny something even when you have proof”
* “Make you doubt your own judgement” 
* “Make you mistrust others or lose interest in people and things that take your attention away from them”
* “Wear you down and make you feel exhausted or hopeless”

==== Manipulation ====
Manipulation is defined as “an action designed to influence or [[w:Control|control]] another, usually in an underhanded or unfair manner which facilitates one's personal aims&quot; (see Figure 7).{{f}} 

[[File:Manipulation-.png|thumb|Figure 7. A hand controlling which alludes to someone being controlled, which is a manipulation tactic.]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Types of Manipulation{{f}}
!Having Control over Location
|Manipulators may physically take victims to places they are unfamiliar with, or emotionally try to bring victims out of their comfort zone. The abuser does this in order to feel a sense of control.
|-
!Manipulating Facts
|Manipulators will be dishonest with victims, make excuses, and blame them. Occasionally, these types of abusers will share some truth to their facts to strategically manipulate you.
|-
!Being [[w:Passive-Aggressive_behavior|Passive-Aggressive]]
|Manipulators will voice subtle, indirect negative feelings towards victims to undermine them. 
|-
!Guilt and Sympathy
|Manipulators tend to make their victims feel guilty or have sympathy towards them in order to receive what they want.
|-
!Use of Silent Treatment
|Abusers use this withdrawal tactic to punish their victims
|-
!Use of Comparison
|Abusers may compare their victims to someone else to further evoke an upsetting or uncomfortable reaction from victims, or make them feel insecure about something.
|-
![[w:Love_bombing|Love-bombing]]
|Manipulators use this common abuse tactic to give enormous amounts of praise and affection to speed up their relationship between them and their victim. This causes the victim to be heavily attached to their abuser, which allows for the abuser to easily discard them later on.
|}
{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What is sadism?}

- Someone who experiences pain when others experience pain
+ Someone who derives pleasure out of others suffering
- Someone who tries to help others when they are sad
- someone who notices when others are sad 

{Who is most likely to engage in manipulation?}

- Coaches
+ Males
- Females

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships? ==
According to an [https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Australian psychology article], some ways to break free from emotional dependency to form healthy relationships include:

# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Identifying your Attachment Style]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Improving your Self-Esteem]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Spending Time with Friends and Family]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Having Calm and Honest Communication with your Partner]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Setting and Upholding Healthy Boundaries]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Working with a Therapist through these Issues]'''

== Conclusion ==
This chapter establishes the significant connection between emotional dependency and abusive relationships, which is key for creating healthier relationships with others. Through being aware of what psychological mechanisms {{ic|what are they?}} drive emotional dependency and how these mechanisms can incite abusive relationships, it allows for individuals to start working towards strategies to remove themselves from emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships. It is through these devices that individuals are capable in understanding the crucial link between emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships in order from them to foster healthier romantic relationships.

== External Links ==
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/manipulation 

https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/

https://barbaraoakley.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/000Chapter-1-Pathological-Altruism-Oakley-Knafo-McGrath.pdf

https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/trauma-bonding#takeaway

https://www.helpguide.org/relationships/social-connection/attachment-and-adult-relationships

https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419874843

https://www.healthline.com/health/low-self-esteem#defining-low-self-esteem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

[http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/docs_menu/parents_carers_and_families/domestic_and_family_violence/dv_line.html/ Domestic Violence NSW]

== See also ==

* [[w:Psychological_abuse|Psychological abuse]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|Emotional abuse]] (Book Chapter 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Aggression in intimate relationships|Aggression in intimate relationships]] (Book Chapter 2014)

== References ==
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Abuse]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]]
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      </contributor>
      <comment>Worked on Fear of abandonment and rejection paragraph</comment>
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      <text bytes="29495" sha1="1trf3v5g4znkvcdv939zobwd4yslu7e" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Abusive relationships and emotional dependency:&lt;br&gt;What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?}}
{{MECR3|https://youtu.be/C6RDIcVIdR0}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Edwina has been in a romantic relationship with Zack for 2 months now, where in the beginning he appeared to be a good person, however over time she has come to realise he is the complete opposite; Zack has slowly isolated Edwina from her friends and family, heavily controls her social media, forbids her to go places without his permission, even if it's the grocery store, and criticises and insults her if she goes against his wishes. Edwina is extremely unhappy in this relationship, however due to being emotionally dependent on Zack, she feels trapped and unable to leave the relationship. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:NounProject Abuse.png|thumb|Figure 1. Depicting two figures; one of them is being abused by the other.]]
This chapter aims to the significant link between abusive relationships and emotional dependency; The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022) defines partner emotional abuse as “when a person is subjected to certain behaviours or actions that are aimed at preventing or controlling their behaviour, causing them emotional harm or fear”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/domestic-violence-experiences-partner-emotional-abuse#cite-window1.|title=Domestic Violence: Experiences of Partner Emotional Abuse {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=2022-08-24|website=www.abs.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; (see Figure 1). The document further highlights that these actions are &quot;characterised in nature by their intent to manipulate, control, isolate or intimidate the person they are aimed at&quot;. Emotional dependency can be referred to as “a chronic pattern of unmet affective demands, which individuals desperately seek to meet through close interpersonal relationships”. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dependencia%20emocional.%20Caracter%C3%ADsticas%20y%20tratamiento&amp;author=J%20Castell%C3%B3&amp;publication_year=2005&amp;|title=Google Scholar|website=scholar.google.com|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; To further understand the connection between abusive relationships and emotional dependency, this chapter focuses on what specific psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency, and how these mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships. (see Figure 2)

{{robelbox|theme=9|title=Focus questions:|icon=Nuvola_apps_kwrite.png|iconwidth=48px}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
* What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency?
* How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships?
* How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}[[File:Sunrise lovers.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Two people in a romantic relationship. Emotional dependency and abuse can be present in these types of relationships.]]

== What are some psychological mechanisms that drive emotional dependency? ==
Psychological mechanisms that significantly drive emotional dependency include attachment theory, low self-esteem, and codependency. Attachment theory is a key psychological mechanism that focuses on different attachment styles that may affect individuals in relationships. Additionally, individuals with low self-esteem tend to seek acceptance from others in order to validate themselves - codependency can complicate this; due to codependent individuals prioritising their partner's needs over their own, it results in individuals being heavily reliant on their relationship for their sense of identity. Overall, these mechanisms significantly promote emotional dependency, can further result in a toxic cycle for individuals.

=== [[w:Attachment_Theory|Attachment Theory]] ===
A fundamental psychological mechanism that is linked to emotional dependency is the attachment theory. An accredited psychoanalyst [[w:John_Bowlby|John Bowlby]] established this theory in order to investigate the intimate relationships and bonds between individuals, as well as relationships between parents and children and their link to relationships later in life&lt;ref&gt;Bowlby, J. (1969). ''Attachment and loss'' (No. 79). Random House. &lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby's second novel also explained how individuals are born with an attachment behavioural system which incites them to seek intimacy and closeness to attachment figures &lt;ref&gt;Bowlby J. Attachment and loss, Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.) New York: Basic Books; 1982. https://mindsplain.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ATTACHMENT_AND_LOSS_VOLUME_I_ATTACHMENT.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby’s theory critically explores the emotional bonds and relationships between individuals through 4 main attachment styles:

==== Secure Attachment ====
This attachment style involves individuals being capable of setting healthy boundaries, able to feel safe and stable in their relationships with others, has a good sense of self-worth, able to adequately deal with disappointments and obstacles, and can express their thoughts and feelings adequately.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Stephanie, a 28 year old art teacher, and Toby, a 29 year old business owner, have been together since graduating from university. Both individuals came from families who encouraged emotional communication, which has allowed for them to have a healthy and meaningful relationship. In their relationship, they calmly and effectively communicate their feelings openly, value and respect each other’s independence, and have confidence and trust in one another as they know time apart will not weaken their bond.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Anxious Attachment ====
Anxious attachment is when “individuals worry about being underappreciated or abandoned by their romantic partners”, “are heavily fixated on their partner and their relationship”, and crave being “closer to their partners emotionally to feel more secure”. Anxious individuals also tend to have low self-esteem, but think highly of their intimate partners. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).

Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S. further researched through an “Attachment Diathesis-Stress Process Model” how people who have an anxious attachment think and behave when they encounter stress and/or arguments with their romantic partners. The key findings when researching this that the study found when anxious individuals are extremely distraught when removed or have to consider being removed from their partner, that these individuals display high levels of stress and dysfunctional behaviours when encountering relationship problems, and how certain events when transitioning to parenthood may incite or increase the main concerns of individuals with this attachment style.

The study explores in depth of insecure attachment styles, limitations of the study that can be identified are that the study heavily focuses on specific stress situations which may not fully present the extent of stress responses that can be seen in these relationships. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Holly, a 21 year old university student, and Ryan, a 22 year old electrician have been in a relationship for 7 months. Holly has an anxious attachment style which plays a role in their relationship. An example of this in their relationship could include a situation where Ryan has explained to Holly that he is going to take her to a nice dinner out, however he has to be asleep by 10pm to wake up early for work. They have a nice night together, however as time grows closer to 10pm and Ryan reminds Holly he has to sleep soon, it makes Holly question if he even wants to hang out with her and even wants to be with her, even though he has a valid reason to go to bed early. This leads to Holly panicking and having an emotional outburst stating “you act like you don’t even want to hang out with me anymore!” and “all you do is prioritise work over me!”{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Avoidant-Dismissive Attachment ====
This attachment style mainly consists of individuals facing challenges with emotional intimacy (Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S., 2017), and being heavily independent and not fond of the idea of being too romantically invested in someone (Pettigrew TF, 2016).

This can be demonstrated through a relevant study by Mikulincer M and Shaver PR (2007), where the main focus is on investigating the attachment theory, including avoidant attachment where it found individuals who scored high with this attachment style tend to exhibit strategies to deactivate the relationship, such as not allowing their partner to be close to them, distancing themselves from their partner and not communicating what they want in a relationship. 

The topic of debate to how avoidant attachment styles change is explored in a longitudinal study; the study explored the different levels of attachment change over time and how avoidant attachment levels tend to “start low” in childhood” however “gradually increase over time”, in contrast to anxious attachment styles where they “start and remain low across time”. (Theisen, J.C., et., 2018){{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Dan, a 20 year old rugby league player, and Rita, a 21 year old university student, have been seeing each other for 4 months now. Dan is well-known for having usual romantic flings and can never commit to anyone fully, due to the idea of relying on or being relied on is suffocating to him. So when Rita hints to him of when he is going to officially ask her out, he dismisses it and replies with “can we not talk about this please? Like why do you want to rush things, like can’t you just see how things go?” Additionally, Dan enjoys spending time with Rita however likes to keep to his routine, such as playing rugby and going out drinking with friends every weekend, separate from their relationship - one day, Rita asked Dan if she can come watch his rugby game then afterwards they go out to dinner together to celebrate. Dan replies with “no that’s a bit weird for you to come to my games, you’re not even my girlfriend. Besides, I go out every weekend with my friends after the games so it’s not going to work”. This is degrading to Rita who feels like Danl is emotionally distant and is unwilling to completely invest in being in a relationship with her.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Disorganised-Disorientated Attachment ====
Disorganised attachment stems from childhood where the “child's attachment figure or parent is observably frightened or frightening when a child needs comforting or reassurance”. (M.J Lawler and E.B Talbot, 2012). These characteristics later appear in adult relationships where individuals have a “severe disturbance in threat responding, social cognition and identity development” which can further lead to the “ risk for personality disorders”. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017).

A 2017 latent class analysis focused on researching the disorganised attachment style in adults in order to provide a clear understanding of “severity and stylistic differences in disorganised attachment than has been previously articulated”. The study found through the following attachment styles: secure, insecure, disorganised-oscillating, and disorganised-impoverished that the disorganised-oscillating class was “characterised by elevations on contradictory and preoccupied styles”, while the disorganised-impoverished class portrayed signs of “impoverished and dismissive styles”. This further enables readers to view the different attachment disorganisation patterns in adults, which differentiate based on severity and interpersonal styles. Overall, the study highly recommends early intervention for caregivers in order to prevent this attachment style developing. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Angelina, a 23 year old public servant, and Ed, a 24 year old physiotherapist have been in a relationship for 9 months now. Angelina has developed this attachment style, which has caused a strain on her and Ed’s relationship: For example, Angelina often moves from wanting to be very close to Ed to pushing him away when he gets too close. This can be seen one night, at dinner where Angelina tells Ed how much she loves and appreciates him. The next conversation shifts to Ed saying how he has to go on a work AFL trip to help strap players for a month, to which triggers Angelina’s mood to change. She suddenly believes and voices to Ed that he wants to go on this work trip to purposefully avoid her, and that he doesn’t want to be around her anymore.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What attachment style is most likely to be upset when removed from a partner?}

- Avoidant 
+ Anxious
- Disorganised
- Applies to any of the above

{What is the Attachment Theory about?}

- Focuses on different attachment styles 
- Focuses on romantic relationships and how they link to their childhood 
- Links to the concept of emotional dependency
+ Applies to any of the above 

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. A person looking into the mirror not liking their image and questioning their self-esteem.]]

=== Low self-esteem ===
A primary psychological device that influences emotional dependency is '''low [[w:Self-esteem|self-esteem.]]'''Self-esteem can be defined as “a person's positive or negative attitude toward oneself as well as a person's favourable or unfavourable view of himself or herself”. It can also be characterised as an individual considering themselves as “worthy or unworthy”. (Mittal, E and Rani, T., 2022). (see Figure 3). Some low self-esteem components that incite emotional dependency include: 

===== '''Seeking external validation:''' =====
A 2018 observational study aimed to prove that low self-esteem was linked to the use and consequences of indirect support seeking during interactions in romantic relationships. The study proved that people with low self-esteem tend to “utilise indirect support” which may backfire “negative partner support” instead, and further “undermine the feelings of acceptance that low self-esteem individuals crave”, overall demonstrating how low self-esteem individuals can be emotionally dependent through heavily desiring external validation. ().

[[File:Lonely boy.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Person sitting alone, which is a key component of what people with low self-esteem fear.]]

===== '''Fear of [[w:Abandonment_(emotional)|abandonment]] and [[w:_Social_rejection|rejection]]:''' =====
According to a 2022 paper, low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are typically seen in individuals who have abandonment and rejection issues. The paper outlines how these individuals often internalise abandonment and rejection, believing it was their fault that they are inadequate of being loved and cared about. This negative perception of themselves can lead to a permanent sense of inadequacy and self-doubt, which can impact various areas of their lives, such as their perspective of their careers, platonic relationships, and romantic relationships (Cruz et al., 2022). (See Figure 4).

===== '''Difficulty setting boundaries and prioritising personal needs:''' =====
Study found how there is little research on individuals setting boundaries in romantic situations, so researchers investigated the &quot;correlations between mental boundaries, self-esteem, and social support&quot;. The study found that there were &quot;significant negative correlations between mental boundaries, self-esteem, and social support&quot; and that &quot;mental boundaries and social support independently predicted self-esteem&quot; in relationships, further demonstrating what factors contribute to individual's self esteem. The study additionally discussed that &quot;individuals with thinner boundaries have lower self-esteem&quot; and &quot;individuals with more substantial levels of social support typically have higher self-esteem&quot;. The study concluded that its research is a good start to researching boundary setting in relationships, however identifies the limitations of the study; the survey could have surveyed a more diverse population of individuals, and lack of prior research on this topic. The study concludes that allows audience to understand the difference between &quot;thick and thin boundaries&quot;, in order to establish higher levels of self-esteem. (Mathe, J.R. and Kelly, W.E., 2023).

=== [[w:Codependency|Codependency]] ===
A major psychological mechanism that causes emotional dependency is codependency{{f}}.

Codependency is defined as “codependency is a theory that attempts to explain imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive behaviour”. It can also be referred to from a relationship context as consisting of “unhealthy ‘clinginess’ and needy behaviour, “where one person does not have self-sufficiency or autonomy”, and that they must rely on their partner to feel complete.

==== Codependency and its link to [[w:Domestic_violence|domestic violence]] ====
A psychological review highlighted how psychological factors, such as codependency, “contribute to domestic-partner abuse risk”, explaining how “high levels of emotional dependency in an abused partner may reduce the likelihood that the victimised person will terminate the relationship”.{{f}}

'''Codependency IS NOT limited to occurring to just women:'''

{{g}}Article{{f}} outlines how the concept of codependency used to be interpreted as a woman being codependent on a man, however in modern society, we have come to realise that men can also be codependent. 

==== Codependency is often unrecognisable ====
Codependent individuals tend to seek help for stress and depression related symptoms, and may only receive symptomatic help such as anxiety medication, which can overall mask the true underlying reason for their emotions and behaviour.

[[File:BPD 1.png|thumb|Figure 5. A person with Borderline Personality Disorder chasing after another person, which clearly shows codependency.]]

'''Codependency and [[w:Borderline_Personality_Disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]] (BPD)'''

Research has shown links between codependency and BPD through identifying key traits such as emotional dependency, mood instability, and impulsiveness which are fundamental aspects of BPD. Individuals with BPD can display intense emotional dependency on their romantic partners, which further represents how they may demonstrate codependent behaviour and how they may rely on external relationships to provide [[w:Emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]], reassurance and [[w:Identity_(social_science)|identity]] (see Figure 5). 

== How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships? ==
[[File:Cycle of Abuse.png|thumb|512x512px|Figure 6. A diagram of the cycle of abuse. Trauma can further continue this cycle.]]
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is '''trauma bonding'''. 

Trauma bonding, which is where “a person forms a deep emotional attachment with someone that causes them harm”, allows for abusive relationships to occur through establishing a psychological and emotional attachment between the victim and the perpetrator.{{f}}

This is extremely difficult to stop due to several dynamics:

==== Intermittent reinforcement ====
Intermittent reinforcement consists of continuous cruel treatment with occasional moments of random affection. Research{{f}} outlines how this unpredictably keeps victims craving and clinging onto occasional moments of affection, which is very similar to someone gambling in hope that they'll win. An example of this can include when the perpetrator gives gifts to their partner after abusing them, or the perpetrator giving a kind response to their partner when they usually respond in a different manner. Despite the current emotional damage occurring, this type of reinforcement continues to trap victims in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

==== Distorted sense of self-worth ====
Over a course of time, victims may start to believe they “somehow deserve the abuse” they are receiving, and through the abuser “destroy[ing] any sense of self-esteem they once had”, it leads them to “believe that they don’t deserve any better”.{{f}}
{{f}}
==== Trauma-related attachment ====
As a result of the relationship being “centred around a shared [[w:Traumatic_event|traumatic experience]]”, it may leave the victim feeling a sense of empathy or responsibility towards their abuser, which allows for the [[w:Cycle_of_abuse|cycle of abuse]] to continue (see Figure 6).{{f}}

=== [[w:Fear|Fear]] and [[w:Learned_helplessness|learned helplessness]] ===
A critical device used to perpetuate abusive relationships is fear and learned helplessness.{{f}}

==== '''Fear''' ====
Fear is referred to as “a basic, intense [[w:Emotion|emotion]] aroused by the detection of imminent threat”.{{f}}

The main following dynamics that display how fear is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''[[w:Intimidation|Intimidation]] and [[w:Control|Control]]''''' ======
Perpetuators tend to plant fear in relationships to maintain control, which leads to victims fearing that their abuser will physically harm, emotionally manipulate or retaliate against them if they leave the relationship{{f}}

====== '''[[w:Social_isolation|''Isolation'']]''' ======
Due to abusers isolating their partner from their family and friends, it results in the victim to rely significantly on the abuser and have fear of being alone if they were to leave the relationship.{{f}}

==== Learned helplessness ====
In addition to this, learned helplessness is characterised as “behaviour exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control”.{{f}}

The key dynamics that present how learned helplessness is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''Repeated [[w:Trauma|trauma]]''''' ======
This involves victims dealing with continuous [[w:Abuse|abuse]] and feeling powerless to change their circumstances, which may lead to them developing a sense of learned helplessness, where they believe that no matter what they say or do, the situation won’t change for the better.{{f}}

====== '''''Self-esteem erosion''''' ======
This involves constant belittling and manipulation by the abuser which can affect a victim’s self-worth, resulting in them feeling unworthy of a healthier relationship or them believing that they deserve the abuse.{{f}}

====== '''''Inability to take control of situation''''' ======
This includes victims feeling paralysed and lacking the ability to make decisions; they may wait for an external change to occur that may never come, which keeps them trapped in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

=== [[w:Gaslighting|Gaslighting]] and [[w:Manipulation|manipulation]] ===
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is gaslighting and manipulation.{{f}}

==== Gaslighting ====
Gaslighting is also referred to as an abuse tactic that is employed to plant doubt in the victim’s thoughts and emotions, which often escalates in trusted relationships. It can also undermine accomplishments, create codependency, and damage [[w:Mental_health|mental health]], which may lead to the victim having a distorted and confused reality. Overall, this may result in victims struggling to seek help due to feelings of guilt and manipulation, which complicates their recovery.{{f}}

Research{{f}} shows the '''following warning signs of what gaslighters do to their victims''' include:

* “Tell white lies”
* “Deny something even when you have proof”
* “Make you doubt your own judgement” 
* “Make you mistrust others or lose interest in people and things that take your attention away from them”
* “Wear you down and make you feel exhausted or hopeless”

==== Manipulation ====
Manipulation is defined as “an action designed to influence or [[w:Control|control]] another, usually in an underhanded or unfair manner which facilitates one's personal aims&quot; (see Figure 7).{{f}} 

[[File:Manipulation-.png|thumb|Figure 7. A hand controlling which alludes to someone being controlled, which is a manipulation tactic.]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Types of Manipulation{{f}}
!Having Control over Location
|Manipulators may physically take victims to places they are unfamiliar with, or emotionally try to bring victims out of their comfort zone. The abuser does this in order to feel a sense of control.
|-
!Manipulating Facts
|Manipulators will be dishonest with victims, make excuses, and blame them. Occasionally, these types of abusers will share some truth to their facts to strategically manipulate you.
|-
!Being [[w:Passive-Aggressive_behavior|Passive-Aggressive]]
|Manipulators will voice subtle, indirect negative feelings towards victims to undermine them. 
|-
!Guilt and Sympathy
|Manipulators tend to make their victims feel guilty or have sympathy towards them in order to receive what they want.
|-
!Use of Silent Treatment
|Abusers use this withdrawal tactic to punish their victims
|-
!Use of Comparison
|Abusers may compare their victims to someone else to further evoke an upsetting or uncomfortable reaction from victims, or make them feel insecure about something.
|-
![[w:Love_bombing|Love-bombing]]
|Manipulators use this common abuse tactic to give enormous amounts of praise and affection to speed up their relationship between them and their victim. This causes the victim to be heavily attached to their abuser, which allows for the abuser to easily discard them later on.
|}
{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What is sadism?}

- Someone who experiences pain when others experience pain
+ Someone who derives pleasure out of others suffering
- Someone who tries to help others when they are sad
- someone who notices when others are sad 

{Who is most likely to engage in manipulation?}

- Coaches
+ Males
- Females

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships? ==
According to an [https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Australian psychology article], some ways to break free from emotional dependency to form healthy relationships include:

# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Identifying your Attachment Style]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Improving your Self-Esteem]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Spending Time with Friends and Family]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Having Calm and Honest Communication with your Partner]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Setting and Upholding Healthy Boundaries]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Working with a Therapist through these Issues]'''

== Conclusion ==
This chapter establishes the significant connection between emotional dependency and abusive relationships, which is key for creating healthier relationships with others. Through being aware of what psychological mechanisms {{ic|what are they?}} drive emotional dependency and how these mechanisms can incite abusive relationships, it allows for individuals to start working towards strategies to remove themselves from emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships. It is through these devices that individuals are capable in understanding the crucial link between emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships in order from them to foster healthier romantic relationships.

== External Links ==
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/manipulation 

https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/

https://barbaraoakley.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/000Chapter-1-Pathological-Altruism-Oakley-Knafo-McGrath.pdf

https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/trauma-bonding#takeaway

https://www.helpguide.org/relationships/social-connection/attachment-and-adult-relationships

https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419874843

https://www.healthline.com/health/low-self-esteem#defining-low-self-esteem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

[http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/docs_menu/parents_carers_and_families/domestic_and_family_violence/dv_line.html/ Domestic Violence NSW]

== See also ==

* [[w:Psychological_abuse|Psychological abuse]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|Emotional abuse]] (Book Chapter 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Aggression in intimate relationships|Aggression in intimate relationships]] (Book Chapter 2014)

== References ==
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      <text bytes="29529" sha1="4vifzlwyt1qcot3woip42a5c6prkipr" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Abusive relationships and emotional dependency:&lt;br&gt;What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?}}
{{MECR3|https://youtu.be/C6RDIcVIdR0}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Edwina has been in a romantic relationship with Zack for 2 months now, where in the beginning he appeared to be a good person, however over time she has come to realise he is the complete opposite; Zack has slowly isolated Edwina from her friends and family, heavily controls her social media, forbids her to go places without his permission, even if it's the grocery store, and criticises and insults her if she goes against his wishes. Edwina is extremely unhappy in this relationship, however due to being emotionally dependent on Zack, she feels trapped and unable to leave the relationship. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:NounProject Abuse.png|thumb|Figure 1. Depicting two figures; one of them is being abused by the other.]]
This chapter aims to the significant link between abusive relationships and emotional dependency; The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022) defines partner emotional abuse as “when a person is subjected to certain behaviours or actions that are aimed at preventing or controlling their behaviour, causing them emotional harm or fear”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/domestic-violence-experiences-partner-emotional-abuse#cite-window1.|title=Domestic Violence: Experiences of Partner Emotional Abuse {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=2022-08-24|website=www.abs.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; (see Figure 1). The document further highlights that these actions are &quot;characterised in nature by their intent to manipulate, control, isolate or intimidate the person they are aimed at&quot;. Emotional dependency can be referred to as “a chronic pattern of unmet affective demands, which individuals desperately seek to meet through close interpersonal relationships”. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dependencia%20emocional.%20Caracter%C3%ADsticas%20y%20tratamiento&amp;author=J%20Castell%C3%B3&amp;publication_year=2005&amp;|title=Google Scholar|website=scholar.google.com|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; To further understand the connection between abusive relationships and emotional dependency, this chapter focuses on what specific psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency, and how these mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships. (see Figure 2)

{{robelbox|theme=9|title=Focus questions:|icon=Nuvola_apps_kwrite.png|iconwidth=48px}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
* What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency?
* How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships?
* How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}[[File:Sunrise lovers.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Two people in a romantic relationship. Emotional dependency and abuse can be present in these types of relationships.]]

== What are some psychological mechanisms that drive emotional dependency? ==
Psychological mechanisms that significantly drive emotional dependency include attachment theory, low self-esteem, and codependency. Attachment theory is a key psychological mechanism that focuses on different attachment styles that may affect individuals in relationships. Additionally, individuals with low self-esteem tend to seek acceptance from others in order to validate themselves - codependency can complicate this; due to codependent individuals prioritising their partner's needs over their own, it results in individuals being heavily reliant on their relationship for their sense of identity. Overall, these mechanisms significantly promote emotional dependency, can further result in a toxic cycle for individuals.

=== [[w:Attachment_Theory|Attachment Theory]] ===
A fundamental psychological mechanism that is linked to emotional dependency is the attachment theory. An accredited psychoanalyst [[w:John_Bowlby|John Bowlby]] established this theory in order to investigate the intimate relationships and bonds between individuals, as well as relationships between parents and children and their link to relationships later in life&lt;ref&gt;Bowlby, J. (1969). ''Attachment and loss'' (No. 79). Random House. &lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby's second novel also explained how individuals are born with an attachment behavioural system which incites them to seek intimacy and closeness to attachment figures &lt;ref&gt;Bowlby J. Attachment and loss, Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.) New York: Basic Books; 1982. https://mindsplain.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ATTACHMENT_AND_LOSS_VOLUME_I_ATTACHMENT.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby’s theory critically explores the emotional bonds and relationships between individuals through 4 main attachment styles:

==== Secure Attachment ====
This attachment style involves individuals being capable of setting healthy boundaries, able to feel safe and stable in their relationships with others, has a good sense of self-worth, able to adequately deal with disappointments and obstacles, and can express their thoughts and feelings adequately.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Stephanie, a 28 year old art teacher, and Toby, a 29 year old business owner, have been together since graduating from university. Both individuals came from families who encouraged emotional communication, which has allowed for them to have a healthy and meaningful relationship. In their relationship, they calmly and effectively communicate their feelings openly, value and respect each other’s independence, and have confidence and trust in one another as they know time apart will not weaken their bond.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Anxious Attachment ====
Anxious attachment is when “individuals worry about being underappreciated or abandoned by their romantic partners”, “are heavily fixated on their partner and their relationship”, and crave being “closer to their partners emotionally to feel more secure”. Anxious individuals also tend to have low self-esteem, but think highly of their intimate partners. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).

Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S. further researched through an “Attachment Diathesis-Stress Process Model” how people who have an anxious attachment think and behave when they encounter stress and/or arguments with their romantic partners. The key findings when researching this that the study found when anxious individuals are extremely distraught when removed or have to consider being removed from their partner, that these individuals display high levels of stress and dysfunctional behaviours when encountering relationship problems, and how certain events when transitioning to parenthood may incite or increase the main concerns of individuals with this attachment style.

The study explores in depth of insecure attachment styles, limitations of the study that can be identified are that the study heavily focuses on specific stress situations which may not fully present the extent of stress responses that can be seen in these relationships. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Holly, a 21 year old university student, and Ryan, a 22 year old electrician have been in a relationship for 7 months. Holly has an anxious attachment style which plays a role in their relationship. An example of this in their relationship could include a situation where Ryan has explained to Holly that he is going to take her to a nice dinner out, however he has to be asleep by 10pm to wake up early for work. They have a nice night together, however as time grows closer to 10pm and Ryan reminds Holly he has to sleep soon, it makes Holly question if he even wants to hang out with her and even wants to be with her, even though he has a valid reason to go to bed early. This leads to Holly panicking and having an emotional outburst stating “you act like you don’t even want to hang out with me anymore!” and “all you do is prioritise work over me!”{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Avoidant-Dismissive Attachment ====
This attachment style mainly consists of individuals facing challenges with emotional intimacy (Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S., 2017), and being heavily independent and not fond of the idea of being too romantically invested in someone (Pettigrew TF, 2016).

This can be demonstrated through a relevant study by Mikulincer M and Shaver PR (2007), where the main focus is on investigating the attachment theory, including avoidant attachment where it found individuals who scored high with this attachment style tend to exhibit strategies to deactivate the relationship, such as not allowing their partner to be close to them, distancing themselves from their partner and not communicating what they want in a relationship. 

The topic of debate to how avoidant attachment styles change is explored in a longitudinal study; the study explored the different levels of attachment change over time and how avoidant attachment levels tend to “start low” in childhood” however “gradually increase over time”, in contrast to anxious attachment styles where they “start and remain low across time”. (Theisen, J.C., et., 2018){{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Dan, a 20 year old rugby league player, and Rita, a 21 year old university student, have been seeing each other for 4 months now. Dan is well-known for having usual romantic flings and can never commit to anyone fully, due to the idea of relying on or being relied on is suffocating to him. So when Rita hints to him of when he is going to officially ask her out, he dismisses it and replies with “can we not talk about this please? Like why do you want to rush things, like can’t you just see how things go?” Additionally, Dan enjoys spending time with Rita however likes to keep to his routine, such as playing rugby and going out drinking with friends every weekend, separate from their relationship - one day, Rita asked Dan if she can come watch his rugby game then afterwards they go out to dinner together to celebrate. Dan replies with “no that’s a bit weird for you to come to my games, you’re not even my girlfriend. Besides, I go out every weekend with my friends after the games so it’s not going to work”. This is degrading to Rita who feels like Danl is emotionally distant and is unwilling to completely invest in being in a relationship with her.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Disorganised-Disorientated Attachment ====
Disorganised attachment stems from childhood where the “child's attachment figure or parent is observably frightened or frightening when a child needs comforting or reassurance”. (M.J Lawler and E.B Talbot, 2012). These characteristics later appear in adult relationships where individuals have a “severe disturbance in threat responding, social cognition and identity development” which can further lead to the “ risk for personality disorders”. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017).

A 2017 latent class analysis focused on researching the disorganised attachment style in adults in order to provide a clear understanding of “severity and stylistic differences in disorganised attachment than has been previously articulated”. The study found through the following attachment styles: secure, insecure, disorganised-oscillating, and disorganised-impoverished that the disorganised-oscillating class was “characterised by elevations on contradictory and preoccupied styles”, while the disorganised-impoverished class portrayed signs of “impoverished and dismissive styles”. This further enables readers to view the different attachment disorganisation patterns in adults, which differentiate based on severity and interpersonal styles. Overall, the study highly recommends early intervention for caregivers in order to prevent this attachment style developing. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Angelina, a 23 year old public servant, and Ed, a 24 year old physiotherapist have been in a relationship for 9 months now. Angelina has developed this attachment style, which has caused a strain on her and Ed’s relationship: For example, Angelina often moves from wanting to be very close to Ed to pushing him away when he gets too close. This can be seen one night, at dinner where Angelina tells Ed how much she loves and appreciates him. The next conversation shifts to Ed saying how he has to go on a work AFL trip to help strap players for a month, to which triggers Angelina’s mood to change. She suddenly believes and voices to Ed that he wants to go on this work trip to purposefully avoid her, and that he doesn’t want to be around her anymore.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What attachment style is most likely to be upset when removed from a partner?}

- Avoidant 
+ Anxious
- Disorganised
- Applies to any of the above

{What is the Attachment Theory about?}

- Focuses on different attachment styles 
- Focuses on romantic relationships and how they link to their childhood 
- Links to the concept of emotional dependency
+ Applies to any of the above 

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. A person looking into the mirror not liking their image and questioning their self-esteem.]]

=== Low self-esteem ===
A primary psychological device that influences emotional dependency is '''low [[w:Self-esteem|self-esteem.]]'''Self-esteem can be defined as “a person's positive or negative attitude toward oneself as well as a person's favourable or unfavourable view of himself or herself”. It can also be characterised as an individual considering themselves as “worthy or unworthy”. (Mittal, E and Rani, T., 2022). (see Figure 3). Some low self-esteem components that incite emotional dependency include: 

===== '''Seeking external validation:''' =====
A 2019 observational study aimed to prove that low self-esteem was linked to the use and consequences of indirect support seeking during interactions in romantic relationships. The study proved that people with low self-esteem tend to “utilise indirect support” which may backfire “negative partner support” instead, and further “undermine the feelings of acceptance that low self-esteem individuals crave”, overall demonstrating how low self-esteem individuals can be emotionally dependent through heavily desiring external validation. (Don BP, Girme YU, Hammond MD, 2019).

[[File:Lonely boy.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Person sitting alone, which is a key component of what people with low self-esteem fear.]]

===== '''Fear of [[w:Abandonment_(emotional)|abandonment]] and [[w:_Social_rejection|rejection]]:''' =====
According to a 2022 paper, low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are typically seen in individuals who have abandonment and rejection issues. The paper outlines how these individuals often internalise abandonment and rejection, believing it was their fault that they are inadequate of being loved and cared about. This negative perception of themselves can lead to a permanent sense of inadequacy and self-doubt, which can impact various areas of their lives, such as their perspective of their careers, platonic relationships, and romantic relationships (Cruz et al., 2022). (See Figure 4).

===== '''Difficulty setting boundaries and prioritising personal needs:''' =====
Study found how there is little research on individuals setting boundaries in romantic situations, so researchers investigated the &quot;correlations between mental boundaries, self-esteem, and social support&quot;. The study found that there were &quot;significant negative correlations between mental boundaries, self-esteem, and social support&quot; and that &quot;mental boundaries and social support independently predicted self-esteem&quot; in relationships, further demonstrating what factors contribute to individual's self esteem. The study additionally discussed that &quot;individuals with thinner boundaries have lower self-esteem&quot; and &quot;individuals with more substantial levels of social support typically have higher self-esteem&quot;. The study concluded that its research is a good start to researching boundary setting in relationships, however identifies the limitations of the study; the survey could have surveyed a more diverse population of individuals, and lack of prior research on this topic. The study concludes that allows audience to understand the difference between &quot;thick and thin boundaries&quot;, in order to establish higher levels of self-esteem. (Mathe, J.R. and Kelly, W.E., 2023).

=== [[w:Codependency|Codependency]] ===
A major psychological mechanism that causes emotional dependency is codependency{{f}}.

Codependency is defined as “codependency is a theory that attempts to explain imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive behaviour”. It can also be referred to from a relationship context as consisting of “unhealthy ‘clinginess’ and needy behaviour, “where one person does not have self-sufficiency or autonomy”, and that they must rely on their partner to feel complete.

==== Codependency and its link to [[w:Domestic_violence|domestic violence]] ====
A psychological review highlighted how psychological factors, such as codependency, “contribute to domestic-partner abuse risk”, explaining how “high levels of emotional dependency in an abused partner may reduce the likelihood that the victimised person will terminate the relationship”.{{f}}

'''Codependency IS NOT limited to occurring to just women:'''

{{g}}Article{{f}} outlines how the concept of codependency used to be interpreted as a woman being codependent on a man, however in modern society, we have come to realise that men can also be codependent. 

==== Codependency is often unrecognisable ====
Codependent individuals tend to seek help for stress and depression related symptoms, and may only receive symptomatic help such as anxiety medication, which can overall mask the true underlying reason for their emotions and behaviour.

[[File:BPD 1.png|thumb|Figure 5. A person with Borderline Personality Disorder chasing after another person, which clearly shows codependency.]]

'''Codependency and [[w:Borderline_Personality_Disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]] (BPD)'''

Research has shown links between codependency and BPD through identifying key traits such as emotional dependency, mood instability, and impulsiveness which are fundamental aspects of BPD. Individuals with BPD can display intense emotional dependency on their romantic partners, which further represents how they may demonstrate codependent behaviour and how they may rely on external relationships to provide [[w:Emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]], reassurance and [[w:Identity_(social_science)|identity]] (see Figure 5). 

== How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships? ==
[[File:Cycle of Abuse.png|thumb|512x512px|Figure 6. A diagram of the cycle of abuse. Trauma can further continue this cycle.]]
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is '''trauma bonding'''. 

Trauma bonding, which is where “a person forms a deep emotional attachment with someone that causes them harm”, allows for abusive relationships to occur through establishing a psychological and emotional attachment between the victim and the perpetrator.{{f}}

This is extremely difficult to stop due to several dynamics:

==== Intermittent reinforcement ====
Intermittent reinforcement consists of continuous cruel treatment with occasional moments of random affection. Research{{f}} outlines how this unpredictably keeps victims craving and clinging onto occasional moments of affection, which is very similar to someone gambling in hope that they'll win. An example of this can include when the perpetrator gives gifts to their partner after abusing them, or the perpetrator giving a kind response to their partner when they usually respond in a different manner. Despite the current emotional damage occurring, this type of reinforcement continues to trap victims in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

==== Distorted sense of self-worth ====
Over a course of time, victims may start to believe they “somehow deserve the abuse” they are receiving, and through the abuser “destroy[ing] any sense of self-esteem they once had”, it leads them to “believe that they don’t deserve any better”.{{f}}
{{f}}
==== Trauma-related attachment ====
As a result of the relationship being “centred around a shared [[w:Traumatic_event|traumatic experience]]”, it may leave the victim feeling a sense of empathy or responsibility towards their abuser, which allows for the [[w:Cycle_of_abuse|cycle of abuse]] to continue (see Figure 6).{{f}}

=== [[w:Fear|Fear]] and [[w:Learned_helplessness|learned helplessness]] ===
A critical device used to perpetuate abusive relationships is fear and learned helplessness.{{f}}

==== '''Fear''' ====
Fear is referred to as “a basic, intense [[w:Emotion|emotion]] aroused by the detection of imminent threat”.{{f}}

The main following dynamics that display how fear is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''[[w:Intimidation|Intimidation]] and [[w:Control|Control]]''''' ======
Perpetuators tend to plant fear in relationships to maintain control, which leads to victims fearing that their abuser will physically harm, emotionally manipulate or retaliate against them if they leave the relationship{{f}}

====== '''[[w:Social_isolation|''Isolation'']]''' ======
Due to abusers isolating their partner from their family and friends, it results in the victim to rely significantly on the abuser and have fear of being alone if they were to leave the relationship.{{f}}

==== Learned helplessness ====
In addition to this, learned helplessness is characterised as “behaviour exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control”.{{f}}

The key dynamics that present how learned helplessness is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''Repeated [[w:Trauma|trauma]]''''' ======
This involves victims dealing with continuous [[w:Abuse|abuse]] and feeling powerless to change their circumstances, which may lead to them developing a sense of learned helplessness, where they believe that no matter what they say or do, the situation won’t change for the better.{{f}}

====== '''''Self-esteem erosion''''' ======
This involves constant belittling and manipulation by the abuser which can affect a victim’s self-worth, resulting in them feeling unworthy of a healthier relationship or them believing that they deserve the abuse.{{f}}

====== '''''Inability to take control of situation''''' ======
This includes victims feeling paralysed and lacking the ability to make decisions; they may wait for an external change to occur that may never come, which keeps them trapped in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

=== [[w:Gaslighting|Gaslighting]] and [[w:Manipulation|manipulation]] ===
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is gaslighting and manipulation.{{f}}

==== Gaslighting ====
Gaslighting is also referred to as an abuse tactic that is employed to plant doubt in the victim’s thoughts and emotions, which often escalates in trusted relationships. It can also undermine accomplishments, create codependency, and damage [[w:Mental_health|mental health]], which may lead to the victim having a distorted and confused reality. Overall, this may result in victims struggling to seek help due to feelings of guilt and manipulation, which complicates their recovery.{{f}}

Research{{f}} shows the '''following warning signs of what gaslighters do to their victims''' include:

* “Tell white lies”
* “Deny something even when you have proof”
* “Make you doubt your own judgement” 
* “Make you mistrust others or lose interest in people and things that take your attention away from them”
* “Wear you down and make you feel exhausted or hopeless”

==== Manipulation ====
Manipulation is defined as “an action designed to influence or [[w:Control|control]] another, usually in an underhanded or unfair manner which facilitates one's personal aims&quot; (see Figure 7).{{f}} 

[[File:Manipulation-.png|thumb|Figure 7. A hand controlling which alludes to someone being controlled, which is a manipulation tactic.]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Types of Manipulation{{f}}
!Having Control over Location
|Manipulators may physically take victims to places they are unfamiliar with, or emotionally try to bring victims out of their comfort zone. The abuser does this in order to feel a sense of control.
|-
!Manipulating Facts
|Manipulators will be dishonest with victims, make excuses, and blame them. Occasionally, these types of abusers will share some truth to their facts to strategically manipulate you.
|-
!Being [[w:Passive-Aggressive_behavior|Passive-Aggressive]]
|Manipulators will voice subtle, indirect negative feelings towards victims to undermine them. 
|-
!Guilt and Sympathy
|Manipulators tend to make their victims feel guilty or have sympathy towards them in order to receive what they want.
|-
!Use of Silent Treatment
|Abusers use this withdrawal tactic to punish their victims
|-
!Use of Comparison
|Abusers may compare their victims to someone else to further evoke an upsetting or uncomfortable reaction from victims, or make them feel insecure about something.
|-
![[w:Love_bombing|Love-bombing]]
|Manipulators use this common abuse tactic to give enormous amounts of praise and affection to speed up their relationship between them and their victim. This causes the victim to be heavily attached to their abuser, which allows for the abuser to easily discard them later on.
|}
{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What is sadism?}

- Someone who experiences pain when others experience pain
+ Someone who derives pleasure out of others suffering
- Someone who tries to help others when they are sad
- someone who notices when others are sad 

{Who is most likely to engage in manipulation?}

- Coaches
+ Males
- Females

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships? ==
According to an [https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Australian psychology article], some ways to break free from emotional dependency to form healthy relationships include:

# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Identifying your Attachment Style]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Improving your Self-Esteem]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Spending Time with Friends and Family]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Having Calm and Honest Communication with your Partner]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Setting and Upholding Healthy Boundaries]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Working with a Therapist through these Issues]'''

== Conclusion ==
This chapter establishes the significant connection between emotional dependency and abusive relationships, which is key for creating healthier relationships with others. Through being aware of what psychological mechanisms {{ic|what are they?}} drive emotional dependency and how these mechanisms can incite abusive relationships, it allows for individuals to start working towards strategies to remove themselves from emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships. It is through these devices that individuals are capable in understanding the crucial link between emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships in order from them to foster healthier romantic relationships.

== External Links ==
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/manipulation 

https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/

https://barbaraoakley.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/000Chapter-1-Pathological-Altruism-Oakley-Knafo-McGrath.pdf

https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/trauma-bonding#takeaway

https://www.helpguide.org/relationships/social-connection/attachment-and-adult-relationships

https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419874843

https://www.healthline.com/health/low-self-esteem#defining-low-self-esteem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

[http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/docs_menu/parents_carers_and_families/domestic_and_family_violence/dv_line.html/ Domestic Violence NSW]

== See also ==

* [[w:Psychological_abuse|Psychological abuse]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|Emotional abuse]] (Book Chapter 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Aggression in intimate relationships|Aggression in intimate relationships]] (Book Chapter 2014)

== References ==
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Abuse]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]]
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      <text bytes="29543" sha1="oq9tgcdzhqy21wm0m9bc25wahwa4bgf" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Abusive relationships and emotional dependency:&lt;br&gt;What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency and how does it perpetuate abusive relationships?}}
{{MECR3|https://youtu.be/C6RDIcVIdR0}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Edwina has been in a romantic relationship with Zack for 2 months now, where in the beginning he appeared to be a good person, however over time she has come to realise he is the complete opposite; Zack has slowly isolated Edwina from her friends and family, heavily controls her social media, forbids her to go places without his permission, even if it's the grocery store, and criticises and insults her if she goes against his wishes. Edwina is extremely unhappy in this relationship, however due to being emotionally dependent on Zack, she feels trapped and unable to leave the relationship. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:NounProject Abuse.png|thumb|Figure 1. Depicting two figures; one of them is being abused by the other.]]
This chapter aims to the significant link between abusive relationships and emotional dependency; The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022) defines partner emotional abuse as “when a person is subjected to certain behaviours or actions that are aimed at preventing or controlling their behaviour, causing them emotional harm or fear”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/domestic-violence-experiences-partner-emotional-abuse#cite-window1.|title=Domestic Violence: Experiences of Partner Emotional Abuse {{!}} Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=2022-08-24|website=www.abs.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; (see Figure 1). The document further highlights that these actions are &quot;characterised in nature by their intent to manipulate, control, isolate or intimidate the person they are aimed at&quot;. Emotional dependency can be referred to as “a chronic pattern of unmet affective demands, which individuals desperately seek to meet through close interpersonal relationships”. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Dependencia%20emocional.%20Caracter%C3%ADsticas%20y%20tratamiento&amp;author=J%20Castell%C3%B3&amp;publication_year=2005&amp;|title=Google Scholar|website=scholar.google.com|access-date=2024-11-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; To further understand the connection between abusive relationships and emotional dependency, this chapter focuses on what specific psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency, and how these mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships. (see Figure 2)

{{robelbox|theme=9|title=Focus questions:|icon=Nuvola_apps_kwrite.png|iconwidth=48px}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
* What psychological mechanisms drive emotional dependency?
* How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships?
* How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}[[File:Sunrise lovers.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Two people in a romantic relationship. Emotional dependency and abuse can be present in these types of relationships.]]

== What are some psychological mechanisms that drive emotional dependency? ==
Psychological mechanisms that significantly drive emotional dependency include attachment theory, low self-esteem, and codependency. Attachment theory is a key psychological mechanism that focuses on different attachment styles that may affect individuals in relationships. Additionally, individuals with low self-esteem tend to seek acceptance from others in order to validate themselves - codependency can complicate this; due to codependent individuals prioritising their partner's needs over their own, it results in individuals being heavily reliant on their relationship for their sense of identity. Overall, these mechanisms significantly promote emotional dependency, can further result in a toxic cycle for individuals.

=== [[w:Attachment_Theory|Attachment Theory]] ===
A fundamental psychological mechanism that is linked to emotional dependency is the attachment theory. An accredited psychoanalyst [[w:John_Bowlby|John Bowlby]] established this theory in order to investigate the intimate relationships and bonds between individuals, as well as relationships between parents and children and their link to relationships later in life&lt;ref&gt;Bowlby, J. (1969). ''Attachment and loss'' (No. 79). Random House. &lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby's second novel also explained how individuals are born with an attachment behavioural system which incites them to seek intimacy and closeness to attachment figures &lt;ref&gt;Bowlby J. Attachment and loss, Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.) New York: Basic Books; 1982. https://mindsplain.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ATTACHMENT_AND_LOSS_VOLUME_I_ATTACHMENT.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Bowlby’s theory critically explores the emotional bonds and relationships between individuals through 4 main attachment styles:

==== Secure Attachment ====
This attachment style involves individuals being capable of setting healthy boundaries, able to feel safe and stable in their relationships with others, has a good sense of self-worth, able to adequately deal with disappointments and obstacles, and can express their thoughts and feelings adequately.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Stephanie, a 28 year old art teacher, and Toby, a 29 year old business owner, have been together since graduating from university. Both individuals came from families who encouraged emotional communication, which has allowed for them to have a healthy and meaningful relationship. In their relationship, they calmly and effectively communicate their feelings openly, value and respect each other’s independence, and have confidence and trust in one another as they know time apart will not weaken their bond.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Anxious Attachment ====
Anxious attachment is when “individuals worry about being underappreciated or abandoned by their romantic partners”, “are heavily fixated on their partner and their relationship”, and crave being “closer to their partners emotionally to feel more secure”. Anxious individuals also tend to have low self-esteem, but think highly of their intimate partners. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).

Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S. further researched through an “Attachment Diathesis-Stress Process Model” how people who have an anxious attachment think and behave when they encounter stress and/or arguments with their romantic partners. The key findings when researching this that the study found when anxious individuals are extremely distraught when removed or have to consider being removed from their partner, that these individuals display high levels of stress and dysfunctional behaviours when encountering relationship problems, and how certain events when transitioning to parenthood may incite or increase the main concerns of individuals with this attachment style.

The study explores in depth of insecure attachment styles, limitations of the study that can be identified are that the study heavily focuses on specific stress situations which may not fully present the extent of stress responses that can be seen in these relationships. (Simpson, J.A. and Rholes, W.S., 2017).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Holly, a 21 year old university student, and Ryan, a 22 year old electrician have been in a relationship for 7 months. Holly has an anxious attachment style which plays a role in their relationship. An example of this in their relationship could include a situation where Ryan has explained to Holly that he is going to take her to a nice dinner out, however he has to be asleep by 10pm to wake up early for work. They have a nice night together, however as time grows closer to 10pm and Ryan reminds Holly he has to sleep soon, it makes Holly question if he even wants to hang out with her and even wants to be with her, even though he has a valid reason to go to bed early. This leads to Holly panicking and having an emotional outburst stating “you act like you don’t even want to hang out with me anymore!” and “all you do is prioritise work over me!”{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Avoidant-Dismissive Attachment ====
This attachment style mainly consists of individuals facing challenges with emotional intimacy (Simpson, J.A and Rholes, W.S., 2017), and being heavily independent and not fond of the idea of being too romantically invested in someone (Pettigrew TF, 2016).

This can be demonstrated through a relevant study by Mikulincer M and Shaver PR (2007), where the main focus is on investigating the attachment theory, including avoidant attachment where it found individuals who scored high with this attachment style tend to exhibit strategies to deactivate the relationship, such as not allowing their partner to be close to them, distancing themselves from their partner and not communicating what they want in a relationship. 

The topic of debate to how avoidant attachment styles change is explored in a longitudinal study; the study explored the different levels of attachment change over time and how avoidant attachment levels tend to “start low” in childhood” however “gradually increase over time”, in contrast to anxious attachment styles where they “start and remain low across time”. (Theisen, J.C., et., 2018){{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Dan, a 20 year old rugby league player, and Rita, a 21 year old university student, have been seeing each other for 4 months now. Dan is well-known for having usual romantic flings and can never commit to anyone fully, due to the idea of relying on or being relied on is suffocating to him. So when Rita hints to him of when he is going to officially ask her out, he dismisses it and replies with “can we not talk about this please? Like why do you want to rush things, like can’t you just see how things go?” Additionally, Dan enjoys spending time with Rita however likes to keep to his routine, such as playing rugby and going out drinking with friends every weekend, separate from their relationship - one day, Rita asked Dan if she can come watch his rugby game then afterwards they go out to dinner together to celebrate. Dan replies with “no that’s a bit weird for you to come to my games, you’re not even my girlfriend. Besides, I go out every weekend with my friends after the games so it’s not going to work”. This is degrading to Rita who feels like Danl is emotionally distant and is unwilling to completely invest in being in a relationship with her.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Disorganised-Disorientated Attachment ====
Disorganised attachment stems from childhood where the “child's attachment figure or parent is observably frightened or frightening when a child needs comforting or reassurance”. (M.J Lawler and E.B Talbot, 2012). These characteristics later appear in adult relationships where individuals have a “severe disturbance in threat responding, social cognition and identity development” which can further lead to the “ risk for personality disorders”. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017).

A 2017 latent class analysis focused on researching the disorganised attachment style in adults in order to provide a clear understanding of “severity and stylistic differences in disorganised attachment than has been previously articulated”. The study found through the following attachment styles: secure, insecure, disorganised-oscillating, and disorganised-impoverished that the disorganised-oscillating class was “characterised by elevations on contradictory and preoccupied styles”, while the disorganised-impoverished class portrayed signs of “impoverished and dismissive styles”. This further enables readers to view the different attachment disorganisation patterns in adults, which differentiate based on severity and interpersonal styles. Overall, the study highly recommends early intervention for caregivers in order to prevent this attachment style developing. (Beeney, J.E., et al, 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Case study

Angelina, a 23 year old public servant, and Ed, a 24 year old physiotherapist have been in a relationship for 9 months now. Angelina has developed this attachment style, which has caused a strain on her and Ed’s relationship: For example, Angelina often moves from wanting to be very close to Ed to pushing him away when he gets too close. This can be seen one night, at dinner where Angelina tells Ed how much she loves and appreciates him. The next conversation shifts to Ed saying how he has to go on a work AFL trip to help strap players for a month, to which triggers Angelina’s mood to change. She suddenly believes and voices to Ed that he wants to go on this work trip to purposefully avoid her, and that he doesn’t want to be around her anymore.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What attachment style is most likely to be upset when removed from a partner?}

- Avoidant 
+ Anxious
- Disorganised
- Applies to any of the above

{What is the Attachment Theory about?}

- Focuses on different attachment styles 
- Focuses on romantic relationships and how they link to their childhood 
- Links to the concept of emotional dependency
+ Applies to any of the above 

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. A person looking into the mirror not liking their image and questioning their self-esteem.]]

=== Low self-esteem ===
A primary psychological device that influences emotional dependency is '''low [[w:Self-esteem|self-esteem.]]'''Self-esteem can be defined as “a person's positive or negative attitude toward oneself as well as a person's favourable or unfavourable view of himself or herself”. It can also be characterised as an individual considering themselves as “worthy or unworthy”. (Mittal, E and Rani, T., 2022). (see Figure 3). Some low self-esteem components that incite emotional dependency include: 

===== '''Seeking external validation:''' =====
A 2019 observational study aimed to prove that low self-esteem was linked to the use and consequences of indirect support seeking during interactions in romantic relationships. The study proved that people with low self-esteem tend to “utilise indirect support” which may backfire “negative partner support” instead, and further “undermine the feelings of acceptance that low self-esteem individuals crave”, overall demonstrating how low self-esteem individuals can be emotionally dependent through heavily desiring external validation. (Don BP, Girme YU, Hammond MD, 2019).

[[File:Lonely boy.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Person sitting alone, which is a key component of what people with low self-esteem fear.]]

===== '''Fear of [[w:Abandonment_(emotional)|abandonment]] and [[w:_Social_rejection|rejection]]:''' =====
According to a 2022 paper, low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are typically seen in individuals who have abandonment and rejection issues. The paper outlines how these individuals often internalise abandonment and rejection, believing it was their fault that they are inadequate of being loved and cared about. This negative perception of themselves can lead to a permanent sense of inadequacy and self-doubt, which can impact various areas of their lives, such as their perspective of their careers, platonic relationships, and romantic relationships (Cruz et al., 2022). (See Figure 4).

===== '''Difficulty setting boundaries and prioritising personal needs:''' =====
A recent 2023 study found how there is little research on individuals setting boundaries in romantic situations, so researchers investigated the &quot;correlations between mental boundaries, self-esteem, and social support&quot;. The study found that there were &quot;significant negative correlations between mental boundaries, self-esteem, and social support&quot; and that &quot;mental boundaries and social support independently predicted self-esteem&quot; in relationships, further demonstrating what factors contribute to individual's self esteem. The study additionally discussed that &quot;individuals with thinner boundaries have lower self-esteem&quot; and &quot;individuals with more substantial levels of social support typically have higher self-esteem&quot;. The study concluded that its research is a good start to researching boundary setting in relationships, however identifies the limitations of the study; the survey could have surveyed a more diverse population of individuals, and lack of prior research on this topic. The study concludes that allows audience to understand the difference between &quot;thick and thin boundaries&quot;, in order to establish higher levels of self-esteem. (Mathe, J.R. and Kelly, W.E., 2023).

=== [[w:Codependency|Codependency]] ===
A major psychological mechanism that causes emotional dependency is codependency{{f}}.

Codependency is defined as “codependency is a theory that attempts to explain imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive behaviour”. It can also be referred to from a relationship context as consisting of “unhealthy ‘clinginess’ and needy behaviour, “where one person does not have self-sufficiency or autonomy”, and that they must rely on their partner to feel complete.

==== Codependency and its link to [[w:Domestic_violence|domestic violence]] ====
A psychological review highlighted how psychological factors, such as codependency, “contribute to domestic-partner abuse risk”, explaining how “high levels of emotional dependency in an abused partner may reduce the likelihood that the victimised person will terminate the relationship”.{{f}}

'''Codependency IS NOT limited to occurring to just women:'''

{{g}}Article{{f}} outlines how the concept of codependency used to be interpreted as a woman being codependent on a man, however in modern society, we have come to realise that men can also be codependent. 

==== Codependency is often unrecognisable ====
Codependent individuals tend to seek help for stress and depression related symptoms, and may only receive symptomatic help such as anxiety medication, which can overall mask the true underlying reason for their emotions and behaviour.

[[File:BPD 1.png|thumb|Figure 5. A person with Borderline Personality Disorder chasing after another person, which clearly shows codependency.]]

'''Codependency and [[w:Borderline_Personality_Disorder|Borderline Personality Disorder]] (BPD)'''

Research has shown links between codependency and BPD through identifying key traits such as emotional dependency, mood instability, and impulsiveness which are fundamental aspects of BPD. Individuals with BPD can display intense emotional dependency on their romantic partners, which further represents how they may demonstrate codependent behaviour and how they may rely on external relationships to provide [[w:Emotional_regulation|emotional regulation]], reassurance and [[w:Identity_(social_science)|identity]] (see Figure 5). 

== How do psychological mechanisms perpetuate abusive relationships? ==
[[File:Cycle of Abuse.png|thumb|512x512px|Figure 6. A diagram of the cycle of abuse. Trauma can further continue this cycle.]]
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is '''trauma bonding'''. 

Trauma bonding, which is where “a person forms a deep emotional attachment with someone that causes them harm”, allows for abusive relationships to occur through establishing a psychological and emotional attachment between the victim and the perpetrator.{{f}}

This is extremely difficult to stop due to several dynamics:

==== Intermittent reinforcement ====
Intermittent reinforcement consists of continuous cruel treatment with occasional moments of random affection. Research{{f}} outlines how this unpredictably keeps victims craving and clinging onto occasional moments of affection, which is very similar to someone gambling in hope that they'll win. An example of this can include when the perpetrator gives gifts to their partner after abusing them, or the perpetrator giving a kind response to their partner when they usually respond in a different manner. Despite the current emotional damage occurring, this type of reinforcement continues to trap victims in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

==== Distorted sense of self-worth ====
Over a course of time, victims may start to believe they “somehow deserve the abuse” they are receiving, and through the abuser “destroy[ing] any sense of self-esteem they once had”, it leads them to “believe that they don’t deserve any better”.{{f}}
{{f}}
==== Trauma-related attachment ====
As a result of the relationship being “centred around a shared [[w:Traumatic_event|traumatic experience]]”, it may leave the victim feeling a sense of empathy or responsibility towards their abuser, which allows for the [[w:Cycle_of_abuse|cycle of abuse]] to continue (see Figure 6).{{f}}

=== [[w:Fear|Fear]] and [[w:Learned_helplessness|learned helplessness]] ===
A critical device used to perpetuate abusive relationships is fear and learned helplessness.{{f}}

==== '''Fear''' ====
Fear is referred to as “a basic, intense [[w:Emotion|emotion]] aroused by the detection of imminent threat”.{{f}}

The main following dynamics that display how fear is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''[[w:Intimidation|Intimidation]] and [[w:Control|Control]]''''' ======
Perpetuators tend to plant fear in relationships to maintain control, which leads to victims fearing that their abuser will physically harm, emotionally manipulate or retaliate against them if they leave the relationship{{f}}

====== '''[[w:Social_isolation|''Isolation'']]''' ======
Due to abusers isolating their partner from their family and friends, it results in the victim to rely significantly on the abuser and have fear of being alone if they were to leave the relationship.{{f}}

==== Learned helplessness ====
In addition to this, learned helplessness is characterised as “behaviour exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control”.{{f}}

The key dynamics that present how learned helplessness is demonstrated in abusive relationships include:

====== '''''Repeated [[w:Trauma|trauma]]''''' ======
This involves victims dealing with continuous [[w:Abuse|abuse]] and feeling powerless to change their circumstances, which may lead to them developing a sense of learned helplessness, where they believe that no matter what they say or do, the situation won’t change for the better.{{f}}

====== '''''Self-esteem erosion''''' ======
This involves constant belittling and manipulation by the abuser which can affect a victim’s self-worth, resulting in them feeling unworthy of a healthier relationship or them believing that they deserve the abuse.{{f}}

====== '''''Inability to take control of situation''''' ======
This includes victims feeling paralysed and lacking the ability to make decisions; they may wait for an external change to occur that may never come, which keeps them trapped in this abusive cycle.{{f}}

=== [[w:Gaslighting|Gaslighting]] and [[w:Manipulation|manipulation]] ===
A key mechanism that maintains abusive relationships is gaslighting and manipulation.{{f}}

==== Gaslighting ====
Gaslighting is also referred to as an abuse tactic that is employed to plant doubt in the victim’s thoughts and emotions, which often escalates in trusted relationships. It can also undermine accomplishments, create codependency, and damage [[w:Mental_health|mental health]], which may lead to the victim having a distorted and confused reality. Overall, this may result in victims struggling to seek help due to feelings of guilt and manipulation, which complicates their recovery.{{f}}

Research{{f}} shows the '''following warning signs of what gaslighters do to their victims''' include:

* “Tell white lies”
* “Deny something even when you have proof”
* “Make you doubt your own judgement” 
* “Make you mistrust others or lose interest in people and things that take your attention away from them”
* “Wear you down and make you feel exhausted or hopeless”

==== Manipulation ====
Manipulation is defined as “an action designed to influence or [[w:Control|control]] another, usually in an underhanded or unfair manner which facilitates one's personal aims&quot; (see Figure 7).{{f}} 

[[File:Manipulation-.png|thumb|Figure 7. A hand controlling which alludes to someone being controlled, which is a manipulation tactic.]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Types of Manipulation{{f}}
!Having Control over Location
|Manipulators may physically take victims to places they are unfamiliar with, or emotionally try to bring victims out of their comfort zone. The abuser does this in order to feel a sense of control.
|-
!Manipulating Facts
|Manipulators will be dishonest with victims, make excuses, and blame them. Occasionally, these types of abusers will share some truth to their facts to strategically manipulate you.
|-
!Being [[w:Passive-Aggressive_behavior|Passive-Aggressive]]
|Manipulators will voice subtle, indirect negative feelings towards victims to undermine them. 
|-
!Guilt and Sympathy
|Manipulators tend to make their victims feel guilty or have sympathy towards them in order to receive what they want.
|-
!Use of Silent Treatment
|Abusers use this withdrawal tactic to punish their victims
|-
!Use of Comparison
|Abusers may compare their victims to someone else to further evoke an upsetting or uncomfortable reaction from victims, or make them feel insecure about something.
|-
![[w:Love_bombing|Love-bombing]]
|Manipulators use this common abuse tactic to give enormous amounts of praise and affection to speed up their relationship between them and their victim. This causes the victim to be heavily attached to their abuser, which allows for the abuser to easily discard them later on.
|}
{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Topic Review: Quiz Time!|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What is sadism?}

- Someone who experiences pain when others experience pain
+ Someone who derives pleasure out of others suffering
- Someone who tries to help others when they are sad
- someone who notices when others are sad 

{Who is most likely to engage in manipulation?}

- Coaches
+ Males
- Females

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== How do individuals remove themselves from abusive relationships? ==
According to an [https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Australian psychology article], some ways to break free from emotional dependency to form healthy relationships include:

# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Identifying your Attachment Style]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Improving your Self-Esteem]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Spending Time with Friends and Family]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Having Calm and Honest Communication with your Partner]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Setting and Upholding Healthy Boundaries]'''
# '''[https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/ Working with a Therapist through these Issues]'''

== Conclusion ==
This chapter establishes the significant connection between emotional dependency and abusive relationships, which is key for creating healthier relationships with others. Through being aware of what psychological mechanisms {{ic|what are they?}} drive emotional dependency and how these mechanisms can incite abusive relationships, it allows for individuals to start working towards strategies to remove themselves from emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships. It is through these devices that individuals are capable in understanding the crucial link between emotional dependency and unhealthy relationships in order from them to foster healthier romantic relationships.

== External Links ==
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/manipulation 

https://northsidepsychology.com.au/how-to-break-free-from-co-dependency-in-relationships/

https://barbaraoakley.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/000Chapter-1-Pathological-Altruism-Oakley-Knafo-McGrath.pdf

https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/trauma-bonding#takeaway

https://www.helpguide.org/relationships/social-connection/attachment-and-adult-relationships

https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419874843

https://www.healthline.com/health/low-self-esteem#defining-low-self-esteem

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness

[http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/docs_menu/parents_carers_and_families/domestic_and_family_violence/dv_line.html/ Domestic Violence NSW]

== See also ==

* [[w:Psychological_abuse|Psychological abuse]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|Emotional abuse]] (Book Chapter 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Aggression in intimate relationships|Aggression in intimate relationships]] (Book Chapter 2014)

== References ==
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Abuse]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]]
[[Category:Moivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/RICH-2K/Recommended editions</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <parentid>2680897</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T20:26:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalRis25</username>
        <id>911425</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Recommended Editions */</comment>
      <origin>2681577</origin>
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      <text bytes="56137" sha1="sbd9cmqru45gczmcwd4rn0h2vasni67" xml:space="preserve">{{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Navbox}}
'''Recommended Editions''' are editions of texts referenced in the articles of the ''Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary''. These texts fall under two categories:

* ''Primary sources,'' i.e. the original Latin and Greek texts.
* ''Secondary sources,'' i.e. texts used to understand the primary sources.

The sections about [[#Requirements|requirements]] and [[#Selection criteria for primary resources|selection criteria]] provide information about how these editions are to be selected.

== Recommended Editions ==

The following list contains example references, mainly from the articles of RICH-1849, followed, where available, by citations with links to &quot;recommended&quot; online editions. This is a work in progress.

* Achill. Tat., ''de Amor. Clitoph. et Leucip.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Acro. ad Hor. *Ep.*
* Acro. ad Hor. *Sat.*
* Acron. ad Hor. *Od.*
* Acron.
* Aelian., *Variar.*
* Aelian., *Var. Hist.*
* Aesch., *Ag.*
* Aesch., *in Timarch.*
* Aesch., *Pers.*
* Aesch., *Prom.*
* African., *Dig.*
* Agathias
* Agostini, ''Gemme'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15878 |title=Le gemme antiche figurate di Leonardo Agostini ... Parte prima |last=Agostini |first=Leonardo}}
* Agostini, ''Gemme'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15879 |title=Le gemme antiche figurate di Leonardo Agostini ... Parte seconda |last=Agostini |first=Leonardo}}
* Alciphron, *Ep.*
* Alcuinus, *De Divinis Officiis*
* Alex., *Κηρυττ.*
* Alstorp, ''de Hastis Veterum'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Joh_Alstorphii_de_Hastis_Veterum_opus_po/xRxdNXuQDHwC |title=De Hastis Veterum Opus Posthumum |last=Alstorph |first=Jan}}
* Amm. Marc.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Ammian: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Ampel.
* *Anthol. Lat.* (ed. Burm.?)
* *Anthol. Lat. Ep.*
* Anthyl ap. Oribas. *Coll. Med.*
* Anton. (e. g. ad Pet. *Sat.*)
* Anton. Caracall.
* Apic.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Apollodor.: {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001 |title=Bibliotheca |last=Apollodorus |first=}}
* Apollodor., ''Bibl.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001 |title=Bibliotheca |last=Apollodorus |first=}}
* Appian., ''Bell. Civ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0551.tlg017 |title=Civil Wars |last=Appianus of Alexandria |first=}}
* Apul., ''Apol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi001 |title=Apologia |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Apul, *de Mund.*
* Apul, *Deo Socr.*
* Apul., ''Flor.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi003 |title=Florida |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Apul., ''Met.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi002 |title=Metamorphoses |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Ach.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg001 |title=Acharnians |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Av.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg006 |title=Aves |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist., *Eth.*
* Arist., *Fragm.*
* Aristot., *Gen. An.*
* Aristotle, *H. N.*
* Aristot., *Rhet..*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Aristoph., ''Eq.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg002 |title=Equites |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Nub.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg003 |title=Nubes |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist.*, *de Mund.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., ''Pac.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg005 |title=Pax |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Plut.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg011 |title=Plutus |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist., *Polit.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., *Probl.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., ''Ran.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg009 |title=Ranae |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristophanes., ''Thesm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg008 |title=Thesmophoriazusae  |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Vesp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg004 |title=Vespae |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arnob.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arnob., *adv. Gent.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arrian., ''Anab.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg001 |title=Anabsis |last=Arrian |first=}}
* Arrian., ''Tact.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg005 |title=Tactica |last=Arrian |first=}}
* Artemidorus: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Artis., *Durobriv.*
* Ascon. *ad Cic. Fragm. pro C. Cornel.*
* Ascon. *Argument. Milon.*
* Ascon. *in Cic. Verr.*
* Ascon. *in Cic. Orat. pro Scauro*
* Ascon. *in Verr.*
* Athen. (Suidas)
* Athen., ''Deipn.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0008.tlg001 |title=Deipnosophistae |last=Athenaeus of Naucratis |first=}}
* Auctor. *ad Herenn.*
* Auct., *Agrar.* (ed. Goes.)
* Auct., *Consol. ad Liv.*
* Auct., *Dial. de Orat.*
* Auct., *Paneg. ad Pison.* bzw. *Pan. in Pis.*
* August., *contra Faust.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* August., *Dial. Antiqu.*
* August., *in Psalm.*
* August., *Mon. Ancyran.* ap. Grut.
* Augustin., *Civ. Dei*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Augustin., *de Gent.*
* Aul. Gell.: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0071 |title=Noctes Atticae |last=Gellius |first=Aulus}}
* Aur. Arc., *Dig.*
* Aurel., *Vopisc.*
* Aurel. Vict.
* Aurel. Vict., *Caes.*
* Aurel. Vict., *Epit.*
* Aurel. Vict., *Vit. Caes.*
* Aurel. Vict., *Vri. Illustr.*
* Auson., *Clar. Urb.*
* Auson., *in Div. Verr.*
* Auson., ''Ecl. de Fer. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa007.perseus-lat1:23 |title=De Feriis Romanis |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Auson., *Edyll.*
* Auson., *Ephem. in Parecb.*
* Auson., ''Epigr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa010 |title=Epigrammata Ausonii de diversis rebus |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Auson., *Grat. Act.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Auson., ''Mosell.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa019 |title=Mosella |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Ausonius, *Perioch. Odyss.*
* Ausonius, *Period. Od.* (ev. fehlerhaft für *Perioch. Od.*?)
* Auson., *Profess.*
* Avian., *Fab.*
* Avien., *in Arat.*
* B. Crus. *ad Suet. Aug.*
* Balduinus, *de Calceo*
* Bartholin., *de Puerp.*
* Bartoli, ''Admirand.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1693 |title=Admiranda Romanarvm Antiqvitatvm Ac Veteris Scvlptvrae Vestigia: Anaglyphico Opere Elaborata Ex Marmoreis Exemplaribvs Qvae Romae Adhvc Extant In Capitolio Aedibvs Hortisqve Virorvm Principvm Ad Antiqvam Elegantiam |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, ''Admirand. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1693 |title=Admiranda Romanarvm Antiqvitatvm Ac Veteris Scvlptvrae Vestigia: Anaglyphico Opere Elaborata Ex Marmoreis Exemplaribvs Qvae Romae Adhvc Extant In Capitolio Aedibvs Hortisqve Virorvm Principvm Ad Antiqvam Elegantiam |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, ''Lucerne'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1691 |title=Le Antiche Lvcerne [lucerne] Sepolcrali Figvrate [figurate] Raccolte dalle Caue [cave] sotterranee, e grotte di Roma |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, *Sep.*
* Bartolini, *de Paenula*
* Bartolom. Font., *Comment. in Pers.*
* Baumgarten-Crusius, *Clavis* (gemeint ist wohl *Clavis Suetoniana triplicem continens indicem...*, 1818)
* Bayfius, *Re Nav.*
* Becchi, *del Calcidico e della Cripta di Eumachia*
* Becchi, *Mus. Borb.*
* Becker, *Augusteum* (???)
* Becker, *Charicles, Excurs.*
* Becker, *Gallus*
* Becker, *Quaest. Plautin.*
* Beckman, *History of Inventions* (London, 1846)
* Beier, *ad Cic. Amic.*
* Bellori, *Fragm. Urb. Rom.*
* Benecke ad Cic. *Cat.*
* Bertoli, *Antichità di Aquileja*
* Bianchini, *Storia Univers.*
* Bion
* Blanchini, *Instrument. Mus. Vet.*
* Böck, *Urk.*
* Boldetti, *Cimiterj*
* Brocchi, *Suolo di Roma*
* Broüer, *de Adorat.*
* Brut. ad Cic. *Fam.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Budaeus, *de Asse*: {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Buonarotti, *Med.*
* Buonarotti, *Vasi di Vetro*
* Burney, *Hist. of Music*
* C. Soph., *Fragm.*
* Cael. ad Cic. *Fam.*
* Cael. Aurel., *Tard.*
* Caes. Germ. in Arat.&quot;
* Caes., ''Bell. Civ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0075 |title=De bello Civili |last=Caesar |first=Julius}}
* Caes., ''B. G.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0002 |title=De bello Gallico |last=Caesar |first=Julius}}
* Caesius, *in Asterismo Lyrae*
* Caii (ev. Call.), *Dig.*
* Call., *Dig.*
* Callim., ''Dem.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0481%3ahymn%3d6 |title=Hymn to Demeter |last=Callimachus |first=}}
* Callim., ''Hymn. in Dian.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0481%3ahymn%3d3 |title=??? Hymn to Artemis ??? |last=Callimachus |first=}}
* Callixenus ap. Athen.
* Calpurn., *Ecl.*
* Cancellieri, *Carcere Tulliano*
* Capell.
* *Capitoline Museum*
* Capitol., *Antonin.*
* Capitol., *Anton. Philosoph.*
* Capitol., *Macrin.*
* Capitol., *Marc. Antonin.* (bzw. *Marc. Antonin. Philos.*
* Capitol., *Max. et Balb.*
* Capitol., *Maxim.*
* Capitol., *Maxim. jun.*
* Capitol., *Pertinax*
* Capitol., *Ver.*
* Carli, *Antich. Ital.* (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2892712 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Prima |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, *Antich. Ital.* (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893042 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Seconda |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, *Antich. Ital.* (Vol. 3): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893452 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Terza |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, *Antich. Ital.* (Vol. 4): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893852 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Quarta |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, *Antich. Ital.* (Vol. 5): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2894196 |title=Appendici di documenti spettanti alla parte quarta delle Antichità Italiche |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Caryst. ap. Athen.
* Casali, *Splendid. Urb. Rom.*
* Casaub.
* Cassian., *Institut.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cassini, *Pitture Antichi*
* Cassiodorus, *in Psalm.*
* Cassiodorus, *Var. Ep.*
* Cato, *R. R.*
* Catull.: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0003 |title=Carmina |last= |first=}}
* Caylus: {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/caylus1752ga |title=Recueil D'Antiquités, Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques Et Romaines |last= |first=}}
* Caylus, ''Receuil d'Antiq.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/caylus1752ga |title=Recueil D'Antiquités, Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques Et Romaines |last= |first=}}
* Celsus: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0141 |title=De Medicina |last= |first=}}
* Censorin., *De Die Nat.*
* Charis.
* Chishul, *Inscr. Sig.*
* Cic. ap. Macrob. *Sat.*
* Cic., ''Acad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0032 |title=Academica |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Agrar.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Amic.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0040 |title=De Amicitia |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Arch.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dArch. |title=Pro Archia |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Att.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Brut.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0544 |title=Brutus |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Caecin.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Cael.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dCael. |title=Pro Caelio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Cat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dCatil. |title=In Catilinam |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Cluent.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dClu. |title=Pro Cluentio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''de Orat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0120 |title=De Oratore |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''de Rep.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0031 |title=De Republica |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Div.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0034 |title=De Divinatione |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Ep. ad Att.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Fam.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0009 |title=Epistulae ad Familiares |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Fin.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Fl.'' (vermutl. ''Flacc.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dFlac. |title=Pro L. Flacco |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Flacc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dFlac. |title=Pro L. Flacco |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., Fragm. ap. Non.
* Cic., *Fragm. Or. in Clod.*
* Cic., ''Harusp. Respons.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0014%3atext%3dHar. |title=De haruspicum responso |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Ibis*
* Cic., *in Cael. Div.* (???, ev. *in Coel. Div.*)
* Cic., *in Senat.*
* Cic., ''Inv.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0683 |title=De Inventione |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Leg.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0030 |title=De Legibus |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Ligar.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Milo'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0020%3atext%3dMil. |title=Milo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Muren.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dMur. |title=Pro Murena |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Muret.*
* Cic., ''N. D.'' (''Nat. Deor.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0037 |title=De Natura Deorum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Off.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0047 |title=De Officiis |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Orat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0120 |title=De Oratore |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Par.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Parad.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Parad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Phil.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Pis.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dPis. |title=In L. Pisonem |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Planc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dPlanc. |title=Pro Plancio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Post Red.*
* Cic., *Prov. Cons.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''ad Q. Fr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0017 |title=??? Letters to and from Quintus ??? |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''pro Rosc. Com.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dQ.+Rosc. |title=Pro Q. Roscio comoedo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *R. Perd.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Rabir. Post.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dRab.+Post. |title=Pro C. Rabiro Postumo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Rosc. Am.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dS.+Rosc. |title=Pro Sex. Roscio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Senect.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0038 |title=De Senectute |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Sext.*
* Cic., *Somn.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Sull.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dSul. |title=Pro Sulla |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Top.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Tusc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0044 |title=Tusculanae Disputationes |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., *Univers.*
* Cic., ''Vatin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0014%3atext%3dVat. |title=??? Against Vatinius ??? |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Verr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0012%3atext%3dVer. |title=In C. Verrem |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cincius ap. Gell.
* Circ., *Acad.*
* Claud., *B. Gild.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Claud., *Cons. Honor.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Claud., *Cons. Stilich.*
* Claud., *de Laud. Stilich.*
* Claud., *Ep.*
* Claud., *Epigr.*
* Claud., *in Eutrop.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Claud., *in Rufin.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Claud., *Laud. Stil.*
* Claud., *Mall. Theod.*
* Claud., *Nupt. Honor. et Mar.*
* Claud., *Proem. ad Epith. in Nupt. Hon. et Mar.*
* Claud. Quadrigar. ap. Gell.
* Cod. Theodos.
* Coel. Aurel., *Acut.*
* Coel. Aurel., *Tard.*
* Columell.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Columell., *Arb.*
* Coryate, *Crudities*: {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Curt.
* Cyprian., *de Habitu Virgin.*: {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Davis, *China*
* Demosth. (Reiske)
* Demosth., *Contra Conon.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Demosth., *de Coron.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Demosth., *de Fals. Leg.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Demosth., *in Mid.* (Schaeffer): {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Dig.
* Diodor.
* Diomed.
* Dionys.
* Dion. Cass.
* Dion. Hal.
* Dionys.
* Dioscor.
* Doederl.
* Don.
* Donat. ad Terent. *Adelph.*
* Donat. ap. Terent. *Phorm*
* Donati, *Dittici Antichi*: {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15878 |title=Le gemme antiche figurate di Leonardo Agostini ... Parte prima |last=Agostini |first=Leonardo}}
* Dorvill., *Iter. Sicul.*
* Dosiad. ap. Athen
* Dr. Hyde/Christie, *Ancient Greek Games*: {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ducang., *Gloss. Graec. et Lat.*
* Du Choul, *Castramet. des Romains*: {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Joh_Alstorphii_de_Hastis_Veterum_opus_po/xRxdNXuQDHwC |title=De Hastis Veterum Opus Posthumum |last=Alstorph |first=Jan}}
* Durant., *de Rit.*: {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0023.stoa001.perseus-lat2:14 |title=Res Getae |last=Ammianus Marcellinus |first=}}
* *Edict of Diocletian*
* Eichstädt., *Dissertt. de Imagg. Rom.*
* Elmes, *Lectures on Architecture*
* Ennius ap. Cic. *Acad.*: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Ennius ap. Isidor. *Orig.*
* Ernesti, *Clav. Cic.*
* Etymol. Sylburg. ap. Scheffer, *Re Nav.*
* Eum., *Paneg. ad Const.*
* Eurip., *Alcest.*
* Eur., *Cycl.*
* Eur., *Hel.*
* Eur., *Hippol.*
* Eurip., *Ion.*
* Eurip., *Iph. Taur.*
* Eur., *Med.*
* Eurip., *Suppl.*
* Eust., *Od.*
* Eustath., ad Hom. *Od.*
* Eustath., *ad Il.*
* Fabius Pictor ap. Gell.
* Fabretii, *Aq.*
* Fabretti, *Col. Tr.*
* Fabretti, *Col. Tr. Addend.*
* Fabri., *Agon.*
* Fellow, *Journal in Asia Minor*: {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ferrarius
* Festus
* Ficoroni, *La Bolla d'Oro*: {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ficoroni, *Labico Antico*: {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ficoroni, *Vestig. Rom.*: {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Firm. Math. oder Firm. Matth.
* Florent., *Dig.*
* Florus
* Fortunatus Schackius, *Myriothec.*
* *Fragm. jur. ante Justinean. a Maio edita*
* Francesco di Gorgio
* Front., *ad M. Caes. Ep.* (ed. A. Maio)
* Front., *de Or. Ep.* (ed. A. Maio)
* Front., *Strateg.*
* Fronto, ad Verum Imp. Ep.
* Frontin., *Ag.*
* Frontinus, *de Aquaeduct.*
* Fulgent. Planc.
* Furnaletti
* Furnaletti, *de Musiv.*
* Furnaletti, *Lex. Facciolat.*
* Gabius Bassus ap. Gell.
* Galen., *Comment. in Hippocr. de Articul.*
* Galen, *Compos. Med. per. gen.*
* Gally Knight, *Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy*
* Gamucci, *Antichità di Roma* (Venez. 1588)
* Gell.
* Gell., *Itinerary of Morea*: {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/Itinerary_of_the_Morea.html?id=dHCgAAAAMAAJ |title=Itinerary of the Morea: Being a Description of the Routes of that Peninsula |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Gell, *Pompeiana* (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gell1832bd1 |title=Pompeiana: the topography, edifices and ornaments of Pompeii ; the result of excavations since 1819 (Vol. 1) |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Gell, *Pompeiana* (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gell1832bd2 |title=Pompeiana: the topography, edifices and ornaments of Pompeii ; the result of excavations since 1819 (Vol. 2) |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Geopon.
* Ginzrot, ''Wagen und Fahrwerke'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/ginzrot1817ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Die Wagen und Fahrwerke der Griechen und Römer und anderer alten Völker |last=Ginzrot |first=Johann Christian}}
* *Giornal. Arcad.*
* *Gloss. Isid.*
* Gloss. Philox. Vulgat. *Ezech.*
* Gloss. Philox., *ξίφος ἐπικαμπὲς*
* Gori, *Inscript. Antiq. Flor.*
* Gori, *Mus. Etrusc.* (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1737bd1 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 1) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gori, *Mus. Etrusc.* (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1737bd2 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 2) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gori, *Mus. Etrusc.* (Vol. 3): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1743bd3 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 3) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gorlaeus, ''Dactyliotheca'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15090 |title=Dactyliothecae |last=Goorle |first=Abraham van}}
* Grat., *Cyneg.*
* Gronov, *Thesaur. Antiqu. Gr.*
* Grut. (Inscr.)
* Guasco, *Delle Ornatrici*: {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1fdwnp517owC/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Delle ornatrici, e de' loro uffizi, ed insieme della superstizione de' gentili nella chioma; e della cultura della medesima presso le antiche donne romane |last=Guasco |first=Francesco Eugenio}}
* Guischard, *Mémoires Milit.*: {{Cite book|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10525879?page=1 |title=Mémoires militaires sur les Grecs et les Romains. Tome 1 |last=Guischardt |first=Charles}}
* Gwilt, ''Encyclopaedia of Architecture'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00gwiluoft |title=An encyclopaedia of architecture, historical, theoretical, and practical |last=Gwilt |first=Joseph}}
* Gwilt, *Glossary of Architecture*
* Heraclid. ap. Athen.
* Heindorf. ad Hor. *Op.*
* Heindorf. ad Hor. *Sat.*
* Heraclides of Pontus ap. Athen.
* Hero, *de Spirit.*
* Herod.
* Herodian.
* Herzog ad Sall. *Cat.*
* Hesiod., *Op.*
* Hesiod., *Theogn.*
* Hesychius
* Heyne ad Virg. *Aen.*
* Hieron., *adv. Jov.*
* Hieron., *Comment. Matth.*
* Hieron., *Epist.*
* Hieron., *Ep. ad Demetr.*
* Hieron., *Ep. ad Julian.*
* Hieron., *in Hierem.*
* Hieron., *in Isai.*
* Hieron., *in prol. Amos*
* Hieron., *Vit. Hilar.*
* Hirt., *Bell. Afr.*
* Hirt., *Bell. Alex.*
* Homer., *Hymn. Merc.*
* Homer, *Il.*
* Homer, *Merc.* (ev. identisch mit *Hymn. Merc.*)
* Hom., *Od.*
* Hope, *Costumes*
* Hor., *A. P.*
* Hor., *Carm.*
* Hor., *Epist.*
* Hor., *Epod.*
* Hor., *Od.*
* Hor., *Sat.*
* Howell, *Treatise on the War Galleys of the Ancients*
* Howell, *War Gallies of the Ancients* (vermutl. identisch mit vorigem)
* Hussey, *On Ancient Weights and Money*
* Hyg., *de Limit.* (ed.? Goes.)
* Hygin., *Astron.*
* Hygin., *Fab.*
* Imp. Anast., *Cod.*
* Imp. Justin., *Cod.*
* Impp. Valent. et Valens. Cod. Theodos.
* Inscript. ap. Gruter
* Interpet. Vet. ad Virg. *Ecl.*
* Iorio, *Mimica degli Antichi*
* Iorio, *Officina de' Papiri* (bzw. *Officina de' Papiri, del Real. Mus. Borb.*)
* Isidor., *Gloss.*
* Isidorus, *Orig.*
* Jabolen., *Dig.*
* Jal, *Archéologie Navale*: {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_jMkZCGHyzH8C/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Archéologie Navale |last=Jal |first=Auguste}}
* Jean Marteihle (*Autobiography of a French Protestant*)
* Jo. Bapt. Suarez (&quot;work on the antiquities of Cadiz&quot;)
* Jo. Cam. Rossi (ed.), *Inscript. Vet.*
* Joann. Evang.
* Joseph., *Bell. Jud.*
* Jul. Cap., *Pertinax*
* Julius Pollux
* Justin
* Juv., *Sat.*
* *Kings* (ex Bible)
* Kircher. *Musurg.*
* Labacco, *Libro dell' Architettura*
* Labeon., *Dig.*
* Labus., *Antich. di Mantova*
* La Chausse, *Receuil d'Antiq. Romaines*
* Lact., *Mort. persecut.*
* Lactant.
* Lambeccio, *Append. ad Lib. IV. Comment.*
* Lambecc., *Bibliothec. Caes.*
* Lambeccius, *Comment. Bibl. Caes.*
* Giovanni Lami, *Dissertaz. sopra le Ciste Mistiche*
* Lamprid., *Alex. Sev.*
* Lamprid., *Commodus*
* Lamprid., *Elagab.*
* Lamprid., *Heliog.*
* Liban. Antioch.
* Licetus, *De gemmis anulorum*: {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_7i0a9224zjQC/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Hieroglyphica sive Antiqua schemata gemmarum anularium |last=Liceti |first=Fortunio}}
* Licetus, *Lucern.* (?): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008532349/page/n3/mode/2up |title=De lucernis antiquorum reconditis libri sex |last=Liceti |first=Fortunio}}
* Liv.
* Liv., *Epit.*
* Livius Andronicus
* Longus
* Lorenzo Pignori, *De Serv.*
* Luc., *Zeux.*
* Lucan.
* Lucan., *Phars.*
* Lucian., *Lexiph.*
* Lucian., *Salt.*
* Lucil., *Salt.* (ev. falsch für Lucian.?)
* Lucil., *Sat.* (ed. Gerlach)
* Lucret.
* Luctat. in Stat. *Theb.*
* Lumisden, *Antiquities of Rome*: {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/Remarks_on_the_Antiquities_of_Rome_and_I.html?id=n70sAAAAYAAJ |title=Remarks on the Antiquities of Rome and Its Environs |last=Lumisden |first=Andrew}}
* Lycophr.
* Lysias ap. Poll.
* Macer., *Dig.*
* Macrin. Imp. ap. Capitolin.
* Macrob., *Sat.*
* Maecen. ap. Senec. *Ep.*
* Maffei, *Mus. Veron.*
* Manilius, *Astr.*
* Manni, *Dissert. degli Occhiali*
* Manutius ad Cic. *Fam.*
* Manutius, *de Comit. Rom.*
* Mar. Victorin.
* Marcell., *Dig.*
* Marcell. Empir.
* Marc. Capell.
* Marini
* Marini, *Frat. Arv.*
* Marini, *Inscriz. Alb.*
* Marius Victorin.
* Marquez, *Case degli Antichi Romani*
* Marquez, *Ord. Dor.*
* Mart., *Epigramm.*
* Mart., *in Lemmate*
* Mart., *Spect.*
* Mart., *Tit. in Ep.*
* Martian. Capell.
* Martini, *von den Sonnenuhren der Alten*
* Mauricii (bzw. Mauricius), *Ars Mil.* (ed. Joh. Scheffer)
* Mazois, *Ruines de Pomp.*
* Mazzocchi, *de Ascia*
* Mela
* Mercuriali, *Gymn.*
* Micali, *Italia avanti il Dominio de' Romani*
* Micali, *Italia avanti i Romani*
* Millin, *Vas. Ant.*
* Minucius Felix
* Minucius Felix, *in Octav.*
* Modest.
* Montfauc., *Antiq. Expl.*
* Morell., *Dissert. de' Littori*
* Moschus ap. Athen.
* Mosebach, *de Praecon. Vet.*
* Muller, *Hist. of Greek Literature*
* Müller, *Archaologie der Kunst* (korrekt wohl *Archäologie der Kunst*)
* Müller, *Handbuch der Archäologie der Kunst*
* Murat (Inscriptions)?
* Muratori, *Inscript.*
* Muret (Inscriptions)?
* *Museo Borbon.*
* *Mus. Capitol.*
* *Mus. Chiaramont.*
* *Mus. Pio-Clem.*
* Nardini, *Rom. Ant.*
* Nemes., *Fragm. de Aucup.*
* Nemesian, *Cyneg.*
* Nepos., *Ag.*
* Nepos., *Ages.* (ev. identisch mit *Ag.*)
* Nepos., *Alcib.*
* Nepos, *Att.*
* Nepos, *Con.*
* Nepos, *Dat.*
* Nepos, *Dion.*
* Nepos, *Epam.*
* Nepos, *Eum.*
* Nepos, *Iphicr.*
* Nepos, *Milt.*
* Nepos, *Pel.*
* Nepos, *Them.*
* Nicet. Choniat., *Script. Byzant.*
* Nicolai, *Antichità di Pesto*
* Niebuhr, *Hist. Rom.*
* Nigid. ap. Isidor.
* Non.
* Nonn., *Dionys.*
* *Not. Tires.*
* *Notitia Imperii*
* *Novum Testamentum*
* Oppian., *Cyneg.*
* Oppian., *Hal.*
* Orelli, *Inscr.*
* Oribas, *Coll. Med.*
* Oudendorp *ad Suet. Galb.*
* Ov., *Med. fac.*
* Ovid., *Amor.*
* Ovid., *Art. Am.*
* Ovid., *Fast.*
* Ovid., *Her.*
* Ovid., *Ibis*
* Ovid., *Met.*
* Ovid., *Nux*
* Ovid., *Pont.*
* Ovid., *Rem.* (ev. identisch mit *Rem. Am.*)
* Ovid., *Rem. Am.*
* Ovid., *Trist.*
* P. Syrus ap. Pet. *Sat.*
* P. Victor, *de Reg. Urb. Rom.*
* Pacuv. ap. Non.
* Pallad.
* Pallad., *Jan.*
* Pallad., *Feb.*
* Pallad., *Jun.*
* Pallad., *Oct.*
* Pallad., *Nov.*
* Panofka, *Recherches sur les véritables Noms des Vases Grecs*
* Panvinus, *de Lud. Circen.*
* Paterc.
* Paul. ex Fest.
* Paul., *Dig.*
* Paul., *Sentent.*
* Paul. Nol., *Ep.*
* Pausan.
* Pedo Albin., *El.*
* Perecr., *Δουλ.*
* Persius, *Sat.*
* Pet., *Fragm.*
* Pet., *Priap.*
* Pet., *Sat.*
* Phaedr.
* Philostr., *Imag.*
* *Pict. Crypt.*
* Pietro Stancovich, *Anfiteatro di Pola*
* Pignorius, *de Serv.*
* *Pitture de Ercolan.*
* Pindar, *Olymp.*
* Pitisc. (Inscriptions)
* Plato, *de Leg.*
* Plato, *Euthyphr.*
* Plato, *Phaed.* (ed. Bipont)
* Plat., *Symp.*
* Plat., *Theaet.*
* Plaut., *Amph.*
* Plaut., *As.* (*Asin.*?)
* Plaut., *Aul.*
* Plaut., *Bacch.*
* Plaut., *Capt.*
* Plaut., *Cas.*
* Plaut., *Cist.*
* Plaut., *Crass.*
* Plaut., *Curc.*
* Plaut., *Epid.*
* Plaut., *Men.*
* Plaut., *Merc.*
* Plaut., *Mil.*
* Plaut., *Most.*
* Plaut., *Pers.*
* Plaut., *Poen.*
* Plaut., *Pseud.*
* Plaut., *Rud.*
* Plaut., *Stich.*
* Plin., *Ep.*
* Plin. Jun., *Ep.* (ev. identisch mit dem vorigen?)
* Plinius, *Historia Naturalis*
* Plin., *Paneg.*
* Plut., *Coriol.*
* Plut., *de Garrul.*
* Plutarch.
* Plutarch., *Agid. et Cleom.*
* Plutarch., *Alex.*
* Plutarch., ''Anton.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg058 |title=Antonius |last=Plutarch |first=}}
* Plutarch., *Crass.*
* Plutarch., *Galb.*
* Plutarch., *Gracch.*
* Plutarch., *Lysand.*
* Plutarch., *Paul. Aemil.*
* Plutarch., *Pericl.*
* Plutarch., *T. Gracch.*
* Poet. vet. ap. Quint.
* Poet Vet. in *Antholog. Lat.* (Burman.)
* Pollux
* Pollux, *Onomast.*
* Polyb.
* Polyb., *Fr. Hist.*
* Pompon. ap. *Non.*
* Pomp., *Dig.*
* Pontedera, *Curae Posth. ad l.* (?ad Cato, R. R.?)
* Porphyr. *Schol. ad Hor.*
* Porphyr. ad Hor. *Od.*
* Porphyr. *in Ptol. Harm.*
* Prince of Biscari, *Degli antichi Ornamenti e Trastulli de' Bambini*
* Procop., *de Aedific. Justin.*
* Procop., *Goth.*
* Procul., *Dig.*
* *Procuratori Baphii Cissae Histriae* (siehe ev. Carli, *Antich. Ital.*)
* Propert.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0620.phi001 |title=Elegiae |last=Propertius |first=Sextus}}
* Prud., ''Apoth.'': {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa005.perseus-lat2:1 |title=Apotheosis |last=Propertius |first=Sextus}}
* Prudent., ''Cathem.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa004 |title=Cathemerina |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prudent., ''Hamart.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa006 |title=Hamartigenia |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prud., ''Peri Steph.'' (im Text in Griechisch, siehe ''Brabeum''): {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa001.perseus-lat2:1 |title=Liber Peristephanon |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prud., ''Psychom.'': {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa002.perseus-lat2:pr |title=Psychomachia |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prudent., ''in Symmach.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa007 |title=Contra Symmachum |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* P. Scipio ap. Macrob. *Sat.*
* Quaranta., *Mus. Borb.*
* Quint.
* Quint., *Declam.*
* Quint., *Inst.*
* Q. Cic., *Pet. Cons.*
* Reines., *Inscr.*
* Rheines, *Syntagm. Inscript.*
* Rhemn. Fann., *de Pond. et Mens.*
* Rhodius
* Riddle
* *Riddle's English-Latin Dictionary*
* Romanelli, *Topogr. Napolitan.*
* Romanelli, *Viagg. a Pompei*
* Ruperti, *ad Suet. Aug.*
* Ruperti, *ad Juv.*
* Rutil., *Itiner.*
* Sallust, ''Cat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0631.phi001 |title=Catilinae Coniuratio |last=Sallustius Crispus |first=Gaius}}
* Sallust, *Fragm. ap. Non.*
* Sallust, *Fragm. Incert.* (ed. Gerlach.)
* Sallust, *Hist.* ap. Non.
* Sallust, ''Jugurth.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0631.phi002 |title=Bellum Iugurthinum |last=Sallustius Crispus |first=Gaius}}
* Salmas., *de Mod. Usur.*
* Salmas ad Lamprid, *Alex. Sev.*
* Salmas ad Solin.
* Samas. (ev. Salmas?), *ad Tertull. de Pall.*
* Salvian., *Gub D.*
* Scaev., *Dig.*
* Scheffer, *Mil. Nav.*
* Scheffer, *Mil. Nav. Addend.*
* Scheffer, *Re Vehic.*
* Schilte ad Kircher. *Musurg.*
* Schneider (zu Columell.?)
* Schneider (zu R. R.?)
* Schneider, *Index R. R. Script.*
* Schneider (zu Vitruv.?)
* Schneider, *de trapeto Catonis*
* Schneider, Index. *Script. R. R.*
* Schol. Acron. ad Hor. *Sat.*
* Schol. Aristoph. *Eq.*
* Schol. ad Thucyd.
* Schol. Vet.
* Schol. Vet. ap. Juv. *Sat.*
* Scip.
* Scipio Afr. ap. Gell.
* Scipio Afr. ap. Macrob. *Sat.*
* Scribon., *Compos.*
* Seneca, ''Agam.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi007 |title=Agamemnon |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Apocol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi011 |title=Apocolocyntosis |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Benef.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi013 |title=De Beneficiis |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Brev. Vit.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa004 |title=De Brevitate Vitae |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Cons. ad Marc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa007 |title=De Consolatione ad Marciam |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, *Const. Sap.*
* Seneca, ''Contr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1014.phi001 |title=Controversiae |last=Seneca the Elder |first=}}
* Seneca, *Ep.*
* Seneca, ''Herc. Fur.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi001 |title=Hercules Furens |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Herc. Oet.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi009 |title=Hercules Oetaeus |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, *Hipp.*
* Seneca, ''Ira'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa010 |title=De Ira |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Med.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi004 |title=Medea |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Octav.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi010 |title=Octavia |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Oed.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi006 |title=Oedipus |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Prov.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa012 |title=De Providentia |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, *Quaest. Nat.*
* Seneca, ''Suas.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1014.phi003 |title=Suasoriae |last=Seneca the Elder |first=}}
* Seneca, ''Tranquill.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa013 |title=De Tranquillitate Animi |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Troad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi002 |title=Troades |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Thyest.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi008 |title=Thyestes |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''V. B.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa014 |title=De Vita Beata |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seren. Sammon.
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Aen.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0053 |title=Servii Grammatici in Vergilii Aeneidos Librum Primum Commentarius |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Bucol..'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0091 |title=Commentary on the Eclogues of Vergil |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Georg.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0092 |title=Commentary on the Georgics of Vergil |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Sever., *Aetn.*
* Sext. Ruf., *de Reg. Urb.*
* Sicul. Flacc., *de Condit. Agror.* (Goes.)
* Sidon., *Carm.*
* Sidon., ''Epist.'' (I-IX): {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0261.stoa0002 |title=Epistulae |last=Sidonius Apollinaris |first=}}
* Sidon., *in conc. post Epist.*
* Sidon. Apoll., ''Carm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0261.stoa0001 |title=Carmina |last=Sidonius Apollinaris |first=}}
* Sil. Ital.
* Simpl. ap. Goes.
* Sisenna. ap. Non.
* Sisenna ap. Charis
* Solin.
* Soph., *Ag.*
* Soph., ''Electr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg005 |title=Electra |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Soph., ''Oed. T.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg004 |title=Oedipus Tyrannus |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Soph., *Tr.* (see Soph., *Trachin.*)
* Soph., ''Trachin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg001 |title=Trachiniae |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Spanheim
* Spanheim ad Callim. *Hymn. in Dian.*
* Spart., *Ael. Ver.*
* Spart., *Caracall.*
* Spart., *Hadr.*
* Spart., *Pescenn. Nig.*
* Spart., *Sev.*
* Spon., *Miscell. Erud. Ant.*
* Spon., *Recherches*
* Spratt and Forbes, *Travels in Lycia*
* Stackelberg, *Gräb. d. Hell.*
* Stat., ''Achill.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi003 |title=Achilleis |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Stat., ''Sylv.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi002 |title=Silvae |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Statius, ''Theb.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi001 |title=Thebais |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Staunton
* Strabo ed. Siebenk.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001 |title=Geography |last= |first=Strabo}}
* Stuart, *Antiq. of Athens*
* Suet., ''Aug.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo012 |title=Divus Augustus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Cal.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo014 |title=Caligula |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Claud.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo015 |title=Divus Claudius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Dom.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo022 |title=Domitianus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Galb.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo017 |title=Galba |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., *Gramm.*
* Suet., ''Jul.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo011 |title=Divus Julius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Nero'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo016 |title=Nero |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Octav.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo012 |title=Divus Augustus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Otho'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo018 |title=Otho |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Tib.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo013 |title=Tiberius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Tit.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo021 |title=Divus Titus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Vesp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo020 |title=Divus Vespasianus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., *Vitell.*
* Sulpic. ad Cic. *Fam.*
* Sulp. Sev.
* Sulp. Sev., *Dial.*
* Sulp. Sev., *Hist. Sacr.*
* Symeoni, *Epitaffi Antichi* (Lione, 1557)
* Symm., *Ep.*
* Sympos.
* Sympos., *Aenigm.*
* Tac., ''Ann.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi005 |title=Annales |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Tac., ''Germ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi002 |title=De Origine et Situ Germanorum Liber |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Tac., ''Hist.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi004 |title=Historiae |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Terent., ''Adelph.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi006 |title=Adelphi |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Eun.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi003 |title=Eunuchus |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Heautontim.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi002 |title=Heautontimorumenos |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Terent., ''Hecyr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi005 |title=Hecyra |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Phorm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi004 |title=Phormio |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Tertull., *Anim.*
* Tertull., ''Apol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0275.stoa009 |title=Apologeticum |last=Tertullianus |first=Quintus Septimius Florens}}
* Tertull., *Carm. de Jona et Ninive*
* Tertull., *ad Hermog.*???
* Tertull., *ad Nation.*
* Tertull., *ad Scapul.*
* Tertull., *Habit. Mil.*
* Tertull., *adv. Hermog.*
* Tertull., *adv. Jud.*
* Tertull., *adv. Marc.*
* Tertull., *Coron. Mil.*
* Tertull., *(de) Cult. Foem.*
* Tertull., *Pall.*
* Tertull., *Poen.* (ev. *P&lt;ae&gt;n.*?)
* Tertull., *Praescr.*
* Tertull., ''de Spectac.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0275.stoa027 |title=De Spectaculis |last=Tertullianus |first=Quintus Septimius Florens}}
* Tertull., *Virg. Veland.*
* Theocr., *Idyl.*
* Theophrast., *Hist. Plant.*
* Thucyd.
* Tibull.
* Tiro ap. Gell.
* Titin. ap. Non.
* Titinnius (vermutlich identisch mit letztem)
* Tischbein
* Townsend, *Itinerary*
* Trajan. ad Plin. *Ep.*
* Trebell., *Claud.*
* Trebell., *Gallien.*
* Trebell., *Trig. Tyrann.*
* Turnbull, *Treatise on Ancient Painting*
* Turnebus, *Advers.*
* Tzetz, *ad Lycophr.*
* Uggeri, *Capo di Bove*
* Ulp., *Dig.*
* Val. Flacc.
* Valerius Maximus: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1038.phi001 |title=Facta et Dicta Memorabilia |last=Valerius Maximus |first=}}
* Val. Max., *Ext.*
* Valerian. *in Epist. ap. Trebell. Claud.*
* Varro, ap. Non.
* Varro, *L. L.*
* Varro, *R. R.*
* Varro, *De Vit. Pop. Ro. ap. Non.*
* Vatican Virgil
* Veget., *Mil.*
* Veget., *Mul. Med.* oder *Mulom.*
* Veget., *Vet.*
* Vell.
* Vell. Pat.
* Velser, *Histor. Augustan.*
* Venant., *Carm.*
* Virg., ''Aen.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi003 |title=Aeneid |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., *Catalect.*
* Virg., *Cir.* / *Ciris.*
* Virg., *Copa*
* Virg., *Cul.*
* Virg., ''Ecl.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi001 |title=Eclogae |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., ''Georg.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi002 |title=Georgicon |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., *Moret.*
* Virg., *Pervigil. Ven.*
* Visconti, *Inscript. Triop.*
* Visconti, *Lettera al Sigr. Giuseppe Carnveali, sopra alcuni Vasi sepolcrali rinvenuti nella vicinanza della antica Alba Longa*
* Visconti, *Mus. Pio. Clem.*
* Vitruv.
* Vitruv., *Compend.*
* Vopisc., *Bonos.*
* Vopisc., *Carin.*
* Vopisc., *Prob.*
* Vopisc., *Saturn.*
* Vopisc., *Tac.*
* Vulg., ''Exod.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg002.perseus-lat1 |title=Exodus |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Vulg., ''1. Kings'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg013.perseus-lat1 |title=1 Kings |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Vulg., ''Levit.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg003.perseus-lat1 |title=Leviticus |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Wernsdorf (e.g. &quot;Poet Lat. Min. ap. Wernsdorf&quot;)
* Wesseling ad Diodor. Sic.
* Wilkinson, *Ancient Egyptians* bzw. *Manners and Customs of Ancient Egyptians* (see below)
* Wilkinson, *Manners and Customs of the Egyptians* (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mannerscustomsof01wilk/page/n7/mode/2up |title=The manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians: Vol. 1 |last=Wilkinson |first=John Gardner}}
* Wilkinson, *Manners and Customs of the Egyptians* (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mannerscustomsof02wilk/page/n7/mode/2up |title=The manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians: Vol. 2 |last=Wilkinson |first=John Gardner}}
* Wilkinson, *Manners and Customs of the Egyptians* (Vol. 3 missing)
* Winkelm., *Cab. Stosch.*
* Wink., ''Mon. Ant. Ined.: {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/winckelmann1767ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Monumenti antichi inediti |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Mon. Ined.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/winckelmann1767ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Monumenti antichi inediti |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Pierres gravées'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/16588 |title=Description des pierres gravées du feu baron de Stosch dediée a son eminence monseigneur le cardinal Aléxandre Albani par m. l'abbé Winckelmann bibliothecaire de son eminence |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Storia delle Arti'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2087673 |title=Storia delle arti del disegno presso gli antichi |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wunder., *Codex Erfutens.*
* Xen., ''Anab.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg006 |title=Anabasis |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''Cyrop.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg007 |title=Cyropaedia |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., *Equest.* (see Xen., *R. Equest.*)
* Xen., ''Hell.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg001 |title=Hellenica |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''R. Equest.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg013.perseus-grc1 |title=De re equestri |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''Symp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg004 |title=Symposium |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xenophon., *Hellen.* (see Xen., *Hell.*)

[[Category:Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary|*]]

== Requirements ==

All recommended editions should be ''freely available.'' This means, that access is both unrestricted and for free. This usually entails that these texts are in the public domain or licensed under one of the ''Creative Commons''-licenses. The point of this is to enable to provide references to Latin and Greek passages (and other cited texts) which lead to freely accessible online editions of these texts. No amount of money must be charged to access them, and no login-data be necessary in order to access these texts. The user should also be able to download these texts.

Recommended editions should be fully digital editions, that is, the text has been transcribed instead of pages merely having been scanned and made available as images. Where ''free'' editions of such digital texts are unavailable, scanned books can be used as well, however.

== Selection criteria for primary resources ==

Texts are selected from the following sources and in the following order (e.g. Perseus Digital Library is preferred, where available):

# [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ Perseus Digital Library]: Editions of Latin and Greek texts available at the ''Perseus Digital Library'' should be chosen, if these are either in the public domain or shared using a ''Creative Commmons''-license. ''Perseus'' provides mostly &quot;canonical&quot; texts.
# [https://www.opengreekandlatin.org/ Open Greek &amp; Latin] and the [https://scaife.perseus.org/library/ Scaife Viewer]: Where ''Perseus'' does not offer an author or specific text, this site is next in line.
# Online editions which meet the above requirements and allow links to a specific page (or even passage) of the text in question. Web-sites providing such a functionality are, for example: Archive.org, Gallica.
# Online editions, which meet the above requirements but do not allow links to a specific page. These editions should be a last resort, however.

== External links ==

* [https://creativecommons.org/ Creative Commons]: This organization provides templates for copyright licenses, which using and sharing content less restrictive.
* [https://archive.org Archive.org]
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr Gallica]

[[Category:Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary|*]]
[[Category:RICH-2K/Project pages]]</text>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="57319" sha1="0fqswr07mktfe8s2kplqjdwp3n416sz" xml:space="preserve">{{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Navbox}}
'''Recommended Editions''' are editions of texts referenced in the articles of the ''Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary''. These texts fall under two categories:

* ''Primary sources,'' i.e. the original Latin and Greek texts.
* ''Secondary sources,'' i.e. texts used to understand the primary sources.

The sections about [[#Requirements|requirements]] and [[#Selection criteria for primary resources|selection criteria]] provide information about how these editions are to be selected.

== Recommended Editions ==

The following list contains example references, mainly from the articles of RICH-1849, followed, where available, by citations with links to &quot;recommended&quot; online editions. This is a work in progress.

* Achill. Tat., ''de Amor. Clitoph. et Leucip.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Acro. ad Hor. ''Ep.''
* Acro. ad Hor. ''Sat.''
* Acron. ad Hor. ''Od.''
* Acron.
* Aelian., ''Variar.''
* Aelian., ''Var. Hist.''
* Aesch., ''Ag.''
* Aesch., ''in Timarch.''
* Aesch., ''Pers.''
* Aesch., ''Prom.''
* African., ''Dig.''
* Agathias
* Agostini, ''Gemme'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15878 |title=Le gemme antiche figurate di Leonardo Agostini ... Parte prima |last=Agostini |first=Leonardo}}
* Agostini, ''Gemme'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15879 |title=Le gemme antiche figurate di Leonardo Agostini ... Parte seconda |last=Agostini |first=Leonardo}}
* Alciphron, ''Ep.''
* Alcuinus, ''De Divinis Officiis''
* Alex., ''Κηρυττ.''
* Alstorp, ''de Hastis Veterum'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Joh_Alstorphii_de_Hastis_Veterum_opus_po/xRxdNXuQDHwC |title=De Hastis Veterum Opus Posthumum |last=Alstorph |first=Jan}}
* Amm. Marc.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Ammian: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Ampel.
* Anthol. Lat.'' (ed. Burm.?)
* Anthol. Lat. Ep.
* Anthyl ap. Oribas. ''Coll. Med.''
* Anton. (e. g. ad Pet. ''Sat.'')
* Anton. Caracall.
* Apic.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Apollodor.: {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001 |title=Bibliotheca |last=Apollodorus |first=}}
* Apollodor., ''Bibl.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001 |title=Bibliotheca |last=Apollodorus |first=}}
* Appian., ''Bell. Civ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0551.tlg017 |title=Civil Wars |last=Appianus of Alexandria |first=}}
* Apul., ''Apol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi001 |title=Apologia |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Apul, ''de Mund.''
* Apul, ''Deo Socr.''
* Apul., ''Flor.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi003 |title=Florida |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Apul., ''Met.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi002 |title=Metamorphoses |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Ach.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg001 |title=Acharnians |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Av.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg006 |title=Aves |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist., ''Eth.''
* Arist., ''Fragm.''
* Aristot., ''Gen. An.''
* Aristotle, ''H. N.''
* Aristot., ''Rhet..'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Aristoph., ''Eq.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg002 |title=Equites |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Nub.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg003 |title=Nubes |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist.'', ''de Mund.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., ''Pac.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg005 |title=Pax |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Plut.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg011 |title=Plutus |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist., ''Polit.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., ''Probl.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., ''Ran.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg009 |title=Ranae |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristophanes., ''Thesm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg008 |title=Thesmophoriazusae  |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Vesp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg004 |title=Vespae |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arnob.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arnob., ''adv. Gent.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arrian., ''Anab.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg001 |title=Anabsis |last=Arrian |first=}}
* Arrian., ''Tact.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg005 |title=Tactica |last=Arrian |first=}}
* Artemidorus: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Artis., ''Durobriv.''
* Ascon. ''ad Cic. Fragm. pro C. Cornel.''
* Ascon. ''Argument. Milon.''
* Ascon. ''in Cic. Verr.''
* Ascon. ''in Cic. Orat. pro Scauro''
* Ascon. ''in Verr.''
* Athen. (Suidas)
* Athen., ''Deipn.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0008.tlg001 |title=Deipnosophistae |last=Athenaeus of Naucratis |first=}}
* Auctor. ''ad Herenn.''
* Auct., ''Agrar.'' (ed. Goes.)
* Auct., ''Consol. ad Liv.''
* Auct., ''Dial. de Orat.''
* Auct., ''Paneg. ad Pison.'' bzw. ''Pan. in Pis.''
* August., ''contra Faust.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* August., ''Dial. Antiqu.''
* August., ''in Psalm.''
* August., ''Mon. Ancyran.'' ap. Grut.
* Augustin., ''Civ. Dei'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Augustin., ''de Gent.''
* Aul. Gell.: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0071 |title=Noctes Atticae |last=Gellius |first=Aulus}}
* Aur. Arc., ''Dig.''
* Aurel., ''Vopisc.''
* Aurel. Vict.
* Aurel. Vict., ''Caes.''
* Aurel. Vict., ''Epit.''
* Aurel. Vict., ''Vit. Caes.''
* Aurel. Vict., ''Vri. Illustr.''
* Auson., ''Clar. Urb.''
* Auson., ''in Div. Verr.''
* Auson., ''Ecl. de Fer. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa007.perseus-lat1:23 |title=De Feriis Romanis |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Auson., ''Edyll.''
* Auson., ''Ephem. in Parecb.''
* Auson., ''Epigr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa010 |title=Epigrammata Ausonii de diversis rebus |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Auson., ''Grat. Act.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Auson., ''Mosell.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa019 |title=Mosella |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Ausonius, ''Perioch. Odyss.''
* Ausonius, ''Period. Od.'' (ev. fehlerhaft für ''Perioch. Od.''?)
* Auson., ''Profess.''
* Avian., ''Fab.''
* Avien., ''in Arat.''
* B. Crus. ''ad Suet. Aug.''
* Balduinus, ''de Calceo''
* Bartholin., ''de Puerp.''
* Bartoli, ''Admirand.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1693 |title=Admiranda Romanarvm Antiqvitatvm Ac Veteris Scvlptvrae Vestigia: Anaglyphico Opere Elaborata Ex Marmoreis Exemplaribvs Qvae Romae Adhvc Extant In Capitolio Aedibvs Hortisqve Virorvm Principvm Ad Antiqvam Elegantiam |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, ''Admirand. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1693 |title=Admiranda Romanarvm Antiqvitatvm Ac Veteris Scvlptvrae Vestigia: Anaglyphico Opere Elaborata Ex Marmoreis Exemplaribvs Qvae Romae Adhvc Extant In Capitolio Aedibvs Hortisqve Virorvm Principvm Ad Antiqvam Elegantiam |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, ''Lucerne'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1691 |title=Le Antiche Lvcerne [lucerne] Sepolcrali Figvrate [figurate] Raccolte dalle Caue [cave] sotterranee, e grotte di Roma |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, ''Sep.''
* Bartolini, ''de Paenula''
* Bartolom. Font., ''Comment. in Pers.''
* Baumgarten-Crusius, ''Clavis'' (gemeint ist wohl ''Clavis Suetoniana triplicem continens indicem...'', 1818)
* Bayfius, ''Re Nav.''
* Becchi, ''del Calcidico e della Cripta di Eumachia''
* Becchi, ''Mus. Borb.''
* Becker, ''Augusteum'' (???)
* Becker, ''Charicles, Excurs.''
* Becker, ''Gallus''
* Becker, ''Quaest. Plautin.''
* Beckman, ''History of Inventions'' (London, 1846)
* Beier, ''ad Cic. Amic.''
* Bellori, ''Fragm. Urb. Rom.''
* Benecke ad Cic. ''Cat.''
* Bertoli, ''Antichità di Aquileja''
* Bianchini, ''Storia Univers.''
* Bion
* Blanchini, ''Instrument. Mus. Vet.''
* Böck, ''Urk.''
* Boldetti, ''Cimiterj''
* Brocchi, ''Suolo di Roma''
* Broüer, ''de Adorat.''
* Brut. ad Cic. ''Fam.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Budaeus, ''de Asse'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Buonarotti, ''Med.''
* Buonarotti, ''Vasi di Vetro''
* Burney, ''Hist. of Music''
* C. Soph., ''Fragm.''
* Cael. ad Cic. ''Fam.''
* Cael. Aurel., ''Tard.''
* Caes. Germ. in Arat.&quot;
* Caes., ''Bell. Civ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0075 |title=De bello Civili |last=Caesar |first=Julius}}
* Caes., ''B. G.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0002 |title=De bello Gallico |last=Caesar |first=Julius}}
* Caesius, ''in Asterismo Lyrae''
* Caii (ev. Call.), ''Dig.''
* Call., ''Dig.''
* Callim., ''Dem.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0481%3ahymn%3d6 |title=Hymn to Demeter |last=Callimachus |first=}}
* Callim., ''Hymn. in Dian.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0481%3ahymn%3d3 |title=??? Hymn to Artemis ??? |last=Callimachus |first=}}
* Callixenus ap. Athen.
* Calpurn., ''Ecl.''
* Cancellieri, ''Carcere Tulliano''
* Capell.
* 'Capitoline Museum''
* Capitol., ''Antonin.''
* Capitol., ''Anton. Philosoph.''
* Capitol., ''Macrin.''
* Capitol., ''Marc. Antonin.'' (bzw. ''Marc. Antonin. Philos.''
* Capitol., ''Max. et Balb.''
* Capitol., ''Maxim.''
* Capitol., ''Maxim. jun.''
* Capitol., ''Pertinax''
* Capitol., ''Ver.''
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2892712 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Prima |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893042 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Seconda |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 3): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893452 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Terza |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 4): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893852 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Quarta |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 5): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2894196 |title=Appendici di documenti spettanti alla parte quarta delle Antichità Italiche |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Caryst. ap. Athen.
* Casali, ''Splendid. Urb. Rom.''
* Casaub.
* Cassian., ''Institut.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cassini, ''Pitture Antichi''
* Cassiodorus, ''in Psalm.''
* Cassiodorus, ''Var. Ep.''
* Cato, ''R. R.''
* Catull.: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0003 |title=Carmina |last= |first=}}
* Caylus: {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/caylus1752ga |title=Recueil D'Antiquités, Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques Et Romaines |last= |first=}}
* Caylus, ''Receuil d'Antiq.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/caylus1752ga |title=Recueil D'Antiquités, Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques Et Romaines |last= |first=}}
* Celsus: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0141 |title=De Medicina |last= |first=}}
* Censorin., ''De Die Nat.''
* Charis.
* Chishul, ''Inscr. Sig.''
* Cic. ap. Macrob. ''Sat.''
* Cic., ''Acad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0032 |title=Academica |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Agrar.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Amic.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0040 |title=De Amicitia |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Arch.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dArch. |title=Pro Archia |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Att.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Brut.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0544 |title=Brutus |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Caecin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Cael.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dCael. |title=Pro Caelio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Cat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dCatil. |title=In Catilinam |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Cluent.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dClu. |title=Pro Cluentio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''de Orat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0120 |title=De Oratore |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''de Rep.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0031 |title=De Republica |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Div.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0034 |title=De Divinatione |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Ep. ad Att.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Fam.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0009 |title=Epistulae ad Familiares |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Fin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Fl.'' (vermutl. ''Flacc.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dFlac. |title=Pro L. Flacco |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Flacc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dFlac. |title=Pro L. Flacco |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., Fragm. ap. Non.
* Cic., ''Fragm. Or. in Clod.''
* Cic., ''Harusp. Respons.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0014%3atext%3dHar. |title=De haruspicum responso |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Ibis''
* Cic., ''in Cael. Div.'' (???, ev. ''in Coel. Div.'')
* Cic., ''in Senat.''
* Cic., ''Inv.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0683 |title=De Inventione |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Leg.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0030 |title=De Legibus |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Ligar.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Milo'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0020%3atext%3dMil. |title=Milo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Muren.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dMur. |title=Pro Murena |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Muret.''
* Cic., ''N. D.'' (''Nat. Deor.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0037 |title=De Natura Deorum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Off.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0047 |title=De Officiis |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Orat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0120 |title=De Oratore |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Par.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Parad.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Parad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Phil.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Pis.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dPis. |title=In L. Pisonem |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Planc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dPlanc. |title=Pro Plancio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Post Red.''
* Cic., ''Prov. Cons.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''ad Q. Fr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0017 |title=??? Letters to and from Quintus ??? |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''pro Rosc. Com.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dQ.+Rosc. |title=Pro Q. Roscio comoedo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''R. Perd.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Rabir. Post.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dRab.+Post. |title=Pro C. Rabiro Postumo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Rosc. Am.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dS.+Rosc. |title=Pro Sex. Roscio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Senect.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0038 |title=De Senectute |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Sext.''
* Cic., ''Somn.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Sull.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dSul. |title=Pro Sulla |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Top.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Cic., ''Tusc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0044 |title=Tusculanae Disputationes |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Univers.''
* Cic., ''Vatin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0014%3atext%3dVat. |title=??? Against Vatinius ??? |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Verr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0012%3atext%3dVer. |title=In C. Verrem |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cincius ap. Gell.
* Circ., ''Acad.''
* Claud., ''B. Gild.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Claud., ''Cons. Honor.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Claud., ''Cons. Stilich.''
* Claud., ''de Laud. Stilich.''
* Claud., ''Ep.''
* Claud., ''Epigr.''
* Claud., ''in Eutrop.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Claud., ''in Rufin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Claud., ''Laud. Stil.''
* Claud., ''Mall. Theod.''
* Claud., ''Nupt. Honor. et Mar.''
* Claud., ''Proem. ad Epith. in Nupt. Hon. et Mar.''
* Claud. Quadrigar. ap. Gell.
* Cod. Theodos.
* Coel. Aurel., ''Acut.''
* Coel. Aurel., ''Tard.''
* Columell.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Columell., ''Arb.''
* Coryate, ''Crudities'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Curt.
* Cyprian., ''de Habitu Virgin.'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Davis, ''China''
* Demosth. (Reiske)
* Demosth., ''Contra Conon.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Demosth., ''de Coron.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Demosth., ''de Fals. Leg.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Demosth., ''in Mid.'' (Schaeffer): {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Dig.
* Diodor.
* Diomed.
* Dionys.
* Dion. Cass.
* Dion. Hal.
* Dionys.
* Dioscor.
* Doederl.
* Don.
* Donat. ad Terent. ''Adelph.''
* Donat. ap. Terent. ''Phorm''
* Donati, ''Dittici Antichi'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15878 |title=Le gemme antiche figurate di Leonardo Agostini ... Parte prima |last=Agostini |first=Leonardo}}
* Dorvill., ''Iter. Sicul.''
* Dosiad. ap. Athen
* Dr. Hyde/Christie, ''Ancient Greek Games'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ducang., ''Gloss. Graec. et Lat.''
* Du Choul, ''Castramet. des Romains'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Joh_Alstorphii_de_Hastis_Veterum_opus_po/xRxdNXuQDHwC |title=De Hastis Veterum Opus Posthumum |last=Alstorph |first=Jan}}
* Durant., ''de Rit.'': {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0023.stoa001.perseus-lat2:14 |title=Res Getae |last=Ammianus Marcellinus |first=}}
* 'Edict of Diocletian''
* Eichstädt., ''Dissertt. de Imagg. Rom.''
* Elmes, ''Lectures on Architecture''
* Ennius ap. Cic. ''Acad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Ennius ap. Isidor. ''Orig.''
* Ernesti, ''Clav. Cic.''
* Etymol. Sylburg. ap. Scheffer, ''Re Nav.''
* Eum., ''Paneg. ad Const.''
* Eurip., ''Alcest.''
* Eur., ''Cycl.''
* Eur., ''Hel.''
* Eur., ''Hippol.''
* Eurip., ''Ion.''
* Eurip., ''Iph. Taur.''
* Eur., ''Med.''
* Eurip., ''Suppl.''
* Eust., ''Od.''
* Eustath., ad Hom. ''Od.''
* Eustath., ''ad Il.''
* Fabius Pictor ap. Gell.
* Fabretii, ''Aq.''
* Fabretti, ''Col. Tr.''
* Fabretti, ''Col. Tr. Addend.''
* Fabri., ''Agon.''
* Fellow, ''Journal in Asia Minor'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ferrarius
* Festus
* Ficoroni, ''La Bolla d'Oro'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ficoroni, ''Labico Antico'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ficoroni, ''Vestig. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Firm. Math. oder Firm. Matth.
* Florent., ''Dig.''
* Florus
* Fortunatus Schackius, ''Myriothec.''
* 'Fragm. jur. ante Justinean. a Maio edita''
* Francesco di Gorgio
* Front., ''ad M. Caes. Ep.'' (ed. A. Maio)
* Front., ''de Or. Ep.'' (ed. A. Maio)
* Front., ''Strateg.''
* Fronto, ad Verum Imp. Ep.
* Frontin., ''Ag.''
* Frontinus, ''de Aquaeduct.''
* Fulgent. Planc.
* Furnaletti
* Furnaletti, ''de Musiv.''
* Furnaletti, ''Lex. Facciolat.''
* Gabius Bassus ap. Gell.
* Galen., ''Comment. in Hippocr. de Articul.''
* Galen, ''Compos. Med. per. gen.''
* Gally Knight, ''Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy''
* Gamucci, ''Antichità di Roma'' (Venez. 1588)
* Gell.
* Gell., ''Itinerary of Morea'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/Itinerary_of_the_Morea.html?id=dHCgAAAAMAAJ |title=Itinerary of the Morea: Being a Description of the Routes of that Peninsula |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Gell, ''Pompeiana'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gell1832bd1 |title=Pompeiana: the topography, edifices and ornaments of Pompeii ; the result of excavations since 1819 (Vol. 1) |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Gell, ''Pompeiana'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gell1832bd2 |title=Pompeiana: the topography, edifices and ornaments of Pompeii ; the result of excavations since 1819 (Vol. 2) |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Geopon.
* Ginzrot, ''Wagen und Fahrwerke'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/ginzrot1817ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Die Wagen und Fahrwerke der Griechen und Römer und anderer alten Völker |last=Ginzrot |first=Johann Christian}}
* 'Giornal. Arcad.''
* 'Gloss. Isid.''
* Gloss. Philox. Vulgat. ''Ezech.''
* Gloss. Philox., ''ξίφος ἐπικαμπὲς''
* Gori, ''Inscript. Antiq. Flor.''
* Gori, ''Mus. Etrusc.'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1737bd1 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 1) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gori, ''Mus. Etrusc.'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1737bd2 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 2) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gori, ''Mus. Etrusc.'' (Vol. 3): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1743bd3 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 3) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gorlaeus, ''Dactyliotheca'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15090 |title=Dactyliothecae |last=Goorle |first=Abraham van}}
* Grat., ''Cyneg.''
* Gronov, ''Thesaur. Antiqu. Gr.''
* Grut. (Inscr.)
* Guasco, ''Delle Ornatrici'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1fdwnp517owC/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Delle ornatrici, e de' loro uffizi, ed insieme della superstizione de' gentili nella chioma; e della cultura della medesima presso le antiche donne romane |last=Guasco |first=Francesco Eugenio}}
* Guischard, ''Mémoires Milit.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10525879?page=1 |title=Mémoires militaires sur les Grecs et les Romains. Tome 1 |last=Guischardt |first=Charles}}
* Gwilt, ''Encyclopaedia of Architecture'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00gwiluoft |title=An encyclopaedia of architecture, historical, theoretical, and practical |last=Gwilt |first=Joseph}}
* Gwilt, ''Glossary of Architecture''
* Heraclid. ap. Athen.
* Heindorf. ad Hor. ''Op.''
* Heindorf. ad Hor. ''Sat.''
* Heraclides of Pontus ap. Athen.
* Hero, ''de Spirit.''
* Herod.
* Herodian.
* Herzog ad Sall. ''Cat.''
* Hesiod., ''Op.''
* Hesiod., ''Theogn.''
* Hesychius
* Heyne ad Virg. ''Aen.''
* Hieron., ''adv. Jov.''
* Hieron., ''Comment. Matth.''
* Hieron., ''Epist.''
* Hieron., ''Ep. ad Demetr.''
* Hieron., ''Ep. ad Julian.''
* Hieron., ''in Hierem.''
* Hieron., ''in Isai.''
* Hieron., ''in prol. Amos''
* Hieron., ''Vit. Hilar.''
* Hirt., ''Bell. Afr.''
* Hirt., ''Bell. Alex.''
* Homer., ''Hymn. Merc.''
* Homer, ''Il.''
* Homer, ''Merc.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Hymn. Merc.'')
* Hom., ''Od.''
* Hope, ''Costumes''
* Hor., ''A. P.''
* Hor., ''Carm.''
* Hor., ''Epist.''
* Hor., ''Epod.''
* Hor., ''Od.''
* Hor., ''Sat.''
* Howell, ''Treatise on the War Galleys of the Ancients''
* Howell, ''War Gallies of the Ancients'' (vermutl. identisch mit vorigem)
* Hussey, ''On Ancient Weights and Money''
* Hyg., ''de Limit.'' (ed.? Goes.)
* Hygin., ''Astron.''
* Hygin., ''Fab.''
* Imp. Anast., ''Cod.''
* Imp. Justin., ''Cod.''
* Impp. Valent. et Valens. Cod. Theodos.
* Inscript. ap. Gruter
* Interpet. Vet. ad Virg. ''Ecl.''
* Iorio, ''Mimica degli Antichi''
* Iorio, ''Officina de' Papiri'' (bzw. ''Officina de' Papiri, del Real. Mus. Borb.'')
* Isidor., ''Gloss.''
* Isidorus, ''Orig.''
* Jabolen., ''Dig.''
* Jal, ''Archéologie Navale'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_jMkZCGHyzH8C/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Archéologie Navale |last=Jal |first=Auguste}}
* Jean Marteihle (''Autobiography of a French Protestant'')
* Jo. Bapt. Suarez (&quot;work on the antiquities of Cadiz&quot;)
* Jo. Cam. Rossi (ed.), ''Inscript. Vet.''
* Joann. Evang.
* Joseph., ''Bell. Jud.''
* Jul. Cap., ''Pertinax''
* Julius Pollux
* Justin
* Juv., ''Sat.''
* 'Kings'' (ex Bible)
* Kircher. ''Musurg.''
* Labacco, ''Libro dell' Architettura''
* Labeon., ''Dig.''
* Labus., ''Antich. di Mantova''
* La Chausse, ''Receuil d'Antiq. Romaines''
* Lact., ''Mort. persecut.''
* Lactant.
* Lambeccio, ''Append. ad Lib. IV. Comment.''
* Lambecc., ''Bibliothec. Caes.''
* Lambeccius, ''Comment. Bibl. Caes.''
* Giovanni Lami, ''Dissertaz. sopra le Ciste Mistiche''
* Lamprid., ''Alex. Sev.''
* Lamprid., ''Commodus''
* Lamprid., ''Elagab.''
* Lamprid., ''Heliog.''
* Liban. Antioch.
* Licetus, ''De gemmis anulorum'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_7i0a9224zjQC/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Hieroglyphica sive Antiqua schemata gemmarum anularium |last=Liceti |first=Fortunio}}
* Licetus, ''Lucern.'' (?): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008532349/page/n3/mode/2up |title=De lucernis antiquorum reconditis libri sex |last=Liceti |first=Fortunio}}
* Liv.
* Liv., ''Epit.''
* Livius Andronicus
* Longus
* Lorenzo Pignori, ''De Serv.''
* Luc., ''Zeux.''
* Lucan.
* Lucan., ''Phars.''
* Lucian., ''Lexiph.''
* Lucian., ''Salt.''
* Lucil., ''Salt.'' (ev. falsch für Lucian.?)
* Lucil., ''Sat.'' (ed. Gerlach)
* Lucret.
* Luctat. in Stat. ''Theb.''
* Lumisden, ''Antiquities of Rome'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/Remarks_on_the_Antiquities_of_Rome_and_I.html?id=n70sAAAAYAAJ |title=Remarks on the Antiquities of Rome and Its Environs |last=Lumisden |first=Andrew}}
* Lycophr.
* Lysias ap. Poll.
* Macer., ''Dig.''
* Macrin. Imp. ap. Capitolin.
* Macrob., ''Sat.''
* Maecen. ap. Senec. ''Ep.''
* Maffei, ''Mus. Veron.''
* Manilius, ''Astr.''
* Manni, ''Dissert. degli Occhiali''
* Manutius ad Cic. ''Fam.''
* Manutius, ''de Comit. Rom.''
* Mar. Victorin.
* Marcell., ''Dig.''
* Marcell. Empir.
* Marc. Capell.
* Marini
* Marini, ''Frat. Arv.''
* Marini, ''Inscriz. Alb.''
* Marius Victorin.
* Marquez, ''Case degli Antichi Romani''
* Marquez, ''Ord. Dor.''
* Mart., ''Epigramm.''
* Mart., ''in Lemmate''
* Mart., ''Spect.''
* Mart., ''Tit. in Ep.''
* Martian. Capell.
* Martini, ''von den Sonnenuhren der Alten''
* Mauricii (bzw. Mauricius), ''Ars Mil.'' (ed. Joh. Scheffer)
* Mazois, ''Ruines de Pomp.''
* Mazzocchi, ''de Ascia''
* Mela
* Mercuriali, ''Gymn.''
* Micali, ''Italia avanti il Dominio de' Romani''
* Micali, ''Italia avanti i Romani''
* Millin, ''Vas. Ant.''
* Minucius Felix
* Minucius Felix, ''in Octav.''
* Modest.
* Montfauc., ''Antiq. Expl.''
* Morell., ''Dissert. de' Littori''
* Moschus ap. Athen.
* Mosebach, ''de Praecon. Vet.''
* Muller, ''Hist. of Greek Literature''
* Müller, ''Archaologie der Kunst'' (korrekt wohl ''Archäologie der Kunst'')
* Müller, ''Handbuch der Archäologie der Kunst''
* Murat (Inscriptions)?
* Muratori, ''Inscript.''
* Muret (Inscriptions)?
* 'Museo Borbon.''
* 'Mus. Capitol.''
* 'Mus. Chiaramont.''
* 'Mus. Pio-Clem.''
* Nardini, ''Rom. Ant.''
* Nemes., ''Fragm. de Aucup.''
* Nemesian, ''Cyneg.''
* Nepos., ''Ag.''
* Nepos., ''Ages.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Ag.'')
* Nepos., ''Alcib.''
* Nepos, ''Att.''
* Nepos, ''Con.''
* Nepos, ''Dat.''
* Nepos, ''Dion.''
* Nepos, ''Epam.''
* Nepos, ''Eum.''
* Nepos, ''Iphicr.''
* Nepos, ''Milt.''
* Nepos, ''Pel.''
* Nepos, ''Them.''
* Nicet. Choniat., ''Script. Byzant.''
* Nicolai, ''Antichità di Pesto''
* Niebuhr, ''Hist. Rom.''
* Nigid. ap. Isidor.
* Non.
* Nonn., ''Dionys.''
* 'Not. Tires.''
* 'Notitia Imperii''
* 'Novum Testamentum''
* Oppian., ''Cyneg.''
* Oppian., ''Hal.''
* Orelli, ''Inscr.''
* Oribas, ''Coll. Med.''
* Oudendorp ''ad Suet. Galb.''
* Ov., ''Med. fac.''
* Ovid., ''Amor.''
* Ovid., ''Art. Am.''
* Ovid., ''Fast.''
* Ovid., ''Her.''
* Ovid., ''Ibis''
* Ovid., ''Met.''
* Ovid., ''Nux''
* Ovid., ''Pont.''
* Ovid., ''Rem.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Rem. Am.'')
* Ovid., ''Rem. Am.''
* Ovid., ''Trist.''
* P. Syrus ap. Pet. ''Sat.''
* P. Victor, ''de Reg. Urb. Rom.''
* Pacuv. ap. Non.
* Pallad.
* Pallad., ''Jan.''
* Pallad., ''Feb.''
* Pallad., ''Jun.''
* Pallad., ''Oct.''
* Pallad., ''Nov.''
* Panofka, ''Recherches sur les véritables Noms des Vases Grecs''
* Panvinus, ''de Lud. Circen.''
* Paterc.
* Paul. ex Fest.
* Paul., ''Dig.''
* Paul., ''Sentent.''
* Paul. Nol., ''Ep.''
* Pausan.
* Pedo Albin., ''El.''
* Perecr., ''Δουλ.''
* Persius, ''Sat.''
* Pet., ''Fragm.''
* Pet., ''Priap.''
* Pet., ''Sat.''
* Phaedr.
* Philostr., ''Imag.''
* 'Pict. Crypt.''
* Pietro Stancovich, ''Anfiteatro di Pola''
* Pignorius, ''de Serv.''
* 'Pitture de Ercolan.''
* Pindar, ''Olymp.''
* Pitisc. (Inscriptions)
* Plato, ''de Leg.''
* Plato, ''Euthyphr.''
* Plato, ''Phaed.'' (ed. Bipont)
* Plat., ''Symp.''
* Plat., ''Theaet.''
* Plaut., ''Amph.''
* Plaut., ''As.'' (''Asin.''?)
* Plaut., ''Aul.''
* Plaut., ''Bacch.''
* Plaut., ''Capt.''
* Plaut., ''Cas.''
* Plaut., ''Cist.''
* Plaut., ''Crass.''
* Plaut., ''Curc.''
* Plaut., ''Epid.''
* Plaut., ''Men.''
* Plaut., ''Merc.''
* Plaut., ''Mil.''
* Plaut., ''Most.''
* Plaut., ''Pers.''
* Plaut., ''Poen.''
* Plaut., ''Pseud.''
* Plaut., ''Rud.''
* Plaut., ''Stich.''
* Plin., ''Ep.''
* Plin. Jun., ''Ep.'' (ev. identisch mit dem vorigen?)
* Plinius, ''Historia Naturalis''
* Plin., ''Paneg.''
* Plut., ''Coriol.''
* Plut., ''de Garrul.''
* Plutarch.
* Plutarch., ''Agid. et Cleom.''
* Plutarch., ''Alex.''
* Plutarch., ''Anton.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg058 |title=Antonius |last=Plutarch |first=}}
* Plutarch., ''Crass.''
* Plutarch., ''Galb.''
* Plutarch., ''Gracch.''
* Plutarch., ''Lysand.''
* Plutarch., ''Paul. Aemil.''
* Plutarch., ''Pericl.''
* Plutarch., ''T. Gracch.''
* Poet. vet. ap. Quint.
* Poet Vet. in ''Antholog. Lat.'' (Burman.)
* Pollux
* Pollux, ''Onomast.''
* Polyb.
* Polyb., ''Fr. Hist.''
* Pompon. ap. ''Non.''
* Pomp., ''Dig.''
* Pontedera, ''Curae Posth. ad l.'' (?ad Cato, R. R.?)
* Porphyr. ''Schol. ad Hor.''
* Porphyr. ad Hor. ''Od.''
* Porphyr. ''in Ptol. Harm.''
* Prince of Biscari, ''Degli antichi Ornamenti e Trastulli de' Bambini''
* Procop., ''de Aedific. Justin.''
* Procop., ''Goth.''
* Procul., ''Dig.''
* 'Procuratori Baphii Cissae Histriae'' (siehe ev. Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'')
* Propert.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0620.phi001 |title=Elegiae |last=Propertius |first=Sextus}}
* Prud., ''Apoth.'': {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa005.perseus-lat2:1 |title=Apotheosis |last=Propertius |first=Sextus}}
* Prudent., ''Cathem.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa004 |title=Cathemerina |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prudent., ''Hamart.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa006 |title=Hamartigenia |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prud., ''Peri Steph.'' (im Text in Griechisch, siehe ''Brabeum''): {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa001.perseus-lat2:1 |title=Liber Peristephanon |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prud., ''Psychom.'': {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa002.perseus-lat2:pr |title=Psychomachia |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prudent., ''in Symmach.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa007 |title=Contra Symmachum |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* P. Scipio ap. Macrob. ''Sat.''
* Quaranta., ''Mus. Borb.''
* Quint.
* Quint., ''Declam.''
* Quint., ''Inst.''
* Q. Cic., ''Pet. Cons.''
* Reines., ''Inscr.''
* Rheines, ''Syntagm. Inscript.''
* Rhemn. Fann., ''de Pond. et Mens.''
* Rhodius
* Riddle
* 'Riddle's English-Latin Dictionary''
* Romanelli, ''Topogr. Napolitan.''
* Romanelli, ''Viagg. a Pompei''
* Ruperti, ''ad Suet. Aug.''
* Ruperti, ''ad Juv.''
* Rutil., ''Itiner.''
* Sallust, ''Cat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0631.phi001 |title=Catilinae Coniuratio |last=Sallustius Crispus |first=Gaius}}
* Sallust, ''Fragm. ap. Non.''
* Sallust, ''Fragm. Incert.'' (ed. Gerlach.)
* Sallust, ''Hist.'' ap. Non.
* Sallust, ''Jugurth.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0631.phi002 |title=Bellum Iugurthinum |last=Sallustius Crispus |first=Gaius}}
* Salmas., ''de Mod. Usur.''
* Salmas ad Lamprid, ''Alex. Sev.''
* Salmas ad Solin.
* Samas. (ev. Salmas?), ''ad Tertull. de Pall.''
* Salvian., ''Gub D.''
* Scaev., ''Dig.''
* Scheffer, ''Mil. Nav.''
* Scheffer, ''Mil. Nav. Addend.''
* Scheffer, ''Re Vehic.''
* Schilte ad Kircher. ''Musurg.''
* Schneider (zu Columell.?)
* Schneider (zu R. R.?)
* Schneider, ''Index R. R. Script.''
* Schneider (zu Vitruv.?)
* Schneider, ''de trapeto Catonis''
* Schneider, Index. ''Script. R. R.''
* Schol. Acron. ad Hor. ''Sat.''
* Schol. Aristoph. ''Eq.''
* Schol. ad Thucyd.
* Schol. Vet.
* Schol. Vet. ap. Juv. ''Sat.''
* Scip.
* Scipio Afr. ap. Gell.
* Scipio Afr. ap. Macrob. ''Sat.''
* Scribon., ''Compos.''
* Seneca, ''Agam.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi007 |title=Agamemnon |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Apocol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi011 |title=Apocolocyntosis |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Benef.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi013 |title=De Beneficiis |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Brev. Vit.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa004 |title=De Brevitate Vitae |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Cons. ad Marc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa007 |title=De Consolatione ad Marciam |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Const. Sap.''
* Seneca, ''Contr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1014.phi001 |title=Controversiae |last=Seneca the Elder |first=}}
* Seneca, ''Ep.''
* Seneca, ''Herc. Fur.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi001 |title=Hercules Furens |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Herc. Oet.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi009 |title=Hercules Oetaeus |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Hipp.''
* Seneca, ''Ira'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa010 |title=De Ira |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Med.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi004 |title=Medea |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Octav.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi010 |title=Octavia |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Oed.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi006 |title=Oedipus |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Prov.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa012 |title=De Providentia |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Quaest. Nat.''
* Seneca, ''Suas.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1014.phi003 |title=Suasoriae |last=Seneca the Elder |first=}}
* Seneca, ''Tranquill.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa013 |title=De Tranquillitate Animi |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Troad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi002 |title=Troades |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Thyest.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi008 |title=Thyestes |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''V. B.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa014 |title=De Vita Beata |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seren. Sammon.
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Aen.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0053 |title=Servii Grammatici in Vergilii Aeneidos Librum Primum Commentarius |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Bucol..'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0091 |title=Commentary on the Eclogues of Vergil |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Georg.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0092 |title=Commentary on the Georgics of Vergil |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Sever., ''Aetn.''
* Sext. Ruf., ''de Reg. Urb.''
* Sicul. Flacc., ''de Condit. Agror.'' (Goes.)
* Sidon., ''Carm.''
* Sidon., ''Epist.'' (I-IX): {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0261.stoa0002 |title=Epistulae |last=Sidonius Apollinaris |first=}}
* Sidon., ''in conc. post Epist.''
* Sidon. Apoll., ''Carm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0261.stoa0001 |title=Carmina |last=Sidonius Apollinaris |first=}}
* Sil. Ital.
* Simpl. ap. Goes.
* Sisenna. ap. Non.
* Sisenna ap. Charis
* Solin.
* Soph., ''Ag.''
* Soph., ''Electr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg005 |title=Electra |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Soph., ''Oed. T.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg004 |title=Oedipus Tyrannus |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Soph., ''Tr.'' (see Soph., ''Trachin.'')
* Soph., ''Trachin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg001 |title=Trachiniae |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Spanheim
* Spanheim ad Callim. ''Hymn. in Dian.''
* Spart., ''Ael. Ver.''
* Spart., ''Caracall.''
* Spart., ''Hadr.''
* Spart., ''Pescenn. Nig.''
* Spart., ''Sev.''
* Spon., ''Miscell. Erud. Ant.''
* Spon., ''Recherches''
* Spratt and Forbes, ''Travels in Lycia''
* Stackelberg, ''Gräb. d. Hell.''
* Stat., ''Achill.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi003 |title=Achilleis |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Stat., ''Sylv.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi002 |title=Silvae |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Statius, ''Theb.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi001 |title=Thebais |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Staunton
* Strabo ed. Siebenk.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001 |title=Geography |last= |first=Strabo}}
* Stuart, ''Antiq. of Athens''
* Suet., ''Aug.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo012 |title=Divus Augustus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Cal.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo014 |title=Caligula |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Claud.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo015 |title=Divus Claudius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Dom.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo022 |title=Domitianus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Galb.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo017 |title=Galba |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Gramm.''
* Suet., ''Jul.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo011 |title=Divus Julius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Nero'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo016 |title=Nero |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Octav.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo012 |title=Divus Augustus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Otho'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo018 |title=Otho |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Tib.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo013 |title=Tiberius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Tit.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo021 |title=Divus Titus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Vesp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo020 |title=Divus Vespasianus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Vitell.''
* Sulpic. ad Cic. ''Fam.''
* Sulp. Sev.
* Sulp. Sev., ''Dial.''
* Sulp. Sev., ''Hist. Sacr.''
* Symeoni, ''Epitaffi Antichi'' (Lione, 1557)
* Symm., ''Ep.''
* Sympos.
* Sympos., ''Aenigm.''
* Tac., ''Ann.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi005 |title=Annales |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Tac., ''Germ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi002 |title=De Origine et Situ Germanorum Liber |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Tac., ''Hist.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi004 |title=Historiae |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Terent., ''Adelph.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi006 |title=Adelphi |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Eun.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi003 |title=Eunuchus |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Heautontim.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi002 |title=Heautontimorumenos |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Terent., ''Hecyr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi005 |title=Hecyra |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Phorm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi004 |title=Phormio |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Tertull., ''Anim.''
* Tertull., ''Apol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0275.stoa009 |title=Apologeticum |last=Tertullianus |first=Quintus Septimius Florens}}
* Tertull., ''Carm. de Jona et Ninive''
* Tertull., ''ad Hermog.''???
* Tertull., ''ad Nation.''
* Tertull., ''ad Scapul.''
* Tertull., ''Habit. Mil.''
* Tertull., ''adv. Hermog.''
* Tertull., ''adv. Jud.''
* Tertull., ''adv. Marc.''
* Tertull., ''Coron. Mil.''
* Tertull., ''(de) Cult. Foem.''
* Tertull., ''Pall.''
* Tertull., ''Poen.'' (ev. ''P&lt;ae&gt;n.''?)
* Tertull., ''Praescr.''
* Tertull., ''de Spectac.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0275.stoa027 |title=De Spectaculis |last=Tertullianus |first=Quintus Septimius Florens}}
* Tertull., ''Virg. Veland.''
* Theocr., ''Idyl.''
* Theophrast., ''Hist. Plant.''
* Thucyd.
* Tibull.
* Tiro ap. Gell.
* Titin. ap. Non.
* Titinnius (vermutlich identisch mit letztem)
* Tischbein
* Townsend, ''Itinerary''
* Trajan. ad Plin. ''Ep.''
* Trebell., ''Claud.''
* Trebell., ''Gallien.''
* Trebell., ''Trig. Tyrann.''
* Turnbull, ''Treatise on Ancient Painting''
* Turnebus, ''Advers.''
* Tzetz, ''ad Lycophr.''
* Uggeri, ''Capo di Bove''
* Ulp., ''Dig.''
* Val. Flacc.
* Valerius Maximus: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1038.phi001 |title=Facta et Dicta Memorabilia |last=Valerius Maximus |first=}}
* Val. Max., ''Ext.''
* Valerian. ''in Epist. ap. Trebell. Claud.''
* Varro, ap. Non.
* Varro, ''L. L.''
* Varro, ''R. R.''
* Varro, ''De Vit. Pop. Ro. ap. Non.''
* Vatican Virgil
* Veget., ''Mil.''
* Veget., ''Mul. Med.'' oder ''Mulom.''
* Veget., ''Vet.''
* Vell.
* Vell. Pat.
* Velser, ''Histor. Augustan.''
* Venant., ''Carm.''
* Virg., ''Aen.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi003 |title=Aeneid |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., ''Catalect.''
* Virg., ''Cir.'' / ''Ciris.''
* Virg., ''Copa''
* Virg., ''Cul.''
* Virg., ''Ecl.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi001 |title=Eclogae |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., ''Georg.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi002 |title=Georgicon |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., ''Moret.''
* Virg., ''Pervigil. Ven.''
* Visconti, ''Inscript. Triop.''
* Visconti, ''Lettera al Sigr. Giuseppe Carnveali, sopra alcuni Vasi sepolcrali rinvenuti nella vicinanza della antica Alba Longa''
* Visconti, ''Mus. Pio. Clem.''
* Vitruv.
* Vitruv., ''Compend.''
* Vopisc., ''Bonos.''
* Vopisc., ''Carin.''
* Vopisc., ''Prob.''
* Vopisc., ''Saturn.''
* Vopisc., ''Tac.''
* Vulg., ''Exod.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg002.perseus-lat1 |title=Exodus |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Vulg., ''1. Kings'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg013.perseus-lat1 |title=1 Kings |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Vulg., ''Levit.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg003.perseus-lat1 |title=Leviticus |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Wernsdorf (e.g. &quot;Poet Lat. Min. ap. Wernsdorf&quot;)
* Wesseling ad Diodor. Sic.
* Wilkinson, ''Ancient Egyptians'' bzw. ''Manners and Customs of Ancient Egyptians'' (see below)
* Wilkinson, ''Manners and Customs of the Egyptians'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mannerscustomsof01wilk/page/n7/mode/2up |title=The manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians: Vol. 1 |last=Wilkinson |first=John Gardner}}
* Wilkinson, ''Manners and Customs of the Egyptians'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mannerscustomsof02wilk/page/n7/mode/2up |title=The manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians: Vol. 2 |last=Wilkinson |first=John Gardner}}
* Wilkinson, ''Manners and Customs of the Egyptians'' (Vol. 3 missing)
* Winkelm., ''Cab. Stosch.''
* Wink., ''Mon. Ant. Ined.: {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/winckelmann1767ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Monumenti antichi inediti |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Mon. Ined.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/winckelmann1767ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Monumenti antichi inediti |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Pierres gravées'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/16588 |title=Description des pierres gravées du feu baron de Stosch dediée a son eminence monseigneur le cardinal Aléxandre Albani par m. l'abbé Winckelmann bibliothecaire de son eminence |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Storia delle Arti'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2087673 |title=Storia delle arti del disegno presso gli antichi |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wunder., ''Codex Erfutens.''
* Xen., ''Anab.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg006 |title=Anabasis |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''Cyrop.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg007 |title=Cyropaedia |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''Equest.'' (see Xen., ''R. Equest.'')
* Xen., ''Hell.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg001 |title=Hellenica |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''R. Equest.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg013.perseus-grc1 |title=De re equestri |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''Symp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg004 |title=Symposium |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xenophon., ''Hellen.'' (see Xen., ''Hell.'')

[[Category:Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary|*]]

== Requirements ==

All recommended editions should be ''freely available.'' This means, that access is both unrestricted and for free. This usually entails that these texts are in the public domain or licensed under one of the ''Creative Commons''-licenses. The point of this is to enable to provide references to Latin and Greek passages (and other cited texts) which lead to freely accessible online editions of these texts. No amount of money must be charged to access them, and no login-data be necessary in order to access these texts. The user should also be able to download these texts.

Recommended editions should be fully digital editions, that is, the text has been transcribed instead of pages merely having been scanned and made available as images. Where ''free'' editions of such digital texts are unavailable, scanned books can be used as well, however.

== Selection criteria for primary resources ==

Texts are selected from the following sources and in the following order (e.g. Perseus Digital Library is preferred, where available):

# [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ Perseus Digital Library]: Editions of Latin and Greek texts available at the ''Perseus Digital Library'' should be chosen, if these are either in the public domain or shared using a ''Creative Commmons''-license. ''Perseus'' provides mostly &quot;canonical&quot; texts.
# [https://www.opengreekandlatin.org/ Open Greek &amp; Latin] and the [https://scaife.perseus.org/library/ Scaife Viewer]: Where ''Perseus'' does not offer an author or specific text, this site is next in line.
# Online editions which meet the above requirements and allow links to a specific page (or even passage) of the text in question. Web-sites providing such a functionality are, for example: Archive.org, Gallica.
# Online editions, which meet the above requirements but do not allow links to a specific page. These editions should be a last resort, however.

== External links ==

* [https://creativecommons.org/ Creative Commons]: This organization provides templates for copyright licenses, which using and sharing content less restrictive.
* [https://archive.org Archive.org]
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr Gallica]

[[Category:Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary|*]]
[[Category:RICH-2K/Project pages]]</text>
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    <title>Linear algebra (Osnabrück 2024-2025)/Part II/Lecture 32</title>
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{{Subtitle|Orthogonality}}

{{:Inner product/K/Orthogonality/Introduction/Section}}

{{Subtitle|Orthonormal bases}}

{{:Inner product/K/Orthogonal basis/Introduction/Section}}

{{Subtitle|Orthogonal projections}}

{{:Vector space/K/Inner product/Orthogonal projection/Introduction/Section}}

{{List of footnotes}}</text>
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      <text bytes="25128" sha1="r08pymei9u8ijwpv98gdqnysl539g9h" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
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}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
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|5=
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|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider using the focus questions as a structuring device for the presentation
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider using the focus questions as a structuring device for the presentation
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    <revision>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <origin>2681738</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="25128" sha1="kahodfqdje49d3lajracj2wwshf352h" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider using the focus questions as a structuring device for the presentation
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider using the focus questions as a structuring device for the presentation
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681739</id>
      <parentid>2681738</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T21:44:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2681739</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="24876" sha1="ggo6ry25vzx88b7rnkmk9e2vy0e597v" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681740</id>
      <parentid>2681739</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T21:46:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2681740</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="24804" sha1="57ujween9ukmm4jj2a3y6o18bd98viy" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated in the description but not the meta-data
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681742</id>
      <parentid>2681740</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T21:51:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <minor />
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="24782" sha1="2vn6kp29pw87xv9lv6s9invxgqt0dho" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide
## Displays and narrates the title and the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Displays the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Narrates the sub-title — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not display the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## Does not narrate the sub-title — this would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <text bytes="23760" sha1="bg4e29skvjpjit49ax7iuryx8oidc2s" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
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}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
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}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys/does not clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys/does not clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
# The presentation could be improved by making more use of examples or case studies
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681780</id>
      <parentid>2681779</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T03:26:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <origin>2681780</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="23592" sha1="rh0joegem4rz3cf3393or89gotdsjpo" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
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|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
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|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys/does not clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys/does not clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>rh0joegem4rz3cf3393or89gotdsjpo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681786</id>
      <parentid>2681780</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T04:07:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2681786</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="23692" sha1="9vfqwfjcarz37jjkxzqycp0faxeygl4" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
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|5=
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|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
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|3=
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|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic w
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
# Ideally, make more explicit use of research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681787</id>
      <parentid>2681786</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T04:10:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <text bytes="23600" sha1="mljsionqe9q2tkjb5kcggdu8k1d3ahj" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic w
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681789</id>
      <parentid>2681787</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T04:46:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2681789</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="23602" sha1="cxjx6xkb7m2kwkvi2f3wfnlxf64ffkp" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic w
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681790</id>
      <parentid>2681789</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T04:49:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
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      <text bytes="23638" sha1="p8qv4pfecyuq6i8u1x5nisnhxcytxn3" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic w
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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      <id>2681805</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="23670" sha1="k2ku1yrcm9lpb7dg624gi19q5dplrrt" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
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|2=
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|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
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|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good/reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic w
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good/reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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      <id>2681806</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <text bytes="23712" sha1="d62a6x1777mg73qfmm9cbcfwef60rai" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good/reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Basic use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic w
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good/reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Basic use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>d62a6x1777mg73qfmm9cbcfwef60rai</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681808</id>
      <parentid>2681806</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T09:01:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2681808</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="23724" sha1="1dg9yxl38r9awdaocac69gq0gd8g1bd" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide(s) clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide(s) conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good/reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Basic use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide(s) clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide(s) conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic w
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good/reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Basic use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
# An inactive hyperlink to the book chapter is provided (maybe because the YouTube user account doesn't have [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9890437 advanced features])
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the original image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>1dg9yxl38r9awdaocac69gq0gd8g1bd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2681814</id>
      <parentid>2681808</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T09:29:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2681814</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="23713" sha1="355lbf72u1piww56e3dem1739oocfgi" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback template for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion]] unit.

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter talk page.&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]] feedback== &lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt; __NOTOC__ &lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
The accompanying multimedia presentation has been marked according to the '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]'''. Marks are available via the unit's [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Canvas|UCLearn]] site. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Responses to this feedback can be made by &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{TALKPAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload=template:sign}} starting a new section below]&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like further clarification about the marking or feedback, contact the [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|unit convener]].&lt;!-- If you wish to dispute the marks, see the suggested [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].--&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Multimedia.png|right|45px]]
===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Overview|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Content|Content]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Conclusion|Conclusion]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Audio]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Audio|Video]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Meta-data|Meta-data]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Licensing|Licensing]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}

==Usage — Default example==

&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
|2=
|3=
|4=
|5=
|6=
|7=
|8=
}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Detailed example}}
==Detailed example==
This is the template syntax with some prefilled comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide(s) clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide(s) conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic way
## The title and sub-title are displayed and narrated
## The title and sub-title are displayed but not narrated
## Either the title or sub-title are not displayed
## Either the title or sub-title are not narrated
## The title or sub-title are not displayed
## The title or sub-title are not narrated
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
# The presentation has a basic introduction to engage audience interest
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
# A context for the presentation is established
# A basic context for the presentation is established
# Establish a context for the presentation (e.g., use an example or explain importance)
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Focus questions and/or an outline of topics are presented
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses/somewhat addresses/does not adequately address the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
# There is too much content (goes over time)
# There is too much content, in too much detail. Provide a higher-level presentation at a slower pace. It is best to cover a small amount of content well than a large amount poorly.
# The selected content doesn't sufficiently use the most relevant psychological theory and/or research about the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
# Use APA style for citations
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/no use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful/good/basic practical advice
# The presentation could be improved by providing practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
# Provide easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic take-home message(s)
# Provide a conclusion slide which summarises the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic, with take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Time --&gt;
# The Conclusion only partly fitted within the time limit
# The Conclusion did not fit within the time limit
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is fun, easy to follow, and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
# The audio is easy to follow
# The audio is hard to follow because so much content is presented so quickly
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is reasonably well-paced
# Consider slowing down and leaving longer pauses between sentences. This can help the listener to cognitively process the information that has just been presented before moving on to the next point.
# Slow down and leave longer pauses between sentences. This will help viewers to cognitively process the spoken information as it is being presented, before moving on to the next point.
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] enhances listener interest and engagement
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
# Consider using greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Use greater [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] to enhance listener interest and engagement
# Consider improving [[w:Articulatory phonetics|articulation]] to enhance the clarity of speech
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well/reasonably well practiced and/or performed
# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor
# Recording volume was low
# Review microphone set-up to achieve higher recording quality
# Probably an on-board microphone was used (e.g., keyboard and/or mouse clicks were audible). Consider using an external microphone.
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
# The presentation makes effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of text and image based slides
# The presentation makes basic use of text-based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
# Some of the font size could be larger to make it easier to read
# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
# Some slides are a bit too busy/fast
# The presentation could be strengthened by including more text (e.g., take-home messages)
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
# The visual [[#Content|content]] lacked synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good/reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
# Provide a written description of the presentation to help potential viewers
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Basic use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
# An active hyperlink to the book chapter is provided
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# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the image sources (e.g., in the description)
# Image sources are communicated in a general way. Also provide links to each image and the license details (e.g., in the description).
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
# A copyright license for the presentation is in the description but not in the license field
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
creates:
{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent/very good/reasonably good/basic presentation
# Overall, this is an insufficient presentation mainly because it lacks sufficient synthesis of the best psychological theory and research about this topic
&lt;!-- Overall - Time --&gt;
# The presentation is under the maximum time limit (3 mins), so there was room for further development
# The presentation is over the maximum time limit — content beyond 3 mins is ignored for marking and feedback purposes
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening slide(s) clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
# The opening slide(s) conveys the purpose of the presentation in a basic w
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&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
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|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
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# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
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|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
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# The narration could benefit from further scripting and/or practice
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
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# Recording volume was low
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|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes creative/effective/very good/good/reasonably good/basic use of webcam, stock video, and/or animation
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&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
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# Consider using a [[w:sans-serif|sans-serif]] typeface to make the text easier to read
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# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# The amount of text presented per slide could be reduced to make it easier to read and listen at the same time
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&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication is supplemented in a reasonably good/basic way by relevant images and/or diagrams
# The visual communication could be improved by including relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
# The presentation is well/reasonably well/basically produced using simple tools
# [https://www.lifewire.com/hide-sound-icon-on-powerpoint-slides-2767122 Hide the audio icon]
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well/reasonably well/poorly matched to the target topic
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|7=
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&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title and sub-title (or an abbreviation to fit within the 100 character limit) are used in the name of the presentation — this helps to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The chapter sub-title but not the chapter title is used in the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# An excellent written description of the presentation is provided
# A very good/good/reasonably good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
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# Excellent/Very good/Good/Basic use of time codes
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
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# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
# A link from the book chapter was not provided. I've added it.
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
# Provide clickable links to the image sources (e.g., in the description)
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&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
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# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:39, 6 November 2024 (UTC)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:06, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Industrial and organizational psychology/Module 11</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Module 11.3 - Diversity (slide 15) */</comment>
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      <text bytes="3817" sha1="bin0vftk95r5d0t0mettsf7iiswjqnz" xml:space="preserve">'''Fairness, Justice, and Diversity in the Workplace'''
==Module 11.1 - Justice and Fairness==
Justice and fairness are terms used to describe an event or an exchange relationship. '''Trust''' is the belief in how a person/organization will behave in a specific, future occasion. '''Organizational justice''' consists of a web of organizational procedures, outcomes, and interpersonal interactions.

=== Types of Justices ===

* '''Distributive justice''' - The fairness seen on outcomes or rewards given out by staff. &quot;Fair&quot; could be seen as merit, need norm, or equality norm.
* '''Procedural justice''' - The fairness seen on the process in the reward distribution. Having a ''voice'' in the matter is the ability to influence the process or outcome of reward distribution. This affects layoffs and one's self-esteem.
* '''Interactional justice''' - Answers: &quot;How well are employees treated by each other/their employer?&quot;. Includes informational and interpersonal justice.

=== Injustice ===
When one experiences injustice, this may lead to retaliation, reduced work effort/motivation by the employee, and a noticeable impact on the employee's attitudes and behavior. 

On the other hand, if an employee thinks that justice is a value held by the organization they work at, they'll usually put extra effort (&quot;going the extra mile&quot;), and have satisfactory feelings of being a part of a &quot;family&quot; and that their contributions are significant and worthwhile.

== Module 11.2 - Real-World Impact of Justice Perceptions ==
'''Performance evaluations''' allows feedback to be the most important factor behind 'feelings of fairness'. This allows us to go from performance measurement to performance ''management''.

What about the applicants? They may have their own feelings on the selection process, including acceptance/rejection letters, the organization's reputation, and litigation.

=== EEO vs. Affirmative Action ===
'''EEO philosophy''' - Every individual has the same opportunities, giving space for success to be given based on merit.

'''Affirmative Action''' - Provides pathways for reducing underrepresenation of minorities. These programs can be done in various methods. A lot of emotions surround AAP, where controversy surrounds whether or not they favor (unfairly) certain employees over other employees. 

== Module 11.3 - Diversity ==
'''Diversity''' is the variety in demographic characteristics (race/ethnicity), values, skillsets, fields of interest, and life/work experiences.

'''Relational demography''' is the relative makeup of a variety of demographic characteristics in certain work groups. The tendency for work groups to seek homogeneity (oneness, in a way) vs. diversity, in order to create trust, enhance communication, and increase satisfaction, commitment, and effectiveness.

In diverse groups, ideas may conflict with one another, including vision and values. These schisms may cause disagreements regarding needed methods.

=== Work Group Perspective ===
Group heterogeneity is better for creative efforts by widening approaches to problem-solving. Culturally homogeneous groups do initially better, but heterogeneous work groups become effective as they age on.

=== How do we manage diversity as an organization? ===

* Ineffective models for diversity, including the assimilation model and protection model, should not be used.
* Instead, you should use the '''value model'''. 

===== Here are some steps HR can take to facilitate the Value Model =====

# Recruit with diversity as an objective.
# Career developments should be opened for every member of an organization.
# Diversity training should be mandated.
# Look at input from diverse group members.
# Provide support &amp; networks for diverse group members.
# Develop connections to various cultural groups within a community</text>
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    <title>What is ethics</title>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{Original research}} This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.  Some questions asked by Aristotle: * What objective do all human activities aim at? * Is political life better than philosophical life?  Some questions asked by a differe...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="2157" sha1="n9b3vdrk4asfp4cq1zb1ho12nkf85mq" xml:space="preserve">{{Original research}}
This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681231</id>
      <parentid>2681230</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-07T14:00:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dan Polansky</username>
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      <text bytes="3024" sha1="ma5y433vm66xmec6cwyr2jxk75ded7p" xml:space="preserve">{{Original research}}
This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quote Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681232</id>
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        <username>Dan Polansky</username>
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      <text bytes="3054" sha1="1k1ya7j6qoob4m5cmq5017r49z6xndh" xml:space="preserve">{{Original research}}
This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quote Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Inquiry into duties ==
One conception of ethics could be as inquiry into duties, both negative and positive duties. There would be duties not to murder, not to kill, not to lie (with exceptions), to save a drowning person, etc. There is even a word for that, ''deontology'', from Ancient Greek ''deon'', ''deont-'', obligation, necessity&lt;ref&gt;AHD&lt;/ref&gt; However, an objector can argue that this is too narrow conception of ethics and that there is also consequentialism, an approach to ethics different from duty ethics.

== Etymology ==
Following the etymology of the word ethics, it would be an inquiry into character, or characterology. But that is not what ethics is. Be it as it may, we may wonder whether matters would be improved if we replaced the label ethics with a label that better captures the investigated subject. Thus, if ethics is the inquiry into what is good, we could find an Ancient Greek word for good and make an -ology out of it. On the other hand, physics does not suffer from being an inquiry into nature by its name, while in fact excluding biology, an inquiry into living matter.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Inquiry into duties ==
One conception of ethics could be as inquiry into duties, both negative and positive duties. There would be duties not to murder, not to steal, not to lie (with exceptions), to try to save a drowning person, etc. There is even a word for that, ''deontology'', from Ancient Greek ''deon'', ''deont-'', obligation, necessity&lt;ref&gt;AHD&lt;/ref&gt; And then, we could use that word instead of ethics. We could have e.g. &quot;medical deontology&quot; rather than &quot;medical ethics&quot;. However, an objector can argue that this is too narrow conception of ethics and that there is also consequentialism, an approach to ethics different from duty ethics.

== Etymology ==
Following the etymology of the word ethics, it would be an inquiry into character, or characterology. But that is not what ethics is. Be it as it may, we may wonder whether matters would be improved if we replaced the label ethics with a label that better captures the investigated subject. Thus, if ethics is the inquiry into what is good, we could find an Ancient Greek word for good and make an -ology out of it. On the other hand, physics does not suffer from being an inquiry into nature by its name, while in fact excluding biology, an inquiry into living matter.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Inquiry into duties ==
One conception of ethics could be as inquiry into duties, both negative and positive duties. There would be duties not to murder, not to steal, not to lie (with exceptions), to try to save a drowning person, etc. There is even a word for that, ''deontology'', from Ancient Greek ''deon'', ''deont-'', obligation, necessity&lt;ref&gt;AHD&lt;/ref&gt; And then, we could use that word instead of ethics. We could have e.g. &quot;medical deontology&quot; rather than &quot;medical ethics&quot;. However, an objector can argue that this is too narrow conception of ethics and that there is also consequentialism, an approach to ethics different from duty ethics.

== Etymology ==
Following the etymology of the word ethics, it would be an inquiry into character, or characterology. But that is not what ethics is. Be it as it may, we may wonder whether matters would be improved if we replaced the label ethics with a label that better captures the investigated subject. Thus, if ethics is the inquiry into what is good, we could find an Ancient Greek word for good and make an -ology out of it. On the other hand, physics does not suffer from being an inquiry into nature by its name, while in fact excluding biology, an inquiry into living matter.

Other related words whose etymology can be of interest are ''moral'' and ''morality''. ''Moral'' is from Latin mōs, mōr-, custom&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=moral AHD]&lt;/ref&gt;. Some sources indicate these words resulted from translation of Ancient Greek ethicos or something of the sort; needs a clarification and verification.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Inquiry into duties ==
One conception of ethics could be as inquiry into duties, both negative and positive duties. There would be duties not to murder, not to steal, not to lie (with exceptions), to try to save a drowning person, etc. There is even a word for that, ''deontology'', from Ancient Greek ''deon'', ''deont-'', obligation, necessity&lt;ref&gt;AHD&lt;/ref&gt; And then, we could use that word instead of ethics. We could have e.g. &quot;medical deontology&quot; rather than &quot;medical ethics&quot;. And to be briefer, we could have ''medical deontics'', or in English, ''medical dutylore''. However, an objector can argue that this is too narrow conception of ethics and that there is also consequentialism, an approach to ethics different from duty ethics.

== Etymology ==
Following the etymology of the word ethics, it would be an inquiry into character, or characterology. But that is not what ethics is. Be it as it may, we may wonder whether matters would be improved if we replaced the label ethics with a label that better captures the investigated subject. Thus, if ethics is the inquiry into what is good, we could find an Ancient Greek word for good and make an -ology out of it. On the other hand, physics does not suffer from being an inquiry into nature by its name, while in fact excluding biology, an inquiry into living matter.

Other related words whose etymology can be of interest are ''moral'' and ''morality''. ''Moral'' is from Latin mōs, mōr-, custom&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=moral AHD]&lt;/ref&gt;. Some sources indicate these words resulted from translation of Ancient Greek ethicos or something of the sort; needs a clarification and verification.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspition that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties, e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Inquiry into duties ==
One conception of ethics could be as inquiry into duties, both negative and positive duties. There would be duties not to murder, not to steal, not to lie (with exceptions), to try to save a drowning person, etc. There is even a word for that, ''deontology'', from Ancient Greek ''deon'', ''deont-'', obligation, necessity&lt;ref&gt;AHD&lt;/ref&gt; And then, we could use that word instead of ethics. We could have e.g. &quot;medical deontology&quot; rather than &quot;medical ethics&quot;. And to be briefer, we could have ''medical deontics'', or in English, ''medical dutylore''. However, an objector can argue that this is too narrow conception of ethics and that there is also consequentialism, an approach to ethics different from duty ethics.

== Etymology ==
Following the etymology of the word ethics, it would be an inquiry into character, or characterology. But that is not what ethics is. Be it as it may, we may wonder whether matters would be improved if we replaced the label ethics with a label that better captures the investigated subject. Thus, if ethics is the inquiry into what is good, we could find an Ancient Greek word for good and make an -ology out of it. On the other hand, physics does not suffer from being an inquiry into nature by its name, while in fact excluding biology, an inquiry into living matter.

Other related words whose etymology can be of interest are ''moral'' and ''morality''. ''Moral'' is from Latin mōs, mōr-, custom&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=moral AHD]&lt;/ref&gt;. Some sources indicate these words resulted from translation of Ancient Greek ethicos or something of the sort; needs a clarification and verification.

== See also ==
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Introduction to ethics]]

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[[Category:Ethics]]</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspicion that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties (duties requiring a positive action rather than abstinence from action), e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the word ''unethical'' seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Inquiry into duties ==
One conception of ethics could be as inquiry into duties, both negative and positive duties. There would be duties not to murder, not to steal, not to lie (with exceptions), to try to save a drowning person, etc. There is even a word for that, ''deontology'', from Ancient Greek ''deon'', ''deont-'', obligation, necessity&lt;ref&gt;AHD&lt;/ref&gt; And then, we could use that word instead of ethics. We could have e.g. &quot;medical deontology&quot; rather than &quot;medical ethics&quot;. And to be briefer, we could have ''medical deontics'', or in English, ''medical dutylore''. However, an objector can argue that this is too narrow conception of ethics and that there is also consequentialism, an approach to ethics different from duty ethics.

== Etymology ==
Following the etymology of the word ethics, it would be an inquiry into character, or characterology. But that is not what ethics is. Be it as it may, we may wonder whether matters would be improved if we replaced the label ethics with a label that better captures the investigated subject. Thus, if ethics is the inquiry into what is good, we could find an Ancient Greek word for good and make an -ology out of it. On the other hand, physics does not suffer from being an inquiry into nature by its name, while in fact excluding biology, an inquiry into living matter.

Other related words whose etymology can be of interest are ''moral'' and ''morality''. ''Moral'' is from Latin mōs, mōr-, custom&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=moral AHD]&lt;/ref&gt;. Some sources indicate these words resulted from translation of Ancient Greek ethicos or something of the sort; needs a clarification and verification.

== See also ==
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Introduction to ethics]]

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[[Category:Ethics]]</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspicion that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties (duties requiring a positive action rather than abstinence from action), e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephrased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the way the word ''unethical'' is usually used seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Inquiry into duties ==
One conception of ethics could be as inquiry into duties, both negative and positive duties. There would be duties not to murder, not to steal, not to lie (with exceptions), to try to save a drowning person, etc. There is even a word for that, ''deontology'', from Ancient Greek ''deon'', ''deont-'', obligation, necessity&lt;ref&gt;AHD&lt;/ref&gt; And then, we could use that word instead of ethics. We could have e.g. &quot;medical deontology&quot; rather than &quot;medical ethics&quot;. And to be briefer, we could have ''medical deontics'', or in English, ''medical dutylore''. However, an objector can argue that this is too narrow conception of ethics and that there is also consequentialism, an approach to ethics different from duty ethics.

== Etymology ==
Following the etymology of the word ethics, it would be an inquiry into character, or characterology. But that is not what ethics is. Be it as it may, we may wonder whether matters would be improved if we replaced the label ethics with a label that better captures the investigated subject. Thus, if ethics is the inquiry into what is good, we could find an Ancient Greek word for good and make an -ology out of it. On the other hand, physics does not suffer from being an inquiry into nature by its name, while in fact excluding biology, an inquiry into living matter.

Other related words whose etymology can be of interest are ''moral'' and ''morality''. ''Moral'' is from Latin mōs, mōr-, custom&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=moral AHD]&lt;/ref&gt;. Some sources indicate these words resulted from translation of Ancient Greek ethicos or something of the sort; needs a clarification and verification.

== See also ==
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Introduction to ethics]]

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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This article by Dan Polansky investigates what is ethics. An inspiration for this article is a suspicion that the subjects that Aristotle deals with in his Nicomachean Ethics are rather different from those usually considered to be the subjects of ethics in, say, the 20th century.

== Initial considerations ==

Some questions asked by Aristotle:
* What objective do all human activities aim at?
* Is political life better than philosophical life?

Some questions asked by a differently scoped ethics:
* Is intentional killing of a human ever justified and why?
* Is theft ever justified and why?
* Under what conditions is lying permissible/acceptable, if ever?
* Is torture of animals inadmissible, and if not, why not?
* Is destruction of natural heritage inadmissible, and why?
* Are there positive ethical duties (duties requiring a positive action rather than abstinence from action), e.g. to try to save a drowning human?

The second set of questions could also be rephrased as: what is unethical and why? Since, the way the word ''unethical'' is usually used seems to point to the second set of questions rather than the first set.

If this analysis is correct, we get the strange situation that the name used by Aristotle in his work, of Ancient Greek origin, is now used in its Anglicized (and Germanized, etc.) form to refer to an inquiry that is quite different from Aristotle's inquiry.

We may further advance this inquiry by listing some of the key words/concepts with which ethics is or can be concerned. These can be above all good vs. bad and right vs. wrong. As a crude approximation, we may match good vs. bad with the first set of questions and right vs. wrong with the second set of questions. But once we introduce the word ''morally'', it may be hard to distinguish ''morally bad'' from ''morally wrong''. We can add admissible vs. inadmissible for disambiguation: right vs. wrong may pertain to e.g. a result of calculation, a different matter.

Ethics can be hard to delineate/distinguish from politics. Since, is the question whether first-term abortion should be legal an ethical or political one?

== Wittgenstein ==
Wittgenstein's Lecture on Ethics provides one hint on what ethics could be. Wittgenstein first quotes Moore as saying that &quot;Ethics is the general enquiry into what is good.&quot; But Wittgenstein has a broader conception: 'Now instead of saying &quot;Ethics is the enquiry into what is good&quot; I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into what is valuable, or, into what is really important, or I could have said Ethics is the enquiry into the meaning of life, or into what makes life worth living, or into the right way of living.' This broader conception can well be contrasted with an enquiry into admissibility and thus better matches the fist set of questions (those of Aristotle) than the second set of questions.

Further reading:
* [https://www.wittgensteinproject.org/w/index.php/Lecture_on_Ethics Lecture on Ethics - The Ludwig Wittgenstein Project]

== Inquiry into duties ==
One conception of ethics could be as inquiry into duties, both negative and positive duties. There would be duties not to murder, not to steal, not to lie (with exceptions), to try to save a drowning person, etc. There is even a word for that, ''deontology'', from Ancient Greek ''deon'', ''deont-'', obligation, necessity&lt;ref&gt;AHD&lt;/ref&gt; And then, we could use that word instead of ethics. We could have e.g. &quot;medical deontology&quot; rather than &quot;medical ethics&quot;. And to be briefer, we could have ''medical deontics'', or in English, ''medical dutylore''. However, an objector can argue that this is too narrow conception of ethics and that there is also consequentialism, an approach to ethics different from duty ethics.

== Etymology ==
Following the etymology of the word ethics, it would be an inquiry into character, or characterology. But that is not what ethics is. Be it as it may, we may wonder whether matters would be improved if we replaced the label ethics with a label that better captures the investigated subject. Thus, if ethics is the inquiry into what is good, we could find an Ancient Greek word for good and make an -ology out of it. On the other hand, physics does not suffer from being an inquiry into nature by its name, while in fact excluding biology, an inquiry into living matter.

Other related words whose etymology can be of interest are ''moral'' and ''morality''. ''Moral'' is from Latin mōs, mōr-, custom&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=moral AHD]&lt;/ref&gt;. Some sources indicate these words resulted from translation of Ancient Greek ethicos or something of the sort; needs a clarification and verification.

== See also ==
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Introduction to ethics]]

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy ethics] by Peter Singer, britannica.com
* [[Wikisource: Nicomachean Ethics (Ross)]]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Aristotle’s Ethics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

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      <text bytes="1444" sha1="oyxlyxmk2ut75f9viwzqxzfqr812fmd" xml:space="preserve">Carbon dioxide and methane are [[w:Greenhouse_gas|greenhouse gases]] that contribute to [[w:Climate_change|global warming]]. It is important to reduce emissions of these greenhouse gasses. Many corporations have announced goals to reduce carbon emissions substantially over the next few years and decades. Because this is often difficult to do directly, many organizations are turning to [[w:Carbon_offsets_and_credits|carbon offsets]] to compensate for their on-going emissions as they work to make direct progress toward their goals.

A [[w:Carbon_fee_and_dividend|carbon fee and dividend]] system charges a fee on the sale of fossil fuels (to compesate for the negative [[w:Externality|externalities]]) and then distributes the revenue collected from this fee over the entire population (equally, on a per-person basis) as a monthly income or regular payment. Although several economic studies have supported such a system, few countries have achieved the political will to enact such legislation.

Establishing a private system to collect carbon fees and distribute these funds as a dividend would allow companies to voluntarily choose to offset their negative externalities by paying the carbon dividend. This provides an alternative to traditional carbon offsets.  

If the fee paid is equivalent to the [[w:Social_cost_of_carbon|social cost of carbon]], then this dividend will provide an accurate and effective carbon offset mechanism.</text>
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This looks like it was written with AI, like the rest. Can the user who generated this include the prompt they used and add credit? [[Special:Contributions/64.113.177.84|64.113.177.84]] ([[User talk:64.113.177.84|discuss]]) 17:50, 7 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
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== Licensing ==
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'''PUGILA'TOR'''. Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pugil|PUGIL]].

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'''PUGILLA'RES'''. Small tablets covered with [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cera|wax]] for writing on, so termed from their diminutive size, because they could be held commodiously in a little hand (''pugillus''). They were principally used for memorandum books, for noting down first thoughts, and to be despatched as love letters; which intention is exemplified by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Pugillares 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 535.jpg|illustration |caption=Pugillares/1.1}}, from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], representing Cupid with a love billet which Polyphemus sends to Galatea. Senec. ''Ep.'' 15. Plin. ''Ep.'' i. 6. 1. ''Ib.'' 22. 11.

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'''PUGIL''' ({{lang|grc|πύκτης}}). A ''boxer''; that is, one who fights with the fist (''pugnus'', {{lang|grc|πύξ}}). The act of boxing (''pugilatio'', ''pugilatus'') dates from a remote antiquity, being practised by the Greeks and Etruscans in very early times, and continuing to be a popular exhibition at Rome during the republic and empire. (Liv. i. 35. Cic. ''Tusc.'' ii. 17. Suet. ''Aug.'' 45.) The attitudes, guards, and method of directing the blows exhibited in various works of art, indicate that the boxing of the ancients resembled in most respects the practice of our own countrymen, with one important exception, which must have rendered their conflicts cruelly severe{{mdash}}that of covering the lower part of the arm and fists with thongs of leather studded with knobs of metal ([[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Caestus|CAESTUS]]), as is shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Pugil 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 535.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Pugil/1.1}}, from a well-known statue of the Villa Borghese.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUG'IO''' ({{lang|grc|ἐγχειρίδιον}}). A short, two-edged, sharp-pointed dagger, openly worn on the right side, more particularly by officers in the army, and persons of rank under the empire, as well as by the emperors themselves, in order to indicate their power over life and death. (Cic. ''Phil.'' ii. 12. Suet. ''Vit.'' 15. Tac. ''Hist.'' iii. 68. Id. i. 43. Val. Max. iii. 5. 3.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Pugio 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 536.jpg|example |caption=Pugio/1.1}} is from an original of bronze in the Neapolitan Museum; the holes on the handle were intended for the reception of ornamental studs.

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File:Pugio 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 536.jpg|Pugio/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUGIUN'CULUS'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pugio|PUGIO]]. A small dagger, a dirk. Cic. ''Fragm. contra C. Anton. ap.'' Ascon. Id. ''Or.'' 67.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PULLA'RIUS'''. The person who had the care of the sacred chickens (woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cavea|CAVEA]], 3.), and affected to predict the results of future events from the manner in which they ate or rejected their food. Cic. ''Div.'' ii. 34. Liv. x. 40.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUL'PITUM''' ({{lang|grc|βῆμα}}). A tribune or pulpit made of wood and of a moveable character (Suet. ''Gramm.'' 4. ''remoto pulpito''), into which an orator, declaimer, grammarian, &amp;c., ascended for the purpose of making himself conspicuous, and acquiring a commanding situation, when about to address an audience. Hor. ''Epist.'' i. 19. 40.

2. ({{lang|grc|λογεῖον, ὀκρίβας}}). In an ancient [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatre]] that part of the stage (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Proscenium|proscenium]]'') which was nearest to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Orchestra|orchestra]], upon which the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Histrio|actors]] stood when they delivered their dialogues or speeches (Hor. ''A. P.'' 278. Vitruv. v. 7. 2. ''Ib.'' 6. 1. Propert. iv. 1. 16.) It is represented by the elevated platform on the left side of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed woodcut |imagelink=Media:Pulpitum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 536.jpg|annexed woodcut |caption=Pulpitum/2.1}}, which affords a view across the pit and stage in the small theatre at Pompeii; the dark groove which runs along it, shows the recess into which the drop-scene (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aulaea|aulaea]]'') was lowered.

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File:Pulpitum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 536.jpg|Pulpitum/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PULSAB'ULUM'''. An instrument with which the chords of a stringed instrument were struck (Apul. ''Flor.'' 15.); for which the more usual name is [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Plectrum|PLECTRUM]], where an illustration is introduced.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PULTA'RIUS'''. Properly a vessel in which pottage (''puls'') was served up. It was made in the form of an inverted funnel (Pallad. vi. 7. 2. Compare Columell. ix. 15. 5.), with a broad bottom and narrow mouth, which may be easily conceived in the absence of any authentic specimen; and was likewise employed for other purposes to which such a figure adapted itself, as a cupping-glass (Celsus, ii. 11.), and a vessel for drinking out of. (Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 54. Pet. ''Sat.'' 42. 2.)

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'''PULVIL'LUS'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pulvinus|PULVINUS]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PULVINA'RIUM'''. The place in a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]] where the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pulvinar|couches]] of the deities were set out at the feast of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectisternium|Lectisternium]]''. Liv. xxi. 62.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PULVI'NAR''' or '''POLVI'NAR'''. May be translated by our terms ''pillow'', ''bolster'', ''cushion'', as best suits the purpose for which it is applied. But the term conveys a notion of greatness and grandeur, and is to be understood, when strictly used, as indicating a cushion of large size and costly materials, such as would be used for beds and couches on which the body reclines, rather than for chairs and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seats]], or for a sitting posture. Pet. ''Sat.'' 135. 5. Senec. ''Ira'', iii. 37. And woodcuts. pp. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectulus|374.]] [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|375.]]

2. Hence the word is principally used to designate the splendid couches with cushions and squabs, upon which the images of the gods were laid at the feast of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectisternium|Lectisternium]]'', to partake, as it were, of the banquet spread before them (Cic. ''Phil.'' ii. 43. Id. ''Dom.'' 53. Liv. xxx. 21.); as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed woodcut |imagelink=Media:Pulvinar 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 537.jpg|annexed woodcut |caption=Pulvinar/1.1}} from a terra cotta lamp.

3. In the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]], a spot where couches of the same description were laid out for those deities whose statues were carried in solemn procession at the Circensian festival. Festus ''s.'' Thensa. Suet. ''Aug.'' 45. Id. ''Cal.'' 4.

4. A bed of state, or marriage bed; but with especial reference to those of the divinities (Catull. lxiv. 47.), and of the Roman emperors, to whom divine honours were paid. Suet. ''Dom.'' 13. Juv. vi. 132.

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File:Pulvinar 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 537.jpg|Pulvinar/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PULVINA'TUS'''. Having a full or swelling contour, like a bolster or cushion; whence applied as a technical term by architects to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capitulum|capitals]] of Ionic [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]], the sides of which, formed by the lateral part of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Voluta|volute]], present a round or swelling shape, like a bolster as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Pulvinatus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 537.jpg|annexed example |caption=Pulvinatus/1.1}} from a capital belonging to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]] of Minerva Polias. Vitruv. i. 2. 6. Id. iii. 5. 5.

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File:Pulvinatus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 537.jpg|Pulvinatus/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PULVI'NUS'''. In its general applications has nearly the same meaning as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pulvinar|Pulvinar]], a pillow, cushion, or bolster; but, in strictness, of a smaller and less ostentatious character, and so more particularly descriptive of those which were used for sitting on (Cic. ''Or.'' i. 7. Id. ''Fam.'' ix. 18., and woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cathedra|CATHEDRA]]), resting the head against, like the pillow of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|bed]] (Sall. ''Jug.'' 74, and woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cervical|CERVICAL]]), or leaning upon, like the pillow on which a person supported his elbow on a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|triclinary couch]] (Nepos, ''Pel.'' 3. and woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cubital|CUBITAL]]), than of such as were intended for the reception of the body in a reclining posture.

2. In architecture, the ''bolster'' or ''baluster'' on the sides of an Ionic [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capitulum|capital]] (Vitruv. iii. 5. 7.), which imitates the full and swelling outline of a stuffed cushion as shown by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pulvinatus|preceding woodcut]].

3. In a warm-water bath (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Alveus|alveus]]''), the part immediately above the step (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gradus|gradus]]'') on which the bather sat, and which thus constituted as it were a cushion for his back to lean against (Vitruv. v. 10. 4.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Pulvinus 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 537.jpg|illustration |caption=Pulvinus/3.1}} represents a section of the warm bath in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Caldarium|thermal chamber]] at Pompeii, in which {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=A}} is the bath itself, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=B}} the step on which the bather sat, and {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=C}} the cushion or ''pulvinus'' for his back.

4. A ridge between two trenches in a field or garden (Plin. ''H. N.'' xvii. 35. § 4.); and a raised border or flower bed (Varro, ''R. R.'' i. 35. 1.); both from their resemblance to the upheaving form of a pillow or squab.

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File:Pulvinus 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 537.jpg|Pulvinus/3.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUMILIO'NES''', '''PUMILO'NES''', '''PU'MILI'''. Senec. ''Ep.'' 76. Stat. ''Sylv.'' i. 6. 57. Suet. ''Aug.'' 83. Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Nani|NANI]], which see.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUNC'TUM'''. Any small hole made by piercing, or pricking; hence a ''vote'' or ''suffrage''; because in early times, before the custom of voting by [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tabella|ballot]] had obtained, the poll clerk (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rogatores|rogator]]'') held a list of the candidates inscribed upon a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cera|tablet]] covered with wax, and scored off each vote as it was announced, by making a puncture in the wax against the initials of the candidate whom the elector supported. Cic. ''Planc.'' 22. Id. ''Tusc.'' ii. 24.

2. One of the ''points'' or units upon a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tessera|die]] (Mart. xiv. 17. Compare Suet. ''Nero'', 30). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Punctum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 538.jpg|example |caption=Punctum/2.1}} is copied from an original die found at Herculaneum.

3. One of the fractional marks or points on the beam of a steel-yard (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Statera|statera]]'') by which the exact weight is indicated (Vitruv. x. 3. 4.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Punctum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 538.jpg|example |caption=Punctum/3.1}} represents an original steel-yard found at Pompeii.

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File:Punctum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 538.jpg|Punctum/3.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUPA'''. In the primitive sense a ''little girl''; thence a child's plaything, or ''doll'' (Varro, ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 156. Pers. ii. 70. Hieron. ''Epist.'' 128. n. 1). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Pupa 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 538.jpg|illustration |caption=Pupa/1.1}} represents an original ivory doll discovered in a child's [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepulcrum|sepulchre]] near Rome; and another specimen of terra-cotta found in Sicily, and more elegant in design, is published by the Prince of Biscari, ''Degli antichi Ornamenti e Trastulli de' Bambini'', tav. v.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUPPIS''' ({{lang|grc|πρύμνα}}). The ''poop'', ''stern'', or after part of a ship. The works of art, hithero discovered, do not furnish us with any clear and satisfactory example of the precise manner in which the ancient ship-builders constructed the sterns of their vessels, beyond the fact that they are always represented round, and in many cases scarcely distinguishable from the prow (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Prora|prora]]''). Of such, numerous specimens are introduced in various parts of these pages; but the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Puppis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 538.jpg|annexed example |caption=Puppis/1.1}}, composed by the Academicians of the Royal Antiquarian Society at Naples (''Academici Ercolanesi'') from parts or indications observable in different ancient monuments, is introduced in order to give a more practical notion of the real appearance presented by the stern view of an ancient vessel, than what can be acquired from the conventional figures mostly exhibited by the artists of antiquity. If compared with the illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Prora|PRORA]], which shows a prow faithfully delineated from the antique, it will be at once seen how well the two would suit together, as the fore and after parts of the same vessel.

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File:Puppis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 538.jpg|Puppis/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUT'EAL'''. A dwarf wall or circular shell of marble or other materials surrounding the mouth of a well (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Puteus|puteus]]'') as a protection against the danger of falling in. Many of these have been found in excavations, and may be seen in the various collections of antiquities, oftentimes richly decorated with figures or other devices in relief (the ''putealia sigillata'' of Cic. ''Att.'' i. 10.); and the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed woodcut |imagelink=Media:Puteal 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 538.jpg|annexed woodcut |caption=Puteal/1.1}} shows one of the same description still covering the mouth of a well, as it now exists in the cloisters of the convent attached to the basilica of St. John in the Lateran at Rome.

2. When any spot was struck with lightning it was immediately deemed sacred, and venerated as such by the Romans, being surrounded by a shell of the same character and name as last described, in order to preserve it from the tread of profane feet (Cic. ''Sext.'' 8. Ov. ''R. Am.'' 561). Amongst these the ''puteal Libonis'' or ''Scribonianum'' in the Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Forum|forum]], was much celebrated, as the spot near which usurers met and money affairs were negotiated. It is represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed woodcut |imagelink=Media:Puteal 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 539.jpg|annexed woodcut |caption=Puteal/2.1}} from a medal of the Scribonian ''gens'', and has the inscription, PUTEAL LIBONIS, underneath.

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File:Puteal 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 539.jpg|Puteal/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUT'EUS''' and '''-UM''' ({{lang|grc|φρέαρ}}). A ''well''; artificially dug in the ground, and supplied from its own spring of water, of which examples are given ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Girgillus|GIRGILLUS]], and ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Puteal|PUTEAL]]. Cic. Hor. Plin. &amp;c.

2. A ''pit'' sunk in the earth for storing grain, as we do potatoes. Varro, ''R. R.'' i. 57. 2.

3. An air or vent hole in the water course of an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aquaeductus|aqueduct]], of which a sufficient number were formed at regular intervals throughout its whole length. When the duct was a subterranean one, the vent holes were constructed like the shaft of a tunnel; when there were two or more separate courses of water conveyed by the same aqueduct, one over the other, the vent holes of the lower ones were formed at the sides of the channels, above the level of the flowing water; but when there was only a single course, the opening was made in the top, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Puteus 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 539.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Puteus/3.1}}, representing a portion of the Alexandrian aqueduct at Rome, in which {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=A}} shows the channel (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Specus|specus]]''), through which the water flows, and {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=B}} the ''puteus'' or vent hole in question. Vitruv. vii. 8.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PUTIC'ULI''' or '''-LAE'''. ''Grave pits'' in which the bodies of slaves and people of the poorest classes, who could not afford the expense of a private tomb, or of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pyra|funeral pyre]], were interred as in a public [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepultura|burial]] ground. Originally they were situated on the Esquiline hill, but were removed from that locality in the time of Augustus, out of regard for the healthiness of the district, the site being subsequently occupied by the palace and gardens of Mecaenas. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 25. Festus, ''s. v.'' Compare Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 8. 10.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PYCNOSTY'LOS''' ({{lang|grc|πυκνόστυλος}}). ''Pycnostyle''; a term employed by the ancient architects to designate the closest of the five different kinds of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Intercolumnium|intercolumniation]] in use amongst them, which only had an interval of one diameter and a half between each [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]], as shown by the top line in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed diagram |imagelink=Media:Pycnostylos 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 539.jpg|annexed diagram |caption=Pycnostylos/1.1}}, exhibiting at one view the relative proportions of all the five styles. It was only applied in the Ionic and Corinthian order Vitruv. iii. 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PYC'TA''' or '''PYC'TES''' ({{lang|grc|πύκτης}}) (Phaedr. iv. 24. Senec. ''Contr.'' i. 3.) Merely a Greek word Latinized, for which the genuine Latin term is [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pugil|PUGIL]]; which see.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PY'RAMIS''' ({{lang|grc|πυραμίς}}). A ''pyramid'', a structure upon a square base, tapering gradually to a point at the top. The particular form, as well as the name, originated without doubt with the Egyptians; but for what precise object is still undetermined. It was, however, adopted by the Etruscans (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 19. § 4.) and the Romans, as an appropriate design for sepulchral monuments; all those which are mentioned by their writers having been constructed for that purpose, as well as the one now remaining at Rome, which is known as the pyramid of C. Cestius; and the one here introduced from an {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=engraved gem |imagelink=Media:Pyramis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 540.jpg|engraved gem |caption=Pyramis/1.1}}, which is identified as a tomb by the accompanying figure of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiator]], a class of whom, termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Bustuarius|bustuarii]]'', were engaged to fight round the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rogus|burning pyre]] of distinguished persons.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PYR'A''' ({{lang|grc|πυρά}}). A funeral ''pyre''; made of unhewn wood piled up into a square form, upon which the corpse was placed with its [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capulus|bier]] to be burnt. It was designated ''pyra'', before the fire was applied, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed representation |imagelink=Media:Pyra 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 540.jpg|annexed representation |caption=Pyra/1.1}} of Dido's pyre in the Vatican Virgil; but ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rogus|rogus]]'' when ignited. Virg. ''Aen.'' xi. 185. Serv. ''ad l.'' Id. ''Aen.'' xi. 204.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PYR'GUS'''. (Sidon. ''Ep.'' viii. 12.) A word coined from the Greek {{lang|grc|πύργος}}, though not occurring with the same identical signification in that language, and for which the genuine Latin word is [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Turricula|TURRICULA]], which see.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PYRR'HICHA''' and '''PYRR'HICHE''' ({{lang|grc|πυρρίχη}}). A Greek war-dance of Doric origin, performed to the sound of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tibia|flute]] in rapid measure, the performers wearing their armour and imitating by their motions the attack and defence of combatants in a battle. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Pyrrhicha 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 540.jpg|illustration |caption=Pyrrhicha/1.1}}, which is copied from a fictile vase, is generally received as a representation of the old Pyrrhic dance, as executed by the Greeks; an imitation of which was introduced at Rome by Julius Caesar, and also exhibited by succeeding emperors. Suet. ''Jul.'' 39. ''Nero'', 12. Spart. ''Hadr.'' 19.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PYTHAU'LA''' or '''-LES''' ({{lang|grc|πυθαύλης}}). In its original and proper acceptation signified a musician who played an air upon the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tibia|pipe]] ({{lang|grc|αὐλός}}), expressive of the combat between Apollo and the Python (Hygin. ''Fab.'' 273.); whence the name was afterwards given to a musical performer at the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatre]], who played the accompaniment to a single voice, as contradistinguished from the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Choraules|Choraules]]'', who accompanied the entire [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chorus|chorus]]. Diomed. iii. 489. Varro, ''ap.'' Non. ''s.'' Ramices, p. 166.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PYXIDIC'ULA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pyxis|PYXIS]].{TR: Lemma added for use in Wiki-Version.}

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''PYX'IS''' ({{lang|grc|πυξίς}}). Literally, a small box or case made of boxwood, but formed in a particular manner; viz. with a lid having a lip or return which shuts over the edge of the box, like the mouth of a tortoise (Plin. ''H. N.'' ix. 12.), as is very plainly expressed in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed woodcut |imagelink=Media:Pyxis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 541.jpg|annexed woodcut |caption=Pyxis/1.1}} from the design on a fictile vase. But as boxes of this character were made of various other materials besides boxwood, and extensively used for holding any small articles of use or ornament, especially such as are characteristic of female habits, the word possesses in general a signification analogous to our ''jewel case'', ''trinket box'', and such other receptacles as receive their characteristic name from the nature of the objects contained in them. Pet. ''Sat.'' 110. ''Mart.'' ix. 38 Suet. ''Nero'' 12. Cic. ''Cael.'' 25.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUAD'RANS'''. A small copper coin, three ounces (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Uncia|unciae]]'') in weight, and equal to a fourth part of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/As|As]] in value. It is marked with three balls to designate the weight, accompanied with the device of an open hand, [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Strigilis|strigil]], a dolphin, grains of corn, a star, the image of a ship, or the head of Hercules or Ceres; all of which are found on different specimens in various numismatic collections. (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 13. Hor. i. 3. 137. Mart. ii. 44.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Quadrans 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 541.jpg|example |caption=Quadrans/1.1}} here introduced is from an original, weighing in its present stage 2 oz. 179 gr., and is drawn of one-third the actual size.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUADRAN'TAL'''. A vessel with four square sides, each a foot long, employed as a measure for liquids, the solid contents of which were equal to an ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Amphora|amphora]]''. Cato, ''R. R.'' 57. 2. Plaut. ''Curc.'' i. 2. 16. Festus, ''s. v.''

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUAD'RA'''. In a general sense implies any thing which has four corners, or possesses a square form; whence specially:{{mdash}}

1. A ''square'' dining-table (Virg. ''Aen.'' vii. 115. ''Ib.'' iii. 257.) as contradistinct from a ''round'' one; both of which forms were adopted by the ancients, the former being the earliest model, the latter of most common usage. Hence the expression ''aliena vivere quadra'' (Juv. v. 2.) denotes a parasite, who lives at another man's expense; or, literally, at another man's table. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Quadra 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 541.jpg|illustration |caption=Quadra/1.1}} represents a square dining table, from the Vatican Virgil, spread before the companions of Ulysses, in the island of Circe.

2. The Roman architects employed the word in two different senses;{{mdash}} to designate the square member or ''plinth'' placed under the base (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Spira|spira]]'') of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]]. (Vitruv. iii. 4. 5.); and each of the narrow flat bands with plain surfaces, forming respectively the upper and lower division between the hollow ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scotia|scotia]]'' and swelling ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Torus|torus]]'' above and below it (Id. iii. 5. 2. and 3.); all which members are exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Quadra 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 541.jpg|illustration |caption=Quadra/2.1}} annexed.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUADRIF'ORIS''' sc. ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Janua|janua]]'' ({{lang|grc|τετράθυρος}}). A door, in which each of the two [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Foris|valves]] fold back into two parts, thus forming altogether ''four'' pieces, upon the same principle as our window-shutters and folding-doors; as is exemplified by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Quadriforis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 542.jpg|illustration |caption=Quadriforis/1.1}}, representing a cabinet or armoire, from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]]. Vitruv. iv. 6. 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUADRIGA'RIUS'''. A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Auriga|charioteer]] who drove a team of four horses abreast; more especially applied to one who drove a four-horsed car (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quadriga|quadriga]]'') at the races of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]]; as represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed cut |imagelink=Media:Quadrigarius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 542.jpg|annexed cut |caption=Quadrigarius/1.1}} from the device on a terra-cotta lamp. Cic. ''Fragm.'' Varr. ''R. R.'' ii. 7. 15. Suet. ''Nero'', 16.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUADRIGA'TUS'''. A ''silver [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Denarius|denarius]]'', so termed from its having the impress of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quadriga|quadriga]] stamped on the reverse, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed specimen |imagelink=Media:Quadrigatus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 542.jpg|annexed specimen |caption=Quadrigatus/1.1}} from an original of the same size. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 13. Liv. xxii. 58.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUADRI'GA''' ({{lang|grc|τέθριππον ἅρμα}}). A team of four horses or other animals; thence a carriage drawn by four horses abreast, and more epecially applied to the racing chariots of the circus (see the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quadrigarius|following woodcut]]), or to those employed in public processions, [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triumphus|triumphs]], &amp;c. (Cic. Liv. Suet. &amp;c.) Carriages of this description were originally furnished with two poles and a long cross-bar or yoke, which stretched across the backs of all the four animals, in the same manner as shown by the first woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Biga|BIGA]]. But that practice was early set aside, and then the two centre horses only were yoked, the two outside ones being attached by traces, in the manner shown by the woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Funalis|FUNALIS]]. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xviii. 35.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUADRIRE'MIS''' ({{lang|grc|τετρήρης}}). A war-galley propelled by four banks (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ordo|ordines]]'') of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remus|oars]] on each of its sides. (Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 57. Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 5. 33.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Quadriremis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 542.jpg|illustration |caption=Quadriremis/1.1}}, copied from a medal of the Emperor Gordian, though too minute and imperfect to be received as a complete representation of a quadrireme, yet affords a valuable and most satisfactory authority respecting the chief point which distinguished the class to which it belonged, viz. the position and rating of its [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remigium|oarage]]. It will be perceived that four separate banks, in tiers superimposed one above the other, are distinctly expressed by the four horizontal lines indicating the separation of each bank, and the diagonal position of each file of oars, by the angular termination of their extremities on the left side of the entire range; thus plainly demonstrating that the principle followed in disposing and reckoning the oarage of a ''quadriremis'', was the same as that practised in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Biremis|BIREMIS]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triremis|TRIREMIS]], the illustrations under which words, being upon a larger scale, and from more detailed models, will show the matter in a clearer light.

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File:Quadriremis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 542.jpg|Quadriremis/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUADRIV'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|τετραόδιον}}). A place where four [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|streets]] or cross roads meet (Catull. 58. Juv. i. 64). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Quadrivium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 543.jpg|illustration |caption=Quadrivium/1.1}} represents a street view of this nature in the city of Pompeii.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUA'LUS''' and '''-UM''' ({{lang|grc|τάλαρος}}). A very general name for a ''wicker basket'', which might be employed for various purposes; as, a woman's wool basket (Hor. ''Od.'' iii. 12. 4. and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quasillariae|next woodcut]]); a strainer made of wicker work, used at the vintage (Virg. ''Georg.'' ii. 242. Serv. ''ad l.'' and wood cut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Colum|COLUM]]. 1.); a wicker cage or coop for fowls (Columell. viii. 3. 4. and woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cavea|CAVEA]]. 2.). It will be observed that all the baskets in the illustrations referred to possess a conical shape, though sometimes standing upon their base, and at others used in an inverted position, which is the very form described by Columella (ix. 15. 12.), and consequently to be received as the distinguishing characteristic of the ''qualus''.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUASILLA'RIAE'''. Female slaves engaged in the spinning department of an ancient household, whose duties consisted in carrying the baskets of wool (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Qualus|quali]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quasillus|quasilli]]'') to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lanifica|spinners and weavers]], while they were occupied with their tasks. They formed the lowest rank in the household, merely attending upon other slaves, and not being themselves skilled in any branch of industrial art (Pet. ''Sat.'' 132. 3. Inscript. ''ap.'' Grut. 648. 5.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Quasillariae 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 543.jpg|illustration |caption=Quasillariae/1.1}} represents two females of this class with the basket between them, from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Zophorus|frieze]] in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Forum|forum]] of Nerva at Rome, on which various processes connected with the arts of spinning and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Textor|weaving]], and different classes of workwomen, are sculptured.

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File:Quasillariae 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 543.jpg|Quasillariae/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUASILL'US''' and '''-UM''' ({{lang|grc|ταλαρίς}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Qualus|QUALUS]]; especially applied to the basket in which wool and spinning implements were carried, as explained and illustrated under the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Qualus|last]] [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quasillariae|two]] words. Tibull. iv. 10. 3. Prop. iv. 7. 41.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUINA'RIUS'''. A half ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Denarius|denarius]]''; a silver coin of Roman currency, worth about 4¼d. of our money. (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 173. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 13.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Quinarius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 543.jpg|example |caption=Quinarius/1.1}} is from an original of the actual size.

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File:Quinarius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 543.jpg|Quinarius/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUINCUN'X'''. A copper coin of Roman currency, weighing five ounces (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Uncia|unciae]]''), and equal in value to five twelfths of an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/As|As]] (Hor. ''A. P.'' 327.). It is distinguished by five balls to denote its value, of the same character as those which appear on the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quadrans|quadrans]]'' (woodcut ''s. v.''); but the coin itself is of extreme rarity, and the British Museum does not possess a specimen.

2. A figure of things arranged in the same {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=position |imagelink=Media:Quincunx 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 544.jpg|position |caption=Quincunx/2.1}} as the five points (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Punctum|puncta]]'') are upon a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tessera|die]]. Cic. ''Sen.'' 17. Caes. ''B. G.'' vii. 73.

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File:Quincunx 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 544.jpg|Quincunx/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUINCUP'EDAL'''. A ''five-foot'' rod, divided into graduated parts, for taking measurements. Mart. xiv. 92.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUINQUERE'MIS''' ({{lang|grc|πεντήρης}}). A war galley equipped with five banks (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ordo|ordines]]'') of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remus|oars]] on each side; a class of vessel very commonly employed during the second Punic war. Liv. xxviii. 30. Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 5. The absence of any known representation of an ancient quinquereme renders it impossible to show the disposition of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remigium|oarage]] in vessels of this class by reference to a model of undoubted authority; but there are fair conjectural grounds for believing that each bank was placed and rated in an ascending line, one over the other, the oar ports of all the five ranging diagonally in file, in the manner shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=following diagram |imagelink=Media:Quinqueremis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 544.jpg|following diagram |caption=Quinqueremis/1.1}}; because the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Biremis|biremis]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triremis|triremis]]'', and ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quadriremis|quadriremis]]'' are shown by existing monuments to have been rated and constructed upon that principle, as is proved by the illustrations to each of those words; and it has been ascertained by actual experiment that a fifth tier superimposed in the same manner would not be too high above the water's edge, for the blade to dip into the water without requiring the oar to be of an unmanageable length; though beyond that number such an arrangement is found practically impossible, because the handle would be hoisted above the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remex|rower]]'s reach, from the great obliquity given to the oar by the height of the fulcrum on which it would be poised; or, if the oar were lengthened sufficiently to meet the water at a working angle, the handle would become so long that it could not be contained within the vessel.

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File:Quinqueremis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 544.jpg|Quinqueremis/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUINQUER'TIO''' ({{lang|grc|πένταθλος}}). One who practised the games of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quinquertium|quinquertium]]''. Liv. Andron. ''ap.'' Fest. ''s. v.''

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''QUINQUER'TIUM''' ({{lang|grc|πενταθλον}}). An athletic contest of Greek origin (Festus, ''s. v.'') consisting of five feats (''quinque artium''), viz.; leaping (''saltus'', {{lang|grc|ἅλμα}}), running (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cursor|cursus]]'', {{lang|grc|δρόμος}}), wrestling (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lucta|lucta]]'', {{lang|grc|πάλη}}), throwing the quoit (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Discus|discus]]'', {{lang|grc|δίσκος}}), and boxing (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pugilatio|pugilatus]]'', {{lang|grc|πυγμή}}), for which last throwing the javelin (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Jaculum|jaculatio]]'', {{lang|grc|ἀκόντισις}}) was afterwards substituted; but to gain the prize it was necessary to achieve a victory in all the five.

== References ==
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RA'DIUS''' ({{lang|grc|ῥάβδος}}). A pointed rod or wand, employed by professors of geometry, astronomy, or mathematics, for describing diagrams in sand, &amp;c. (Cic. ''Tusc.'' v. 23. Virg. ''Ecl.'' iii. 40.), as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Radius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 544.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Radius/1.1}}, representing the Muse Urania, from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]].

2. ({{lang|grc|ἀκτίς}}). A ''ray'' of light; usually represented by artists as a sharp pointed spike; whence ''corona radiis distincta'' (Flor. iv. 2. 91.), a crown ornamented with metal spikes to imitate the rays of the sun, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Radius 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 545.jpg|annexed example |caption=Radius/2.1}}, representing the head of Augustus, on an engraved gem.

3. ({{lang|grc|ἀκτίς, κνήμη}}). The ''spoke'' of a wheel (Virg. ''Georg.'' ii. 444. Ov. ''Met.'' ii. 318.); so termed because they radiate from a centre; hence ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rota|rota]] radiata'' (Varro, ''R. R.'' iii. 5. 15), a wheel with spokes as contradistinguished from the solid wheel (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tympanum|tympanum]]'') which had none. The latter of the two Greek words bracketed above, {{lang|grc|κνήμη}}, means literally the shin bone, and thus suggests a different image for the same object, which is also exemplified by the form of the spokes in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Radius 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 545.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Radius/3.1}}, representing an original wheel of ancient workmanship now preserved in the gallery of antiquities at Vienna.

4. A sharp pointed stake or palisade for making a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Vallum|vallum]]''. Liv. xxxv. 3.

5. An instrument used in [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Textor|weaving]] (Virg. ''Aen.'' ix. 476. Ov. ''Met.'' iv. 275. vi. 56. Lucret. v. 1352.); which, reasoning from analogy, and the other senses of the word, we may infer to have been the same as the long reed now employed by the Hindoos, serving both the purposes of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Alveolus|shuttle]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Spatha|batten]]. It is formed like a large netting needle, rather longer than the breadth of the web, which introduces the threads of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subtemen|weft]], and is likewise used to condense them.

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File:Radius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 544.jpg|Radius/1.1
File:Radius 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 545.jpg|Radius/2.1
File:Radius 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 545.jpg|Radius/3.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RA'DULA'''. A ''scraper''; an iron instrument for scraping or paring off extraneous matter, such as an old coat of paint or pitch from another surface. Columell. xii. 18. 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RAL'LUM'''. Contracted for ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Radula|radulum]]''. A ''scraper'' in the form of a ''spud'', which a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arator|ploughman]] put on to the butt end of his goad (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stimulus|stimulus]]''), and used for scraping off the earth from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Vomer|ploughshare]]. Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 49. § 2. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Rallum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 545.jpg|annexed example |caption=Rallum/1.1}} is copied from an Etruscan bronze, in which it is carried by a rustic engaged at the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aratrum|plough]].

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File:Rallum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 545.jpg|Rallum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RASTEL'LUS'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Raster|RASTER]]; especially in the sense of a ''wooden rake'' for smoothing over the ground after seed had been sown (Columell. ii. 12. 6.); or for raking up hay, straw, &amp;c., in the hay or corn field. Varro, ''R. R.'' i. 49. 1. Id. ''L. L.'' v. 136.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RAS'TER''', '''RAS'TRUS''' and '''-UM'''. An agricultural implement of a mixed character, between our ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Furca|fork]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rastellus|rake]]'', and ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Bidens|hoe]]'', both as regards the form of the object and the manner in which it was used. It resembled the fork and rake, in so far that the head, which was made of iron (Cato, ''R. R.'' x. 3. xi. 4.), but very heavy (Virg. ''Georg.'' i. 164.), contained two, three, or sometimes four [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Dens|prongs]] (''quadridens'', Cato, ''ll. cc.''), set at intervals apart (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 14. 6., ''a raritate dentium''), and arranged, like the rake, transversely across the handle at right angles with it, not in direct continuation, like the common fork; but the ordinary method of using it resembled that of a man hoeing with energy, it being raised up from the earth at each stroke (Senec. ''Ira'', ii. 5.) and then driven down forcibly upon or into it (Celsus, ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 222.). Thus it was employed in digging and clearing the surface of the soil (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 136. Virg. ''Georg.'' iii. 534.); for subduing or working the land, instead of ploughing (Id. ''Aen.'' ix. 608.), and more especially for chopping down and breaking into smaller particles any large clods of earth left by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aratrum|plough]], before harrowing, or as a substitute for it (Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 49. § 3. Virg. ''Georg.'' i. 94.). The figure in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Raster 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 545.jpg|wood-cut |caption=Raster/1.1}}, which is copied from a very ancient MS. of Terence in the Vatican Library, possesses all the qualities described; and though undoubtedly an imperfect portraiture, will enable the reader to form an accurate notion of the real character of the instrument. It forms the headpiece to the first scene of the first act in the ''Heautontim.'' being carried on the shoulders of Menedemus, and is evidently intended for an agricultural instrument of the name and nature described, from the dialogue it illustrates.{{mdash}}CHREMES. ''Istos rastros interea tamen adpone, ne labora.'' MENDEM. ''Minime'', &amp;c.{{mdash}}and by the accessories of a sheaf of wheat, and a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Jugum|yoke]] for plough oxen, which accompany the original design. At the same time it exemplifies the difference between the ''raster'' and the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ligo|ligo]]'', an instrument of otherwise similar character and use, but which, instead of having its head formed by two or more distinct prongs, like a rake, or being, as this is, and as Columella expresses it, a &quot;two-horned tool&quot; (''bicorne ferrum'', Columell. x. 148.), had a continuous blade like the hoe, but notched at its edge, or, in the language of the same author (x. 88.), broken up into teeth{{mdash}}''fracti dente ligonis''{{mdash}}as shown by the illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ligo|LIGO]]. The term, moreover, is mostly applied in the plural number, because the head was composed of several parts or prongs, instead of a single blade.

2. ''Raster ligneus''. A ''wooden rake'' (Columell. ii. 11. 27.); for which the diminutive [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rastellus|RASTELLUS]] is more common.

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File:Raster 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 545.jpg|Raster/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RA'SUS''' ({{lang|grc|ξεστός}}). ''Close shaved'' with a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Culter|razor]]; both with respect to the beard and hair of the head (Cic. ''Rosc. Com.'' 7. Aul. Gell. iii. 4.: and woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Liniger|LINIGER]]); as opposed to ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tonsus|tonsus]]'', which means clipped or cut short with [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Forfex|scissors]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RATA'RIA'''. Enumerated by Aulus Gellius amongst the different kinds of boats and ships of which he gives a list (x. 25.), but without any indication of its characteristic qualities. Servius (''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' i. 43.) describes it merely as a small ship propelled by [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remus|oars]]{{mdash}}''navicula cum remis''; Isidorus (''Orig.'' xix. 1. 9.) seems to imply that it was roughly built, and flat-bottomed, like a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ratis|raft]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RATIS''' ({{lang|grc|σχεδία}}). A ''raft''; formed by joining together a number of planks to make a float, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Ratis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 546.jpg|annexed example |caption=Ratis/1.1}}, from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Musivum|mosaic]] in the ceiling of an ancient [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]] of Bacchus, now the church of Santa Constantia, near Rome. Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 57. Quint. x. 2. 7. Cic. ''Att.'' ix. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 1. 19.

2. ({{lang|grc|πλοῖον κοντωτόν}}). A ''flat-bottomed boat'', pushed on by a pole, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Ratis 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 547.jpg|annexed example |caption=Ratis/2.1}}, from the very ancient mosaic pavement of Praeneste, instead of being rowed with oars. It constitutes in fact the first step in naval architecture from the simple raft to the regular vessel. Virg. ''Georg.'' ii. 445. Flor. iv. 2. 32. Diodor. xix. Bayfius, ''Re Nav.''

3. By the poets used indiscriminately for a boat or ship of any kind.

4. A pontoon, or bridge of boats for passing over from one side of a river to the other; formed by fixing the requisite number of boats in the centre of the stream to serve as piers for supporting a footway of planks laid athwart them from one side of the river to its opposite bank; whence the expression of Livy, ''rate jungere flumen''. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Ratis 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 547.jpg|example |caption=Ratis/4.1}} is from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Antoninus.

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File:Ratis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 546.jpg|Ratis/1.1
File:Ratis 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 547.jpg|Ratis/2.1
File:Ratis 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 547.jpg|Ratis/4.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RECH'AMUS''' (Vitruv. x. 2. 1.). Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Trochlea|TROCHLEA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RECINC'TUS''' (Virg. ''Aen.'' iv. 518.). Equivalent to [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Discinctus|DISCINCTUS]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RECI'NIUM'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ricinium|RICINIUM]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REC'TA''' ({{lang|grc|ὀρθοσταδίας}}). A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tunica|tunic]], woven in one piece all round, like our stockings; which fitted into the waist, and took the form of the figure, without requiring any girdle to keep it adjusted to the person, as was necessary with the common tunic, which was made of equal width from top to bottom. It consequently hung down in straight or direct folds from the neck to the feet, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Recta 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 547.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Recta/1.1}} of Ceres, which peculiarity gave rise to the name, both in the Latin and Greek language. Plin. ''H. N.'' viii. 74. Festus, ''s. v.'' Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 22. 18. Pollux. vii. 48.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REDEMP'TOR''' ({{lang|grc|ἐργολάβος}}). A ''contractor''; like our own term, of general application for one who undertakes to perform any description of work, such as the building or repairing of a house, &amp;c., for a stipulated amount. Cic. ''Div.'' ii. 21. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 55. Liv. Hor.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REDIMI'CULUM'''. A long lappel, or fillet attached to the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Mitra|mitra]]'' (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 31. 5. Virg. ''Aen.'' ix. 616.), or any other head-dress of similar character, for the purpose of fastening it under the chin (woodcuts ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Mitra|MITRA]], p. 426.), but the whole of which, when loose, would hang down over the shoulders and breast (Ov. ''Met.'' x. 265.), as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Redimiculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 547.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Redimiculum/1.1}} of Paris, from one of the Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|paintings]].

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File:Redimiculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 547.jpg|Redimiculum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RE'GULA''' ({{lang|grc|κανῶν}}). A ''straight'' rule, used by carpenters, [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lapidarius|masons]], artificers, and people in general, for drawing lines, or taking measurements (Vitruv. v. 3. Cic. ''ap.'' Non. ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Perpendiculum|Perpendiculum]], p. 162.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Regula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 547.jpg|example |caption=Regula/1.1}} represents an original bronze rule, found in a mason's shop at Pompeii, which is divided into graduated parts, and made to shut up in half, by means of a hinge, similar to those now in use; but is moreover furnished with a stay at the back, indented by two notches, which slip under the heads of two small pins, and thus prevents the two halves from closing or yielding from the straight line whilst in use.

2. In a more general sense any long straight lath, or thin bar of wood or metal, for whatever purpose applied; and specially in the plural, the laths, within which the pulp of olives (''samsa''), or the husks of grapes (''pes vinaceorum'') were included, when placed under the press beam (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Prelum|prelum]]'') to keep the entire mass under the action of the beam, and prevent the sides from bulging out beyond the centre where the force was pressed. Columell. xii. 52. 10. See the illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Torcular|TORCULAR]], 1. which exhibits a basket (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fiscina|fiscina]]'') employed, as was frequently the case (Id. xii. 39. 3.), instead of laths, for the same purpose.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RE'MEX''' ({{lang|grc|ἐρέτης, κωπηλάτης}}. A ''rower'' or ''oarsman'' who rows in a boat, galley, or ship. In vessels of war the rowers (''remiges'') formed a distinct class from the sailors (''nautae'') who managed the sails and navigation of the vessel; and from the marines (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Classiarii|classiarii]]''), or troops to whom its defence was committed; but the three together, the soldiers, seamen, and rowers, completed the manning of the vessel. Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 5. 33. Id. ii. 4. 34. Caes. ''B. C.'' iii. 24.

In boats and small craft the ancients used their [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remus|oars]] in most of the different ways still practised; a single man sometimes plying a pair of sculls (woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Biremis|BIREMIS]], 1.) when the boat was very small; or, in those of a larger size, handling only a single oar, and then either sitting and pulling towards himself, as we do, or standing up and pushing from himself, as is still the more common practice in the Mediterranean (woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Actuariolum|ACTUARIOLUM]]).

In sea-going vessels of a large size furnished with a single line of oars, such as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Navis|naves longae]], [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Liburna|liburnicae]]'', and others belonging to the class of ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Moneris|moneres]]'', which were equipped with oars of great weight and length, it is almost certain that more than one man pulled at the same oar, and sat on the same bench, as was the practice adopted in the galleys of the Venetians, Genoese, and French of Marseilles, during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, a method which is thus described in the memoirs of Jean Marteihle, a French protestant, condemned to the galleys in 1701. &quot;The rowers sit upon benches&quot; (the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Transtrum|transtra]]'' of the Romans), &quot;six men to an oar; one foot rests upon a low stool or stretcher, the other is raised and placed against the bench before them. They lean their bodies forward&quot; (the ''remis incumbunt'' of Virgil), &quot;and stretch out their arms over the back of those before them, who are also in a similar attitude. Having thus advanced the oar, they raise themselves and the end of the oar which they hold in their hands&quot; (''remis pariter insurgunt'', Virg.), &quot;and plunge the opposite one into the sea; which done, they throw themselves back upon their benches, which bend beneath their pressure.&quot;

In vessels which were furnished with more than one bank (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ordo|ordo]]'') of oars, such as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Biremis|biremis]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triremis|triremis]]'', &amp;c., the system of rowing was conducted upon a different plan. In these the rowers sat upon separate seats (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedile|sedilia]]'') instead of cross benches (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Transtrum|transtra]]''), and each oar was pulled by a single man, the highest one from the water being of course the longest, and the labour of the man who worked it the most severe. But when vessels of very great size were constructed, such, for instance, as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hexeris|hexeris]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hepteris|hepteris]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Decemremis|decemremis]]'', &amp;c., even though they could not have more than five oars in an ascending line from the water's edge to the bulwarks, as explained in the article [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ordo|ORDO]], yet it is clear that the length and weight of the oar must have borne a certain proportion to the width and length of the ship; and in such cases it is but reasonable to infer that both the methods of rowing hitherto described were united; the lower and smaller oars being managed each by a single man, the upper and larger ones by as many more than one as their size required. Thus when mention is made in the ancient authors of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remigium|oarage]] not being fully manned, it is not thereby implied that any of the oars are wanting, which could scarcely be, but that the proper strength or number of hands, required for their effective management, was not put upon some of them.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REMIG'IUM'''. The oars or oarage of a vessel, in a collective sense; also, like the Greek {{lang|grc|εἰρεσία}} and {{lang|grc|τὸ ἐρετικόν}}, for ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remex|remiges]]'', a crew of rowers. Virg. Hor. Plin. &amp;c.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REMUL'CUM''' or '''-US''' ({{lang|grc|ῥῦμα}}). A ''tow-rope'', by which one vessel is drawn after another. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 4. 8. Hirt. ''B. Alex.'' 11. Liv. xxxii. 16.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RE'MUS''' ({{lang|grc|ἐρετμὸς, κώπη}}). An ''oar''. The small oars and ''sculls'', when managed by a single man, differed in no respect from those in modern use, as may be seen from numerous specimens inserted in these pages; but the larger kinds, which sometimes extended to the length of 54 feet, and consequently required several men to one oar, must have been too thick at the handle for the hand to grasp; whence it may be confidently assumed, that they were constructed in the same manner as those used in the Mediterranean galleys of the 16th and 17th centuries, which were from 45 to 50 feet in length, each one requiring six [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remex|rowers]], who managed it by the assistance of a false handle or rail, affixed to the main butt, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed woodcut |imagelink=Media:Remus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 549.jpg|annexed woodcut |caption=Remus/1.1}}, representing the part inboard of one of the oars described. The flat piece, just beyond the handle, is distinct from the oar itself, but is fastened to it, as a guard, to prevent the consumption of the oar by rubbing against the side of the vessel, and easily renewable when itself worn out.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''R'ENO''' or '''RHE'NO'''. A very short cloak (''parvis rhenonum tegumentis.'' Caes. ''B. G.'' vi. 21.) which only covered the shoulders and breast as far as the loins and abdomen (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 23. 4.), and formed an article of clothing, especially characteristic of the Germans (Sallust. ''Fragm. Incert.'' 13. ed. Gerlach.), and of the Gauls (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 167.) It was made out of the rough skin of the reindeer, still called ''Ren'' in Swedish, and is frequently seen on the German figures of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Antoninus (see the illustrations ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Framea|FRAMEA]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Supplex|SUPPLEX]]); but is also worn by some of the soldiers in the imperial army on the column of Trajan, two of whom, affording a front and back view, have been selected for the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Reno 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 549.jpg|illustration |caption=Reno/1.1}}, because they show the peculiar form and dimensions of the object more distinctly.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REPA'GULA'''. Plural. One of the contrivances adopted by the ancients as a door fastening (Cic. ''Div.'' i. 34.), the precise nature of which must at this day be collected from inferential reasoning, rather than positive testimony. As the word only occurs in the plural, we may conclude that the device consisted of a double fastening, and not a single one; while the expression of Plautus (''Cist.'' iii. 18.), ''occludite pessulis, repagulis'', leads to the conjecture that it consisted of a pair of bolts (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pessulus|pessuli]]''), made of wood and fastened on the leaves of a folding door (Plin. ''H. N.'' xvi. 82.), but made to shoot against one another from opposite sides, which seems to be the true meaning of the definition given by Verrius, (''ap.'' Fest. ''s. v.'') ''repagula, quae patefaciundi gratia ita figuntur, ut e contrario oppanguntur.'' The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Repagula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 549.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Repagula/1.1}}, representing an Egyptian door, from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] at Thebes, which shows the two bolts affixed to separate valves, and shooting from opposite sides against each other, confirms this account so far as to encourage the belief that it really exhibits the contrivance in question. Indeed it is from the Egyptians that both Greeks and Romans appear to have derived the models for most of their locks, keys, and fastenings in general.

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File:Repagula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 549.jpg|Repagula/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REPLUM'''. (Vitruv. iv. 6. 5.) An upright rail fixed in the centre of the frame of a doorcase, and stretching from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Supercilium|lintel]] to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Limen|sill]], in order to serve the purpose of a rebate, and guard the crevice formed by the juncture of the two valves, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Replum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 550.jpg|annexed example |caption=Replum/1.1}}, representing an ancient bronze door in its original state, which formerly belonged to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]] of Remus, now converted into the church of S. Cosmo and Damiano, at Rome. The ground-plan at the bottom, where it appears in the centre, exhibits the manner in which the rebate closed over the juncture; and the elevation shows one leaf of the door closed against it; if both valves were open, it will be readily perceived that it would remain, like an isolated upright, in the centre of the entire opening. The interpretation here given cannot, however, be accepted as certain, for the precise meaning of the word is much controverted, and there are no authorities, beyond the bare mention of the term in the one quoted, to establish a decision.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REPOSITO'RIUM'''. A piece of furniture employed by the Romans for bringing up to table the various dishes comprised in a course (Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 90.), and which was placed with its contents upon a table in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triclinium|dining-room]] (Pet. ''Sat.'' lx. 4.). It consisted of a large covered box or case (whence ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theca|theca]] repositorii.'' Pet. ''Sat.'' xxxix. 3.), either round or square, and sometimes made of choice woods inlaid with tortoise-shell, and enriched by ornaments of silver (Fenestella ''ap.'' Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 52. Pet. ''Sat.'' xxxv. 2.). The whole case was moreover divided into a number of separate stories, one above the other, each of which held a separate tray (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ferculum|ferculum]]'') furnished with dishes like the dinner baskets in which a French or Italian restaurateur sends out a ready-dressed dinner to his customers. This is clear from Petronius (''Sat.'' xxxvi. 1. and 2. Compare xxxv. 1. and 2.), where a ''repositorium'' is placed upon the table, and after the first division has been removed, another tray containing a different course of entrées is exposed to view {{mdash}} ''superiorem partem repositorii abstulerunt. Quo facto, videmus infra, scilicet in altero ferculo, altilia'', &amp;c. {{mdash}} which passage distinctly points out the difference between a ''repositorium'' and a ''ferculum'', and proves the inaccuracy of those scholars who make the two words synonymous.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''REPO'TIA'''. A carousal or drinking bout ''after'' a banquet (Apul. ''Apol.'' p. 501. Id. ''de Mund.'' p. 750.); whence, in a more special sense, the entertainment given by a bridegroom to his friends the day after his wedding. Festus ''s. v.'' Hor. ''Sat.'' ii. 2. 60.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RESTIA'RIUS''' ({{lang|grc|σχοινοπλόκος, καλωστρόφος}}). A ''rope maker''. Inscript. Vet. a Jo. Cam. Rossi edita.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RES'TIO''' ({{lang|grc|σχοινοπώλης}}). A dealer in ropes and cords. Front. ''ap.'' Putsch. p. 2201. Suet. ''Aug.'' 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RE'TE''' and '''RE'TIS''' ({{lang|grc|δίκτυον}}). A ''net''; in the same general sense as is conveyed by our own word; including both fishing and hunting nets, and, in consequence, all the different kinds which are enumerated in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/RICH-2K/Classed Index 1849|Classed Index]]. (Cic. Plaut. Virg. &amp;c.) But sportsmen made use of the term in a more special or technical sense, to distinguish the large net or haye (''longo meantia retia tractu.'' Nemes. ''Cyneg.'' 300.), with which they used to surround a wide tract of country, before the operation of beating the covers commenced, in order to prevent the game from dispersing through the open country, and to form an enclosed circle towards which they might be driven, when dislodged by the dogs from the shelter of their thickets. Both the object itself, the manner of setting it, and the purpose for which it was used, may be readily imagined from the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Rete 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 551.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Rete/1.1}}, copied from a fresco-[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepulcrum|sepulchre]] of the Nasonian family, near Rome, which also contains several other pictures illustrative of hunting scenes.

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File:Rete 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 551.jpg|Rete/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RETIA'RIUS'''. A Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiator]], so named from the net (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rete|rete]]'') which formed his characteristic implement of attack. Besides this, he was equipped with a heavy threepronged fork (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fuscina|fuscina]], [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tridens|tridens]]''), but had no body armour; and his art consisted in casting the net over the head of the adversary, generally a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Secutores|secutor]]'', with whom he was matched. If he succeeded in his throw, so as to hamper his opponent, who was fully armed, in the toils of his net, he advanced to close quarters, and attacked him with the trident, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Retiarius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 551.jpg|illustration |caption=Retiarius/1.1}} from an ancient [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Musivum|mosaic]]; but if he failed, having no defensive armour, he immediately took to flight, and endeavoured to collect his net for a second cast before he could be overtaken by his adversary, who pursued him round the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arena|arena]]. Suet. ''Cal.'' 30. ''Claud.'' 34. Juv. ii. 143. viii. 203.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RETICULA'TUS'''. Literally, that which is formed like a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rete|net]], or in a pattern like net-work.

1. ''Reticulata structura. Reticulatum opus.'' A method of constructing walls very common in Italy during the later days of the republican and early part of the imperial period, the external appearance of which presented a reticulated pattern, like the meshes of a net, as shown by the division marked {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=A}} in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Reticulatus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 552.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Reticulatus/1.1}}, which exhibits at a view the different constructive arrangements adopted by the ancient builders. The one in question was formed by small stones, or by blocks of tufo, cut into a die, which, instead of being laid on their sides, were placed upon the sharp edge, so as to fit into one another like wedges. This method of construction, though extremely pleasing to the eye, has the great defect of wanting durability, in consequence of the tendency which such walls have to settle into cracks. Vitruv. ii. 8. 1. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 51.

2. ''Reticulata fenestra.'' A ''lattice'', i. e. a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fenestra|window]] protected by small bars of wood or metal, crossing each other in a reticulated pattern. Varro, ''R. R.'' iii. 7. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RETIC'ULUM''' ({{lang|grc|δικτύδιον}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rete|RETE]]; a small net, or a net made with small meshes (Varro, ''R. R.'' iii. 5. 13.); whence the following specific senses;{{mdash}}

1. A bag of network, the original of our ''reticule'', employed for holding various articles: {{mdash}} bread (Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 1. 47.); playing [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pila 2|balls]] (Ov. ''A. Am.'' iii. 361.); dried rose leaves, or other aromatic productions, which were thus carried in the hand, for the same purpose as the modern scent bottle. Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 5. 11.

2. ({{lang|grc|κεκρύφαλος}}). A cap for the hair, made of net-work, and properly belonging to the female attire (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 130.), though the same was sometimes adopted by the male sex (Lamprid. ''Heliog.'' 11. Juv. ii. 96.), as is still the case in modern Italy, where it is worn by the women of Albano, and by the men of Sonnino. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Reticulum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 552.jpg|example |caption=Reticulum/2.1}} is from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] at Pompeii.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RETINA'CULUM''' ({{lang|grc|σχοινίον ἐπίγειον}}). In nautical language, a ''hawser'', thrown out from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Puppis|stern]] of a vessel (Ov. ''Met.'' xv. 696.), by which it was made fast to the shore (''Ib.'' xiv. 547.), as contradistinguished from the ''cable'' (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ancorale|ancorale]]'') at the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Prora|bow]].

2. A ''tow-rope'', by which animals draw a vessel from the shore (Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 5. 18.), as contradistinct from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remulcum|remulcus]]'', by which one vessel was towed behind another.

3. Long traces for wagons to which several pairs of oxen are attached, sometimes extending to the length of 26 feet. Cato, ''R. R.'' 63. and 135.

4. Any king of long rope or thong which serves to retain or restrain; as a tether, or a halter for cattle (Columell. vi. 2. 4. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capistrum|CAPISTRUM]]); the reins of a chariot. Virg. ''Georg.'' i. 513. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Habena|HABENA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RE'TIOLUM'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rete|RETE]] (Apul. ''Met.'' viii. p. 155.); same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Reticulum|RETICULUM]], 2. Augustin. ''Ep.'' 109. n. 10.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RE'TIS'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rete|RETE]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RE'TIUM'''. Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rete|RETE]]. Gloss. Philox.; and Schol. Vet. ''ad'' Juv. viii. 207. where it is applied to the net of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Retiarius|Retiarius]]''.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RHEDA'RIUS'''. The coachman, or person who drives a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rheda|Rheda]]''. Cic. ''Mil.'' 10.

2. A tradesman who makes these carriages. Capitol. ''Max. et Balb.'' 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RHE'DA'''. A large and roomy carriage upon four wheels (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 12.), and furnished with several [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seats]], so as to be adapted for the transport of a large party, with their luggage and necessaries (Juv. iii. 10. Mart. iii. 47. 5.). It appears to have been in very general use amongst the Romans, both for town and country (Cic. ''Mil.'' 20. Id. ''Att.'' vi. 1. ''Ib.'' v. 17. Suet. ''Jul.'' 57.); and probably resembled the French ''char-à-banc'' with a cover overhead, for the carriage itself, as well as its name, was of Gallic original (Quint. i. 5. 68.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Rheda 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 553.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Rheda/1.1}} is not copied from any ancient authority, nor is it altogether imaginary, being composed by Ginzrot (''Wagen und Fahrwerke'', tab. 20.), after the models of several very similar carriages which appear on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]] of Trajan and Antoninus; but is here introduced in order to convey a proximate notion of the general character of the conveyance in question, which, though not altogether genuine, will still serve as a useful illustration to the various passages above referred to.

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File:Rheda 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 553.jpg|Rheda/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RHOM'BUS''' ({{lang|grc|ῥόμβος}}). Originally signified the spindle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fusus|fusus]]'') with which women spun their thread (Schol. ''ad'' Apoll. ''Argon.'' i. 1139.); a vertical section of which, when covered with thread, would exhibit the figure termed a ''rhomboid'' by mathematicians, as will be seen by the centre figure in the illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fusus|FUSUS]]. This meaning subsequently obtained to the complete exclusion, of the primary notion; though a very distinct allusion to that is contained in one of the common applications of the word both by the Greek and Latin writers, who make use of it to designate a sort of ''reel'' or ''whorl'' employed in enchantment. Ov. ''Am.'' i. 8. 7. Prop. iii. 6. 26.

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'''RHOMPAE'A''', '''ROMPHAE'A''', and '''RUM'PIA''' ({{lang|grc|ῥομφαία}}). A military weapon peculiar to the Thracians (Aul. Gell. x. 25.); but whether belonging to the class of swords or of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hasta|spears]] is a matter of doubt, though the latter seems the more probable. At all events, it was characterised by prodigious length (Liv. xxxi. 29.); and by having, like the Roman ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pilum|pilum]]'', a wooden shaft of the same dimensions as the iron head affixed to it. Val. Flacc. vi. 98.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RHYPAROG'RAPHUS''' ({{lang|grc|ῥυπαρογράφος}}). A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictor|painter]] of low, coarse, and trivial subjects, amongst which are enumerated scenes of ordinary life, interiors of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tonstrina|barbers' shops]], cobblers' stalls, animals, and objects of still life (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxv. 37.), such as those for which the Dutch and Flemish schools have become celebrated. It is evident from the adjective which gives the governing sense to the term ({{lang|grc|ῥυπαρός}}, foul, dirty), that works of this description were held in low estimation by the talented and accomplished people of Greece; but the coarser-minded and more material Romans, whose love of art, and taste, were far less pure, being acquired or affected, not innate, set the highest value upon them, and bought them at prices oftentimes exceeding what they paid for the great works of the best masters. Plin. ''l. c.''

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RHYT'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|τὸ ῥυτόν}}). Properly, the Greek name for a ''drinking-horn'' (Mart. ii. 35. 2.), out of which the liquor was allowed to ''flow'' (whence the name, {{lang|grc|ῥυτός}}, running, flowing) through an orifice in the point at bottom, into the mouth of the drinker, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Rhytium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 554.jpg|annexed example |caption=Rhytium/1.1}} from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]]. It is here shown in its simplest form of a mere horn; but vessels of the same character were made in many ornamental devices, especially imitating the heads of different animals, in which the narrow extremity formed by the nose and lips makes a point for the liquor to flow from. Several such have been discovered in the excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and are engraved in the Museo Borbonico (v. 20. viii. 14.).

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RI'CA'''. A square sheet of woollen cloth with a fringe round its edges (''vestimentum quadratum, [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fimbriatus|fimbriatum]].'' Verrius, ap. Fest. ''s. v.''), worn as a veil over the head by females, when performing sacrifice more especially (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 130.), but also upon other occasions (Plaut. ''Epid.'' ii. 2. 50. Aul. Gell. vi. 10. Caes. German. ''in'' Arat. 121.). Both the form and character of this piece of drapery are plainly discernible on the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Rica 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 554.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Rica/1.1}}, representing a priestess of Isis, from a statue of the Chiaramonte collection in the Vatican.

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File:Rica 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 554.jpg|Rica/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RICI'NIUM''', '''RECI'NIUM''', '''RICI'NUS''', or '''RECI'NUS'''. Diminutive form of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rica|RICA]]. A small square sheet of woollen cloth (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Palliolum|palliolum]] breve'', Non. ''s. v.'' p. 542.), doubled in two (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 132.), and worn over the head (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 25.) as a veil; more especially assumed as a mourning costume by females (Varro, ''de Vit. Pop. Rom. ap.'' Non. ''l. c.'' Fragm. xii. ''tab. ap.'' Cic. ''Leg.'' ii. 23.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Ricinium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 554.jpg|example |caption=Ricinium/1.1}} is copied from one of four figures in a fresco [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] which decorated one side of a chamber in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thermae|Thermae]] of Titus, in which the celebrated group of Laocoon was found, and is supposed to represent Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, when she went out as a suppliant and in mourning, to dissuade her son, who forms a prominent object in the picture, from advancing against his native city. But even if this explanation of the subject be not the true one, it is still apparent from the attitudes and demeanour of the two females in the design, that they are represented in the character of suppliants, and consequently attired in the habiliments of grief; which alone is sufficient to identify the very peculiar piece of drapery on the head and shoulders with the name and object above described.

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File:Ricinium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 554.jpg|Ricinium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RI'CULA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rica|RICA]]. A veil worn by young women over the head. Turpil. ''ap.'' Non. ''s.'' Rica, p. 539. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 31. 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RIS'CUS''' ({{lang|grc|ῥίσκος}}). A ''ward-robe'', more especially for female apparel (Terent. ''Eun.'' iv. 6. 15. Ulp. ''Dig.'' 34. 2. 26. Pollux, vii. 79.). The word appears to have been generally applied to any kind of receptacle adapted for the purpose mentioned, as it is severally explained to be a wicker basket covered with leather (Donat. ''ad'' Terent. ''l. c.''); a large ''chest'' (''Gloss. Philox.''); and a ''closet'' let into the wall. Non. ''s. v.'' p. 165.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''ROBORA'RIUM'''. A place enclosed with wooden palings, more particularly of oak. Scip. Afric. ''ap.'' Gell. ii. 20.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RO'BUR'''. The underground dungeon in a gaol (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Carcer|carcer]]'') in which the sentence of capital punishment was carried into execution; whence the expression, ''dignum carcere et robore'' (Apul. ''Apol.'' p. 530.), deserving imprisonment and death. Festus, ''s. v.'' Liv. xxxviii. 59. compared with xxxiv. 44. where it is termed ''carcer inferior''. Lucan. ii. 125. It is shown by the circular chamber in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Robur 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 555.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Robur/1.1}}, which represents a section of the state prisons, constructed by Ancus Martius and Servius Tullius, now existing at Rome, and the identical one to which the passages of Livy, above quoted, refer.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''ROGATO'RES'''. Officers who acted at the Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Comitium|Comitia]] in a capacity somewhat similar to that of our ''poll clerks'', their duty being to stand at the nearest end of the bridge (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pons|pons suffragiorum]]''), which each citizen ascended to record his vote as he came out from the inclosure (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ovile|ovile]]'') in which they were first mustered, and to present the balloting tokens (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tabella|tabellae]]'') to each individual in turn, which he took and threw into the box (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cista|cista]]'') placed at the opposite extremity of the bridge. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Rogatores 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 555.jpg|illustration |caption=Rogatores/1.1}}, from a coin, explains the process, showing at the bottom the railing which enclosed the ''ovile'', a voter ascending the bridge and receiving his ballot from the ''rogator'', whilst another one at the opposite end is engaged in depositing his in the box. The term, however, originated before the practice of secret voting had obtained, when the poll clerk had only to ask (''rogare'') the citizens how they intended to vote, and to register the result upon a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cera|waxed tablet]] containing a list of the candidates, by making a mark or point (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Punctum|punctum]]'') against the name of each one as a suffrage was recorded in his favour. Cic. ''N. D.'' ii. 4. Id. ''Div.'' ii. 35. ''Ib.'' i. 17. Id. ''in Sen.'' 11. Id. ''Pis.'' 15.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''ROGUS''' ({{lang|grc|πυρά}}). A funeral pile whilst in process of combustion; composed of rough logs of wood, not cut into shape (xii. tab. ''ap.'' Cic. ''Leg.'' ii. 23.), but piled up into a square mass, on the top of which a corpse was reduced to ashes (Virg. ''Aen.'' xi. 189.). It was strictly termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pyra|pyra]]'' before the fire had been applied to it, and ''rogus'' when burning (Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''l. c.''), as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example annexed |imagelink=Media:Rogus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 555.jpg|example annexed |caption=Rogus/1.1}}, representing the pile on which the body of Patroclus is consumed, in the bas-relief known as the ''Tabula Iliaca'', on which the various events recorded in the Iliad are portrayed.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RORA'RII'''. A class of soldiers in the Roman armies, forming part of the ''levis armatura'', or light-armed troops. They were drawn up in the third line behind the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triarii|triarii]]'', and in a position between them and the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Accensus|accensi]]'' (Liv. viii. 8. Compare Plaut. ''Fragm.'' ''ap.'' Varro, ''L. L.'' vii. 58.); their duty being to rush forward, as opportunities offered, and make desultory attacks upon the enemy's columns, with showers of missiles discharged amidst the ranks formed by the first and second lines of the heavy [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Legionarii|legionary soldiers]] (Liv. viii. 9.). It is probable enough that the term was derived from ''rores'', drops of rain, as the grammarians say (Varro, ''l. c.'' Festus, ''s. v.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 552.); but it by no means follows therefrom, as they, and the modern lexicographers after them, have inferred, that the name was given to these troops because they ''commenced'' the action by a ''shower'' of missiles, like the drops which ''precede'' a storm; for that was the duty of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ferentarii|ferentarii]]'', who, for that purpose, were conveniently posted upon the wings (Veg. ''Mil.'' i. 20.), whereas the rear ranks of the army, the post of the ''rorarii'', would be a most unfit one for such a purpose. ''Rores'' are any drops of water which fall ''during'' a shower, as well as ''before'' it. The post, moreover, assigned them by Livy, immediately before the ''accensi'', who constituted the lowest grade of the whole army, indicates sufficiently that they formed a distinct class from them, as well as from the ''ferentarii'', holding an intermediate position between both in regard to rank and accoutrements. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=figure |imagelink=Media:Rorarii 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 556.jpg|figure |caption=Rorarii/1.1}} in the woodcut from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan, represents a soldier of the Imperial army fighting, as above mentioned, between two heavy-armed legionaries. Though his weapon ist not seen, it is plain enough from the attitude that he is in the act of discharging a missile. Similar figures occur on two other parts of the column, with shields of the same character, and appointed in the same manner, naked to the waist, with short drawers (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Feminalia|femoralia]]'') and military boots (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Caliga|caligae]]''): in one instance standing amongst a body of troops of all arms, heavy and light, who are listening to an harangue (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Allocutio|allocutio]]'') from the emperor; and in the other one, on the field of battle, engaged amongst the heavy infantry like the one here selected. In early times no doubt a kilt (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Campestre|campestre]]'') was worn instead of drawers, which were not introduced until the Imperial age; but that will not impair the genuine evidence of the other details, while the use of a missile and shield, in connection with the defenceless state of the rest of the body, accords perfectly with the rank which these men occupied, and the duties they had to perform, and shows a ground of distinction betweem them and the ''ferentarii'', who had no shield nor defensive arm whatever, and the ''accensi'', who had not even an offensive weapon beyond what nature supplied them, their fists and stones.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''ROSTRA'TUS'''. Formed in the shape of, or furnished with, a snout or beak (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rostrum|Rostrum]]''); whence applied as a descriptive epithet to many different objects {{mdash}} to the bill-hook (Columell. ii. 21. 3. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rostrum|ROSTRUM]], 3.); to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aratrum|plough]] (Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 48. ROSTRUM, 4.); to a crown (Plin. ''H. N.'' xvi. 3. xxii. 4. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Corona|CORONA]], 8.); to a ship (Hirt. ''B. Afr.'' 23. ROSTRUM, 1.); to a column (Suet. ''Galb.'' 23. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|COLUMNA]], 3.).

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''ROS'TRUM''' ({{lang|grc|ῥύσχος}}). Literally, the ''snout'' of a beast, especially of swine, and the ''bill'' of birds; whence the term is transferred to various artificial objects, resembling in form, or in the uses to which they are applied, either of the natural organs above mentioned; as:{{mdash}}

1. ({{lang|grc|ἔμβολος}}). The ''beak'', as it is called by us, of a ship of war, made of bronze, or sometimes of iron, and intended to act against the timbers of an enemy's vessel, like the battering-ram against a wall (Liv. Hor. Hirt. Plin. &amp;c.). In early warfare it consisted of a single beam, shod at the end with a metal head, mostly representing some animals, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Rostrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 557.jpg|annexed example |caption=Rostrum/1.1}}, from an original, perhaps unique, which was found at the bottom of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Portus|port]] of Genoa, and is supposed to have been sunk there in the battle fought between the Genoese and Mago the Carthaginian. It projected from the head of the vessel at a certain elevation above the keel and water's edge, in the manner shown by the woodcut at [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Navis|p. 442]]. But when the system of naval warfare was perfected, it was formed by several projecting beams, cased with sharp metal points, sometimes employed alone, and sometimes in addition to the one last described; but either situated on the same level as the keel, or depressed below it, so that every fracture not only damaged the vessel, but made a fearful leak below the water. All these properties are exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Rostrum 1.2 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 557.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Rostrum/1.2}}, from two Roman medals, the one on the left showing the ''rostrum'' on the same line with the keel, according to the construction adopted during the Punic war; that on the right, with the original ''rostrum'', in the form of a bird's head, above, and the improved and more formidable one underneath it, depressed below the bottom of the vessel, according to the construction employed in the age of Augustus. Scheffer, ''Mil. Nav.'' ii. 5.

2. ''Rostra'', plural ({{lang|grc|οἱ ἔμβολοι}}, Polyb. vi. 53, 1.). ''The'' rostra; a name given to the tribune in the Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Forum|forum]], from which public men addressed the people, because it was ornamented with ships' beaks taken from the people of Antium in the Latin war (Liv. viii. 14. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 155. Cic. Caes., &amp;c.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Rostrum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 557.jpg|illustration |caption=Rostrum/2.1}} from a coin of the Lollian ''gens'' (probably the M. Lollius Palicanus mentioned by Cicero. ''Verr.'' ii. 41.), though exceedingly deficient in respect of accurate details, will nevertheless enable us to conceive a notion of the form and character which this celebrated structure possessed. It is plainly indicated by the sweeping direction of the lines drawn across the coin that the building was a circular one, with a parapet and a platform at the top on which an elevated stand was placed, the whole being supported upon [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|arches]], the piers of which were ornamented with the beaks of the vessels above mentioned. It must have been ascended by a flight of steps, and probably there was one on each side of it, so that the whole structure would resemble very closely the ambones or pulpits, still to be seen in several of the earliest Christian churches at Rome.

3. The crooked and pointed end of a vine-dresser's bill-hook (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Falx|falx vinitoria]]''), that is, the point which is turned uppermost in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Rostrum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|annexed example |caption=Rostrum/3.1}}, from an ancient MS. of Columella, and which bears a close resemblance to the beak of certain birds of prey. Columell. iv. 25. 3.

4. The curved end of the primitive Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aratrum|plough]], used for light soils, formed from the limb of a tree, either naturally or artificially bent into a crook, and when necessary, shod with iron at its extremity; as is very clearly displayed by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Rostrum 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Rostrum/4.1}}, from a small Etruscan bronze, found at Arezzo. Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 48.

5. The ''nozzle'' of an oil lamp (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lucerna|lucerna]]''), through which the wick projects, and which is usually made with a curved line rising from the body of the object, not unlike the beak of a bird, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Rostrum 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|annexed example |caption=Rostrum/5.1}} from an original Roman lamp. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxviii. 46.

6. The head of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ferrarius|smith]]'s hammer or mallet (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Malleus|malleus]]''); in which case the analogy is deduced from the application, not from the form, of the instrument; because it is the part with which the shock is given, in allusion to the ''rostrum'' of a ship, as exemplified by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Rostrum 6.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Rostrum/6.1}}, representing smiths at the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Incus|anvil]], from a bas-relief. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiv. 41.

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File:Rostrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 557.jpg|Rostrum/1.1
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File:Rostrum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|Rostrum/3.1
File:Rostrum 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|Rostrum/4.1
File:Rostrum 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|Rostrum/5.1
File:Rostrum 6.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|Rostrum/6.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''ROT'A''' ({{lang|grc|τροχός}}). A ''wheel''; made in the same form as now, and composed of the following members: {{mdash}} ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Modiolus|modiolus]]'', the nave; ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Radius|radius]]'', the spokes; ''absides'', the felloes; ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Canthus|canthus]]'' or ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Orbis|orbis]]'', the tire; all of which are distinctly marked in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Rota 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Rota/1.1}}, representing an original wheel now preserved in the cabinet of antiquities at Vienna.

2. The expression, ''insistere rotis'' (Virg. ''Georg.'' iii. 114.), literally &quot;to stand upon, or over, the wheels,&quot; is not a merely poetical figure of speech, but a graphical description of the manner in which the ancient car (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Currus|currus]]'') was driven by its [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Auriga|charioteer]], whose posture was always a standing and not a sitting one, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Rota 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|annexed example |caption=Rota/2.1}} from a terra-cotta lamp. Thus Martyn's translation of the above passage{{mdash}}&quot;to ''sit'' victorious over the rapid wheels&quot;{{mdash}}is not only incorrect as regards Latinity, but suggests an image at direct variance with the words of the poet.

3. The ''wheel of torture''; an instrument of punishment employed by the Greeks, by which the victim, being bound to the spokes, was then whirled round with a rapid rotation till sensation or life became extinct, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Rota 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 559.jpg|annexed example |caption=Rota/3.1}} from a Greek bas-relief representing Ixion, who was condemned to the wheel by Jupiter for his ingratitude and other overt acts. Cic. Tusc. v. 9. Apul. ''Met.'' iii. p. 48. Tibul. i. 3. 74.

4. ''Rota aquaria.'' A ''water wheel'', for raising water from a flowing stream, and which works itself by the action of the current (Lucret. v. 517.). Wheels of this nature, of very simple construction, but agreeing exactly with the description of Vitruvius (x. 5.), are still employed in many countries, of which the following {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Rota 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 559.jpg|example |caption=Rota/4.1}}, representing a water wheel commonly met with in China, will afford a very clear notion. The wheel itself is made entirely of bamboo, and consists of two concentric rims, between which are affixed small paddles or float boards (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pinna|pinnae]]''), which turn the wheel as they are urged by the current. On the outer circumference (''frons'') are situated a certain number of scoops (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Haustrum|haustra]]''), made out of single joints of the bamboo, in place of which the Romans used wooden boxes (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Modiolus|modioli]]'') or earthenware jars (''rotarum [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cadus|cadi]]''). (Non. ''s.'' Haustra, p. 13.) As the wheel revolves these are filled by immersion; and being placed with a slight inclination upon the wheels, when they rise to the summit of revolution they are forced to discharge their contents into a receiving-trough which conducts the water into a reservoir, or into canals on the level of the high land.

5. ''Rota figularis.'' A ''potter's wheel'' (Plaut. ''Epid.'' iii. 2. 35.) laid horizontally, as a table, the mass of clay, out of which the vase is to be formed, being situated upon it, and fashioned by the hands of the workman, as the rotatory motion of the wheel (''currente rota.'' Hor. ''A. P.'' 21.) would readily assist in producing any circular form either for the inside or the outside. The process is clearly shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Rota 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 559.jpg|annexed example |caption=Rota/5.1}} from an Egyptian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], which exhibits a potter sitting on the ground before his wheel, with the lump of clay, marked in a darker tint, upon it, gradually forming into shape; the hollow part of the inside being scooped by the thumb of the right hand, and the outside rounded by the palm of the left one{{mdash}}a process precisely similar to what may be seen every day in our own potteries.

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File:Rota 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|Rota/1.1
File:Rota 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 558.jpg|Rota/2.1
File:Rota 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 559.jpg|Rota/3.1
File:Rota 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 559.jpg|Rota/4.1
File:Rota 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 559.jpg|Rota/5.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''ROT'ULA''' ({{lang|grc|τροχίσκος}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rota|ROTA]]. Plaut. ''Pers.'' iii. 3. 30. Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 48.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUBRI'CA'''. ''Red ochre''; thence, ''a law'', or ordinance of the ''civil law''; such, for instance, as the Twelve Tables, and in contradistinction to a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Praetor|praetor's]] edict, or rule of the courts (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Album|album]]''); because the titles of the former, or, it may be, the entire text, were written with red ochre; whereas the latter were posted on a white ground, and inscribed in the usual form. Quint. xiii. 3. 11. Pers. v. 99. Compare Juv. xiv. 192.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUD'ENS''' ({{lang|grc|κάλως}}). A ''rope''; more especially intended to designate any part of the lighter cordage constituting the rigging of a vessel (Pacuv. ''ap.'' Coel. ''ad'' Cic. ''Fam.'' viii. 2. Virg. ''Aen.'' 1. 91.), employed about the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Malus|mast]], or used for raising and trimming the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Velum|sails]]; in contradistinction to the heavier kinds, such as cables, hawseres, &amp;c.; for example, the ''halyard'', by which the sail was raised (Catull. lxiv. 235.), and down which the seaman slid from the yard to the deck (Ov. ''Met.'' iii. 616.), ''brail ropes'' (Virg. ''Aen.'' iii. 682.), ''sheets'', or, perhaps, ''braces'', or both. Id. x. 229.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUDIA'RIUS'''. A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiator]] who had been presented with the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rudis|rudis]]'', in token of receiving his discharge. Suet. ''Tib.'' 7.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUDIC'ULA''' ({{lang|grc|κύκηθρον}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rudis|RUDIS]]. A ''mull'' or ''wooden'' spoon (Columell. xii. 46. 3.), for beating up, stirring, or mixing together different ingredients, whilst boiling, stewing, or making decoctions. (Cato ''R. R.'' 95. 1. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiv. 54.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Rudicula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 560.jpg|example |caption=Rudicula/1.1}}, from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|picture]] of still life at Pompeii, exhibits a plate of eggs, together with the vessel and mull for beating them up.

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File:Rudicula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 560.jpg|Rudicula/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUD'IS''' ({{lang|grc|κύκηθρον}}). An implement for stirring and mixing liquids and other ingredients while boiling, &amp;c.; similar to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rudicula|preceding example]], but of larger dimensions. Cato, ''R. R.'' 79. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiv. 50.

2. A stick with a knob at the end or blunted at the point, employed by [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiators]] and soldiers whilst learning the art of attack and defence, or practising for exercise and amusement. (Suet. ''Cal.'' 32. Liv. xxvi. 51. Ov. ''Am.'' ii. 9. 22. Id. ''A. Am.'' iii. 515.) It was usual to present an instrument of this description to the gladiator who had received his discharge from service; whence the expression ''rude donari'', means to be relieved from duty. (Hor. ''Ep.'' i. 1. 2. Compare Suet. ''Claud.'' 21.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Rudis 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 560.jpg|illustration |caption=Rudis/2.1}}, from an engraved gem, is believed to represent a gladiator with the ''rudis'' in his hands; a conjecture which the round form of the object, and its proximate resemblance to the stirring mull, described under the primary meaning of the word, renders extremely probable.

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File:Rudis 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 560.jpg|Rudis/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RU'GA''' ({{lang|grc|ῥυτίς}}). Literally, a ''wrinkle''; whence, the ''worm'' of a screw (Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 74. and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cochlea|COCHLEA]]), and a small irregular crease or fold in a piece of drapery, and contradistinguished from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sinus|sinus]]'', a deep and loose one, and from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Contabulatio|contabulatio]]'', a straight and regular one. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxv. 34. Macrob. ''Sat.'' ii. 9. and woodcuts ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Contabulatio|CONTABULATIO]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sinus|SINUS]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUL'LA'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rallum|RALLUM]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUM'EX'''. A weapon of similar character with the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sparum|SPARUM]]. Festus ''s. v.'' Lucil. ''ap.'' Fest. Aul. Gell. x. 25.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUM'PIA'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rhompaea|RHOMPAEA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUNA'''. A weapon of similar character with the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pilum|PILUM]] (Festus ''s. v.'' Ennius ''ap.'' Fest.); perhaps an antiquated term for ''pilum''.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUNCA'TIO''' ({{lang|grc|βοτανισμός}}). The act of ''thinning out'' and ''weeding'' young crops, by removing the weakly or over thick plants and weeds, which choke up and draw off nourishment from the rest. (Columell. ii. 12. 9. Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 50.) This operation was usually performed after the hoeing (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarritio|sarritio]].'' Columell. ii. 11. 9.), and was conducted chiefly by the hand (Id. v. 6. 7.), with the assistance of a crooked weeding-hook (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Runco|runco]]''), for the removal of any stubborn roots or weeds amongst the plants.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUNCA'TOR'''. One who thins out and clears a crop from extraneous herbage and weeds, in the manner described under the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Runcatio|preceding word]]. Colmell. ii. 12. 1. Id. xi. 3. 19.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUNCI'NA''' ({{lang|grc|ῥυκάνη}}). A carpenter's ''plane'', for smoothing and levelling surfaces in wood (Plin. ''H. N.'' xvi. 82.), of which an {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Runcina 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 561.jpg|example |caption=Runcina/1.1}} is afforded from a sepulchral marble at Rastadt, which is furnished with a handle, and shows the holes through which the shavings (''ramenta'') turned up. The same name was also given to the ''rebate plane'', employed by cabinet-makers, joiners, and carvers in wood, for making grooves or channels between the folds of drapery, &amp;c. Tertull. ''Apol.'' 12. Augustin. ''C. D.'' iv. 8.

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File:Runcina 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 561.jpg|Runcina/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUN'CO'''. A ''weeding-hook'' (Pallad. i. 43. 4.), employed for rooting out briars and other stubborn offsets amongst the young crops, when they were being thinned and cleared out (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Runcatio|runcatio]]''). It was formed with a cutting edge and bent neck, like the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Falx|falx]]'' (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 14. 5.), and appears to have received its name from the Greek {{lang|grc|ῥύγχος}}, the snout of a breast and the bill of a bird, either in allusion to the form, or to the manner in which it was applied, of pecking and routing up the earth. In modern Italy the terms ''ronca'' and ''roncone'' are now used to designate a bill-hook.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUSSA'TUS'''. Clothed in red; especially employed to designate a driver (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Auriga|auriga]]'') in the chariot races of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]], who belonged to the red party (''factio russata''), and wore a red [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tunica|tunic]] to distinguish him from his competitors, whose colours were respectively [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Albatus|white]], [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Prasiniani|green]], or blue. Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 54. Inscript. ''ap.'' Reines, ''cl.'' 5. ''n.'' 63.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUTA'BULUM'''. A ''fire-shovel'', employed by bakers and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ferrarius|smiths]] for throwing up the embers and ignitable matter in their [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Furnus|ovens]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Caminus|forges]] (Festus ''s. v.'' Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 8. 6.); whence it is commonly mentioned in conjunction with the thongs (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Forceps|forceps]]''). Cato ''R. R.'' x. 3. xi. 5. Suet. ''Aug.'' 75.

2. A wooden shovel, like that now employed for mixing together the hot and cold water in a bath, used for stirring together and amalgamating the new-made wine (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Mustum|mustum]]'') with the &quot;doctor&quot; (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Defrutum|defrutum]]'') and other ingredients infused in it for the purpose of producing an artificial body and flavour. Columell. xii. 20. 4. ''Ib.'' 23. 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUTEL'LUM''' ({{lang|grc|ὁμαλιστήρ}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rutrum|RUTRUM]]. A ''strickle'', or small shovel employed by corn meters for filling the measure and levelling the surface, in order to strike the exact quantity. Luc. ''Sat.'' ix. 18. ed. Gerlach.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''RUT'RUM'''. The implement with which Remus is said to have been slain (Ov. ''Fast.'' iv. 843.); consisting of a large and broad iron blade into which the handle was inserted perpendicularly, like our ''shovel''; and which, like that, was adapted for the various purposes of grubbing, scraping, digging, and mixing; as, for breaking down clods of earth (Varro ''L. L.'' v. 134.); scraping and throwing up sand (Festus ''s. v.''); for kneading and chopping up mortar (Vitruv. vii. 3. Pallad. i. 15.); and other similar uses to which such a form would be adapted. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Rutrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 561.jpg|example |caption=Rutrum/1.1}} represents the blade of a shovel of this nature from an original discovered amongst various other building implements at Pompeii.

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File:Rutrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 561.jpg|Rutrum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAB'ANUM''' ({{lang|grc|σάβανον}}). A linen cloth, employed as a napkin to contain any thing (Pallad. vii. 7. 3.): a towel for rubbing and drying (Veg. ''Vet.'' v. 46. 11.), and for wrapping round the body to confine the perspiration after sweating in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Laconicum|vapour bath]]. Marcell. Empir. 26.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAB'ULO'''. (Macrob. ''Sat.'' ii. 1.). A player upon some musical instrument; but the reading of the word is extremely doubtful, and, consequently, the interpretation given to it.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SACCEL'LUS'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sacculus|SACCULUS]]. A very small bag. Pet. ''Sat.'' 104. Cels. iv. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAC'CEUS'''. Made of coarse linen or ''sackcloth''. Hieron. ''Vit. Hilar.'' 44.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SACCIPE'RIUM''' ({{lang|grc|σακκοπήρα}}). A large bag made of sackcloth, and employed as a receptacle within which the smaller bag or purse was deposited. Plaut. ''Rud.'' ii. 6. 64.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAC'CULUS''' ({{lang|grc|σακκίον}}). Any small ''sack'' or bag (Apul. ''Met.'' ix. p. 200.); and especially one employed for holding money (Catull. xiii. 7. Juv. xiv. 138.); as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sacculus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 562.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sacculus/1.1}}, which exhibits a bag of this kind with a heap of money lying beside it, from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] at Pompeii.

2. (Cic. ''Fin.'' ii. 8.) Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Saccus|SACCUS]] 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAC'CUS''' ({{lang|grc|σάκκος}}). A large bag or ''sack'', made of coarse linen cloth; as a corn or flour sack (Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 2. 38. Phaedr. ii. 7.), like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Saccus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 562.jpg|annexed example |caption=Saccus/1.1}} from a group of soldiers on the Trajan [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]], who are busied in carrying to their respective quarters a number of sacks of corn distributed for the use of the army.

2. A sack or large bag for holding money, the use of which is intended to convey a notion of enermous wealth (Hor. ''Sat.'' ii. 3. 149. Id. i. 1. 70.), whereas the diminutive ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sacculus|sacculus]]'' conveys an impression of poverty or small means. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Saccus 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 562.jpg|example |caption=Saccus/2.1}} is copied from a bas-relief discovered at Rome, which, as the inscription on it testifies, was formerly employed as a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|street]] direction, to point out the way to the public treasury.

3. ''Saccus vinarius.'' A basket, net, or strainer, made of bulrushes, osiers, or bast, and in the shape of an inverted cone (Columell. ix. 15. 12.), through which the ancients strained their wine after it was made, for the purpose of clearing it and mitigating its intoxicating qualities (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxiv. 1. Id. xiv. 28. Mart. xii. 60.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Saccus 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 562.jpg|illustration |caption=Saccus/3.1}} exhibits an article of the kind described, from a Roman bas-relief representing various processes connected with the vintage, and the making of wine; the grapes with which it is filled, indicate the object for which it was used.

4. ''Saccus nivarius.'' A piece of coarse cloth, employed in a common way, or by poor people, instead of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Colum|colum nivarium]]'', for the purpose of cooling their wine by mixing it with snow; the cloth, with a lump of snow upon it, being placed over the wine cup, and the liquor then poured upon the snow, and made to filter through the cloth into the cup. Mart. xiv. 104.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SACEL'LUM''' ({{lang|grc|περίβολος}}). A diminutive from ''Sacrum''. A small enclosed precinct, either square or round, consecrated to a divinity, and containing an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ara|altar]] (C. Trebat. ''ap.'' Gell. vi. 12.), but not roofed over (Festus ''s. v.''). Such a spot was often set apart by individuals on their own property in honour of some favourite deity, as well as by the state, for public reverence. Cic. ''Div.'' i. 46. Id. ''Agr.'' ii. 14. Ov. ''Fast.'' i. 275.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SACE'NA'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scena 2|SCENA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SACER'DOS''' ({{lang|grc|ἱερεύς}} and {{lang|grc|ἱερεία}}). A priest, and a priestess; a general term applied to both sexes of all classes and orders of the priesthood; including, therefore, the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Augur|Augur]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pontifex|Pontifex]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Flamen|Flamen]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Vestales|Vestalis]]'', and others enumerated in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/RICH-2K/Classed Index 1849|Classed Index]], and described under their special titles. Varro ''L. L.'' v. 83. Cic. ''Leg.'' ii. 8. Id. ''Verr.'' ii. 5. 45. Ov. ''Fast.'' v. 573.

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'''SACERDO'TULA'''. A young [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sacerdos|priestess]], or one of inferior grade who ministers to her superior. Varro ''L. L.'' v. 130. Festus ''s.'' Flaminia.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SACOMA'RIUS'''. One who makes weights for [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sacoma|counterpoises]]. Inscript. ''ap.'' Mur. 979. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SACO'MA''' ({{lang|grc|σήκωμα}}). A ''counterpoise''; properly a Greek word Latinised (Vitruv. ix. ''Praef.'' 9.), for which the Roman expression is [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aequipondium|AEQUIPONDIUM]], where see the illustration.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SACRA'RIUM''' ({{lang|grc|ἱεροφυλάκιον}}). In a general sense any place where sacred things are kept, but more especially the ''sacristy'' of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]], in which the utensils, vessels, implements, &amp;c., used in the service of the deity, were preserved (Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' xii. 199. Ov. ''Met.'' x. 691.); whence the town of Caere, to which the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Vestales|Vestals]] fled with the sacred fire and property of their temple when Rome was besieged by the Gauls, is termed by Livy the sacristy of the Roman people {{mdash}} ''sacrarium populi Romani''.

2. A ''private chapel'' in a man's own house (Cic. ''Fam.'' xiii. 2.), such as are attached to some of the mansions of our old nobility and great Catholic families. An apartment of this nature has been discovered in one of the houses at Pompeii, consisting of a square room, with an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Absis|absis ]] at one end for the statue of the divinity, an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ara|altar]] in the centre within a small [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Peristylium|peristyle]] of four [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]] which supported the roof, and furnished with a separate flight of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalae|stairs]] on each of its flanks, conducting to the suites of apartments situated in the upper story.

3. An apartment in the Imperial palace (Auson. ''Grat. Act.''); so styled in order to flatter the emperor by insinuating his deification.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGA'TUS'''. Wearing the mantle of coarse woollen cloth, termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sagum|sagum]]'', as explained and illustrated under that word; and as the ''sagum'' was worn by the military more especially, the word ''sagatus'' is frequently opposed to ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Togatus|togatus]]'', thereby implying that the individual so equipped is prepared for military duty, or for a violent conflict; in which sense it is nearly equivalent to our expression &quot;in his regimentals.&quot; Cic. ''Fragm.'' ''ap.'' Non. ''s.'' Sagum. Capitolin. ''Marc. Antonin. Philos.'' 27.

2. ''Made'' of coarse long-napped wool; ''e. g.'' of the same fabric as the ''sagum''. Columell. xi. 1. 21. Id. i. 8. 9.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SA'GA'''. Literally, a wise woman, deeply versed in religious mysteries (Cic. ''Div.'' i. 31. Festus ''s.'' Sagaces); whence the more common meaning affixed to the word corresponds with our terms, a ''witch'', ''sorceress'', ''fortune-teller''. (Hor. ''Od.'' i. 27. Columell. i. 8. 6. Id. xi. 1. 2.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Saga 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 563.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Saga/1.1}} of a female in a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], who in the original is sitting just outside the door of a miserable thatched hovel, exhibits all the popular characteristics, and seems to exhibit the original type of our nursery witch. The mother Shipton's hat, the magic wand, the dog, and the caldron, are all recorded and depicted in children's story-books.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGE'NA''' ({{lang|grc|σαγήνη}}). Our ''seine''; a large drag-[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rete|net]] for taking fish, one edge of which was floated by corks on the water, and the other depressed and extended by leaden weights; the entire length of the net being sufficient to enclose a considerable extent of water, one end of it was carried out from a boat or from the shore, and laid round in a circle until the two ends were brought together, in which state it was dragged into the boat or shore, in the same manner as still practised in the gulf of Naples, and on the coast of Cornwall. Manil. ''Astron.'' v. 678. Ulp. Dig. 47. 10. 13.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGINA'RIUM'''. A place in which poultry is put up to be fatted. Varro, ''R. R.'' iii. 10. 7.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGITTA'RII'''. ''Archers'' or ''bowmen'', who formed part of the light-armed infantry in the Roman armies. But as the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|bow]] was not a national weapon amongst the Romans, the battalions of archers were generally furnished by the allies. (Caes. Sall. Tac. &amp;c.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sagittarii 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 564.jpg|illustration |caption=Sagittarii/1.1}} represents a German archer from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Antoninus.

2. ''Sagittarii [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Eques|equites]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἱπποτοξόται}}). Mounted bowmen. Tac. ''Ann.'' ii. 16. Curt. v. 4. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hippotoxota|HIPPOTOXOTA]].

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File:Sagittarii 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 564.jpg|Sagittarii/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGIT'TA''' ({{lang|grc|τόξευμα, ὀῖστὸς, ἰός}}). An ''arrow''; amongst the Greeks and Romans usually made with a plain bronze head, without barbs, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed specimen |imagelink=Media:Sagitta 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 564.jpg|annexed specimen |caption=Sagitta/1.1}}, from an original found in Attica.

2. ''Sagitta hamata'' or ''adunca''. An arrow with a barbed head, like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sagitta 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 564.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sagitta/2.1}}, from a terra-cotta lamp; the use of which is more especially characteristic of the Asiatics and northern nations. Ov. ''Trist.'' iii. 10. 63.

3. A lancet or ''phleme'' for bleeding cattle (Veg. ''Vet.'' i. 22. 4. ''Ib.'' 25. 5.); evidently so termed from being formed in the same shape as the Greek and Roman arrow-head, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed specimen |imagelink=Media:Sagitta 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 564.jpg|annexed specimen |caption=Sagitta/3.1}} from an original of bronze, found in a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chirurgus|surgeon]]'s house at Pompeii.

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File:Sagitta 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 564.jpg|Sagitta/1.1
File:Sagitta 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 564.jpg|Sagitta/2.1
File:Sagitta 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 564.jpg|Sagitta/3.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGIT'TO''' ({{lang|grc|τοξεύω}}). To shoot with a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|bow]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sagitta|arrows]]; an art amongst the Greeks and Romans almost entirely confined to the sports of the field or exercises of skill. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sagitto 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 565.jpg|illustration |caption=Sagitto/1.1}}, from a fictile vase, represents one of three Greek youths shooting at a cock tied on the top of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] (one of whom is kneeling in the same position as the figure ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pharetratus|PHARETRATUS]], p. 499.), and shows the precise manner of handling the bow, fixing the arrow, drawing it between the fingers, and of directing its course by projecting the forefinger of the left hand along the shaft; thus graphically illustrating the various passages which describe the process{{mdash}}''nervo aptare sagittas'' (Virg. ''Aen.'' x. 131.); ''imponere'' (Ov. ''Met.'' viii. 381.); ''dirigere'' (Claud. iv. ''Cons. Honor.''  530.) &amp;c.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGMA'RIUS'''. A horse, mule, or other beast of burden, who carries a load upon the pack-saddle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sagma|sagma]]'') as described under the last word. (Lamprid. ''Elag.'' 4. Aurel. Imp. ''in Epist. ap.'' Vopisc. ''Aurel.'' 7.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Sagmarius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 565.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Sagmarius/1.1}} is copied from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan.

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File:Sagmarius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 565.jpg|Sagmarius/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAG'MA''' ({{lang|grc|σάγμα}}). A ''pack-saddle'' made on a frame, and employed for sumpter horses and beasts of burden, to receive the panniers or loaded goods, as contradistinguished from the ordinary riding-pad (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ephippium|ephippium]]''), which was soft and stuffed, and had no tree (Veg. ''Vet.'' iii. 59. 1. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 16. 5.). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sagma 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 565.jpg|example |caption=Sagma/1.1}} is copied from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]]; and similar saddles are also exhibited on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan. The frame projecting from the side is intended to receive the lowest packages, and thus constitute a broad base for piling up the goods all round.

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File:Sagma 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 565.jpg|Sagma/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGOCHLAM'YS'''. A particular kind of military cloak introduced under the empire, which, as the name implies, must have possessed some property common to the Greek ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chlamys|chlamys]]'', and the Roman or foreign ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sagum|sagum]]''. (Valer. ''in Epist. ap.'' Trebell. ''Claud.'' 14.) Both the figures in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed woodcut |imagelink=Media:Sagochlamys 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 565.jpg|annexed woodcut |caption=Sagochlamys/1.1}}, one of whom represents a foreign soldier in the Roman service, and the other a captive youth of the same nation, wear an outer cloak of very peculiar fashion, repeatedly occurring on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Antontinus. It is formed by two square pieces of cloth, fastened together over each shoulder by brooches, so that one of the parts depends in front of the person, the other in a corresponding manner at the back; the square form, the length of the drapery, the manner of adjusting, and the general appearance presented by it, conveying many points of resemblance to the two articles of attire, compounded in the present name, as will be apparent by referring to the figures which illustrate those terms respectively; and, as it cannot be doubted that a garment so singular as the one above delineated must have been called by a name of its own, while no other occurs in the language so appropriate as the one affixed, it is not unreasonable to infer that it is the true one.

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File:Sagochlamys 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 565.jpg|Sagochlamys/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAGULA'TUS'''. Wearing the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sagulum|sagulum]]''. Suet. ''Vit.'' 11.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAG'ULUM'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sagum|SAGUM]]; the diminutive sometimes implying fineness of texture, as well as reduction in size, a thin or fine ''sagum'', as well as a small one. Suet. ''Aug.'' 26. Liv. vii. 34. Sil. Ital. iv. 515. xvii. 527.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAG'UM''' and '''-US''' ({{lang|grc|σάγος, ἐφαπτίς}}). Properly a Celtic word, the original of our &quot;''shag'',&quot; and adopted in the same sense by the Romans to designate a mantle made of coarse wool, or of goat's hair, with the nap left on. It consisted of a square, or at least rectangular, piece of cloth (Afran. ''ap.'' Charis, 1. 81.), which when off the person could be spread out like a sheet (Suet. ''Otho'', 2.), but when put on was folded in two and fastened by a brooch (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fibula|fibula]]'', Varro ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 538., whence ''sagum fibulatorium''. Trebell. Poll. ''Trig. Tyrann.'' 10.), or tied in a knot (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Nodus|nodus]]'', and woodcut ''s. v.'') on the top of the left shoulder, the brooch being fixed through one edge of the drapery at the distance of  about one third from each of the corners, so that the left arm and side were covered and protected, the right being left open and free, while the two upper corners fell upon the breast and arm, and the two lower ones depended before and behind on the level of the knees, as is plainly exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Sagum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 566.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Sagum/1.1}}, from a bas-relief in the Museum at Verona, representing a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lictor|lictor]] in the ''sagum'', which was his appropriate costume when in attendance upon the governor of a province. (Cic. ''in Pis.'' 23.) As the ''sagum'' was more especially a military costume, both for the officers and common soldiers, it was for that very reason assumed by the citizens generally instead of the cumbrous and stately ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Toga|toga]]'', in times of tumult or threatened invasion; whence such expressions as ''saga sumere {{mdash}} in sagis esse {{mdash}} ad saga ire'' {{mdash}} are always indicative of turbulent and troubled times or of a state of actual warfare. Caes. ''B. C.'' i. 75. Sallust. ''Fragm. ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 538. Cic. ''Phil.'' viii. 11. Liv. ''Epit.'' 72.

2. A ''saddle-cloth''; composed of coarse shag placed under the tree-saddle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|sella]] [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Bajulatorius|bajulatoria]]'') or the pack-saddle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sagma|sagma]]''), to prevent the hard substance from galling the animal's back (Veget. ''Vet.'' iii. 59. 2.), as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Sagum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 566.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Sagum/2.1}} from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] at Herculaneum.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALGAMA'RIUS''' ({{lang|grc|ἁλμευτής}}). One who makes and deals in pickles (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Salgama|salgama]]'') of the kind last described. Columell. xii. 44. 1.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAL'GAMA''' ({{lang|grc|τὰ ἁλμαῖα}}). ''Pickles''; made from roots, herbs, fruit, &amp;c., potted down and preserved in brine. Columell. x. 117. Id. xii. 4. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAL'IENS'''. A ''jet d'eau'', or artificial fountain in which the water is made to shoot forth or leap up by the force of its own pressure, in passing through a small tube (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sipho|sipho]]'') which gives it vent. (Cic. ''Q. Fr.'' iii. 1. 2. Vitruv. viii. 6. 2. Ulp. ''Dig.'' 19. 1. 15.) Agrippa formed one hundred and five of these fountains in the city of Rome (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 24. § 9.), and the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Saliens 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 567.jpg|illustration |caption=Saliens/1.1}} exhibits one still remaining in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fullonica|fuller's establishment]] at Pompeii.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Saliens 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 567.jpg|Saliens/1.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAL'II''' ({{lang|grc|Σαλίοι}}). The Salii; twelve priests of Mars Gradivus, who had the custody of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ancile|ancilia]]'', or sacred shields. Their costume consisted of an embroidered [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tunica|tunic]], girt round the waist with a broad military belt of bronze ([[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cingulum|CINGULUM]], 4.); or possibly covered by a breastplate ([[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pectorale|PECTORALE]]), which seems more probable; and the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Trabea|trabea]]'' for an outward mantle. On their heads a pointed bonnet ([[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Apex|APEX]]); a short sword suspended from the left side, a shield upon the left arm and in the right hand a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hasta|spear]] or a wand with which they struck the shields as they were being carried through the city by their ministers suspended from a pole. (Liv. i. 20. Dionys. ii. 70.) Most of these particulars are illustrated by the annexed woodcuts; the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=first |imagelink=Media:Salii 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 567.jpg|first |caption=Salii/1.1}} of which, from a Roman bas-relief, exhibits the apex, trabea, and wand above mentioned; a branch of laurel is carried in the left hand, because the priest is engaged at a sacrifice of thanksgiving for some victory. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=lower figures |imagelink=Media:Salii 1.2 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 567.jpg|lower figures |caption=Salii/1.2}}, from an engraved gem, which is inscribed with Etruscan characters, exhibit the embroidery on the drapery, the sacred shields, and the method of carrying them in procession.

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File:Salii 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 567.jpg|Salii/1.1
File:Salii 1.2 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 567.jpg|Salii/1.2
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALIL'LUM''' (Catull. xxiii. 19.). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Salinum|SALINUM]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALI'NAE''' ({{lang|grc|ἁλοπήγιον}}). Places or pits in which salt is made. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxi. 39.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALINA'TOR''' ({{lang|grc|ἁλοπηγός}}). One who prepares or makes salt; thus ''salinator aerarius'' (Ennius ''ap.'' Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' iv. 244.) is one who leased from the government the privilege of making and selling salt.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALI'NUM'''. A ''salt-cellar''; both for holding the salt which was sprinkled over the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ara|altar]] at a sacrifice, and that which was used at meals. It usually consisted of a cup standing in a dish or a saucer; and, from being employed at the domestic sacrifice, was regarded as an object of veneration in the family; so much so, that persons even of slender means were ambitious to possess one of silver, if they could contrive to purchase it. Val. Max. iv. 4. 3. Liv. xxvi. 36. Hor. ''Od.'' ii. 16. 13.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALISA'TOR''' or '''SALISSA'TOR'''. One who forbodes the occurrence of good or evil from the sensible pulsation or palpitation of any part of his body. Isidor. ''Orig.'' viii. 9. 29.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALISUB'SULUS'''. A dancing [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Salii|Salian]]; an epithet given to the priests of Mars (Catull. xvii. 5.), in allusion to the dance which they performed on certain festivals, as described ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Saltatio|SALTATIO]], ii. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALPIC'TA''' or '''SALPIS'TA''' ({{lang|grc|σαλπιγκτής, σαλπιστής}}). (Jul. Firm. viii. 21. Vopisc. ''Carin.'' 19.) A word coined from the Greek, for which the Latin term is [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tubicen|TUBICEN]]; which see.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALSAMENTA'RIUS''' ({{lang|grc|ταριχοπώλης}}). A dealer in salted fish. Auct. ''ad Herenn.'' iv. 54. Macrob. ''Sat.'' vii. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALSAMEN'TUM'''. The brine or pickle used for salting fish (Cic. ''Div.'' ii. 57.); whence also the salted fish itself; Greek {{lang|grc|τάριχος}}. Terent. ''Adelph.'' iii. 3. 26.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALTA'TIO''' ({{lang|grc|ὄρχησις, χόρευσις}}). A ''dancing'', or a ''dance''; under which term the inhabitants of ancient Greece and Italy designated four different kinds of exercises having little in common with one another, beyond the circumstance that the motions of the performers in all of them were accompanied and regulated by strains of music or a chorus of voices: viz.

1. ''Religious dances''; consisting for the most part of slow and stately movements round the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ara|altar]], without any violence of gesture or attempt at gymnastic dexterity, and more in the nature of a ''ceremonial'' accompanied by music, than what is implied by our term ''dance''; consequently, amongst the Greeks and Romans freeborn citizens of both sexes and all ranks, even the highest, took a part in these exhibitions, without any disparagement to the gravity of their characters or dignity of position. Quint. i. 11. 18. Macrob. ''Sat.'' ii. 10. Serv. ad Virg. ''Bucol.'' v. 73.

II. ''Gymnastic'' or ''war dances''; which served as a training for the field and a stimulus to military valour, like the dances of the South Sea Islanders and the Indians of North America. Amongst these are enumerated:{{mdash}}

1. ''Saltatio Corybantum.'' The Corybantian dance, more especially peculiar to the natives of Phrygia and Crete; which possessed a mixed character between the religious, military, and mimetic exhibitions, the performers being armed, and bounding about with wild and violent gestures while striking their shields and swords together, to imitate the noise made by the Corybantes, when endeavouring to stifle the cries of the infant Zeus, in the island of Crete. (Lucian, ''Salt.'' 8. Strabo, x. 3. 21.) It is supposed to be represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figures |imagelink=Media:Saltatio II.1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 568.jpg|annexed figures |caption=Saltatio/II.1.1}}, from a Greek bas-relief in the Vatican. The entire composition now remaining contains six figures, all in the same attitude as the pair here introduced; but as neither of the two outside one has a ''vis-à-vis'', it is evident that the marble is only a fragment which originally formed part of a longer [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Zophorus|frieze]], inluding a greater number of performers.

2. ''Saltatio Pyrrhica.'' The Pyrrhic dance; described and illustrated ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pyrrhicha|PYRRHICA]].

3. ''Saltatio Saliorum.'' A dance performed by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Salii|Salii]], or priests of Mars (Quint. i. 11. 18.), during the ceremony of carrying the sacred shields (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ancile|ancilia]]'') through the city of Rome. We have no representation of this performance; but it may be inferred from a passage of Seneca (''Ep.'' 15.), that the motions exhibited by these priests resembled the act of leaping and jumping, more than graceful or measured steps, for he compares them to the stamping and jumping of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fullo|fullers]] (''saltus fullonius'') upon the clothes they are engaged in cleaning, as explained and exhibited by the text and wood-cut at [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fullonica|p. 304]]; but they evinced a considerable degree of muscular strength and agility.

4. ''Saltatio bellicrepa.'' A Roman dance of a military character, said to have been instituted by Romulus, in commemoration of the rape of the Sabines, and as a ceremonial for averting a similar calamity from his own people. Festus, ''s. v.''

III. ''Mimetic dances''; in which the performers represent certain events and actions by mere gesticulation and movements of the body, to a musical accompaniment, but without the aid of the voice, like the actors in a modern ballet. These exhibitions would in our day be classed under the name of acting in dumb show, for dancing, in our sense of the term, had no place in it, the performance consisting in expressive movements of the features, body, arms, and hands, rather than the feet. Macrob. ''Sat.'' ii. 7. Suet. ''Cal.'' ''Nero.'' 54. ''Tit.'' 7. Ov. ''A. Am.'' i. 595.

IV. ''Operatic dances''; in the ordinary sense of the word as applied by ourselves; intended as an exhibition of grace, agility, and strength, in which the movements of the feet and body perform the essential part, without any direct attempt at mimetic representation, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed group |imagelink=Media:Saltatio IV.1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 569.jpg|annexed group |caption=Saltatio/IV.1.1}}, from a fictile vase. Such performances were chiefly exhibited for the amusement of the guests at great banquets; and numerous representations of the persons who performed in them, both male and female, have been found amongst the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|paintings]] of Herculaneum and Pompeii, all showing the great degree of perfection to which the art of mere dancing was advanced by the ancient artistes.

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File:Saltatio II.1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 568.jpg|Saltatio/II.1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALTA'TOR''' ({{lang|grc|ὀρχηστὴς παντόμιμος}}). A ''dancer''; only of mimetic dances on the stage ([[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Saltatio|SALTATIO]] III.), or of operatic dancers at banquets and public places (SALTATIO IV.); not the performer in a religious, nor in a war-dance (SALTATIO I. and II.); the two former being regarded by the Romans as a degrading or unbecoming employment, but the two latter in nowise derogatory. Hence the term always contains an implied sense of contempt or reproach. Cic. ''Mur.'' 6. Id. ''Off.'' 1. 42. Macrob. ''Sat.'' ii. 10.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALTATRI'CULA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Saltatrix|SALTATRIX]]; the diminutive conveying a notion of disparagement. Aul. Gell. i. 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALTA'TRIX''' ({{lang|grc|ὀρχήστρια}}). A ''dancing girl''; a class of women common in ancient Greece and Italy, as now in the East, of indifferent morals but considerable personal beauty, who hired themselves out to dance at great banquets and entertainments for the amusement of the guests. (Cic. ''Pis.'' 8. Ammian. xiv. 6. 19. Macrob. ''Sat.'' ii. 10.) Females of this description are frequently represented in the Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|paintings]], from one of which the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Saltatrix 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 569.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Saltatrix/1.1}} is copied; mostly furnished with a large and transparent piece of drapery, which is sometimes wrapped in graceful folds round the person, sometimes, as in the example, allowed to expand itself as a partial veil, and at others entirely removed from the figure, and carried floating in the air, so as to leave the body altogether exposed to the gaze of the spectators,{{mdash}} a scandal which is not to be ascribed to the caprice of the artist, but which, at least under the corruptions of the Imperial age, was actually practised. Tertull. ''de Spectac.'' p. 269.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALTUA'RIUS'''. Strictly, a slave charged with the superintendance of a tract of woodland and pasture (''saltus''), whom we might call a ''forester'' or ''ranger'' (Inscript. ''ap.'' Orelli, 1599.); but the word is mostly applied in a more general sense to designate the ''steward'' of a landed estate, who performed the same duties, and stood in a similar relation to the country tenants of his master, as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Insularii|insularius]]'' in the city; ''i. e.'' he had the general superintendance of the lands and farms, attended to the letting and keeping up of repairs, that the property might not be wilfully or carelessly deteriorated. Pet. ''Sat.'' 53. 9. Pomp. ''Dig.'' 7. 8. 16. African. ''Dig.'' 32. 1. 58.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SALUTIGER'ULI''' sc. ''pueri''. A class of slaves whose occupation consisted in carrying out complimentary messages, salutations, &amp;c., to the friends and acquaintances of their masters. Plaut. ''Aul.'' iii. 5. 28.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAMBU'CA''' ({{lang|grc|σαμβύκη}}). A stringed instrument with chords of different lengths and substance, similar to our ''harp''. (Scipio African. ''ap.'' Macrob. ''Sat.'' ii. 10. Persius v. 95. Porphyr. ''in Ptol. Harm.'') It was sometimes of small dimensions, like the Welsh harp; at others a large and powerful instrument, like our own, and highly ornamented, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sambuca 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 570.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sambuca/1.1}}, from an Egyptian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], now well-known as Bruce's harp, who first made it public.

2. A military engine employed for scaling walls. (Festus ''s. v.'' Veg. ''Mil.'' iv. 21. Vitruv. x. 16. 9.) In the absence of any representation of the machine, we may easily conceive its use and character from the above figure, as a moveable platform raised up and down by a number of ropes attached to pullies on the top of the frame, like the strings of a harp.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAMBU'CINA''' and '''SAMBUCIS'TRIA''' ({{lang|grc|σαμβυκίστρια}}). A ''female harpist'' (Plaut. ''Stich.'' ii. 3. 57.); mostly a foreign woman of Egyptian or Asiatic race. (Liv. xxxix. 6.) When playing, they either stood upright, in the position of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sambuca|preceding figure]], or knelt and sat upon their hams, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sambucina 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 570.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sambucina/1.1}}, which represents an Egyptian performer, from the tombs of Beni Hassan.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAMNI'TES'''. A class of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiators]] (Cic. ''Sext.'' 64.), who wore the same kind of armour as the Samnite soldiers, viz. a close [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Galea|helmet]] with wings (''pinnae'') at the sides (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 142.), a shield of the kind called ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutum|scutum]]'', a greave (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ocrea|ocrea]]'') on the left leg (Liv. ix. 40.); and a piece of armour or armlet (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Manica|manica]]'', Juv. vi. 256.) on the right arm, which was not protected by the shield. Most of these particulars are distinctly visible in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Samnites 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 571.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Samnites/1.1}}, from a bas-relief in stucco, on a tomb at Pompeii, which from that circumstance is believed to represent a gladiator of the class in question. It will, however, be observed that both the legs are furnished with greaves, instead of the left one only, as expressly mentioned by Livy and Juvenal (''ll. cc.''); but since the original has entirely perished, in consequence of the fragile nature of the material in which it was formed; and had, moreover suffered from time before it was first discovered, it will not be unreasonable to assume that Mazois, the artist to whom we are indebted for the design, has added the greave to the right leg to make both match, in ignorance of the real fact, or, perhaps, misled by the corrosions of the stucco.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SANDALIGER'ULAE'''. Female slaves who carried their mistresses' dress slippers (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sandalium|sandalia]]'') when they went out. Plaut. ''Trin.'' ii. 1. 29.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SANDA'LIUM''' ({{lang|grc|σανδάλιον, σάνδαλον}}). A highly-ornamented slipper worn by the ladies of Greece, from whom it was adopted by those of Rome. (Terent. ''Eun.'' v. 7. 4. Turpil. ''ap.'' Non. ''s.'' Priores, p. 427.) In character it appears to have possessed an intermediate form between the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calceolus|calceolus]]'' and the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Solea|solea]]'', having a sole and upper leather over the toes and front half of the foot, but leaving the heel and back part uncovered, like a modern slipper; and to this part it is probable that a strap or a sandal, as it is now called, was, sometimes at least, attached to fasten it over the instep. The use of it was exclusively confined to the female sex; and accordingly the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sandalium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 571.jpg|example |caption=Sandalium/1.1}} here introduced, which also shows the manner of decorating the upper leather, is worn by a female in a Roman bas-relief; another, of precisely similar form, is met with on the feet of a female figure in one of the Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|paintings]]. ''Mus. Borb.'' vii. 39.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SANDAPILA'RIUS'''. One who carries out the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capulus|bier]] called ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sandapila|sandapila]]''. Sidon. ''Ep.'' ii. 8.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SANDAP'ILA'''. A coarse and common kind of coffin or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capulus|bier]], in which the corpses of indigent people and of malefactors were carried out to [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepultura|burial]]. Fulgent. ''s. v.'' Suet. ''Dom.'' 17.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SANGUIC'ULUS'''. A sort of ''black-pudding'', made with the blood of a kid. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxviii. 58.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAN'NIO'''. Literally one who grins or makes grimaces; whence a stage ''buffoon'', who endeavours to excite the merriment of the spectators by any kind of grotesque gesture, ridiculous manner, or distortion of the face and body, in the manner exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Sannio 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 571.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Sannio/1.1}}, representing a performer of the kind described, from an engraved gem. Cic. ''Or.'' ii. 61.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAP'A''' ({{lang|grc|ἕψημα, σίραιον}}). ''Must'', or new wine boiled down to one third of its original quantity (Plin. ''H. N.'' xiv. 11.), employed principally for seasoning and strengthening other wine. Columell. xii. 19.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SA'PO''' ({{lang|grc|σάπων}}). A Celtic or German word, containing the elements of the low German ''sepe'', and our ''soap'', but indicating an article of different character, both in quality and use, from what is now understood by that term; inasmuch as the ancient ''sapo'' was not made for washing, but as a pommade for tinging the hair of a light brown colour. It was composed with goat's tallow and beech wood ashes, the most approved quality being manufactered by its inventors the Germans, the next best in Gaul. It was made up into balls, and imported at Rome for the use of women and young fashionables, amongst whom light hair was considered extremely beautiful, as it is by their descendants of the present time. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxviii. 51. Compare Mart. viii. 33. 20. Id. xiv. 26. Beckman, ''History of Inventions'', vol. ii. p. 92. Lond. 1846.

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'''SARABAL'LA''' and '''SARABA'RA''' ({{lang|grc|σαράβαλλα}} and {{lang|grc|-βαρα}}). ''Long'' and ''loose trowsers'' (''fluxa ac sinuosa'', Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 23.) reaching from the waist to the instep, worn by the Parthians (Publius ''ap.'' Isidor. ''l. c.''), Medes (Tertull. ''Pall.'' 4.), and some others of the Asiatics; and also by the Northern people, as represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Saraballa 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 572.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Saraballa/1.1}} of a German auxiliary on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARA'PIS''' ({{lang|grc|σάραπις}}). A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tunica|tunic]] worn exclusively by the kings of Persia, which had a sort of reddish-purple tint (''purpureus'', {{lang|grc|πορφύρεος}}) decorated with a stripe of white down the front ({{lang|grc|μεσόλευκος}}), as is plainly shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Sarapis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 572.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Sarapis/1.1}}, representing Darius at the battle of Issus, from the celebrated mosaic of Pompeii, in which the shades of colour are tinted as described. Plaut. ''Poen.'' v. 5. 33. Compare Curt. iii. 3. 28 Hesych. ''s. v.''

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARCINA'LIS''' and '''SARCINA'RIUS'''. A ''pack-horse'', or other animal, which carries a load on his back, made up into the form of a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarcina|sarcina]]'', as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Sarcinalis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 572.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Sarcinalis/1.1}} from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|arch]] of Constantine. Caes. ''B. C.'' i. 81. Ammian. xv. 5. xxix. 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARCINA'TOR'''. One whose trade consists in ''mending'' and ''repairing'' garments (Lucil. ''Sat.'' xxviii. 33. Plaut. ''Aul.'' iii. 5. 41. Paul. ''Dig.'' 47. 2. 82.); not a tailor, in our sense of that word, for the garments of the ancients did not require to be cut out and fitted like our own, the outer ones being chiefly formed by a large rectangular piece of cloth, the underneath ones of two or more breadths of similar shape, merely sewed together at the sides and top, excepting where openings were left for the arms and head to come through. By such means, and the practice of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Textor|weaving]] ''round'' upon an upright [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tela|loom]], all the varieties of habiliments exhibited in the course of these pages could be produced.

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'''SARCINA'TRIX'''. A female who exercises the same trade as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarcinator|sarcinator]]'', that of mending and repairing garments. Varro, ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 56. Cajus, ''Dig.'' 15. 1. 27.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAR'CINA'''. A ''pack'' or ''bundle'' of things collected together and made up into a lump for the convenience of carriage by men, beasts of burden, or in vehicles (Pet. ''Sat.'' 117. 11. Phaedr. ii. 7. Hirt. ''B. Afr.'' 75.), as contradistinguished from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fascis|fascis]]'', a bundle tied up into a faggot. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sarcina 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 572.jpg|example |caption=Sarcina/1.1}} is from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan, and shows the way in which the ancient packs are uniformly represented when tied up.

2. The personal baggage belonging to, and carried by, a Roman on the march; viz. his arms, clothes, rations for a certain number of days, and the utensils for cooking them; as contradistinguished from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Impedimentum|impedimenta]]'', the baggage of the entire army. Caes. ''B. G.'' i. 24. Id. ''B. C.'' iii. 76. Hirt. ''B. Afr.'' 75. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sarcina 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 572.jpg|illustration |caption=Sarcina/2.1}} represents a Roman soldier, with his baggage as described, on the column of Trajan.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARCIN'ULA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarcina|SARCINA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARCOPH'AGUS''' ({{lang|grc|σαρκοφάγος}}). Literally ''carnivorous'', whence the name was given to a particular kind of limestone quarried at Assos in Troas, and remarkable for possessing the peculiar power of consuming or eating away the flesh and bones, with the exception of the teeth, of a body enclosed within it, in the short period of forty days. (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 27.) On account of this property it was extensively employed for making coffins, when the corpse was buried entire without burning; and thence the term came to be used in a general sense for any kind of coffin or tomb, without regard to the materials of which it was made. Juv. x. 172.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARCULA'TIO'''. The act of hoeing or ''earthening up'' round the roots of young plants and crops with the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarculum|sarculum]]''. Pallad. iii. 24. 6.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAR'CULUM''' and '''-US''' ({{lang|grc|σκαλίς}}). A ''hoe'', of a lighter and smaller description than the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ligo|ligo]]''; employed chiefly for weeding in fields and gardens (Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 65. § 2. Id. xix. 33. Columell. ii. 11. 10.); and in mountain districts, where the soil is usually of little depth, and the inequalities of surface forbid the use of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aratrum|plough]], the ''sarculum'' was employed instead of that implement. (Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 49. § 2.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sarculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 573.jpg|example |caption=Sarculum/1.1}} is copied from a Roman bas-relief representing a race in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]]; and an accessory of the same kind is commonly introduced by the ancient [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalptor|sculptors]] in scenes of this description, where it was used for hoeing out a trench across that part of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arena|arena]] in which athletic contests were conducted, as explained ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scamma|SCAMMA]].

2. ''Sarculum bicorne'' (Pallad i. 43. 3.). A two-pronged hoe, specially called [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Bidens|BIDENS]]; where see the illustration.

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File:Sarculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 573.jpg|Sarculum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARIS'SA''' ({{lang|grc|σάρισσα}}). A ''pike'' peculiar to the ''infantry'' of the Macedonian phalanx (Liv. ix. 19.), of prodigious length (Id. xxxviii. 7.), not less than 18 or 20 feet (Polyb. xviii. 12.), and of a similar description to the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Contus|contus]]'', only much longer (Veg. ''Mil.'' iii. 24.). A proximate notion of the general character and dimensions of this weapon, the longest and most ponderous of the class of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hasta|spears]] in use amongst the ancients may be obtained by referring to the figure of the ''contus'' carried by Alexander at [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Contus|p. 200]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARISSOPH'ORUS''' ({{lang|grc|σαρισσοφόρος}}). Armed with the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarissa|sarissa]]''; a title given to the soldiers who formed the Macedonian phalanx, to whom that weapon was peculiar. Liv. xxxvi. 18. Curt. iv. 15. Polyb. xii. 20. 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARRA'CULUM'''. Ammian. xxxi. 2. 18. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarracum|SARRACUM]].{TR: Lemma added for use in Wiki-Version.}

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARRA'CUM'''. A particular kind of wagon or cart, of foreign origin, but adopted into Italy (Sisenn. ''ap.'' Non. ''s.'' Carra, p. 195. Capitolin. ''M. Antonin.'' 13.), where it was commonly employed by the agricultural population as a conveyance for themselves and families (Cic. ''Fragm. in Pis. ap.'' Quint. viii. 3. 21.), and for transporting the produce of their farms to market. The circumstance of its being mentioned by the Roman authors in connexion with the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Plaustrum|plaustrum]]'' (Juv. iii. 254.), or as a quasi synonynme with it (Id. v. 23.), indicates that it must have had considerable resemblance to that particular conveyance, though at the same time with some difference from it; hence the inducement for proposing the figure exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Sarracum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 574.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Sarracum/1.1}} as a genuine example of a ''sarracum''. It is copied from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] representing a group of country people in the market-place of Herculaneum, and possesses two principal qualities which characterize a genuine ''plaustrum'': viz. a thick platform of boarding placed upon a pair of solid wheels (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tympanum|tympana]]'') instead of radiated ones (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rota|rotae]]''), but differs from it in the essential particular, that it has a regular body with close sides affixed to the platform instead of a mere basket placed upon it, or an open railing, or nothing at all, as was usual with that kind of wagon, and will be perceived by referring to the article and illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Plaustrum|PLAUSTRUM]].

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File:Sarracum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 574.jpg|Sarracum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARRI'TIO''' or '''SARI'TIO'''. The act of hoeing out weeds from young plants and crops. (Columell. ii. 11. 4. Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 50.) It was performed with the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarculum|sarculum]]''; but differs from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarculatio|sarculatio]]'', which expresses the hoeing up of earth to the plant; and from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Runcatio|runcatio]]'', which expresses the weeding and thinning with the hand and the instrument termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Runco|runco]]''.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARRI'TOR''' or '''SARI'TOR'''. A labourer who performs the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarritio|sarritio]]'', as just explained. Columell. xi. 13. 1.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARRITU'RA'''. Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarritio|SARRITIO]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SARTA'GO''' ({{lang|grc|τήγανον}}). A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Culina|kitchen]] utensil, believed to be the same as our ''frying-pan'', of which an example is afforded by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Sartago 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 574.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Sartago/1.1}} from an original of bronze, discovered at Pompeii. Plin. ''H. N.'' xvi. 22. Juv. x. 64.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAR'TOR''' (from ''sarcio''). Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarcinator|SARCINATOR]]. Non. ''s. v.'' p. 7.

2. (from ''sarrio.'') Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarritor|SARRITOR]]. Plaut. ''Capt.'' iii. 5. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAT'RAPA''', '''SAT'RAPES''', and '''SATRAP'S''' ({{lang|grc|σατράπης}}). A satrap; ''i. e.'' a Persian officer of high rank, who acted in the capacity of governor of a province, or viceroy for the king. (Quint. Curt. iii. 13. Nepos, ''Con.'' 2.) One of the distinctive badges of these personages consisted in the right of wearing a tall, stiff, upright cap (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tiara|tiara]] recta''), which, as being worn by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Satrapa 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 574.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Satrapa/1.1}}, from a Persepolitan sculpture, induces the belief that it represents an officer of the quality described.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAV'ANUM'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sabanum|SABANUM]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAVIL'LUM''' or '''SUAVIL'LUM'''. A sort of pudding, made of flour, cheese, eggs, and honey, and served up to table in the vessel it was cooked in, like our puddings in a pie-dish. Cato, ''R. R.'' 84.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SAXUM QUADRATUM'''. A rock of volcanic formation, termed by the Italian geologists &quot;lithoid tufo&quot; (''tufa litoide''), the same as that which forms the basis of the Capitoline hill, and which received the name from the ''rectangular'' masses into which its natural fissures divide it. All the earlier buildings ascribed to the legendary period of the kings, the underground dungeon of Servius Tullius, the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cloaca|Cloaca Maxima]], and the substructions of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capitolium|Capitolium]], are built of this material, which in fact was the only one in use until the introduction of the Appian and Gabian stone, now designated by the name of ''peperino''. It is consequently this which Livy designates by the name of ''saxum quadratum'' (vi. 4.), when speaking of the foundations of the Capitoline [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]]; and the same material is intended (x. 23.) when he says that the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|road]] from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Porta|Porta]] Capena to the temple of Mars was paved ''saxo quadrato''; not that the stones were regularly squared, like ashlar, since the Romans always employed polygonal blocks for road paving (see the article and illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|VIA]]), but that the material used was lithoid tufo, instead of ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Silex|silex]]'', which in his time was the usual one. Brocchi, ''Suolo di Roma''.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCABEL'LUM'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scamnum|SCAMNUM]] (Quint. i. 4. 12.); a small square stool, forming but one step, or consisting of a single height (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 168.), employed as a bedstep, when the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|bedstead]] was not a very high one (Varro, ''l. c.''), as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Scabellum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 575.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Scabellum/1.1}} from a Roman bas-relief.

2. ({{lang|grc|ὑποπόδιον}}). A ''foot-stool'', of similar character, placed before a chair or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]] for the feet to rest upon as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scabellum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 575.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scabellum/2.1}} from a Pompein [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]]. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 11. 8.

3. ({{lang|grc|κρουπέζια}}). A musical instrument; consisting of a very thick-soled wooden shoe (Pollux, vii. 87.) with a deep fissure under the toes, which, when yielding to the pressure of the foot, emitted certain notes from a small machine of metal (compare Lucian, ''Salt.'' 83.) placed between its upper and lower surfaces. It was worn by the pipe-player (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tibicen|tibicen]]'') at the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatre]] (Pollux, x. 153.); and was especially used to give notice of the commencement and termination of an Act (Cic. ''Cael.'' 27.); to beat the time, and make an accompaniment with other instruments (Suet. ''Cal.'' 54. August. ''de Mus.'' 3.) Although some doubts are entertained respecting the accuracy of the interpretation here given, yet the numerous remaining representations of a contrivance similar to the one exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=woodcut |imagelink=Media:Scabellum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 575.jpg|woodcut |caption=Scabellum/3.1}}, from an ancient marble statue, and the characters by whom it is used, afford a very strong evidence of its correctness. A terra-cotta of the British Museum shows a figure by the side of a wine-vat playing on the double pipes (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tibia|tibiae]] pares'') while he beats time upon an instrument similar to the one engraved above; a marble [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarcophagus|sarcophagus]] published by Visconti (''Mus. Pio Clem.'' v. tav. C.) exhibits a female playing the Phrygian pipes (''tibia Phrygia'') and beating time upon a similar instrument; and a female statue of the Capitol (''Mus. Capitolin.'' iii. 36.) has the same contrivance under her foot.

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File:Scabellum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 575.jpg|Scabellum/1.1
File:Scabellum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 575.jpg|Scabellum/2.1
File:Scabellum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 575.jpg|Scabellum/3.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCA'LAE''' ({{lang|grc|κλίμαξ}}). A ''ladder''; or machine for ascending (from ''scando''), but used in the plural because it was composed by a number of separate steps, arranged one over another and between two uprights, in the same manner as practised at the present day. (Sall. Plin. Caes. Tac. Ov. Virg.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Scalae 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 576.jpg|illustration |caption=Scalae/1.1}} represents one of the Roman soldiers in Trajan's army carrying a scaling ladder for the assault of a Dacian fortress.

2. A ''ship's ladder'', of the same construction, but carried on board, and let down from the sides of the vessel when required for the convenience of embarkation or disembarkation, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scalae 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 576.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scalae/2.1}} from an ancient fresco [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] discovered at Rome (Virg. ''Aen.'' x. 653. Liv xxvi. 45.); whereas the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pons|pons]]'', or ''ship's bridge'', was a mere plank, thrown out from the deck or side of a small vessel in a horizontal position to the top of a quay, or any prominence on the shore of corresponding height with the vessel itself, as shown by the illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pons|PONS]], 5.

3. A ''staircase'', conducting from the bottom to the upper stories of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Domus|private house]] or other edifice. The ancient builders formed their staircases much in the same way as the modern ones, either by fixing them against a wall in the interior, so as to leave one side open, like the ordinary stairs of private houses in England, or on the exterior of the building (Liv. xxxix. 14.), as is still a common practice in Italy; or they enclosed it altogether by side walls, like a staircase formed in the thickness of a wall, so that the person ascending or descending was concealed from the view of all others above and below, excepting only such as happened to be upon the same flight with himself. These were specially termed Greek staircases (''scalae Graecae'', Vitruv. ix. ''Praef.'' 7. Aul. Gell x. 15. Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' iv. 646.), and from the nature of their construction would of necessity be dark and generally narrow, which explains the reason why the staircase is so often mentioned as a hiding-place (Cic. ''Mil.'' 15. Id. ''Phil.'' ii. 9. Hor. ''Ep.'' ii. 2. 15.); a notion so much at variance with modern usages, by which the stairs are the most open and public parts of the house, that the commentators upon all the passages cited, from not being acquainted with the constructive peculiarity just described, are reduced to the expedient of misconstruing their authors by substituting one preposition for another, as if the person took refuge ''under'' the staircase instead of ''upon'' it.

4. At a much later period the same word appears to have been the first Latin one employed to designate a ''pair of stirrups''; being first met with in a treatise on the art of war written by the emperor Mauritius at the end of the sixth century. It is sufficiently ascertained that the pure Greeks and Romans did not ride upon regular saddles, made like our own upon a tree (see ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|sella equestris]]''), but only upon pads (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ephippium|ephippia]]''). Consequently, as stirrups were not used until the regular saddle was invented, the word is not to be regarded as pure Latinity in this sense, nor as characteristic of really ancient manners, but as one adopted during the period of transition from ancient to modern times. Mauricii, ''Ars Mil.'' ed. Joh. Scheffer, Upsal, 1664. p. 22. and lib. ii. cap. 8. p. 64. Beckman, ''History of Inventions'', Article &quot;Stirrups.&quot;

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File:Scalae 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 576.jpg|Scalae/1.1
File:Scalae 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 576.jpg|Scalae/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAL'MUS''' ({{lang|grc|σκαλμός}}). The ''thowl''; a strong wooden stay on the inside of a vessel to which the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remus|oar]] was attached by means of a thong (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Struppus|struppus]]'') to keep it firm and steady in rowing. (Cic. ''Brut.'' 53. Id. ''Or.'' i. 38. Vitruv. x. 3. 6.) Being inside the vessel, this object is not apparent in any ancient work of art; but there can be no doubt that it was formed in the same way as in the Mediterranean galleys of the 16th century, from which the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scalmus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|example |caption=Scalmus/1.1}} is taken.

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File:Scalmus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|Scalmus/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCALPEL'LUM''' and '''-US''' ({{lang|grc|σμιλίον}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalper|SCALPER]] or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalprum|SCALPRUM]]. A small sharp [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chirurgus|surgical]] [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Culter|knife]], employed for cutting away the proud flesh round a wound (Columell. vi. 32. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxviii. 28. Cic. ''Sext.'' 65.); and for opening veins to let blood. (Cels. ii. 10.)

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAL'PER'''. Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalprum|SCALPRUM]].{TR: Lemma added for use in Wiki-Version.}

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAL'PRUM''' ({{lang|grc|σμίλη, κολαπτήρ}}). A sharp, cutting instrument, employed by artists and mechanics for a variety of purposes, and belonging to the class which we denominate ''chisels'' or ''celts'' (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 19. 13.); that is, which are driven with a mallet, or, when applied for cutting are thrust ''from'' the person using them, instead of being drawn ''towards'' him; though the name was also given to several other instruments ordinarily used for cutting, as explained in the subsequent paragraphs.

1. ''Scalprum fabrile.'' A common ''chisel'', driven by a mallet (Liv. xxvii. 49. ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Malleus|malleo]] adactum'') of the same description with those still in use, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed examples |imagelink=Media:Scalprum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|annexed examples |caption=Scalprum/1.1}}, both from originals in the British museum; the left hand one being formed to receive a wooden handle, like those used by carpenters, the other entirely of metal, like those used by [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lapidarius|stone-masons]].

2. A leather-cutter's, or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calceolarius|shoe-maker]]'s [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Culter|knife]] (Hor. ''Sat.'' ii. 3. 106. Jul. Pollux, vii. 83.); of the same form as those used for similar purposes in our own times, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scalprum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scalprum/2.1}}, from an original found at Pompeii.

3. An instrument employed by [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chirurgus|surgeons]] (Jul. Poll. iv. 181. x. 141.) for opening wounds, and cutting away parts of the diseased flesh (Celsus, viii. 3. and 4.); for which purpose the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scalprum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scalprum/3.1}}, from an original found in a surgeon's shop at Pompeii, is supposed by medical men to have been intended.

4. A ''pen-knife''; used by the transcribers and copyists (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Librarii|librarii]]'') in the employ of private individuals or of booksellers, for tempering the reed pen (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arundo|arundo]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calamus|calamus]]''), with which an ancient MS. was written. (Tac. ''Ann.'' v. 8. Suet. ''Vitell.'' 2.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scalprum 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|example |caption=Scalprum/4.1}} is from an original excavated at Rome; the handle is of bone, into which the blade is made to shut, precisely in the same manner as now practised.

5. A particular part of the vinedresser's pruning hook (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Falx|falx vinitoria]]'') situated between the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sinus|sinus]]'' and the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rostrum|rostrum]]'', as will be understood by referring to the article and illustration at p. 274 ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Falx|FALX]], 5. Columell. iv. 25. 1. Plin. ''H. N.'' xvii. 26.

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File:Scalprum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|Scalprum/1.1
File:Scalprum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|Scalprum/2.1
File:Scalprum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|Scalprum/3.1
File:Scalprum 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 577.jpg|Scalprum/4.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCALPTO'RIUM'''. An instrument made in the form of the human hand for scratching any part of the person not otherwise easily accesible. Mart. xiv. 83.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCALP'TOR'''. An artist who executes with the chisel (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalprum|scalprum]]''), as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Scalptor 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 578.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Scalptor/1.1}} from an engraved gem found at Pompeii, which represents an artist at work upon a marble vase. Scholars differ greatly in opinion respecting the accurate meaning of the two words ''Scalptor'' and ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sculptor|Sculptor]]''; some considering them to be purely synonymous (B. Crusius, ''Clavis Suet.'' ''s. Scalpere''); others that the first designates an engraver of gems only, the latter a sculptor of marble (Ernesti ''ad'' Suet. ''Aug.'' 50. ''Nero'', 46.); others that the ''scalptor'' means an artist who executes coarser or commoner kinds of work than the sculptor (Oudendorp, ''ad'' Suet. ''Galb.'' 10.); and others leave the matter in doubt as one which cannot be decided. (Bremi ''ad'' Suet. ''Aug.'' 50. Heindorf. ad Hor. ''Sat.'' ii. 3. 22.) Thus the term is used to designate a gem engraver (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvii. 15. ''scalptor gemmarum''); a sculptor (Id. xxxvi. 5. ''scalptor marmorum''); and an artist who makes the dies for coins. (Inscript. ''ap.'' Marin. ''Iscriz. Alb.'' p. 109. ''scalptor monetae''.)

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File:Scalptor 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 578.jpg|Scalptor/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCALPTURA'TUS'''. Engraved with the chisel (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalprum|scalprum]]'').

2. ''Pavimentum scalpturatum.'' See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pavimentum|PAVIMENTUM]], 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCA'MMA''' ({{lang|grc|σκάμμα}}). A Greek word signifying that which is dug, as a trench or ditch; thence a ring in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gymnasium|gymnasium]], within which the wrestlers contended, because it was defined by a small trench scraped in the sand, to mark the limits beyond which no competitor was permitted to retreat. (Cael. Aurel. ''Tard.'' ii. 1. Polyb. xl. 55.) Amongst the Romans, athletic contests were exhibited in the broad end of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]]; which explains the otherwise unaccountable introduction of two accessories commonly met with in bas-reliefs representing the Circensian games, viz., a hoe (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarculum|sarculum]]''), and a basket of sand (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Haphe|haphe]]''), the former being used to make the ring, the latter to sprinkle over the bodies of the wrestlers.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAMNA'TUS''' (sc. ''ager''). See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scamnum|SCAMNUM]], 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAM'NUM'''. A ''bed-side step'' or stool (Ov. ''A. Am.'' ii. 211.), of an intermediate size between the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scabellum|scabellum]]'' and ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gradus|gradus]]'' (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 168.), which was used when the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|bedstead]] was of a middle size, between the highest and lowest. (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 11. 8.) Hence the expression (''scandere lectum'', means strictly to get into bed by the assistance of this contrivance. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scamnum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 578.jpg|example |caption=Scamnum/1.1}} is taken from a bas-relief; the legs upon which the stool is raised indicate the increased height, serving the purpose of an extra step, and if compared with the illustrations ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scabellum|SCABELLUM]], 1. and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gradus|GRADUS]], 1. will at once demonstrate the accurate distinctions between those three words and the objects expressed by them.

2. A ''foot-stool''; of a higher and consequently more dignified character than the common one (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scabellum|scabellum]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Suppedaneum|suppedaneum]]''), consisting of a double step, so that the feet could rest at different elevations, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Scamnum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 579.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Scamnum/2.1}}, from a marble bas-relief in which it is appropriately placed under the feet of Jupiter to indicate the majesty of the god, and the grandeur of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Solium|throne]] on which he sits. The epithet ''cavum'', the ''hollow'' foot-stool, applied by Ovid (''A. Am.'' i. 162.) to this object may be intended to describe the incavation formed by cutting away the step in front, as in the example; or to its being actually hollow underneath, like the preceding specimen.

3. A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]] formed with a step below for the feet to rest upon, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scamnum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 579.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scamnum/3.1}} from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]]. It is this property which, accurately speaking, constitutes the difference between a ''scamnum'' and a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subsellium|subsellium]]''; though the distinction is not strictly preserved. Ov. ''Fast.'' vi. 305. Mart. v. 41.

4. In the technical language of the agricultural people, a ''balk'', or long line of earth between two furrows left unbroken by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aratrum|plough]] (Columell. ii. 2. 25. Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 49. § 2.); also a tract of the same character left between the ridges that are made with the hoe. Columell. iii. 13. 2.

5. In the technical language of land-surveyors (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Agrimensores|agrimensores]]''), the breadth of a field, as opposed to ''striga'', its length. Auct. ''R. Agrar.'' pp. 46. 125. 198. ed. Goes.

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File:Scamnum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 578.jpg|Scamnum/1.1
File:Scamnum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 579.jpg|Scamnum/2.1
File:Scamnum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 579.jpg|Scamnum/3.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCANDULA'RIS'''. Made or covered with shingles (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scandula|scandulae]]''). Apul. ''Met.'' iii. p. 54.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCANDULA'RIUS'''. One whose business consists in laying a roof with shingles (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scandula|scandulae]]''). Arcad. ''Dig.'' 50. 6. 6.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAN'DULA''' or '''SCIN'DULA''' ({{lang|grc|σχίδαξ}}). A ''shingle''; '' i. e.'' a small board about a foot long, employed in early times instead of tiles, for covering the roof of a house. Shingles continued to be commonly used at Rome until the period of the war with Pyrrhus. Plin. ''H. N.'' xvi. 15. Pallad. i. 22.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCANSO'RIA MACHINA''' ({{lang|grc|ἀκροβατική μηχανή}}). A ''scaffolding'' for working upon at any elevation above the ground. Vitruv. x. 1. 1.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAPH'A''' ({{lang|grc|σκάφη}}). A ''skiff, cutter, long-boat'', or ''jolly-boat'', carried on board larger vessels, to be lowered and used as occasion required. (Caes. ''B. C.'' iii. 24. Cic. ''Inv.'' ii. 79. Pet. ''Sat.'' 101. 7.) The modern name of skiff, which appears to retain the elements of the ancient term, and designates a form of boat precisely similar to the one exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Scapha 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 579.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Scapha/1.1}}, from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] {{mdash}} that is, with a broadish body, sharpish head, and small flat stern, {{mdash}} favours the conjecture that it affords a genuine specimen of the model designated by the term ''scapha''; but even if that be doubtful, the example is in every respect worthy of attention, as one of the very few remaining illustrations of ancient ship or boat building, which affords a practical model, with correctness of form and detail, instead of the usual imperfect and conventional style of representation, so generally adopted by the ancient artists when treating marine subjects.

2. A smaller boat, constructed upon the same model as the preceding, but [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remex|rowed]] only by a pair of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remus|oars]] (Hor. ''Od.'' iii. 29. 62. ''biremis scapha''), and employed for river and coasting occupations, such as fishing (Justin. ii. 13. ''piscatoria scapha''), &amp;c.

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File:Scapha 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 579.jpg|Scapha/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAPH'E''' (Vitruv. ix. 8.) Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scaphium|SCAPHIUM]], 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAPH'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|σκάφιον}}). A vessel of small dimensions and Greek invention, employed at the dinner table as a wine cup. It was sometimes made of silver (Phylarch. ''ap.'' Athen. iv. 21.), and elaborately ornamented as an object of luxury (Plaut. ''Stich.'' v. 4. 11. Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 4. 17.); and appears to have belonged to the same class of utensils as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Patera|patera]]'' or ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Phiala|phiala]]'', since Plutarch (''Agid. et Cleom.'' p. 811.) uses the latter term to designate the same vessel which is called ''scaphium'' by Phylarchus (Athen. ''l. c.''). Perhaps the real distinction between these words consisted in this, that when the cup was a mere saucer without any handle, it was called a ''patera'' by the Romans, and ''phiala'' ({{lang|grc|φιάλη}}) by the Greeks; when furnished with a projecting handle, like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scaphium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 580.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scaphium/1.1}} from an original found at Pompeii, (which gives to the whole object a certain similitude to the boat ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scapha|scapha]]'', after which it was named,) then it received the special name of ''scaphium'' and {{lang|grc|σκάφιον}}. The same article is also enumerated amongst the necessaries of a woman's dressing-room (Juv. vi. 263. Ulp. ''Dig.'' 34. 2. 28.), but for what particular purpose is not sufficiently ascertained.

2. A ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Solarium|sun-dial]]'', formed by a hollow circular vessel, within which the hour lines were drawn (Marc. Capell. vi. 194.), as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scaphium 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 580.jpg|example |caption=Scaphium/2.1}} from a statue formerly existing at Ravenna. It received the present name from its resemblance in form to the bowl of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scaphium|preceding utensil]], but was also termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hemisphaerium|hemisphaerium]]'', from its affinity with that figure. Vitruv. ix. 8.

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File:Scaphium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 580.jpg|Scaphium/1.1
File:Scaphium 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 580.jpg|Scaphium/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCAPH'ULA''' ({{lang|grc|σκαφίδιον}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scapha|SCAPHA]]. Veg. ''Mil.'' iii. 7.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCA'PUS''' ({{lang|grc|σκᾶπος}}). In its primary sense means an object upon or by which any other thing supports itself, as the ''stalk'' of a plant, for instance, which supports the head and blossom; the notion obtaining from the primitive sense of the Greek word {{lang|grc|σκήπτω}}, &quot;to prop or support oneself by a staff.&quot; This root, from which the Latin form is derived, also furnishes an appropriate meaning for the following special and technical applications of the term.

1. The ''shaft'' of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]]; which supports the capital (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capitulum|capitulum]]'') and rests upon the base (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Spira|spira]]''). The top of the shaft directly under the capital is distinguished by the expression ''summus scapus''; the bottom of it, just above the base, by that of ''imus scapus''. (Vitruv. iii. 5.) All these parts are sufficiently displayed by the left-hand figure in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Scapus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 581.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Scapus/1.1}}, representing the column of Trajan at Rome.

2. The shaft or pillar, which supports one end of each stair in a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalae|stair-case]] (Vitruv. ix. ''Praef.'' 8.), as shown by the right-hand figure of the above woodcut, representing the internal construction of the same column.

3. The ''stile'' of a door; that is, the vertical piece on each side of the valve, into which the transverse pieces or ''rails'' (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Impages|impages]]'') are mortised (Vitruv. iv. 6. 5.); exhibited by the four uprights decorated with bosses in the following illustration, representing an ancient door of bronze now belonging to the church of S. Theodore at Rome.

4. ''Scapus cardinalis'' ({{lang|grc|στρόφιγξ}}). The ''main stile'' of a door which carried the pivots (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cardo|cardines]]''), by which each leaf is kept in an upright position, when not fixed with hinges (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ginglymus|ginglymus]]''), and made to revolve as the pivots turned in a socket excavated in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Limen|sill]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Supercilium|lintel]] respectively. (Vitruv. iv. 6. 4.) It is seen on the right side of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Scapus 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 581.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Scapus/4.1}}, which exhibits an ancient marble door-case, with the original valves of bronze, now standing at Rome; but represented in the drawing for the purpose of illustration, as it would appear if that portion of the ornamental facing (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Antepagmentum|antepagmentum]]''), which conceals it on the opposite side, were removed.

5. ({{lang|grc|καυλός}}). The ''shaft'' or ''stem'' of a lamp-stand (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Candelabrum|candelabrum]]''); that is, the portion between the base or foot upon which it stood, and the capital or flat tray (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Superficies|superficies]]'') at the top, on which the lamp was placed. (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiv. 6.) The use of the term also implies that a tall stand, with a slender stem like the stalk of a plant, is alluded to. It was intended to stand upon the ground, and consequently made of considerable height, in order that the light might be raised to a convenient elevation for illuminating the chamber; and for this purpose, the stem of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scapus 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 581.jpg|example |caption=Scapus/5.1}} here introduced, from an original found at Pompeii, is made to draw out from the mouldings observable on it, in the same manner as our telescopes.

6. The ''beam'' of a steelyard (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Statera|statera]]'', Vitruv. x. 3. 4.), as contradistinguished from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Jugum|jugum]]'', the yoke of a balance (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Libra|libra]]''). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scapus 6.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 582.jpg|example |caption=Scapus/6.1}} is from a bronze original found at Pompeii.

7. A wooden cylinder round which [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Volumen|books]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Charta|paper]] were rolled, as maps now are. Plin. ''H. N.'' xiii. 23.

8. The ''yarn-beam'' of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Textor|weaver]]'s [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tela|loom]], to which the threads of the warp (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stamen|stamen]]'') are fastened, and situated at the opposite extremity to the cloth-beam (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Insubulum|insubulum]]''). It is seen in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Scapus 8.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 582.jpg|illustration |caption=Scapus/8.1}}, from an Egyptian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], at the bottom of the warp, attached by a sliding brace at each end to the two uprights of the loom, and is termed &quot;noisy&quot; (Lucret. v. 1352. ''sonans''), either because weights were sometimes fastened under it to keep the warp on the stretch, and which would rattle against each other when shaken by the strokes of the batten (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Spatha|spatha]]''), in driving home the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subtemen|weft]], or from the noise of the braces as they played against the uprights under the same process.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Scapus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 581.jpg|Scapus/1.1
File:Scapus 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 581.jpg|Scapus/4.1
File:Scapus 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 581.jpg|Scapus/5.1
File:Scapus 6.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 582.jpg|Scapus/6.1
File:Scapus 8.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 582.jpg|Scapus/8.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCEL'ETUS''' ({{lang|grc|σκελετός}}). Literally dried or parched up like a ''mummy'' (Apul. ''Apol.'' pp. 504. 507.); not a ''skeleton'' in our notion of the word, for that was termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Larva|larva]]''.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCE'NA''' ({{lang|grc|σκηνή}}). The ''scene'' of an ancient [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatre]]; under which name were included the ''stage'' on which the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Histrio|actors]] performed, and the ''scenes'', in our sense, consisting of a permanent wall at the back of the stage, with three doors; the one in the centre, through which the chief actor entered, being termed the royal door (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Valvae|valvae]] regiae''), and the two lateral ones (''hospitales'', Vitruv. v. 6. 8.), all of which are distinctly marked on the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration annexed |imagelink=Media:Scena_1 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 582.jpg|illustration annexed |caption=Scena_1/1.1}}, which exhibits the ''scena'' of the great theatre at Pompeii in its present state; as well as the movable side-scenes, adapted for the representation of any particular locality, in which the subject of the piece was supposed to take place, and distinguished by the epithets ''versatiles'' and ''ductiles'' (Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Georg.'' iii. 24.) accordingly as they were constructed to turn round on a pivot, or to slide forward in a groove.

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File:Scena_1 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 582.jpg|Scena 1/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCE'NA''' or '''SACE'NA'''. An old Latin name for the double-edged hatchet, employed in killing the victim at a sacrifice, having the broad blade of an axe (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Securis|securis]]'') on one side, and the small cutting edge of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Dolabra|dolabra]]'' on the other, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed specimen |imagelink=Media:Scena_2 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 582.jpg|annexed specimen |caption=Scena_2/1.1}} from a bas-relief of the Villa Borghese. Festus observes (''s. v.'') that the ''scena'' was evidently a cutting instrument (''genus [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Culter|cultri]]''), but whether belonging to the class of ''secures'' or ''dolabrae'' was to him a matter of doubt. Yet the passage which he quotes from Livius Andronicus {{mdash}} ''corruit, quasi ictus scena'' {{mdash}} evidently expresses an instrument which dealt out a ''blow'' rather than a ''gash'' or ''stab'', precisely such as would be conveyed by the one exhibited in the woodcut, which also accounts for the uncertainty entertained respecting the actual character of the instrument, by the fact of its possessing both the qualities mentioned, that of ''cutting'' as well as ''striking''.

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File:Scena_2 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 582.jpg|Scena 2/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCENOGRAPH'IA''' ({{lang|grc|σκενογραφία}}). The ''perspective draught'' of a building, &amp;c., as it really appears to the eye of a spectator, and would be represented in landscape or scene [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] (Vitruv. 1, 2, 3.); and as contradistinguished from the ''geometrical'' draught (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Orthographia|orthographia]]''), which represents the same as it would appear if it could be viewed from an infinite distance. It has been said that the ancient draughtsmen were not acquainted with the art of linear perspective; and the numerous errors observable in the architectural and landscape scenes amongst the Pompeian designs are referred to in corroboration of that opinion; but it must be remembered that the artists who executed those works were merely provincial house-[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictor|painters]] and decorators, of unequal merits, some of whom were certainly deficient in this respect; but the intricate and accurate designs of many amongst them, evince, on the other hand, a perfect knowledge of perspective. There is, consequently, no sufficient reason for doubting the genuineness of the term, nor for altering the reading in the above passage of Vitruvius, as some commentators propose.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCEP'TRUM''' ({{lang|grc|σκῆπτρον}}). Strictly a Greek word, for which the Romans frequently use another form of the same Greek root, ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scipio|scipio]]''; though both words bear a very similar signification. The original ''sceptrum'' was a ''long staff'', like the shaft of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hasta|spear]] (Justin. xliii. 3.), formed from a sapling or young tree, cut down to the roots (Virg. ''Aen.'' xii. 206.), which in early times served for support in walking, while its imposing length gave an air of importance to the person who bore it, as is well exemplified by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sceptrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 583.jpg|illustration |caption=Sceptrum/1.1}}, which represents Agamemnon with a staff of the nature described, from a bas-relief of Greek workmanship.

2. A ''sceptre''; the emblem of royal authority (Cic. ''Sext.'' 57.); consequently ascribed to Jupiter (Suet. ''Aug.'' 94.), Juno, kings, and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Histrio|actors]] on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|stage]] (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvii. 6.) who personated them; and which, in its original form, was nothing more than a long staff, like the preceding one, converted into an ornament of state by the addition of a decorative head-piece, like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example annexed |imagelink=Media:Sceptrum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 583.jpg|example annexed |caption=Sceptrum/2.1}}, representing Latinus in the Vatican Virgil.

3. ''Sceptrum eburneum.'' An ''ivory sceptre''; especially the ''royal'' sceptre introduced at Rome by the kings of the Etruscan dynasty, and subsequently appropriated to themselves by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Consul|consuls]] of the republic. (Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' xi. 238.) This was much shorter than the primitive Greek sceptre, as is shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sceptrum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 584.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sceptrum/3.1}}, from an engraved gem, representing Porsena sitting in judgment upon Mucius Scaevola; and is more commonly designated by the Latin word ''scipio'', instead of the purely Greek one ''sceptrum''. Liv. v. 41. Val. Max. iv. 4. § 5.

4. ''Sceptrum Augusti.'' (Suet. ''Galb.'' 1.) The ''imperial'' and ''triumphal sceptre''; which was not identical with the regal and consular ones, but was decorated with the figure of an eagle on the top (Juv. x. 43.), and was carried by a victorius general at his [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triumphus|triumph]], during the republican period, as well as by the emperors generally under the empire, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sceptrum 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 584.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sceptrum/4.1}}, representing Antoninus, from the base of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] erected in his honor.

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File:Sceptrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 583.jpg|Sceptrum/1.1
File:Sceptrum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 583.jpg|Sceptrum/2.1
File:Sceptrum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 584.jpg|Sceptrum/3.1
File:Sceptrum 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 584.jpg|Sceptrum/4.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCEPTU'CHUS''' ({{lang|grc|σκηπτοῦχος}}). A high officer in the Persian court, so termed from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sceptrum|sceptre]] which he bore as a badge of office, as our own titles of &quot;gold and silver stick,&quot; or of &quot;black rod,&quot; have arisen from like causes. He was generally, if not always, a eunuch, though regarded as a personage of consideration, having the command over some province assigned to him; but his costume and badges are believed to be represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Sceptuchus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 584.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Sceptuchus/1.1}} from one of the sculptures of Persepolis. Tac. ''Ann.'' vi. 33. Xen. ''Cyr.'' vii. 3. 17. viii. 1. 38.

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File:Sceptuchus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 584.jpg|Sceptuchus/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCHED'A''' or '''SCIDA''' ({{lang|grc|σχίδη}}). A strip cut from the inner bark of the papyrus, and used for the purpose of making sheets of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Charta|paper]] to write books upon; which was effected in the following manner. The inner skin was first peeled off in thin coats (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Philyra|philyrae]]'') of the largest size which could be obtained without flaws or fractures. These were cut into strips (''schedae''), and glued together by their largest sides, to form the writing surface; the back part being strengthened by other strips stuck on in a transverse direction, to prevent the paper from splitting up in the direction of the fibres. One row of strips thus prepared and joined together was called a length or a breadth (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Plagula|plagula]]''); a certain number of which were then glued together into one large sheet to make a book or roll (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Liber|liber]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Volumen|volumen]]''). Plin. ''H. N.'' xiii. 23. Hence the word is frequently used in the sense of a ''leaf'', a single piece of paper, or the fractional part of a sheet, like our ''page''. Cic. ''Att.'' i. 20. Quint. i. 8. 19. Mart. iv. 91.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCHOENIC'ULAE'''. Women who perfumed themselves with a very coarse and common kind of ointment, manufactured from a species of rush (''schoenus''), possessing odoriferous properties; intended as a contemptuous nickname. Festus, ''s. v.'' Varro, ''L. L.'' vii. 64. Compare Plaut. ''Poen.'' i. 2. 58. ''schoeno delibutas''.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCHOENOB'ATES''' ({{lang|grc|σχοινοβάτης}}). A Greek term for a ''rope-dancer'' (Juv. iii. 77.); for which the genuine Latin expression is [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Funambulus|FUNAMBULUS]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCHOL'A''' ({{lang|grc|σχολὴ}}). Literally means rest from bodily labour, which affords an opportunity for mental recreation or study; whence the term is transferred to the place where teachers and their pupils assemble for the purpose of instruction, our ''school'' (Cic. ''Or.'' ii. 7. Suet. ''Gramm.'' 16. Auson. ''Idyll.'' iv. 6., and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ludus|LUDUS]]); and to a room in which philosophers and literati assemble together for conversation and discussion. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxv. 37. xxxvi. 4. § 5.

2. ''Schola alvei. Schola labri.'' The vacant space on the floor of the thermal chamber (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Caldarium|caldarium]]'') in a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Balineae|set of baths]], which surrounds the warm water bath (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Alveus|alveus]]''); or the circular basin (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Labrum|labrum]]'') situated at the opposite end of the room, where the bathers, who were waiting to use either of these vessels, might sit or stand until their turn came. (Vitruv. v. 10. 4.) We might translate it the ''waiting'' or ''resting'' place, which fully expresses the primary as well as secondary notion of the word ''schola''. In the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Schola 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 585.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Schola/2.1}}, representing the circular end of the thermal chamber in the baths at Pompeii, with its ''labrum'' in the centre, the ''schola labri'' is the passage round the basin; and a reference to the wood-cut, ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Labrum|LABRUM]] 1., which exhibits the bathers standing round the vessel, will further elucidate the matter, by showing how that vessel was occupied by one set of bathers, while the others were compelled to stand by until they could find a vacant place at their disposal.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Schola 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 585.jpg|Schola/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCIMPOD'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|σκιμπόδιον}}). A small couch or sofa, of Greek invention; or, rather, an invalid's chair, constructed so as to support the legs and feet in an easy position, like our gouty chair, for it was used by persons subject to that complaint during an access of the malady. Aul. Gell. xix. 10. 1.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCIN'DULA'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scandula|SCANDULA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCIOTHE'RICON''' ({{lang|grc|σκιοθηρικὸν}}). A term coined from the Greek language (Plin. ''H. N.'' ii. 78.), for which the Latins use [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Solarium|SOLARIUM]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCI'PIO''' ({{lang|grc|σκίπων}}). A ''staff'' and a ''sceptre''; applied in the same sense as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sceptrum|SCEPTRUM]]; both words being only different forms from the same Greek root {{lang|grc|σκήπτω}}.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCIR'PEA''' or '''SIR'PEA'''. A large basket made of rushes (''scirpus'') platted together, and employed more especially to form the body of a wagon (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Plaustrum|plaustrum]]'') used for agricultural purposes, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scirpea 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 585.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scirpea/1.1}} from a marble bas-relief; whence ''scirpea stercoraria'', ''dung-basket'' or ''dung-cart''. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 139. Ov. ''Fast.'' vi. 680. Cato, ''R. R.'' x. 3. xi. 4.

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File:Scirpea 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 585.jpg|Scirpea/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCIRPIC'ULA''' or '''SIRPIC'ULA'''. A small portable basket of platted rush (''scirpus'') employed for a variety of purposes, as for holding flowers (Prop. iv. 2. 40.); vegetables (Lucil. ''ap.'' Non.); as a fishing basket. (Plaut. ''Capt.'' iv. 2. 37. &amp;c.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scirpicula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 586.jpg|example |caption=Scirpicula/1.1}} is from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], and represents a flower-basket placed on a bench beside the garland makers (''coronarii''), engraved at [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Coronarius|p. 208]].

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File:Scirpicula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 586.jpg|Scirpicula/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCIS'SOR'''. A slave who cut up the viands for the company at an entertainment. He was always expected to carve with skill and science, and a certain sleight of hand; but at the banquet of the ridiculous Trimalchio, the carver is made to flourish his knife and dissect the food with sundry gesticulations, to the sounds and measures of a musical accompaniment. Pet. ''Sat.'' 36. 6.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCOBI'NA'''. A ''rasp'', for scraping wood, as used by carpenters (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 19. Varro, ''L. L.'' vii. 68. Plin. ''H. N.'' xi. 68.), and contradistinguished from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lima|lima]]'', a ''file'', which is enumerated amongst the implements of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ferrarius|smiths]] and metal workers. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 7.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCO'PAE''' ({{lang|grc|κάλλυντρον, σάρωθρον}}). In the singular means a ''thin twig''; but the word is rarely used except in the plural, when it signifies a ''birch broom'' (Cato, ''R. R.'' 152. Plaut. ''Stich.'' ii. 3. 27.), made up from a number of twigs, like our own. See the woodcut at [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Area|p. 55]], which exhibits an Egyptian at the edge of a treshing-floor with such a broom in his hands.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCOPA'RIUS'''. A slave whose occupation consisted in sweeping out rooms or other places with a birch broom (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scopae|scopae]]''). Ulp. ''Dig.'' 33. 7. 8.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCO'PULA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scopae|SCOPA]]. A ''birch'', or hand-brush, of twigs, sometimes myrtle (Columell. xii. 38. 4.), tied together, used for cleansing the interior of small objects, such as wine-jars, &amp;c. Cato, ''R. R.'' 26.

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'''SCORDISCA'RIUS'''. One who makes and sells horses' clothings (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scordiscum|scordisca]]''). Hieron. ''Ep.'' 51. 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCORDIS'CUM'''. A ''housing'' or ''clothing'' for horses (Veg. ''Vet.'' iii. 60.), made of untanned leather or skins (Isidor. ''Gloss.'' Edict. Dioclet. 24.), and adapted to the shape of the animal, very much in the same style as now practised. But the ancients appear to have used it not so much for the purpose of warm clothing, as to provide a defence for the animal on the field of battle. This may be inferred in part from the strong material of which it was made, from its being designated in the edict of Diocletian (''l. c.'') as a military accoutrement, and from the fact of its being frequently represented in the Egyptian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|paintings]] and Etruscan vases on the bodies of horses, when harnessed to the war-chariot. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scordiscum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 586.jpg|example |caption=Scordiscum/1.1}} is copied from a Greek medal.

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File:Scordiscum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 586.jpg|Scordiscum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCOR'PIO''', '''-US''' and '''-OS''' ({{lang|grc|σκορπίος, -πίων}}). A weapon for discharging stones, plummets, and arrows (Veget. ''Mil.'' iv. 22. Ammian. xxiii. 4.), handled by a single man, but requiring skill to be used effectively (Vitruv. x. 1. 3.); and probably the same as, or very similar to, the modern ''cross-bow'', the form of which has a close affinity to that of a scorpion, the insect after which it was named.

2. A heap of stones piled up to a point, and employed as a boundary mark between adjacent properties. Sicul. Flacc. ''de Condit. Agror.'' pp. 4. 6. Goes.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCOT'IA''' ({{lang|grc|σκοτία, τροχίλος}}). The ''scotia'' in architecture; that is, a hollow moulding in the base of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]], between the fillets of the upper and lower ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Torus|torus]]'', which received its name from the dark shadow ({{lang|grc|σκότος}}, darkness) cast upon its receding surface by the projecting cushion of the torus, as shown by the tinted portion of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scotia 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 586.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scotia/1.1}}. Vitruv. iii. 5. 2.

2. A ''groove'' or ''channel'' cut into the under surface of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Corona|corona]]'' in the Doric order, and near its edge, the object of which is to prevent the rain water which trickles over the cornice from re-entering underneath it. Vitruv. iv. 3. 6. Marquez. ''Ord. Dor.'' p. 47.

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File:Scotia 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 586.jpg|Scotia/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCRI'BA''' ({{lang|grc|γραμματεύς}}). Generally any person employed in writing; but more especially applied to the ''public notary'' or clerk, who was a free man, professionally employed by the state in copying public documents, &amp;c.; whereas the ordinary copyist (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Librarii|librarius]]'') was a slave, who worked for the individual that owned him. Cic. Liv. Suet.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCRIBILI'TA''' or '''SCRIBLI'TA'''. A particular sort of plain pasty, eaten hot from the oven, and made of cheese and flour, with honey poured over the top; something like our ''cheese-cake''. Cato, ''R. R.'' 78. Pet. ''Sat.'' 35. 4. Mart. iii. 17.

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'''SCRIBLITA'RIUS'''. One who makes cheese-cakes (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scribilita|scriblitae]]''). Afran. ''ap.'' Non. ''s.'' Lucuns. p. 131.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCRI'NIUM'''. A circular box or case (Plin. ''H. N.'' xvi. 84.) in which [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Volumen|books]], papers, letters (Sall. ''Cat.'' 47. Hor. ''Ep.'' ii. 1. 112.), or other small portable objects, such as scents and unguents (Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 30.), were kept. The exact difference between a ''scrinium'' and ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capsa|capsa]]'' is not easily ascertained; since they were both formed with the same external shape and materials, and used for similar purposes. A passage of Pliny, however (''H. N.'' xvi. 84.), clearly distinguishes them from each other; whence it has been conjectured that the ''scrinium'' was a ''capsa'', but divided internally into a number of separate compartments (''quasi secernium''); and this supposition gains some sort of authority from the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Scrinium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 587.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Scrinium/1.1}}, representing the ''scrinium unguentarium'' of Venus, in a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], amongst a number of other articles appertaining to the toilette of that goddess. Though the inside of the case is not exposed, yet the form of the lid, rising in the centre to give room for the largest bottle, sufficiently indicates the purpose for which it was intended to be used; and a case containing many bottles would answer its object very imperfectly, unless divisions were made in it for the reception of each one, distinct from the rest. Quaranta. ''Mus. Borb.'' xi. 16. Compare [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capsa|CAPSA]].

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File:Scrinium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 587.jpg|Scrinium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCRI'PULUM''' or '''SCRU'PULUM'''. A ''scruple''; the smallest gold coin of the Roman currency, weighing one-third of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Denarius|denarius]]''. (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 16.) It is distinguished by the head of Mars in a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Galea|helmet]], and an eagle with the word {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=ROMA}} on the reverse, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scripulum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 587.jpg|example |caption=Scripulum/1.1}}, from a specimen belonging to the Royal Library at Paris. The coin is extremely rare.

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File:Scripulum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 587.jpg|Scripulum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCULPO'NEAE''' ({{lang|grc|κρούπεζαι}}). A common kind of shoe or sandal, with a thick wooden sole, worn by slaves in the agricultural districts (Cato, ''R. R.'' 135. 1. Id. 59. Plaut. ''Cas.'' ii. 8. 59.); possibly represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Sculponeae 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 587.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Sculponeae/1.1}} from a small bronze figure of an agricultural serf. Pignor. ''de Serv.'' p. 526.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCULP'TOR'''. Apparently synonymous with ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalptor|scalptor]]''; and applied to the sculptor who work in marble (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 5. §. 2. Plin. Jun. ''Ep.'' i. 10.); as well as to the engraver of gems. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxix. 38. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalptor|SCALPTOR]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUR'RA'''. A polished gentleman, or one who has acquired the habits of good society and town life, as opposed to awkward and provincial manners (Plaut. ''Most.'' i. 1. 14.); afterwards, one who toadies great and wealthy individuals for the purpose of getting invitations to dinner, which he repays by flattering his host and amusing the guests with his anecdotes and bon-mots (Plaut. ''Poen.'' iii. 2. 35. Hor. ''Ep.'' i. 18. 10.); and finally, in a sense of contemptuous reproach, a mere buffoon. Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 5. 49. Plin. ''Ep.'' ix. 17. 1.

2. At a later period the soldiers of the emperor's body-guard were designated by the same name. Lamprid. ''Alex. Sev.'' 61. Id. ''Elag.'' 33.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUTA'LE'''. Either the purse of a sling (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Funda|funda]]'') in which the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Glans|missile]] is placed, or the thong by which it is projected; but opinions differ respecting which is the proper interpretation, as the term only occurs in a solitary passage of Livy (xxxviii. 29.).

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUTA'RIUS'''. One who makes shields (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutum|scuta]]''). Plaut. ''Epid.'' i. 1. 35.

2. ''Scutarii.'' The title given to a class of foreign troops introduced by Constantine; probably as a bodyguard. Ammian. xx. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUTA'TUS'''. Armed with the oblong rectangular shield, termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutum|scutum]]'', as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Scutatus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 588.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Scutatus/1.1}} of a Roman soldier from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan. (Liv. xxviii. 2. Virg. ''Aen.'' ix. 370.) The legionary soldiers (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Legionarii|legionarii]]'') on Trajan's column are uniformly represented with a long square shield, made of a convex form to take the shape of the body; and never, as some writers have supposed, with one of a long flat oval, or of an hexagonal form; for those figures are without exception given to the cavalry (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Eques|equites]]''), to the Praetorian troops (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Praetoriani|praetoriani]]''), or to the enemy and allied troops from foreign nations. But the ''scutum'' was likewise used by the Samnites, and consequently was carried by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Samnites|Samnite]] [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiators]], as may be seen by the figure introduced in illustration of that word.

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File:Scutatus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 588.jpg|Scutatus/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUTEL'LA'''. A diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutra|SCUTRA]]. A ''salver'' or ''waiter'' upon which other vessels were placed to be brought up and handed round to the guests at table (Ulp. ''Dig.'' 34. 2. 20.); thus ''potionis scutella'' (Cic. ''Tusc.'' iii. 19.), a salver on which goblets of wine, or any other beverage, are handed about, like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scutella 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 588.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scutella/1.1}}, from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|picture]] of &quot;still life&quot; painted at Pompeii.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUT'ICA'''. A ''whip'' with a thong made of leather (Mart. x. 62.), whence the name (from the Greek {{lang|grc|σκυτικός}}). As an instrument of punishment it was sharper than the switch (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ferula|ferula]]''), but milder than the scourge (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Flagellum|flagellum]]'', Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 3. 119. Juv. vi. 479., where all the three words are instanced distinctively). The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Scutica 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 588.jpg|example |caption=Scutica/1.1}} is from a marble bas-relief.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUTRA'''. A sort of tray or dish (Plaut. ''Pers.'' i. 3. 8. Cato, ''R. R.'' clvii. 11.); of which nothing definitive is ascertained beyond the supposition that it received its name from the Roman shield, ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutum|scutum]]'', after which it was probably formed; since the word is so written by Lucilius (''Sat.'' v. 28. Gerlach.), who moreover states that it was made of wood.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUTRIS'CUM'''. Probably a diminutive of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutra|last word]]. Cato, ''R. R.'' x. and xi.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUTULA'TUS'''. Applied to drapery; ornamented with a pattern in checks, as shown by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutula|preceding wood-cut]]. Juv. ii. 97. Plin. ''H. N.'' viii. 73.

2. Applied to animals, as horses; it corresponds with our term ''flea-bitten''. Pallad. iv. 13. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCUT'ULA''' ({{lang|grc|σκυτάλη}}). A wooden roller or cylinder placed under objects of great weight for the purpose of assisting in moving them. Caes. ''B. C.'' iii. 40.

2. (Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutra|SCUTRA]].) A small dish or platter, of which nothing decisive has been ascertained; but supposed from other analogies of the word to have possessed a diamond or lozenge shape. Mart. xi. 31. 19.

3. A segment of marble, or other artificial material, cut into the shape of a diamond or rhomb, and used for inlaying floors or pavements, like the three white patterns in the centre division of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scutulua 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 589.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scutulua/3.1}}, which represents a portion of the ancient mosaic pavement now remaining in the church of ''Santa Croce in Gerusalemme'', at Rome. Vitruv. vii. 1. 4. Pallad. i. 9. 5.

4. A check, or diamond figure woven in the pattern of a piece of cloth, like the border on the drapery of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Scutulua 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 589.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Scutulua/4.1}} from a fictile vase. Plin. ''H. N.'' viii. 74.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCU'TULUM''' (Cic. ''N. D.'' i. 29.). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutum|SCUTUM]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCU'TUM''' ({{lang|grc|θυρεός}}). The large oblong shield generally adopted by the Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Legionarii|infantry]] instead of the round buckler (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Clipeus|clipeus]]''), at the period when the military ceased to serve without pay. It was about 4 feet long by 2½ wide; formed out of boards, like a door (whence the Greek terms {{lang|grc|θύρα}} and {{lang|grc|θυρεός}}), firmly joined together and covered over with coarse cloth, under an outer coating of raw hide, attached and strengthened round the edges by a metal rim. The men of each [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Legio|legion]] had their shields painted of different colour, and charged with distinctive symbols, as is exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Scutum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 589.jpg|illustration |caption=Scutum/1.1}} representing three ''scuta'', as they stand upon the ground in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan, distinguished severally by the image of a thunderbolt, of a wreath, and the same bolt with a pair of wings. Liv. i. 43. viii. 8. Plin. ''H. N.'' xvi. 77. Virg. ''Aen.'' viii. 662. Veg. ''Mil.'' ii. 18. Polyb. ii. 30. 3. vi. 23. 2.

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File:Scutum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 589.jpg|Scutum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCYPH'US''' ({{lang|grc|σκύφος}}). A ''cup'' for drinking wine out of, very commonly used at convivial parties. (Hor. ''Od.'' i. 27. 1. Id. ''Epod.'' ix. 33.) It was sometimes of beech wood (Tibull. i. 10. 8.), or of silver (Varro ''ap.'' Gell. iii. 14. 1.), or of earthenware, the material used for the original from which the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Scypthus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|annexed example |caption=Scypthus/1.1}} is copied. The figure conceived under our term ''cup'' affords a very true and accurate notion of its form, which was circular and deep, so as to be adapted for holding a large measure; whence it is the vessel commonly given to Hercules by the poets and artists (Val. Flacc. ii. 272. Virg. ''Aen.'' viii. 278. Serv. ''ad l.''); whereas the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calix|calix]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Patera|patera]]'', and others, which were of a more open and shallow form, have a closer affinity to the figure of our ''saucers''.

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File:Scypthus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|Scypthus/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SCYT'ALA''' or '''SCYT'ALE''' ({{lang|grc|σκυτάλη}}). A Greek term for a ''stick''; thence a roller or staff employed at Sparta for the purpose of enabling the government to communicate secret despatches to their generals, which was effected in the following manner. A strip of leather was first rolled slantwise upon a wooden cylinder, and upon this the orders written lengthwise; so that when the leather was unrolled from the cylinder, it contained only a series of single letters without any consecutive meaning. In this state the strip was transmitted to their officer, who ascertained the contents by applying it to another cylinder of precisely the same dimensions, given to him before he set out for the campaign. Nep. ''Paus.'' 3. Aul. Gell. xvii. 9. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SECES'PITA'''. A sort of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Culter|knife]], employed at the sacrifice, with a sharp-pointed iron blade and round handle, made of ivory, and ornamented with gold and silver. (Festus, ''s. v.'' Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' iv. 262. Suet. ''Tib.'' 25.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Secespita 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|example |caption=Secespita/1.1}} is copied from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Zophorus|frieze]] of an ancient [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]], still remaining in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Forum|Forum]] at Rome, on which it appears amongst various other sacrificial implements.

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File:Secespita 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|Secespita/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEC'TILIS'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pavimentum|PAVIMENTUM]], 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SECURIC'ULA''' ({{lang|grc|πελεκύδιον}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Securis|SECURIS]]; a little axe, for a child's toy. Plaut. ''Rud.'' iv. 4. 114. and woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Crepundia|CREPUNDIA]].

2. ({{lang|grc|πελεκῖνος}}). A ''mortise'' or ''dove-tail'' in carpentry, produced by a recessed cutting in the shape of a hatchet head, which receives the tenon or projecting end of a corresponding form, left on another piece of timber, so as to bind the two together at a given angle. Vitruv. x. 11. 8. Id. iv. 7. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SECU'RIS''' ({{lang|grc|πέλεκυς}}). An ''axe'' or ''hatchet'', employed as a battle-axe (Curt. iii. 4.); for slaughtering cattle at the sacrifice (Hor. ''Od.'' iii. 23. 12. Ov. ''Trist.'' iv. 2. 5.); or as a woodman's axe for felling timber (Ov. ''Fast.'' iv. 649.), &amp;c. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Securis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|example |caption=Securis/1.1}} is from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan.

2. ''Securis dolabrata''. A hatchet with a small cutting edge, like that of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Dolabra|dolabra]]'', projecting from the back part of the regular blade, like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Securis 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|annexed example |caption=Securis/2.1}} from the Vatican Virgil; and as contradistinguished from the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Bipennis|bipennis]]'', which has two perfect blades, and from the common hatchet, also termed ''securis simplex'', because it has no addition beyond the simple blade. Pallad. ''R. R.'' i. 43.

3. ''The axe'' inserted in the bundle of rods (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fascis|fasces]]'') carried by Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lictor|lictors]], and with which a criminal was beheaded after he had been beaten with the rods. (Cic. ''Pis.'' 34. Liv. ii. 5.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Securis 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|illustration |caption=Securis/3.1}} exhibits the axe and rods bound up together, from a marble bas-relief in the Mattei palace, at Rome.

4. The lunated member on the back part of the vine-dresser's [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Falx|pruning-bill]], which is clearly detailed in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Securis 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 591.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Securis/4.1}}, representing a design of that instrument, from a very ancient MS. of Columella. Columell. iv. 25. 1.

5. A ''pick-axe'', of similar form, use, and character to the same instrument in our own day; as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Securis 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 591.jpg|annexed example |caption=Securis/5.1}}, from a sepulchral bas-relief. Stat. ''Sylv.'' ii. 2. 87.

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File:Securis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|Securis/1.1
File:Securis 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|Securis/2.1
File:Securis 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 590.jpg|Securis/3.1
File:Securis 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 591.jpg|Securis/4.1
File:Securis 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 591.jpg|Securis/5.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SECUTO'RES'''. ''Pursuers''; the name given to a particular class of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiators]], who were trained to combat with the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Retiarius|Retiarii]]'' (Juv. viii. 210. Suet. ''Cal.'' 30. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xviii. 55.), receiving the name from the manner in which they pursued round the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arena|arena]] an adversary, who had made an unsuccessful cast with this net, and who, in consequence of being unprotected with defensive armour, was compelled to immediate flight until he could succeed in gathering up his net for another throw. The arms of the ''secutor'' were a sword and shield (Xiphil. lxxii. 19.), precisely as seen in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Secutores 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 591.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Secutores/1.1}}, from an ancient mosaic in which several different classes of gladiators are represented. The ''retiarius'', who is on the ground, and in a simple [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tunica|tunic]], as described by Suetonius (''l. c. retiarii tunicati''), has thrown his net over the ''secutor'', but without entangling him sufficiently in its toils to hamper the pursuit, or prevent himself from being overtaken.

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File:Secutores 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 591.jpg|Secutores/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEDE'CULA''' ({{lang|grc|σιφρίσκος}}). A ''settee''; a low [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]] or stool; see the illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|SELLA]] 1, of which it is only a diminutive form. Cic. ''Att.'' iv. 10. Pollux, x. 47.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SE'DES''' ({{lang|grc|ἕδρα}}). A ''seat''; in the same general sense as our own term, and thus including all the particular kinds which are enumerated in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/RICH-2K/Classed Index 1849|Classed Index]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEDI'LE'''. Any [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]] or thing to sit upon; used in the singular with same general meaning as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|SEDES]]; but the plural SEDILIA is commonly used to designate ''a row of seats'', such as were permanently constructed of stone or marble in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatres]], &amp;c. (Plin. ''Ep.'' v. 6. Hor. ''Ep.'' iv. 15. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gradus|GRADUS]] 3), or of wood put up for temporary accommodation in public places, at shows and ceremonies (Suet. ''Aug.'' 43.); or on which the rowers sat on board ship. Virg. ''Aen.'' v. 837. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remex|REMEX]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEGES'TRE''' or '''-ES'TRIUM''' ({{lang|grc|στέγαστρον}}). Any covering or wrapper, made of straw matting (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 166.), or fur skins (Festus, ''s. v.''), and employed very generally for packing goods (Plin. ''H. N.'' xiii. 23.), as a coverlet for beds, or wrapper for persons exposed to the weather. Suet. ''Aug.'' 83.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEGMENTA'TUS'''. Ornamented with ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Segmentum|segmenta]]''. Juv. vi. 89. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 22. 18.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEGMEN'TUM'''. An ornament attached to the dresses of females (Val. Max. v. 2. 1. Ov. ''A. Am.'' iii. 169. Juv. ii. 124.); consisting of one or more strips of gold tissue, or some other richly coloured material, sewed on to the skirts of the drapery in parallel lines, one above the other, like tucks (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 22. 18.), as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Segmentum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 592.jpg|annexed example |caption=Segmentum/1.1}}, representing one of the figures in the celebrated Roman fresco of the Vatican, which goes by the name of the Aldobrandini marriage. This interpretation is further confirmed by a passage of Pliny (''H. N.'' vi. 39.), in which the word ''segmentum'' means a division formed by parallel circles {{mdash}} ''segmenta mundi, quae nostri circulos appellavere. Graeci parallelos.''

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File:Segmentum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 592.jpg|Segmentum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SE'JUGIS'''. A chariot drawn by six horses yoked abreast. Liv. xxxviii. 35.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SELIQUAS'TRUM'''. An old-fashioned or antiquated kind of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]] (Festus, ''s. v.''), but of what precise character is not ascertained. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 128. Hygin. ''Astron.'' ii. 10. iii. 9.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SELLA'RIA'''. A room furnished with settles (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|sellae]]''), as a reception room. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiv. 19. § 24. xxxvi. 24. § 5.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SELLA'RIS''', sc. ''equus''. A ''saddle-horse''. Veg. ''Vet.'' ii. 28. 34. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|SELLA]], 10.

2. sc. ''gestatio''. A riding in a sedan chair. Coel. Aurel. ''Tard.'' i. 4. n. 92. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|SELLA]], 8.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SELLA''' ({{lang|grc|δίφρος}}). A low [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]] of the characteristic kind which we understand by our terms ''stool'' or ''settle'', in opposition to chair (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cathedra|cathedra]]''); that is, without back or arms, such as was commonly used by females (Cic. ''Div.'' 1. 46.) and artizans (Id. ''Cat.'' iv. 8.) engaged in sedentary occupations. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sella 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 592.jpg|illustration |caption=Sella/1.1}} represents Penelope in a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]]; and compare the wood-cuts ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calceolarius|CALCEOLARIUS]], [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calculator|CALCULATOR]].

2. ''Sella [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Curulis|curulis]]'' ({{lang|grc|δίφρος ἀγκυλόπους}}). A ''curule seat''; that is, a stool with bent legs, made to open and shut like our ''camp-stools'', for the convenience of being transported with its owner wherever he went. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sella 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 592.jpg|example |caption=Sella/2.1}} exhibits an original of bronze, discovered at Pompeii. The left-hand figure shows one side of the frame, as it would stand when opened out to receive the seat, which fitted into the incavations observable at the top; the right-hand one shows it when it is shut up and the four legs brought close together. Seats of this kind were introduced from Etruria, and were originally used exclusively by the kings at Rome, but were subsequently granted as a privilege to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Consul|consuls]], [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Praetor|praetors]], and curule aediles of the republic. In early times they were inlaid or embossed with ivory carving, but subsequently enriched with ornaments in gold. Liv. i. 8. ix. 46. Suet. ''Aug.'' Ov. ''Pont.'' iv. 9. 27.

3. ''Sella castrensis.'' A ''camp-stool'' (Suet. ''Galb.'' 18.); made to open and shut upon the same principle as the preceding example, but probably formed in a much simpler manner, without any adventitious ornaments, and with straight legs instead of the bent ones, which consituted the essential and distinguishing features of the ''sella curulis''. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sella 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 593.jpg|illustration |caption=Sella/3.1}} is from a bas-relief, which originally decorated the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|triumphal arch]] of Trajan, and represents the emperor in the act of addressing his troops from a camp-stool of the precise character described.

4. ''Sella balnearis.'' A ''bath-seat''; in which a bather sat to have warm water poured over him, and to be steamed by vapour whilst he remained in it, closely enveloped in wrappers. Every [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Balineae|bathing establishment]] was furnished with a sufficient number of these conveniences; the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thermae|Thermae]] of Antoninus alone contained as many as 1600, all made of marble, one of which, from the original, is exhibited in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sella 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 593.jpg|illustration |caption=Sella/4.1}}. It has a very low circular margin round the back, a flat seat, hollow underneath, but perforated by a horse-shoe aperture in front (whence it is also termed ''sella pertusa''. Cato, ''R. R.'' 157. 11.), which served to carry off the water thrown over the person occupying it, or to transmit the steam if it was used for a vapour bath. Sidon. ''Ep.'' ii. 2. Cassiodor. ''Var. Ep.'' 39. Paul. ''Dig.'' iii. 7.

5. ''Sella pertusa.'' Same as the preceding.

6. ''Sella familiarica.'' A ''night-stool''. Varro, ''R. R.'' i. 13. 4. Scrib. ''Comp.'' 193.

7. ''Sella tonsoria.'' A ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tonsor|barber]]'s chair''; which was low, and had a narrow rest for the back, like the example inserted, and supports for the arms, not lying in a horizontal position, but sloping downwards from the front. A seat of this construction was recommended to paralytic patients by the Roman physicians, in consequence of the assistance it afforded in raising the body from a sitting posture. Coel. Aurel. ''Tard.'' ii. 1.

8. ''Sella gestatoria, fertoria'', and ''portoria'' ({{lang|grc|δίφρος κατάστεγος, φορεῖον κατάστεγον}}). A ''sedan chair''; in which the inmate was transported in a sitting, instead of recumbent position, as was the case in a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectica|lectica]]''. (Suet. ''Claud.'' 25. ''Nero'', 26. ''Vit.'' 16.) It was generally covered with a roof (Tac. ''Ann.'' xv. 57.), and closed at the sides (Juv. i. 124.), though not always (Suet. ''Aug.'' 53.); and was more especially used for females, whence it is also designated ''sella muliebris'' (Suet. ''Otho.'' 6.). No representation of this conveyance has been discovered, but its character may be readily imagined from the above details.

9. ''Sella bajulatoria.'' A ''saddle for beasts of burden'', made upon a wooden frame covered with leather, and of a considerable size, adapted for receiving the packages to be loaded upon it. (Coel. Aurel. ''Acut.'' i. 11. Veg. ''Vet.'' iii. 59. 2.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sella 9.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 593.jpg|example |caption=Sella/9.1}} is from a painting of Herculaneum, representing a scene in the market-place of that city.

10. ''Sella equestris.'' A ''riding-saddle'' (Veg. ''Vet.'' vi. 6. 4. Cod. Theodos. 8. 5. 47.), made upon a tree, with a high pommel (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fulcrum|fulcrum]]'', Sidon. ''Ep.'' iii. 30.) in front, and a cantle behind, covered with leather, and stuffed inside. The genuine Greeks and Romans either rode upon the bare back or upon a pad (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ephippium|ephippium]]''); but the regular saddle is supposed to have been invented about the middle of the 4th century, as an order of the Emperor Theodosius, in the year 385, forbids persons who rode post-horses from using saddles of more than sixty pounds weight; and the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sella 10.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 593.jpg|example |caption=Sella/10.1}} introduced is designed by Ginzrot (''Wagen und Fahrwerke'', pl. 80.), from one of the troopers' saddles on the Theodosian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]]. Consequently, this sense of the word is to be regarded as of late Latinity.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Sella 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 592.jpg|Sella/1.1
File:Sella 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 592.jpg|Sella/2.1
File:Sella 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 593.jpg|Sella/3.1
File:Sella 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 593.jpg|Sella/4.1
File:Sella 9.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 593.jpg|Sella/9.1
File:Sella 10.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 593.jpg|Sella/10.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SELLISTER'NIUM'''. A religious feast offered to the female deities (Val. Max. ii. 1. 2. Tac. ''Ann.'' xv. 44.), of the same nature as the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectisternium|LECTISTERNIUM]]; but with this difference, that their statues were disposed upon settles (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|sellae]]''), instead of couches (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|lecti]]''), because the ancient women were not accustomed to recline at table, like the men, but sat upon the edge of the couch, or on a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]] apart, as explained by the article and illustrations ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Accubo|ACCUBO]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SELLULA'RII''' ({{lang|grc|βάναυλοι}}). Artisans and mechanics who work at sedentary occupations, such as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calceolarius|shoe-makers]], [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarcinator|tailors]], &amp;c.; so termed because they sat upon a stool or settle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|sella]]'') Liv. viii. 20. Compare Aul. Gell. iii. 1. 3. and wood-cuts ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calceolarius|CALCEOLARIUS]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Coronarius|CORONARIUS]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEL'LULA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|SELLA]], 8. A small or ordinary sedan. Tac. ''Hist.'' iii. 85.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEMBEL'LA'''. A small piece of Roman money, equal to half the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Libella|libella]]'', or the twentieth part of a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Denarius|denarius]]''. (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 174.) It would belong to the silver currency; but probably was only a nominal division, never actually coined.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEMICINC'TIUM'''. A cloth fastened round the loins for the same objects and purposes as the kilt (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cinctus 1|cinctus]]''), but of smaller dimensions, or, as the name implies, not exceeding ''half'' the width of that object. (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 33. 1. Pet. ''Sat.'' 94. 8. Mart. xiv. 153.) In the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Semicinctium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 594.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Semicinctium/1.1}} it is worn by Daedalus on an engraved gem; and a similar article is frequently met with in sculpture and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] on persons engaged in active occupations.

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File:Semicinctium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 594.jpg|Semicinctium/1.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEMIMIT'RA''' (Ulp. ''Dig.'' 34. 2. 26.). A half ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Mitra|mitra]]''; same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Mitella|MITELLA]], where an illustration is given.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEMIOB'OLUS''' ({{lang|grc|ἡμιόβολος}}). A ''half [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Obolus|obol]]''; a small piece of the Greek silver coinage, of which there were two standards, the Attic, worth about 3.25 farthings, and the Aeginetan, worth 1''d.'' 0.583 farthings. Fann. ''de Pond.'' 8.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEMIPHALA'RICA''' or '''SEMIFALA'RICA'''. (Aul. Gell. x. 25.) A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Falarica|FALARICA]] of half the ordinary size.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEMISPATH'A'''. (Veg. ''Mil.'' ii. 15.) A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Spatha|SPATHA]] of half the usual size.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEMIS'SIS'''. Half an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/As|As]]; a copper coin weighing six ounces (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Uncia|unciae]]''), stamped with the letter ''S'' to denote the value, and the head of Jupiter, Juno, Pallas, &amp;c., with the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Prora|prow]] of a vessel on the reverse, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Semissis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 594.jpg|annexed example |caption=Semissis/1.1}}, from an original, drawn one quarter of the actual size.

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File:Semissis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 594.jpg|Semissis/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SE'MITA'''. An narrow ''pathway'' (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 35.); as a ''foot-path'' in the country (Liv. xliv. 43. Suet. ''Nero'', 48.); or a ''narrow lane'' in a town, as opposed to ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|via]]'', a broad [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|street]]. (Cic. ''Agr.'' ii. 35. Mart. vii. 61.) Hence the term is used specially in the same sense as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Crepido|CREPIDO]], the trottoir for foot passengers on either side of the carriage road (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Agger|agger]]''). Plaut. ''Trin.'' ii. 4. 80. Id. ''Curc.'' ii. 3. 8.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEMUN'CIA'''. A half [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Uncia|ounce]] weight (Liv. xxxiv. 1.); a half ounce measure (Columell. xii. 21. 2.); and a small piece of money containing the twenty-fourth part of an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/As|As]]. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 171.

2. The ''semuncia'' is also enumerated by Cato (''R. R.'' x. and xi.) in a list of farming implements and stock, but without any context to suggest a notion of the object intended. Some commentators suppose it to be a small pair of panniers of half the usual size.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SENA'CULUM'''. A place in which the senate used to meet. Three of these are recorded in the city of Rome, {{mdash}} one on a site between the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capitolium|Capitol]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Forum|Forum]], where the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]] of Concord was afterwards built; a second at the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Porta|Porta]] Capena; and a third near the temple of Bellona. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 156. Festus, ''s. v.'' Val. Max. ii. 2. 6.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SE'NIO'''. The ''six-point'' on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tessera|dice]]; whence this name was given to the throw when all sizes were turned up, which was considered a favourable one, but not so good as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Venus|Venus]]''. Suet. ''Aug.'' 71. Pers. iii. 48.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SENTINA'CULUM'''. A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Antlia|pump]], with which the bilge water (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sentina|sentina]]'') is worked up from the hold of a vessel. Paul. Nol. ''Ep.'' vi. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SENTI'NA''' ({{lang|grc|ἄντλος}}). The ''hold'' or lowest part in the interior of a ship, where the bilge water settles (Cic. ''Fam.'' ix. 15.); and the bilge water itself (Caes. ''B. C.'' iii. 28.); whence ''sentinam trahere'' (Sen. ''Ep.'' 30.), &quot;to make leakage;&quot; ''sentinam exhaurire'' (Cic. ''Sen.'' 6.), &quot;to [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Antlia|pump]] out the ship.&quot;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEPLASIA'RIUS'''. A dealer in medicinal herbs, and in medicines compounded from them, answering in some respects, though not exactly, to the ''chemist and druggist'' of the present day. It is not easy, however, to determine the precise branch of trade carried on under this name; but from the passages cited below, it is clear that the ''seplasiarius'' sold herbs to [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Medicus|veterinaries]] for the cure of cattle, and also medicines ready made up to [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Medicus|physicians]], like our dealer in patent medicines. Veg. ''Vet.'' iv. 3. 6. Plin. xxxiv. 11. Lamprid. ''Elag.'' 30. Beckmann, ''History of Inventions'', vol. i. p. 328. Lond.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEPTIZO'NIUM''' and '''SEMPTEMZO'DIUM'''. A particular kind of edifice, of great magnificence, consisting of seven stories of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]], one above the other, supporting seven distinct entablatures or zones, from which it received the name. It does not appear for what particular purpose these structures were designed; but two such are specially recorded in the city of Rome, one in the XIIth Region, which existed before the time of the Emperor Titus (Suet. ''Tit.'' 2. Ammian. xv. 6. 3.), and the other in the Xth Region, under the Palatine hill, and near to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|Circus]] Maximus, which was built by Septimius Severus. (Spart. ''Sev.'' 19.) Three stories of this last structure remained standing during the pontificate of Sixtus V., but were taken down by him for the purpose of employing the columns in building the Vatican. These are exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Septizonium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 595.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Septizonium/1.1}}, from an engraving of the 16th century (Gamucci, ''Antichità di Roma''); and though they form but a small portion of the original structure in its entirety, yet that is sufficient to convey an accurate notion of the general plan upon which such monuments were designed.

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File:Septizonium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 595.jpg|Septizonium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEP'TUM''', in a general sense, is applied to any enclosure surrounded by barriers, walls, palings, hedges, &amp;c.; such as a sheep-fold, homestead for cattle, den for wild beasts, and the like (Cic. Virg. Varro); but in the plural the name SEPTA was specially used to designate a number of enclosures in the Campus Martius within which the tribes or centuries, were collected at the Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Comitium|Comitia]], before they proceeded to vote. (Ov. ''Fast.'' i. 53. Lucan. vii. 306. Cic. ''Att.'' iv. 16.) Each of these was termed a pen ([[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ovile|OVILE]], and wood-cut ''s. v.''), and was originally partitioned off by wooden railings; but subsequently the whole site was furnished with marble fittings, and surrounded by [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Porticus|colonnades]] as well as other architectural decorations. B. Crus. ''ad'' Suet. ''Aug.'' 43.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEPTUN'X'''. Seven-twelfths of any whole, as of an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/As|As]]; a nominal piece of money, never in actual coinage. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 171.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEPUL'CRUM'''. A ''sepulchre''; a general term for any kind of tomb in which the corpse was buried, or the bones and ashes deposited. (Ulp. ''Dig.'' 11. 7. 2.). Edifices of this nature would of course vary in details, materials, and embellishments, according to the wealth of the proprietor, and taste of the architect who designed them. A single sepulchral chamber, in which the remains were deposited, comprised all that was essentially requisite, and sufficed alone for tombs of the ordinary description (see example, No. 2.); but those of a more ostentatious character had one or two stories built over the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepultura|burial]]-room, containing apartments, richly decorated with [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|paintings]] and stucco work, which were intended to accommodate the members of the family when they went to perform religious rites or to visit the remains of their deceased relatives, but not to receive cinerary [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Olla|urns]] nor coffins; for these were deposited only in the sepulchral chamber, the entrance to which was in general studiously concealed, in order to secure its contents from violation. All these particulars are elucidated by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Sepulcrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 596.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Sepulcrum/1.1}}, representing in half section and elevation an ancient sepulchre of three stories, on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|Via]] Asinaria, near Rome, the identical one in which the celebrated Barberini or Portland Vase, now preserved in the British Museum, was discovered. The lowest compartment is the sepulchral chamber, in which the vase was deposited.

2. ''Sepulcrum familiare.'' A ''family sepulchre''; that is, which was constructed by an individual for himself and the other members of his family and household, including also the freed men and women. (Ulp. ''Dig.'' 11. 7. 5.) A sepulchre of this description is recognised by the different deposits contained in it, as well as by inscriptions like the following: {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=SIBI . ET . CONJUGI . ET . LIBERIS . ET . LIBERTIS . LIBERTABUSQUE . POSTERISQUE . EORUM . FECIT.}} and is shown by the design on the last column, from  an {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=interior |imagelink=Media:Sepulcrum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 596.jpg|interior |caption=Sepulcrum/2.1}} in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|streets]] of the tombs at Pompeii.

3. ''Sepulcrum commune.'' A ''common sepulchre''; that is, which received the remains of many different individuals belonging to the same or to many different families. (Cic. ''Off.'' i. 17. Auson. ''Epitaph.'' xxxvii. 1. Inscript.) It consisted of a chamber divided into numerous rows of niches (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columbarium|columbaria]]''), sometimes to the amount of several hundreds, and all regularly numbered, in each of which a pair of cinerary jars (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Olla|ollae]]'') could be deposited; and it was the common practice for the person to whom the sepulchre belonged, to give, sell, or bequeath by will the right of possession in so many niches, set out by number in the document. (Inscript. ''ap.'' Fabrett. 16. 71.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sepulcrum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 597.jpg|illustration |caption=Sepulcrum/3.1}} represents the interior of a sepulchre of this kind, which was discovered near the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Porta|Porta]] Pia at Rome.

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File:Sepulcrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 596.jpg|Sepulcrum/1.1
File:Sepulcrum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 596.jpg|Sepulcrum/2.1
File:Sepulcrum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 597.jpg|Sepulcrum/3.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEPULTU'RA'''. A burying or ''sepulture''; properly meaning the disposal of the body or ashes in a tomb (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepulcrum|sepulcrum]]''), as contradistinguished from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Humatio|humatio]]'', interment in a grave. Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 55. Cic. ''Leg.'' ii. 22.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SER'A'''. A ''padlock''; that is, a lock constructed to hang upon a staple, or from the link of a chain, so as to make a fastening upon the same principle as is commonly adopted at the present day. That the ''sera'' was not a permanent fixture, but loose and removeable, like a modern padlock, is clear from many passages, in which it is spoken of as being &quot;put on&quot; (''apposita.'' Tibull. i. 8. 76. Ov. ''Fast.'' i. 266.) or &quot;taken off&quot; (''demta.'' Ov. ''Fast.'' i. 280.; ''remota'', Varro, ''L. L.'' vii. 108. Non. ''s.'' Reserare, p. 41.), or falling down from its holding (''sera sua sponte delapsa cecidit, remissaeque subito fores.'' Pet. ''Sat.'' xvi. 2.); and that it was employed with a chain (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Catena|catena]]'') is expressly mentioned by Propertius (iv. 11. 26.). When used for fastening doors, it was linked on to a staple, or some such contrivance, inserted in the door-post (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Postis|postis]]''), whence the expression, ''inserta posti sera'' (Ov. ''Am.'' ii. 1. 28.), indicates the door being locked; ''excute poste seram'' (Ib. i. 6. 2.), on the contrary, describes the process of opening it. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sera 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 597.jpg|illustration |caption=Sera/1.1}} represents a movable iron lock of the character described, which was found, with the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Clavis|key]] belonging to it, in a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepulcrum|tomb]] at Rome; and the barrel of another specimen, exactly similar in form, is now preserved, with its key rusted in it, amongst the Roman antiquities of the British Museum. The circular plate on the left shows the cap of the barrel, removed from its place for illustration, with its keyhole and the orifice through which a return of the link-rod, now broken off, but originally bent like the right-hand side, would enter when the lock was closed. The example in the British Museum has lost this adjunct altogether.

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File:Sera 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 597.jpg|Sera/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SE'RIA'''. An earthenware vessel chiefly employed for holding wine and oil (Columell. xii. 18. 5. Varro, ''R. R.'' iii. 2. 8.), though also put to other uses, as a jar for potted meats (Columell. xii. 55. 4. Plaut. ''Capt.'' iv. 4. 9.), burying money (Pers. ii. 11.), &amp;c. We have no passages which detail the exact form of the vessel in question, excepting that it had a full body, terminated by a narrow throat (''faux'', Columell. xii. 55. 4.), and that it was smaller than the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Dolium|dolium]]'', but larger than the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Amphora|amphora]]'' (Id. xii. 28. 1.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Seria 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 598.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Seria/1.1}} is copied from an original in earthenware, discovered, amongst many others of different shapes and sizes, in a wine cellar under the walls of Rome, of which a plan and description are given at p. 141. ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cella|CELLA]], 2.; and as it bears a distinct outline from the well-ascertained forms of the ''dolium'' and ''amphora'', whilst possessing the properties above mentioned, it is here introduced as a probable example of the model known by the name of ''Seria''; the more so as the locality where it was found fully testifies its quality and use.

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File:Seria 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 598.jpg|Seria/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SE'RIOLA'''. (Pers. iv. 29. Pallad. iv. 10. 9.) Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Seria|SERIA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SERPERAS'TRUM'''. A sort of splint or other contrivance fastened to the knees of infants for the purpose of keeping their legs straight, and counteracting any tendency to distortion (Varro, ''L. L.'' ix. 11.); whence Cicero gives the name allusively to the officers of his [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cohors|cohort]] (''Att.'' vii. 3.), because it was their duty to keep the army in order.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SERRA'CUM'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarracum|SARRACUM]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SERRA'RIUS'''. A ''saw-maker'' (Senec. ''Ep.'' 56.), not a sawyer (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Prista|prista]]''); the termination in ''arius'', according to the usual analogy, describing the person who makes, not the one who uses, the object to which it is added, like ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calceolarius|calceolarius]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Coronarius|coronarius]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Restiarius|restiarius]]'', ''sellarius'', and many others enumerated in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/RICH-2K/Classed Index 1849|Classed Index]] of trades. Thus Seneca (''l. c.'') complains of the noise inflicted by such tradesmen on their neighbours; which would scarcely be reasonable if the mere sawing of timber were the nuisance objected to; but the disagreeable sounds produced by constantly filing up the teeth of this instrument (''stridor serrae tum, cum acuitur.'' Cic. ''Tusc.'' v. 40.), will be readily admitted to be an intolerable infliction.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SER'RA''' ({{lang|grc|πρίων}}). A ''saw''; an iron toothed instrument for cutting wood. (Vitruv. i. 5. 7. Virg. ''Georg.'' i. 143. Senec. ''Ep.'' 90.) The saws of the ancients were made in the same manner, and possessed the same variety of forms and sizes, adapted to the nature of the work for which they were applied, as those now in use. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Serra 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 598.jpg|example |caption=Serra/1.1}} represents a ''frame-saw'', of the kind used by sawyers for cutting timber into planks; the blade (''lamina'') is copied in detail from a sepulchral bas-relief; and the frame has been added through the rings at each of its extremities, upon the authority of a similar instrument roughly delineated on an Etruscan vase.

2. A saw for cutting stone, made of iron, but without teeth, like those still used by our [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lapidarius|stone-masons]]; the place of teeth being supplied by emery or very fine sand, by means of which even the hardest marbles, such as porphyry or granite, can be cut into slabs. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 9.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SERR'ULA''' ({{lang|grc|πριόνιον}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Serra|SERRA]]. A ''small saw''; such as employed by carpenters (wood-cut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fabrica|FABRICA]]), [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chirurgus|surgeons]] (Celsus, vii. 33.), woodsmen (Columell. ''Arb.'' vi. 4.), &amp;c. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Serrula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 598.jpg|illustration |caption=Serrula/1.1}} represents an implement of this description, from a sepulchral bas-relief, of the class now called ''bow-saws'' by our mechanics.

2. ''Serrula manubriata.'' A small saw having the blade fastened into a short handle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Manubrium|manubrium]]'') at one end, instead of being set in a frame, like the last two specimens. (Pallad. i. 43. 2.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Serrula 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 599.jpg|example |caption=Serrula/2.1}} is from a marble bas-relief, where it appears in the hands of Daedalus.

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File:Serrula 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 599.jpg|Serrula/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SER'TA''', plural; ({{lang|grc|στέμματα}}). A ''festoon'', or long wreath of many flowers sewed together, and employed chiefly in decorating [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ara|altars]], [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temples]], or the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Janua|doorways]] of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Domus|private houses]] upon occasions of festivity; whereas the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Corolla|corollae]]'' and ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Corona|coronae]]'' were more particularly intended to be worn as ornaments for the person; but this distinction is not always observed. (Plaut. ''As.'' iv. 1. 58. Virg. ''Aen.'' 1. 421. Cic. ''Tusc.'' iii. 18.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Serta 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 599.jpg|illustration |caption=Serta/1.1}} exhibits a festoon of the kind described, which is carried by a young woman in a bas-relief, representing a marriage festivity, to decorate the doors of the bridal mansion; and the last illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Infulatus|INFULATUS]], p. 131., shows the manner of suspending it over the doorway of a house or temple.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SESTER'TIUS'''. A Roman coin, worth two ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/As|asses]]'' and a half, the fourth part of a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Denarius|denarius]]'', and equal in value to a fraction more than two pence of our money. It belonged originally to the silver coinage; but subsequently was made of the metal called ''aurichalcum'', a very fine quality of brass. (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiv. 2.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sestertius 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 599.jpg|example |caption=Sestertius/1.1}} is from an original of silver, and of the actual size; but specimens in the latter metal are much larger.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEX'TANS'''. A copper coin of Roman currency, weighing two ounces (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Uncia|unciae]]''), and equal in value to the sixth part of an ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/As|As]]''. (Varro, ''L. L'' v. 171.) It bore the impress of a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Caduceus|caduceus]]'' and a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Strigilis|strigilis]]'', with two balls to denote its value, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed specimen |imagelink=Media:Sextans 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 599.jpg|annexed specimen |caption=Sextans/1.1}}, from an original, drawn of one-third the actual size.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEXTA'RIUS'''. A Roman measure both for liquids and dry things; containing a sixth part of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Congius|congius]]'', and the fourth part of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Modius|modius]]''. Rhemn. Fann. ''De Pond.'' 71. Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 1. 74. Columell. ii. 9. Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 35.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SEX'TULA'''. The smallest denomination in Romany money, containing the sixth part of an ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Uncia|uncia]]'' or ounce. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 171. Rhemn. Fann. ''De Pond.'' 22.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIB'INA''' or '''SIB'YNA''' ({{lang|grc|σιβύνη}}). A particular kind of hunting-spear (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Venabulum|venabulum]]''), but of which the peculiar properties are unknown. (Tertull. ''adv. Marc.'' i. 1. Hesych. ''s. v.'') It was, however, used as a ''boar spear''. (Athen. ii. 5.) Compare the illustrations ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Venatio|VENATIO]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Venator|VENATOR]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SICA'RIUS'''. In a general sense, one who makes use of the curved [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Culter|knife]] or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pugio|dagger]] termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sica|sica]]''; but as that weapon amongst the Romans was chiefly employed for ruffianly purposes, the word ''sicarius'' was commonly used to designate a ''bandit, murderer'', or ''assassin'' (Cic. ''Rosc. Am.'' 36. Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 4. 3.), even without reference to the instrument by which the murder was accomplished. Quint. x. 1. 12.

2. A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiator]] (Cic. ''Rosc. Am.'' 3. ''sicarios atque gladiatores'') belonging to the class called [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thrax|Thracians]], who were armed with the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sica|sica]]'', a national weapon in Thrace, instead of the sword (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladius|gladius]]''), as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Sicarius 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 600.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Sicarius/2.1}} of a Thracian gladiator, from the device on a terra-cotta lamp.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SI'CA'''. A sort of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Culter|knife]] or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pugio|dagger]] with a sharp point and curved blade (Gloss. Philox. {{lang|grc|ξίφος ἐπικαμπὲς}}), like a wild boar's tusk (Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 1. ''apri dentium sicas exacuunt''), which rendered it particularly efficacious for stabbing and ripping up. It was the national weapon of the Thracians (Val. Max. iii. 2. 12.); and was consequently employed by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiators]], who took their [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thrax|name]] and accoutrements from that people (Suet. ''Cal.'' 32. Mart. iii. 16. and next [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sicarius|next wood-cut]].) But amongst the Romans it was only regarded as the weapon of a ruffian and assassin (Cic. ''Cat.'' i. 10. Quint. ''Decl.'' 321. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xviii. 6. 8.), like the knife of the lowest Italian population, which is formed and used in a similar way, to stab at the abdomen, and rip upwards. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sica 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 599.jpg|example |caption=Sica/1.1}} is in the hands of a barbarian on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Antoninus.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SICILIC'ULA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sicilis|SICILIS]]; the reading of some editions of Plaut. ''Rud.'' iv. 4. 124., but of which the correctness is very doubtful.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SICI'LIS'''. A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cuspis|spear-head]], characterised by the broadness of its point (Ennius and Festus, ''s. v.''), and a partial resemblance to the outline of the Caspian sea (Plin. ''H. N.'' vi. 15.); both which properties are sufficiently apparent in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Sicilis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 600.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Sicilis/1.1}}, from an original spear-head found at Pompeii, to admit of its being produced as a probable example of the form in question. A spear-head of exactly the same shape occurs twice on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan.

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File:Sicilis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 600.jpg|Sicilis/1.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SICINNIS'TA''' ({{lang|grc|σικιννιστής}}). One who dances the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sicinnium|sicinnium]]'', a dance of Satyrs, introduced in the Greek Satyric drama (Schol. Vet. ''ad'' Aristoph. ''Nub.'' 540.), in which the performers accompanied themselves by their own music and singing (Aul. Gell. xx. 3.), as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Sicinnista 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 600.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Sicinnista/1.1}}, from a fictile vase of Italo-Greek workmanship, which is believed to afford a representation of the dance in question. In the original the open mouth and expression of the female figure, both of which are lost in our wood-cut from the minute scale of the drawing, clearly indicate that she is singing. The very peculiar poses and gestures of the performers are, moreover, worthy of attention, because they express the exact attitudes and steps of the modern Neapolitan ''tarantella'', which may be consequently regarded as a relic of this old classic dance.

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File:Sicinnista 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 600.jpg|Sicinnista/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SICINN'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|σίκιννις}}). The ''Sicinnis''; a Greek Satyric dance, described and illustrated in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sicinnista|preceding article]]. Gell. xx. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIGILLA'TUS'''. Ornamented with small figures in relief (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sigillum|sigilla]]''); like the embossed ornaments on a vase (Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 4. 14.), or carved devices on a well cover. Id. ''Att.'' i. 10. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Puteal|PUTEAL]], 1.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIGIL'LUM'''. A small statue, figure, or image (Ov. ''A. Am.'' i. 407.); embossed or affixed to vases of gold and silver (Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 4. 22.); cast in terra-cotta moulds for architectural decorations (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 59.), formed by the impressions of a signet [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Anulus|ring]] (Cic. ''Acad.'' iv. 26.); or worked in embroidery. Ov. ''Met.'' vi. 86.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIG'MA'''. A ''semicircular dining-couch'' (Mart. xiv. 87.  Apul. ''Met.'' v. p. 90. ''suggestum semirotundum''), adapted for use with a round table (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Orbis|orbis]]''); and so named because it resembled one of the early forms of the Greek letter ''Sigma'', which was written like our C. It was not invented until the square dining-table (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quadra|quadra]]'') fell into disuse, when the introduction of the circular form necessitated a similar change in the shape of the sofa used with it. But it was more convenient than the old ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|lectus tricliniaris]]'', because it did not like that require the fixed number of nine guests, but could be arranged for smaller parties; for six (Mart. ix. 60.), seven (Id. x. 48.) or eight (Lamprid. ''Elag.'' 25.); and the order of precedence in the places upon it ran straight on in regular succession, from the highest to the lowest.

2. A circular [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]] round the bottom of the hot-water [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Balineae|bath]], on which the bathers sat and washed themselves. (Sidon. ''Ep.'' ii. 2.) Also the bath itself. Id. ''ib.''

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIG'NIFER''' ({{lang|grc|σημαιοφόρος}}). An ''ensign'' or ''standard-bearer'' in the Roman armies (Cic. ''Div.'' i. 35. Caes. ''B. G.'' ii. 25.); a general term, which will include all the individual officers, who nevertheless received a special title from the particular kind of ensign they carried, such as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Imaginiferi|Imaginifer]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Draconarius|Draconarius]]'', &amp;c., whose ensigns were all classed under the name of ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Signum|signa militaria]]''. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Signifer 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 601.jpg|annexed example |caption=Signifer/1.1}}, from Trajan's [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|Column]], exhibits the ''signifer'' of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cohors|cohort]], whose standard is different from either of those mentioned.

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File:Signifer 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 601.jpg|Signifer/1.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIGNI'NUM''' (sc. ''opus''). ''Signine work''; the name given to a particular kind of material employed for making [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pavimentum|floorings]]; consisting of tiles broken up into minute particles and mixed with mortar, then beaten down into a solid substance with the rammer. It acquired the name from the town of Signia (now ''Segni''), which was famous for its tiles, and where it was first introduced. Columell. i. 6. 12. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxv. 46. Vitruv. viii. 6. 14.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIG'NUM''' ({{lang|grc|σημεῖον}}). In a general sense, any mark, sign, or signal by which something is known; whence the following more special applications have obtained.

1. An image or figure, whether of metal, marble, wrought, cast, sculptured, or embroidered (Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 4. 1. Virg. ''Aen.'' ix. 263. ''Ib.'' i. 648. Plin. ''Ep.'' i. 20. 5.); but strictly used to designate the image of a deity (Plin. ''Ep.'' ix. 39.), as contradistinguished from ''statua'', an image of men. Inscrip. ''ap.'' Grut. 174. 8. {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=SIGNUM MARTIS ET STATUAM SIBI POSUIT}}.

2. The image or device engraved upon a seal, and the signet or impression made by it. (Cic. ''Cat.'' iii. 5. Id. ''Quint.'' 6. id. ''Att.'' ix. 10.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Signum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 601.jpg|example |caption=Signum/2.1}} is from an original.

3. The ''sign of a shop'' (Quint. vi. 3. 38.); indicating, by some emblematical representation, the nature of the business carried on inside, like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Signum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 601.jpg|annexed example |caption=Signum/3.1}} of two men carrying an ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Amphora|amphora]]'', which is executed in terra-cotta, and forms the sign of a wine-shop at Pompeii. A milkman's in the same town is distinguished by the sign of a boy milking a goat.

4. A ''constellation'' or sign in the heavens, formed by a group of stars apparently representing the form of certain animals; as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Signum 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 602.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Signum/4.1}}, from a statue of Atlas with the heavens on his shoulders. Ov. ''Fast.'' v. 113. Id. ''Met.'' xiii. 619.

5. ''Signa militaria.'' Military standards or ensigns, including in reality, the eagle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aquila|aquila]]''), which was the general ensign of the entire [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Legio|legion]], but more commonly used with reference to the different standards belonging to each separate [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Manipulus|maniple]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cohors|cohort]], as distinct from the eagle. (Cic. ''Cat.'' ii. 6. Tac. ''Hist.'' 11. 29. Id. ''Ann.'' i. 18.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Signum 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 602.jpg|illustration |caption=Signum/5.1}}, from a medal, shows the eagle between two standards of cohorts; the name of each ensign is enumerated in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/RICH-2K/Classed Index 1849|Classed Index]], and an example given under its own denomination.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Signum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 601.jpg|Signum/2.1
File:Signum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 601.jpg|Signum/3.1
File:Signum 4.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 602.jpg|Signum/4.1
File:Signum 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 602.jpg|Signum/5.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SILENTIA'RIUS'''. A domestic slave whose duty it was to preserve silence in the household, and keep the whole establishment from making the slightest noise in the presence of their master; even a cough or sneeze being immediately checked by the ready stroke of the rod. Salvian. ''Gub. D.'' iv. 3. Inscript. ''ap.'' Fabrett. p. 206. n. 54. Compare Senec. ''Ep.'' 47.

2. ''Silentiarius sacri palatii.'' At a late period of the Empire, one of thirty officers who were persons of some consequence at the Byzantine court, acting under the authority of three superiors (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Decurio|decuriones]]''), and appointed for the purpose of preserving order, silence, and decorum within the precincts of the palace. Imp. Anastas. ''Cod.'' 15. 62. 25. Inscript. ''ap.'' Grut. 1053. 10.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIL'EX'''. Generally a common ''flint'' or ''flint-stone''; but in a more special sense a large hard stone of volcanic formation, cut by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lapidarius|mason]] into polygonal blocks, and then dovetailed accurately together, which was extensively used in the construction of walls (Vitruv. i. 5. 8.), and for the paving of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|streets]] and roads (Liv. xli. 27. xxxviii. 28.); in the manner shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Silex 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 602.jpg|annexed example |caption=Silex/1.1}} from a piece of Roman pavement near Rome. It is thus frequently opposed to ''lapis'', a square flag-stone, and to ''saxum'', also used in polygonal masses, and likewise of a volcanic formation, but possessing properties which geologists call ''tufa'', instead of a flinty substance.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SILICER'NIUM''' ({{lang|grc|περίδειπνον}}). A funeral feast given in honour of a deceased person, either at the funeral or within a few days after it (Varro, ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 48.); whence the term is sometimes used in mockery, to designate a decrepit old man. (Terent. ''Ad.'' iv. 3. 34.) Amongst the Romans it would appear that this entertainment took place at the sepulchre itself (''ad sepulcrum'', Varro, ''l. c.''); and the highly decorated chambers, so commonly met with as appendages to their tombs ([[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepulcrum|SEPULCRUM]] 1. and illustration), but never used to receive deposits, were doubtless intended for the purpose; while a regular ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triclinium|triclinium]]'', with its couches and stand for the table, is still to be seen within one of the sepulchral enclosures at Pompeii. But amongst the Greeks it was always given in the house of the nearest relative to the deceased, and immediately after the funeral. Demosth. ''de Coron.'' p. 321. 25. Cic. ''Leg.'' ii. 25. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Silicernium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 603.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Silicernium/1.1}} represents the relatives of a young Greek lady at a funeral feast of the kind described, from a marble bas-relief sculptured upon her tomb. The objects in the cornice above are merely intended to represent various articles of the female toilette and work-table.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SI'MA'''. An architectural moulding, so termed from the character of its outline, which resembles the snub nose of a goat, being hollow in its upper surface but swelling below, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=figure annexed |imagelink=Media:Simpulum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 603.jpg|figure annexed |caption=Simpulum/1.1}}. It is chiefly employed for the crowning or uppermost member of a cornice, being placed over the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Corona|corona]], and is now termed &quot;sima,&quot; or &quot;cyma recta,&quot; by English architects, and &quot;ogee&quot; by the workmen. Vitruv. iii. 5. 12.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIM'PULUM'''. A ''ladle'' or cup (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cyathus|cyathus]]'') with a long handle, employed at the sacrifice for taking the wine in small quantities (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 124.) out of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Crater|crater]]'' or other large vessel, in order to make libations. (Festus, ''s. v.'' Apul. ''Apol.'' p. 434.) The right side of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=following wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Simpulum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 603.jpg|following wood-cut |caption=Simpulum/1.1}} exhibits the implement itself, from an original found in a fictile vase, which has a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|picture]] on its outside, representing a priestess in the act of filling a cup with wine, taken out of a larger vessel with the ''simpulum'', as shown by the illustration.

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File:Simpulum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 603.jpg|Simpulum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIMPUV'IUM'''. A vessel employed at the sacrifice, supposed to be only another name for ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Simpulum|simpulum]]'', which see. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxv. 46. Juv. vi. 343.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIN'DON''' ({{lang|grc|σινδών}}). A very fine sort of linen cloth, or ''muslin'', employed for clothing by the natives of India, Egypt, and Asia. The same fabric was also imported into Italy, and used by persons of refined habits, at least in late times, for light summer dresses, both of the inner (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Indutus|indutus]]'') and outer apparel (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Amictus|amictus]]''). Mart. ii. 16. iv. 19. Auson. ''Ephem. in Parecb.'' 2.

2. A wrapper for [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Volumen|books]]. Mart. xi. 1. Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Membrana|MEMBRANA]], 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SI'NUM''' and '''-US''' ({{lang|grc|δῖνος}}). A very large, round, and deep bowl for wine (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 123. Id. ''De Vit. Pop. Rom. ap.'' Non. p. 547. Plaut. ''Curc.'' i. 1. 82.), or milk (Virg. ''Ecl.'' vii. 33.); like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sinum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 603.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sinum/1.1}}, which represents Ulysses presenting a bowl of wine to Polyphemus, in a bas-relief of the Villa Pamfili. The fabled size of the Sicilian monster is thus appropriately expressed by the great capacity of the vessel containing the potation proffered to him.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIN'US''' ({{lang|grc|κόλπος}}). Literally, any surface bent into a semicircular or hollow form, whence the following expressive senses:{{mdash}}

1. A semicircular fold in a loose outside garment, produced by catching up one of its sides and throwing the end over the opposite shoulder, in the manner described ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Anabolium|ANABOLIUM]]; thus contradistinguished from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gremium|gremium]]'', a lap formed by holding up the lower portion of the dress, and from ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ruga|ruga]]'', a small irregular crease, arising from the constraint of a girdle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cingulum|cingulum]]''). The ordinary ''sinus'' was formed immediately across the breast, so as to make but a short belly, thence termed ''sinus brevis'' (Quint. xi. 3. 137.), as in the left-hand figure of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Sinus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 604.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Sinus/1.1}}, from a statue at Venice; whence the word is frequently used to designate that part of the human person. (Phaedr. v. 5. 16. Terent. ''Heaut.'' iii. 3. 2. Tac. ''Hist.'' iii. 10.) But it might be lengthened out to a much lower sweep by dropping the right hand and arm, and drawing the end down with it from the shoulder, as Caesar is represented to have done when about to fall beneath the strokes of his assassins, {{mdash}} ''simul sinistra manu sinum ad ima crura deduxit'' (Suet. ''Caes.'' 82.); it was then termed ''sinux laxus'' (Hor. ''Sat.'' ii. 3. 172.), because it made a long and loose belly, in the manner represented by the part marked 2. on the right-hand figure, from a statue of the Villa Pamfili. In the late fashion of adjusting the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Toga|toga]], a double ''sinus'' was formed, a short one drawn from under the right arm to the top of the left shoulder (Quint. xi. 3. 102.), as shown by the right-hand figure, at the part marked 4, and the loose one lower down, marked 2. Both sexes were accustomed to adjust their outer drapery in this style, and the hollow thus created served as a convenient receptacle for carrying about their persons any object which they wished to keep concealed, such as a letter, purse, &amp;c. Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 5. 57. Ov. ''Am.'' i. 10. 18.

2. The purse of a fishing and hunting [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Rete|net]]. Plaut. ''Truc.'' i. 1. 15. Grat. ''Cyneg.'' 29.

3. The bosom of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Velum|sail]] when filled by the wind. Virg. Ov. Tibull.

4. A bay or gulf on a coast, formed by the retiring of the land into a semicircular recess. Cic. Virg. Plin.

5. The curved or hollow part of the sharp edge in a vine-dresser's [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Falx|bill-hook]] (Columell. iv. 25. 1.), which resembles in form a bay of the sea, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sinus 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 604.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sinus/5.1}} from an ancient MS. of Columella.

6. A large full-bodied vessel for wine or milk. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sinum|SINUM]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIPA'RIUM'''. A ''folding-screen'', employed at the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatre]], and consisting of several leaves, which could be opened out or folded together (Apul. ''Met.'' i. p. 7. ''siparium complicato.'' ''Id.'' x. p. 232., ''complicitis sipariis'') like a modern screen. Some antiquaries think that the ''siparium'' was the drop-scene used only in comedy, and the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aulaea|aulaeum]]'' only in tragedy. But Apuleius speaks of both as used together; while his language implies that the ''aulaeum'' was let down (''subductum'') under the stage when the play commenced, and the ''siparium'' folded up (''complicatum'') at the same moment. He represents this as taking place upon the presentation of a pantomimic ballet, descriptive of the judgment of Paris; and as it is known that in some of the large theatres of the Macedonian era, the part of the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Orchestra|orchestra]]'' situated between the front of the regular stage (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Proscenium|proscenium]]'') and the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ara|altar]] of Bacchus (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thymele|thymele]]'') was converted into a lower stage, upon which the mimes and dancers performed (Muller, ''Hist. of Greek Literature'', vol. i. p. 299.), it may be fairly inferred that the ''siparium'' was intended to conceal this lower stage; and that it was folded up to reveal the dancers upon it, at the moment when the ''aulaeum'' was let down to show the scenery upon the regular stage.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIPHONA'RII'''. ''Firemen''; or, as the French language more closely renders the term, ''pompiers'', who worked the engines (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sipho|siphones]]'') kept for extinguishing conflagrations. They formed part of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cohors|cohort]] of watchmen (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Vigiles|vigiles]]'') established by Augustus. Inscript. ''ap.'' Mur. 788. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SI'PHO''' ({{lang|grc|σίφων}}). A pipe or tube through which water is made to rise by its own pressure, or by artificial means, into a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Saliens|jet d'eau]]'' (Senec. ''Q. N.'' ii. 16. Plin. ''H. N.'' ii. 66.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Sipho 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 605.jpg|illustration |caption=Sipho/1.1}} represents a fountain in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fullonica|fulling establishment]] at Pompeii; the tubes still remain projecting from each of the square reservoirs, but the water has been added in the drawing, to show the manner in which it played from them, and fell in an united stream in the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Labrum|labrum]]'', or central basin.

2. A ''siphon'', or pipe, by which liquids are drawn out of casks (Cic. ''Fin.'' ii. 8. Pollux, vi. 2. x. 20.), in the same manner as practised at the present day. The invention is of very great antiquity, and of Egyptian origin, for the name of the instrument is traced back to the Egyptian root &quot;sif,&quot; to imbibe (Wilkinson, ''Manners and Customs of Ancient Egypt.'', iii. p. 341.), and is represented in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed engraving |imagelink=Media:Sipho 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 605.jpg|annexed engraving |caption=Sipho/2.1}} from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] at Thebes. The right-hand figure pours the liquid into three vases placed on the top of a high stand, while the one on the opposite side draws it off by three separate siphons into a larger vessel below. One of the siphons is applied to his mouth in the act of exhausting the air, and the liquid is already flowing through the other two, which are held in his right hand.

3. A ''double-actioned forcing-pump'' used also as a ''fire-engine''. (Plin. ''Ep.'' x. 35. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 6. Ulp. ''Dig.'' 32. 7. 12.) A machine of this kind, discovered in the last century at Castrum Novum, near Civita Vecchia, and supposed to have been used for pumping up the water into the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Balineae|public baths]] of that town, is exhibited on the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=following page |imagelink=Media:Sipho 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 606.jpg|following page |caption=Sipho/3.1}}. It is constructed upon the same principle as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ctesibica machina|Ctesibica machina]]'', described by Vitruvius (x. 7.), but is more simple in its parts; and, since it agrees in all respects with the directions given by Hero (''de Spirit.'' p. 180.), who was a pupil of Ctesibius, we can have no hesitation in receiving it as a model of the original pump invented by Ctesibius with the improvements effected by his pupil. The parts of which it is composed, and their technical names, are as follows:{{mdash}}{{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=AA}} ({{lang|grc|δύο πυξίδες}}, ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Modiolus|modioli]] gemelli''), two cylinders, in which the suckers, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=B}} ({{lang|grc|ἔμβολοι}}, ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Embolus|emboli]]''), and pistons, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=C}} ({{lang|grc|κανόνια}}, ''regulae''), work alternately up and down; {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=D}}, a horizontal tube ({{lang|grc|σώλην}}) communicating with and connecting the two cylinders, and into the centre of which another upright tube, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=E}}, ({{lang|grc|ἕτερον σώλην ὄρθιος}}) is inserted. {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=FFFF}}, on the section below, four self-acting valves ({{lang|grc|ἀσσάρια}}, ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Assis|asses]]''), two of which are affixed to the bottom of the two cylinders, and the others to the neck of the upright tube, one on each side of it. The pump was placed, in the same position as shown by the engraving, over the reservoir, with the lower ends of the two cylinders ({{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=FF}}) immersed in the water. The action was precisely similar to that described under the article [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ctesibica machina|CTESIBICA MACHINA]]. The two pistons work simultaneously, but inversely, the one up and the other down. As one rises, the valve at the bottom of the cylinder opens, and allows the water to be drawn in through the aperture thus created, while the one which descends in the other cylinder closes its own valve, and thus forces the water contained in it into the horizontal tube, forcing open the neck valve at its own side, and closing the other one; so that the water, having the communication with the opposite cylinder shut off, is driven into the upright tube ({{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=E}}), and forced out of it, with a continuous stream, through a pipe or a hose, fastened on to its upper end; which is not shown in the engraving, because the top was in a mutilated state when discovered. The adaptation of such a contrivance for fire engines will be readily understood; it, in fact, proceeds upon the same principle as that employed in the construction of such machines amongst ourselves.

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File:Sipho 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 605.jpg|Sipho/1.1
File:Sipho 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 605.jpg|Sipho/2.1
File:Sipho 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 606.jpg|Sipho/3.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIPHUN'CULUS'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sipho|SIPHO]]. A small pipe or tube through which water is discharged to form a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Saliens|jet d'eau]]''. Plin. ''Ep.'' v. 6. 23. and illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sipho|SIPHO]], 1.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIR'PEA'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scirpea|SCIRPEA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIRPIC'ULA'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scirpicula|SCIRPICULUS]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SISTRA'TUS'''. One who carries the Egyptian rattle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sistrum|sistrum]]''); thence, by implication, a priest or priestess of Isis, who made use of that instrument in their religious ceremonies, holding it up and shaking it with the right hand, in the manner exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Sistratus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 606.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Sistratus/1.1}} from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], in which various classes of the Egyptian priesthood are represented. Mart. xii. 29.

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File:Sistratus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 606.jpg|Sistratus/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIS'TRUM''' ({{lang|grc|σεῖστρον}}). A sort of rattle, used by the Egyptians in the religious ceremonies of Isis (Ov. ''A. Am.'' iii. 635. ''Met.'' ix. 783.), and in war instead of the trumpet. (Virg. ''Aen.'' viii. 696. Prop. iii. 11. 43.) It consisted of a number of metal rods (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Virgula|virgulae]]'') inserted into a thin oval frame (''laminam angustam in modum baltei recurvatam'') of the same material (Apul. ''Met.'' xi. p. 240.); to this a short handle was attached, by which it was held up and rapidly shaken, so as to make the rods give out a sharp and rattling noise. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sistrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 607.jpg|example |caption=Sistrum/1.1}} is from an original of bronze.

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File:Sistrum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 607.jpg|Sistrum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SITEL'LA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Situla|SITULA]]. A vessel with a full belly and narrow throat, employed at the Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Comitium|Comitia]] for the purpose of drawing by lot the names of the tribes or centuries, in order to fix the rotation in which they were to vote. The lots (''sortes''), made of wood, were dropped into this vessel, which was filled with water, so that when shaken only one of them could present itself at a time, in consequence of the narrowness of the throat, through which it had to be drawn out. (Plaut. ''Cas.'' ii. 4. 17. ''Ib.'' ii. 5. 34. Liv. xxv. 3.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sitella 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 607.jpg|example |caption=Sitella/1.1}} is copied from the device upon a coin of the Cassian ''gens''.

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File:Sitella 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 607.jpg|Sitella/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIT'ICEN''' ({{lang|grc|τυμβαύλης}}). A musician who performed at funerals, upon a particular kind of straight horn (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tuba|tuba]]'') (Capito. ''ap.'' Gell. xx. 2.), the characteristics of which are not however explained.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIT'ULA'''. A ''bucket'' for drawing water out of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Puteus|well]] (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 15. Plaut. ''Amph.'' ii. 2. 47. Paul. ''Dig.'' 18. 1. 40.); made with a pointed bottom, to facilitate immersion, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Situla 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 607.jpg|annexed example |caption=Situla/1.1}} from an original of bronze. The same outline is constantly observed in the ancient representations of wells with a windlass and bucket; in a fragment of fresco-[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] preserved in the British Museum, and in the wood-cut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Girgillus|GIRGILLUS]].

2. A vessel used for drawing lots. (Plaut. ''Cas.'' ii. 6. 6. Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 2. 51.) Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sitella|SITELLA]].

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File:Situla 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 607.jpg|Situla/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SIT'ULUS'''. (Cato, ''R. R.'' x. 2. Vitruv. x. 4. 4.) Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Situla|SITULA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOCCA'TUS'''. Wearing the shoe or slipper termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Soccus|soccus]]''. Sen. ''Ben.'' ii. 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOC'CIFER'''. Same as the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Soccatus|preceding]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOC'CULUS'''. (Sen. ''Ben.'' ii. 12. Suet. ''Vit.'' 2.) Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Soccus|SOCCUS]].{TR: Lemma added for use in Wiki-Version.}

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOC'CUS'''. A loose ''slipper'', or shoe without any tie to it, but which completely covered the foot, so that a person wearing it is said to be ''soccis indutus'' (Cic. ''Or.'' iii. 32.), or ''soccis calceatus''. (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 4. § 13.) Amongst the Greeks it was commonly worn by both sexes (Cic. ''Rab. Post.'' 10. Terent. ''Heaut.'' i. 1. 72.); but at Rome its use was strictly confined to females (''soccus muliebris'', Suet. ''Cal.'' 52.), and to [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Histrio|actors]] on the comic stage, in order to form a contrast with the high-soled boot (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cothurnus|cothurnus]]'') of the tragic drama (Hor. ''A. P.'' 80. Ov. ''Pont.'' iv. 16. 29. Quint. x. 2. 22.); so that whenever an instance occurs of the ''soccus'' being worn by a Roman off the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|stage]], it is recorded as a singularly anti-national affectation, and reprobated accordingly. (Sen. ''l. c.'' Suet. ''l. c.'' Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvii. 6.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Soccus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 607.jpg|example |caption=Soccus/1.1}} here introduced is worn by a comic dancer in an ancient [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]].

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File:Soccus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 607.jpg|Soccus/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOLA'RIUM''' ({{lang|grc|σκιάθηρον}}). A ''sun-dial''; a general term, including many different kinds and forms of the same instrument, with distinct and appropriate names, enumerated in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/RICH-2K/Classed Index 1849|Classed Index]], and described, each one under its own special denomination. Varro, ''L. L.'' vi. 4. Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 60.

2. ''Solarium ex aqua.'' A ''water-glass'', which performed the uses of a clock; showing the hours by the decrease of water contained in it, against a certain number of spaces (''spatia'', Sidon. Apoll. ''Ep.'' ii. 9.) partitioned off on the body of the vessel from which it escaped, or of the one into which it distilled. (Cic. ''N. D.'' ii. 34.) In this passage Cicero uses the term ''solarium'' both for a sun-dial and for a water-clock; but distinguishes them by calling the former ''solarium descriptum'', the latter ''solarium ex aqua''.

3. ({{lang|grc|ἡλιαστήριον}}). A ''terrace'' on the top of a house built with a flat roof, or over a porch, surrounded by a parapet wall, but open to the sky, to which the inhabitants retired to enjoy the sunshine and fresh breezes in fair weather, as is still a common practice at Naples and in the East. (Isidor. ''Orig.'' xv. 3. 12. Suet. ''Nero'', 16. Plaut. ''Mil.'' ii. 4. 25.) A terrace of this kind was discovered on the second story of a house excavated at Herculaneum, of which a description is given at [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Domus|p. 251.]] and a plan of the same, on which it is marked {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=G}}. Subsequently, however, the ''solarium'' was covered with a roof (Inscript. ''ap.'' Fabrett. p. 724. n. 443.) as a protection against the sun, and formed, in fact, the upper story of a house, open to the air on all sides, except the top, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Solarium 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 608.jpg|example |caption=Solarium/3.1}}, representing Dido's palace, from the Vatican Virgil. When thus constructed it was employed in hot weather as a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Coenaculum|coenaculum]]'', or refreshment room. Inscript. ''l. c.''

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File:Solarium 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 608.jpg|Solarium/3.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOLDU'RII''' ({{lang|grc|εὐχωλιμαῖοι}}). Properly a Gallic word, employed by the ancient Gauls (Caes. ''B. G.'' iii. 22.) in a sense somewhat similar to our ''vassals'' or ''retainers'', thereby intending to designate a body of men attached to some chieftain, whom they served with the utmost fidelity and devotion.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOLEA'RIUS'''. One who makes ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Solea|soleae]]''. Plaut. ''Aul.'' iii. 5. 40.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOLEA'TUS'''. Wearing ''soleae'', as shown by the wood-cut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Solea|SOLEA]], 1. When the word is used with reference to the Romans, it is indicative of a person being in-doors, or in dishabille; as these articles were considered unbecoming for out-door use, and to betoken affected manners or a foreign style of dress. Senec. ''Ira.'' iii. 18. Castric. ''ap.'' Gell. xiii. 21. Cic. ''Verr.'' ii. 5. 33. ''Pis.'' 6.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOL'EA'''. A sort of ''clog'' or ''sandal'', of the simplest form; consisting of a mere sole underneath the foot (Festus, ''s. v.'' Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 34. 11. Aul. Gell. xiii. 21.), bound on by a strap across the instep, like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Solea 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 608.jpg|annexed example |caption=Solea/1.1}} from a Pompeian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]], and the clogs now used by the Capuchin friars. It was worn by both sexes indiscriminately. Ov. ''A. Am.'' ii. 212. Hor. ''Ep.'' i. 13. 15. Plaut. ''Truc.'' ii. 4. 12.

2. ''Solea spartea.'' A shoe or boot made of the Spanish broom, for the purpose of protecting the feet of cattle and beats of burden, when tender or diseased. (Columell. vi. 12. 3. Veg. ''Vet.'' i. 26. 3. ii. 45. 3.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example annexed |imagelink=Media:Solea 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 608.jpg|example annexed |caption=Solea/2.1}} is not from an ancient original, but shows a contrivance of the same kind now used by the inhabitants of Japan, consisting of a small basket, made to the shape of the animal's foot, on to which it is bound by a strap round the fetlock.

3. ''Solea ferrea.'' A protection for the feet of mules (Catull. xvii. 26.) employed in draught; intended to answer the same object as the modern ''horse-shoe'', though differing materially in its quality and manner of fixing; for the concurrent testimony of antiquity, both written, sculptured, and painted, bears undeniable evidence to the fact that neither the Greeks nor the Romans were in the habit of shoeing their animals by nailing a piece of iron on to the hoof as we now do. The contrivance they employed was probably a sock made of leather or some such material, and similar in form and general character to the ''solea spartea'' last described; being passed under and over the foot, and bound round the pastern joint and shanks of the animal by thongs of leather, like the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Carbatinae|carbatinae]]'' of the peasantry. This sock was not permanently worn, but was put on by the driver during the journey in places or upon occasions when the state of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|roads]] required, and taken off again when no longer necessary. Both the nature of the contrivance, showing that it was a close shoe covering the entire foot, and the practice of putting it on and removing it occasionally is sufficiently testified by the particular terms employed to designate the object itself and the manner of applying it {{mdash}} ''mulas calceare'' (Suet. ''Vesp.'' 23.); ''mulis soleas induere'' (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 49.) {{mdash}} as will be understood by referring to the articles [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Calceus|CALCEUS]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Indutus|INDUTUS]]. When the underneath part of the sock was strengthened by a plate of iron, it was termed ''solea ferrea''; but under the extravagant habits of the empire, silver plates were sometimes used instead of iron, when it was called ''solea argentea'' (Suet. ''Nero'', 30.); and sometimes gold, ''solea ex auro''. (Plin. ''l. c.'') It is consequently an iron plate of this kind which Catullus speaks of (''l. c.'') as being left in the mud, by getting detached from the sock under which it was fastened; and not one nailed on to the hoof, like a modern horse-shoe.

4. ''Solea lignea.'' A sort of wooden clog or fetter, into which the feet of criminals were inserted, to prevent them from escaping while being conducted to prison. Cic. ''Inv.'' ii. 50.

5. An instrument, or a machine employed for bruising olives to make oil (Columell. xii. 52. 6.); the nature of which is entirely unknown.

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File:Solea 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 608.jpg|Solea/1.1
File:Solea 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 608.jpg|Solea/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOLIFER'REUM''' or '''SOLLIFER'REUM'''. A sort of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Jaculum|javelin]] made of solid iron, both head and shaft. Liv. xxxiv. 14. Festus, ''s.'' Sollo.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOLITAURI'LIA'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Suovetaurilia|SUOVETAURILIA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SOL'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|θρόνος}}). In the original and strict meaning, a square high-backed [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cathedra|chair]], with closed sides for arms, as if cut out from a block of solid wood, which was employed in early times for the king to sit in, that his person might have some protection against any sudden or secret violence from behind. (Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' i. 506.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Solium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 609.jpg|example |caption=Solium/1.1}}, which agrees exactly with the above description of Servius, represents the chair used by Latinus in the Vatican Virgil.

2. A chair of state, like our ''throne'', upon which the gods, kings, and great rulers sat. (Virg. ''Aen.'' x. 116. Cic. ''Fin.'' ii. 21. Ov. ''Fast.'' vi. 353.) It differs from an ordinary chair (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cathedra|cathedra]]''), in being made of more valuable materials and costly workmanship. In works of art it is mostly represented with a back, arms, and cushions, frequently covered with rich drapery; but always with a foot-stool in front (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scabellum|scabellum]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scamnum|scamnum]]'') to indicate its height. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Solium 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 609.jpg|example |caption=Solium/2.1}} shows the ''solium'' of Venus in a painting of Pompeii.

3. A large arm-chair, in which the Roman lawyer used to sit and receive the clients, who came to consult them (Cic. ''Leg.'' i. 3. Id. ''Or.'' ii. 55.); whence the expression, ''a subselliis in otium soliumque se conferre'' (Id. ''Or.'' ii. 33.), means to retire from court to chamber practice; that is, from active pleading in court, where the advocates sat upon benches (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subsellium|subsellia]]''), to the comparative leisure of attending consultations in an arm-chair (''solium'') at home.

4. ''Solium eburneum.'' An ivory chair (Claud. ''Laud. Stil.'' 199.); meaning thereby the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Curulis|Curule]] [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seat]]'', which was decorated with ivory;{{mdash}}only a pompous expression for [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sella|SELLA CURULIS]].

5. A receptacle for the dead body, like what we now call a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarcophagus|sarcophagus]], that is, of an imposing character, made of valuable marbles (Suet. ''Nero'', 50.), and enriched by sculpture; especially used as a deposit for kings and great personages (Curt. x. 10. Flor. iv. 11. 11.), of which the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Solium 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 610.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Solium/5.1}} affords a remarkable specimen, from an original in which the body of L. C. Scipio Barbatus was deposited.

6. The seat at the bottom of a circular [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Alveus|warm-water bath]], on which the bather sat and washed himself (Suet. ''Aug.'' 82. Festus, ''s. v.''), usually made of the same substance as the bath itself (Pallad. i. 41.), but sometimes of wood (Suet. ''l. c.''), and even of silver. (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 54.) See the illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Baptisterium|BAPTISTERIUM]], at the bottom of which a similar seat is exhibited. But in some of the above passages, as well as others (Celsus, vii. 26. 5. Sidon. Apoll. ''Ep.'' ii. 2., ''solii capacis hemicyclium''), the word is used for the bath itself.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Solium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 609.jpg|Solium/1.1
File:Solium 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 609.jpg|Solium/2.1
File:Solium 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 610.jpg|Solium/5.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPAR'SIO'''. An artificial ''sprinkling'', or mist (''nimbus'', Mart. ''Spect.'' 3. Id. v. 25.) of scented waters, made to fall over the interior of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatre]] or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Amphitheatrum|amphitheatre]] by means of pipes and machinery. (Senec. ''Controv.'' v. ''Praef.'' Id. ''Ep.'' 90. ''Q. N.'' ii. 9.) This treat was not an ordinary occurrence, but given occasionally by the munificence of some individual; and consequently it was customary to announce it by an advertisement (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Album|album]]'') posted in prominent parts of the city, such as the following found at Pompeii.{{mdash}}{{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=VENATIO . ATHLETAE . SPARSIONES . VELA ERUNT}}. That is, &quot;There will be a hunt of wild beasts, an exhibition of athletic contests, a discharge of perfumed waters, and an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Velarium|awning]] over the spectators.&quot;

2. A scattering of presents to be scrambled for by the people (Stat. ''Sylv.'' i. 6. 65. Compare Suet. ''Cal.'' i. 8. ''Dom.'' 4.); same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Missilia|MISSILIA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPAR'TEA'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Solea|SOLEA]], 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPAR'UM''' or '''-US'''. A weapon, properly speaking, peculiar to the agricultural population (''agrestis sparus'', Virg. ''Aen.'' xi. 682.; ''telum rusticum'', Serv. ''ad l.''), which had a wooden shaft (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hastile|hastile]]'', Nepos, ''Epam.'' 9.), and an iron head with a curved blade attached to it (''in modum pedi recurvum'', Serv. ''l. c.''), but also ending in a sharp point, to fit it for being discharged as a missile (Nepos, ''l. c.'' Sisenn. ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 555.) It was used in hunting (Varro, ''ap.'' Non. ''l. c.''); and sometimes in warfare; but in that case it is not to be regarded as a regular weapon; only such as might be adopted by rude levies of the peasantry, or in sudden risings, where every man arms himself as he best can. (Sall. ''B. Cat.'' 59.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Sparum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 610.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Sparum/1.1}} is copied from a bas-relief in the collection at Ince-Blundell, where it is used at a hunt; and as the very peculiar form of its head agrees so characteristically with the description collected from the various incidental passages cited above, it does not appear that any doubts can be entertained respecting the name and quality of the object it was intended to represent.

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File:Sparum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 610.jpg|Sparum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPATHAL'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|σπαθάλιον}}). An ornament worn by women round the wrist (Plin. ''H. N.'' xiii. 52. Tertull. ''Cult. foem.'' 13.); which is supposed to have had small [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tintinnabulum|bells]] attached as pendants to it, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Spathalium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|example |caption=Spathalium/1.1}}, from an original discovered in a Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepulcrum|sepulchre]]; and to have received its name from the resemblance it bore to a branch of the palm-tree with its pendant capsule (''spatha'') containing the flower and fruit.

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File:Spathalium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|Spathalium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPATH'A''' ({{lang|grc|σπάθη}}). A ''batten''; a flat wooden instrument used in [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Textor|weaving]], for the purpose of driving home the threads of the woof or tram (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subtemen|subtemen]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Trama|trama]]'') so as to knit the whole closely and compactly together (Senec. ''Ep.'' 90.); probably similar to the instrument still employed for the same object in Iceland, where the manner of weaving is extremely primitive, and which is represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=figure annexed |imagelink=Media:Spatha 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|figure annexed |caption=Spatha/1.1}}.

2. A broad and flat wooden ''spatula'', employed for stirring, mashing, and mixing medicines or other ingredients. Columell. xii. 41. 3. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiv. 26. Celsus, vii. 12.

3. A large, broad, and long, two-edged sword, with a sharp acuminated point (Veg. ''Mil.'' ii. 15. Tac. ''Ann.'' xii. 35. Apul. ''Met.'' i. p. 3.); as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Spatha 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|annexed example |caption=Spatha/3.1}} from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sarcophagus|sarcophagus]] of Alexander Severus. In length it reaches from the ground to the top of the wearer's hip.

4. A wooden implement employed by [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chirurgus|surgeons]] in replacing a dislocated shoulder. Celsus, viii. 15.

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File:Spatha 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|Spatha/1.1
File:Spatha 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|Spatha/3.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPECIL'LUM''' ({{lang|grc|μήλη}}). A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chirurgus|surgeon]]'s ''probe'', for sounding wounds, and other purposes. (Cic. ''N. D.'' iii. 22. Celsus, vii. 8. Id. vi. 9.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Specillum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|example |caption=Specillum/1.1}} is from an original of iron, six inches long, which was found in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Domus|house]] of a surgeon at Pompeii.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPECULA'RIA'''. ''Window panes''; made of thin plates of talc (''lapis specularis''); a transparent substance, which the ancients employed for the above purpose, before the invention of glass, both as a closing over the aperture of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fenestra|window]] (Senec. ''Ep.'' 90. ''Ib.'' 86. ''Q. N.'' iv. 13.), and for covering conservatories, garden frames, &amp;c. Plin. ''H. N.'' xix. 23. Columell. xi. 3. 52.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPECULA'TORES'''. ''Lookers-out''; a term applied generally to any persons who acted the part of scouts or spies (Liv. xxii. 33. Sall. ''Jug.'' 114.); but specially to a small number of men attached to each Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Legio|legion]] (Tac. ''Hist.'' i. 25. Hirt. ''B. Hisp.'' 13. Inscript. ''ap.'' Grut. 520. 5. Appian. ''B. C.'' v. 132.), whose duty it was to collect information respecting the numbers and motions of the enemy, and to act as ''aides-de-camp'' to the general in transmitting his orders to the different divisions of the army. Hirt. ''B. Afr.'' 31.

2. Under the Empire, the name was given to a select body of men retained for the service of the prince's person, as a sort of detective force and body guard. (Tac. ''Hist.'' i. 24. ''Ib.'' ii. 11. Suet. ''Cal.'' 44. ''Claud.'' 35.) They were armed with a lance (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lancea|lancea]]'', Suet. ''l. c.'' id. ''Galb.'' 18.); and are frequently represented on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]] of Trajan and Antoninus in attendance upon the emperor, or keeping guard before his [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tentorium|tent]], in the manner shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example annexed |imagelink=Media:Speculatores 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 612.jpg|example annexed |caption=Speculatores/2.1}}.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPEC'ULA''' ({{lang|grc|σκοπιά, σκοπή}}). A ''watch-tower'', on which guards were regularly stationed to keep a look-out and transmit signals. (Varro, ''L. L.'' vi. 82. Liv. xxii. 19. Cic. ''Fam.'' iv. 3. Id. ''Verr.'' ii. 5. 35.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Specula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|illustration |caption=Specula/1.1}} represents a coast view, from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] of Pompeii, with five watch-towers situated upon as many eminences, very similar to those with which the Italian coasts of the Mediterranean are now furnished.

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File:Specula 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 611.jpg|Specula/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPEC'ULUM''' ({{lang|grc|ἔνοπτρον, κάτοπτρον}}). A ''mirror''; originally made of white metal, formed by the admixture of copper and tin (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 45.), but afterwards of silver (Plin. ''l. c.'' Plaut. ''Most.'' i. 3. 111.), which is less brittle; the surface being kept bright by the use of pounded pumice-stone and a sponge, usually fastened to the frame by a short string. Glass was also employed at a later period for the mirror. The annexed wood-cut represents {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=two originals |imagelink=Media:Speculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 612.jpg|two originals |caption=Speculum/1.1}} of silver, both found at Pompeii, one of a circular shape, the most usual one, with a short handle for holding it up, when used, in the manner exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=female figure |imagelink=Media:Speculum 1.2 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 612.jpg|female figure |caption=Speculum/1.2}}, from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] in the same city; the other, of an oblong square form, intended to be held by one slave before her mistress, whilst others adjusted the toilette, as is often represented on Greek vases and other works of art; but the ancient dressing-mirror was never made in a frame to stand upon the table, as a piece of furniture, like the modern ones.

2. A ''looking-glass'' (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 66.), covered at the back with tin and lead (Beckman, ''History of Inventions'', vol. ii. pp. 69{{mdash}}76.), and employed as a piece of ornamental furniture, like our ''pier-glass'', consisting of a mirror as tall as the human body (Senec. ''Q. N.'' i. 17.), sometimes permanently fixed to the wall (Ulp. ''Dig.'' 34. 2. 19. § 8.), at others arranged in such a manner that it could be drawn up and down to different levels, like a sash. Vitruv. ix. 8. 2.

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File:Speculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 612.jpg|Speculum/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPEC'US''' ({{lang|grc|σπέος}}). Literally, a cave or cavern; whence transferred to the dark, covered channel which forms the water-way in an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aquaeductus|aqueduct]] (Front. ''Aq.'' 17. 21. 91.) Vitruv. viii. 7.), as shown by the part marked {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=A}} in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Specus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 612.jpg|illustration |caption=Specus/1.1}}, representing a portion of the Alexandrine duct now existing at Rome. It was sometimes tunnelled through a hill, at others raised upon one or more tiers of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|arches]], accordingly as the level of the source, or the undulating nature of the country required; and in some cases two, and even three, of these channels were carried, one above the other, over the same file of arches.

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File:Specus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 612.jpg|Specus/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPHAERISTE'RIUM''' ({{lang|grc|σφαιριστήριον}}). An apartment for playing the game at [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pila 2|ball]], attached to the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gymnasium|Gymnasia]]'', ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thermae|Thermae]]'', and other places of public resort, as well as to the private mansions of wealthy people; and as the players at this game were usually stripped, it was frequently warmed by flues from a furnace (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hypocausis|hypocausis]]'') underneath the floor. Plin. ''Ep.'' ii. 17. 12. Id. v. 6. 27. Suet. ''Vesp.'' 20. Lamprid. ''Alex. Sev.'' 30.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPHAEROMACH'IA''' ({{lang|grc|σφαιρομαχία}}). A match at the game of ball. Senec. ''Ep.'' 80. Stat. ''Sylv.'' iv. ''Praef.''

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPI'CA TESTACEA'''. An oblong [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Later|brick]], employed by the Romans for making [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pavimentum|floorings]] (Vitruv. vii. 1. 5.); so termed because each one was arranged in such a manner as to imitate the setting of the grains in an ear of corn (''spica''), as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Spica_testacea 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 613.jpg|example |caption=Spica_testacea/1.1}}, from an ancient flooring in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thermae|Thermae]] of Titus. A pattern of this description was termed ''spicata testacea'' (Vitruv. vii. 1. 4. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 62.), which answers to our expression ''herring-boned''; for we, as well as the modern Italians, who call it ''a spina di pesce'', deduce the resemblance from the set of the bones in a fish's back.

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File:Spica_testacea 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 613.jpg|Spica testacea/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPI'CULUM''' ({{lang|grc|λόγχη}}). The barbed head of an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sagitta|arrow]] or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hasta|spear]] (Ov. ''Met.'' viii. 375. Hor. ''Od.'' i. 15. 17. Celsus, vii. 5. 2. Ammian. xxv. 1. 13.) which presents several jagged points like those in an ear of corn (''spica''), as exemplified by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Spiculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 613.jpg|annexed example |caption=Spiculum/1.1}} from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|arch]] of Constantine. Hence the Latin and Greek words are frequently used in the plural to include the point with its barbs.

2. In later times synonymous with [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pilum|PILUM]]. Veg. ''Mil.'' ii. 15.

3. ({{lang|grc|σαυρωτήρ, οὐρίαχος, στύραξ}}). The point attached to the ''butt-end'' of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lancea|lance]] or spear (Gloss. Vet. ''ap.'' Alstorp. ''de'' Hast. p. 68.), which served for fixing it upright in the ground (Virg. ''Aen.'' xii. 130.), or might be used offensively, if the regular point (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cuspis|cuspis]]'') got damaged or broken off. (Polyb. vi. 25.) We have no express authority, beyond that of the glossary cited, for this usage of the term in Latin; but the Greek names are thoroughly authentic, as well as the object itself, which is represented at large by the top figure in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Spiculum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 613.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Spiculum/3.1}}, from a fictile vase; while the lower one shows the spear complete, with its regular head on the left end, and pointed butt on the right. In early times the Roman lance had no adjunct of this kind; but they adopted it after coming in contact with the Greeks (Polyb. ''l. c.''); which may perhaps account for the circumstance of there not being any distinct term in the Latin language to designate it.

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File:Spiculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 613.jpg|Spiculum/1.1
File:Spiculum 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 613.jpg|Spiculum/3.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPI'NA'''. The ''barrier'' of a race-course (Cassiodor. ''Var. Ep.'' iii. 51. Schol. Vet. ''ad'' Juv. ''Sat.'' vi. 588.); a long low wall extending lengthwise down the centre of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]] for about two-thirds of its length, and which received the present name from the similarity of its position to the spine or dorsal bone in animals. The object of it was to determine the length of the course, and hinder the chariots from coming into collision front to front, as they had to run seven times round it at each race. The goals (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Meta|metae]]''), round which they turned, were situated at a small distance from each of its ends; and the whole length of the wall was decorated with various objects on its top; an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Obeliscus|obelisk]] in the centre, an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ara|altar]], and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]] on which the eggs (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ovum|ova curriculorum]]'') and dolphins (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Delphin|delphinorum columnae]]''), intended to announce to the spectators the number of courses ran, were put up. The whole of these objects are exhibited in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Spina 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 614.jpg|illustration |caption=Spina/1.1}} from an engraved gem, which represents an elevation of the ''spina'', with one side of the course and the racing chariots in it. The position it occupied in the general building, and relative length in regard to it, will be seen by referring to the ground-plan of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]] of Caracalla (p. 165), on which it is marked {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=B}}.

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File:Spina 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 614.jpg|Spina/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPIN'THER''' ({{lang|grc|σφιγκτήρ}}). A particular kind of ''bracelet'', worn by females on the left arm (Festus, ''s. v.''); made of gold (Plaut. ''Men.'' iii. 3. 7.), and without any clasp; but retaining its place on the arm of the wearer by the natural elasticity of its own pressure. From this peculiarity the name arose, in allusion to the action of the sphincter muscle, which naturally remains in a state of contraction. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Spinther 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 614.jpg|illustration |caption=Spinther/1.1}} is from an original of gold, which possesses all the elastic property described.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPI'RA''' ({{lang|grc|σπεῖρα}}). A circular body forming a succession of twists or coils; whence the following special applications.

1. A ''coil of ropes''. Pacuvius ''ap.'' Fest. ''s. v.''

2. An ornament worn by women, which appears to have been a sort of wreath with many pendants to it, twined and interlaced round the head, like the coils and heads of the serpents commonly represented on the edge of Minerva's ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aegis|aegis]]'', and on the head of Medusa. Plin. ''H. N.'' ix. 58. Compare Val. Flacc. vi. 396.

3. The string or tie with which the bonnet (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Galerus|galerus]]'') of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Salii|Salian]] priests was fastened under the chin, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Spira 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 614.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Spira/3.1}}, from a marble bas-relief of Roman sculpture. Juv. viii. 208.

4. A particular kind of biscuit or pastry, made in a spiral form. Cato, ''R. R.'' 77.

5. The ''base'' of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] (Festus, ''s. v.'' Vitruv. iii. 5. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 56.) which rests upon the plinth (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Plinthus|plinthus]]''), or upon a continued basement (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Podium|podium]]'') instead of a plinth. In its simplest form it consists of a single [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Torus|torus]] surmounted by an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Astragalus|astragal]], as in the Tuscan and Roman Doric orders; or of an upper and lower torus, divided by a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scotia|scotia]] and fillets (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Quadra|quadrae]]''), and with or without the astragal, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Spira 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 614.jpg|annexed example |caption=Spira/5.1}}, representing a very beautiful and simple specimen, now known as the &quot;Attic base,&quot; in which form it was applied to the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Greek Doric had no ''spira''.

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File:Spira 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 614.jpg|Spira/3.1
File:Spira 5.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 614.jpg|Spira/5.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPI'RULA'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Spira|SPIRA]], 5. (Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' ii. 217.); of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Spira|SPIRA]], 4. (Arnob. ii. 73).

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPLENIA'TUS'''. Covered with patches of sticking-plaster (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Splenium|splenium]]''). Mart. x. 22.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPLE'NIUM''' ({{lang|grc|σπλήνιον}}). An adhesive plaster, spread upon white linen or leather (Plin. ''Ep.'' vi. 22. Ov. ''A. Am.'' iii. 202.), and worn in patches upon the face to conceal any defect, sore, or scar (Mart. ii. 29. 10. Id. viii. 33.), like our ''sticking-plaster''.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPOLIA'RIUM'''. An ''undressing room'', in which the arms and clothing were stripped from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gladiatores|gladiators]] who were slain in combat (Senec. ''Ep.'' 93. Lamprid. ''Commod.'' 18. and 19. Inscript. ''ap.'' Grut. 489. 12.); whence the term is also applied generally to any place in which a person is plundered or murdered. Senec. ''Prov.'' 3.

2. An undressing room in a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Balineae|set of baths]] (Gloss. Isidor.); same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Apodyterium|APODYTERIUM]]; but this usage of the word rests upon no other authority than the one cited.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPON'DA''' ({{lang|grc|ἐνήλατον}}). Any one of the four bars in the frame of a sofa, or a bedstead (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|lectus]]''), to which the cords supporting the mattress (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Torus|torus]]'') are affixed (Pet. ''Sat.'' 97. 4. Ov. ''Met.'' viii. 656.), as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=above example |imagelink=Media:Sponda 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 615.jpg|above example |caption=Sponda/1.1}} from the device on a terra-cotta lamp. But when the bedstead or sofa was furnished with sides and a backboard (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pluteus|pluteus]]''), as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Sponda 1.2 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 615.jpg|annexed example |caption=Sponda/1.2}} from a Roman bas-relief, the open rail or front, at which the occupant got into it, was termed ''sponda'' more expressly (Mart. iii. 91. Hor. ''Epod.'' iii. 22.), and the part against the back ''sponda interior''. Isidor. ''Orig.'' xx. 11. 5. Suet. ''Caes.'' 49.

2. A couch or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capulus|bier]] upon which the dead were carried out. Mart. x. 5. 9.

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File:Sponda 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 615.jpg|Sponda/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPONDAU'LES''' ({{lang|grc|σπονδαύλης}}). A musician who played an accompaniment upon a pair of long pipes (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tibia|tibia longa]]'') (Marius Victorin. 1. 2478. Diomed. iii. 472.) to the hymns which were sung at the sacrifice during libation, as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Spondaules 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 615.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Spondaules/1.1}} from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan. The minister (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Camillus|camillus]]'') stands in front of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ara|altar]] with the incense box (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Acerra|acerra]]'', hence ''libare acerra''), the ''spondaules'' with a pair of pipes behind him, and Trajan with a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Patera|patera]]'' on the right side, the left of the group in the original composition being occupied by the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Popa|popa]]'' and the victim.

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File:Spondaules 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 615.jpg|Spondaules/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPON'SA''', '''SPON'SUS'''. A ''betrothed couple''; but not yet married. Amongst the Romans young persons were frequently betrothed to each other long before the marriage was intended to take place; and the act was performed in presence of the relatives and friends of both parties, when the marriage contract (''sponsalia'') was signed by the affianced pair, who then mutually joined hands, and pledged themselves to one another; the man putting the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Anulus|ring]] on the finger of his betrothed as a token of fidelity. The act is represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Sponsa 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 616.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Sponsa/1.1}} from a Roman bas-relief. The woman was termed ''sperata'', during courtship; ''pacta'', when the lover had made his proposals, and been accepted by the girl and her father; ''sponsa'', when they had mutually pledged their faith; and ''nupta'', when a bride. Non. ''s. v.'' p. 439.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPOR'TA'''. A round plaited basket, with a small flat bottom, and handles on the top for the purpose of suspending it from the arm, or on a pole (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Jugum|jugum]]''), when carried with its contents from place to place. It was employed for many uses (Columell. viii. 7. 1. Varro ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 177. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxi. 49.), and especially as a fishing-basket. (Mart. x. 37., and wood-cut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hamiota|HAMIOTA]].) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Sporta 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 616.jpg|example |caption=Sporta/1.1}} is from the statue of a young fisherman, in the Royal Neapolitan Museum.

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File:Sporta 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 616.jpg|Sporta/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPORTEL'LA''' ({{lang|grc|σπυρίδιον}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sporta|SPORTA]]; especially a small basket in which cakes, fruit, and eatables were handed round at table. Pet. ''Sat.'' 40. 3. Cic. ''Fam.'' ix. 20. Suet. ''Dom.'' 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPOR'TULA''' ({{lang|grc|σπυρίδιον}}). Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sporta|SPORTA]]; a small fishing-basket (Plaut. ''Stich.'' ii. 2. 16. Apul. ''Met.'' 1. p. 19.), like the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sporta|preceding example]]. It would appear that baskets of this description were also employed for handing round certain kinds of eatables at table; whence the term was adopted to signify a dole, consisting of a small basket of provisions, given by great personages to their clients and retainers, as a substantial return for the court paid to them, when they assembled at the great man's door to make their daily compliments. Latterly, as manners grew more refined and morals less so, the dole of provisions was commuted for a sum of money; whence a gift or present of any kind was also termed a ''sportula''. Juv. iii. 294. Mart. xiv. 125. Plin. ''Ep.'' ii. 14. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SPU'MA''', (sc. ''caustica'' or ''Batava''). A pommade, manufactured by the Germans and Gauls, from goat's tallow and beech-wood ashes, and employed for the purpose of giving a light brown tinge to the hair. Mart. xiv. 26. Id. viii. 33. 20. Also termed [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sapo|SAPO]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SQUA'MA''' ({{lang|grc|λεπὶς, φολίς}}). See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lorica|LORICA]], 3. and 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STABULA'RIUS'''. A ''livery-stable keeper'', who keeps a set of stables, and takes in horses to bait. Ulp. ''Dig.'' 4. 9. 1. Caius, ''ib.''

2. An ''inn-keeper'', or master of a ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stabulum|stabulum]]'', which afforded accommodation for &quot;man and beast.&quot; Senec. ''Ben.'' i. 14. Apul. ''Met.'' i. p. 13.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STAB'ULUM''' ({{lang|grc|σταθμός}}). In a general sense, any ''standing-place'' (from ''stare'') which serves as an abode or shelter for man or beast; as a stable for horses (Virg. ''Georg.'' iii. 184. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Equile|EQUILE]]); a pen or fold for sheep and goats (''Ib.'' iii. 295. ''Aen.'' x. 723.); a shed or stall for oxen (Columell. vi. 23. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Bubile|BUBILE]]); an aviary for poultry and domestic birds (Columell. viii. 1. 3. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ornithon|ORNITHON]]. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chors|CHORS]]); a shed for bee-hives (Id. ix. 6. 4. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Apiarium|APIARIUM]]); a stock pond for fish (Id. viii. 17. 7. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Piscina|PISCINA]].)

2. ({{lang|grc|πανδοκεῖον}}). An ''inn'' or ''public-house'', for the temporary accommodation of travellers. (Pet. ''Sat.'' vi. 8. Id. xvi. 4, Plin. ''Ep.'' vi. 19. 4.) A distinction between the ''stabulum'' and ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Caupona|caupona]]'' is drawn in the Pandects (Ulp. ''Dig.'' 4. 9. 1.), though without any particulars to explain the difference. But to judge from the general meanings of the two words, and the particular applications given to them, we may conjecture that the latter was only intended for the reception of lodgers who travelled on foot, the former for the accommodation of man and beast. Such a distinction would be perfectly consonant with our own customs, since the keepers of many public houses at this day do not take horses in to bait; but amongst the Romans it would be the more necessary, as the great majority of travellers journeyed on foot, and those who were wealthy enough to use horses and carriages, generally took advantage of private hospitality, instead of resorting to an inn. A ''stabulum'', thus understood, would then be an establishment of much less common occurrence than the ''caupona'', and probably always opened on the roadside, or near the entrance of a town, at which persons coming from the country could put up their horses and carriages, without driving them through the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|streets]]; whereas the ''caupona'' was mostly in the heart of the city. This notion is further confirmed by the discovery of an inn for man and beast, just outside the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Porta|gates]] of Pompeii, on the road to Herculaneum, having a very large range of stables attached to it, in which the skeleton of an ass was found, as well as several bits, wheels, and other pieces of harness.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STADIOD'ROMUS''' ({{lang|grc|σταδιοδρόμος}}). One who runs a race in the Greek [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stadium|stadium]]. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxviii. 19. § 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STAD'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|στάδιον}}). A race-course for ''foot-racing'', so named because the famous race-course at Olympia measured exactly one stade ({{lang|grc|στάδιον}}), which contained 600 Greek feet, equal to 606¾ English, and about one-eighth of a Roman mile. A course of this description usually formed one of the principal appendages to the Greek ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gymnasium|gymnasia]]'' and Roman ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thermae|thermae]]'', and in these other athletic contests, as well as foot-races, were exhibited; but separate and isolated structures were also laid out for the same purpose. In its general plan the stadium approximated very closely the Greek [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Hippodromus|hippodrome]] and the Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]], without the barrier (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Spina|spina]]'') and stalls (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Carcer|carceres]]''), forming a narrow oblong area, terminated in a semicircle at one end, and by a straight line at the other, the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sedes|seats]] for the spectators being sometimes excavated on the slope of a hill, sometimes formed upon an artificial embankment of earth, or raised upon [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|arches]] of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Structura|masonry]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Latericius|brickwork]] like the Roman circus. The names appropriated to the several parts were the same as those employed for the hippodrome; with the exception of the circular end, which had a special term of its own, being called the {{lang|grc|σφενδόνη}} (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Funda|funda]]''), either from its elliptical figure, or its resemblance to a sling, or to the bezel of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Anulus|ring]]; but this was not used in the foot-race, for the 600 feet comprised in the length of the ''stadium'' extended only as far as the straight sides of the enclosure, from {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=A}}, the starting place ({{lang|grc|ἄφεσις}}), to the two angular projections of masonry which terminate the {{lang|grc|σφενδόνη}}, marked {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=B}}. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Stadium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 617.jpg|illustration |caption=Stadium/1.1}} represents the ground plan of a stadium at Cibyra (now ''Buraz'') in Lycia, still in considerable preservation; to which nothing is added but the two projecting walls, near the circular extremity on the inside, for the purpose of showing the {{lang|grc|σφενδόνη}}, and these are copied from existing remains in the stadium at Ephesus. It stands on a hill side, from which a certain portion is cut away to form a long flat terrace, having its outer edge bounded by a walled embankment represented by the double lines on the top of the plan, and sufficiently deep to carry several rows of seats arranged along it; the opposite side, and the circular end is excavated out of the slope of the hill, which is cut into twenty-one rows of seats, rising like steps one above the other, and subdivided by [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalae|staircases]], in the same manner as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cavea|cavea]]'' of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatre]] or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Amphitheatrum|amphitheatre]].

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File:Stadium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 617.jpg|Stadium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STALAG'MIUM'''. An [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inauris|ear-ring]], furnished with one or more drops of gold, pearls, beads, or precious stones, which depend from it and imitate the shape of a drop of water ({{lang|grc|στάλαγμα}}), which is the meaning of the Greek word after which the Latin one is formed. (Festus ''s. v.'' Plaut. ''Men.'' iii. 3. 18.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed illustration |imagelink=Media:Stalagmium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 618.jpg|annexed illustration |caption=Stalagmium/1.1}} affords an example, from an original in the British Museum.

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File:Stalagmium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 618.jpg|Stalagmium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STA'MEN''' ({{lang|grc|στήμων}}). A ''spun'' thread (Ov. ''Her.'' iii. 76.); consisting of several fibres drawn down from the top of the distaff (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Colus|colus]]''; ''deducere stamina colo.'' Tibull. i. 3. 86.), and twisted together by the thumb (''stamina pollice torque.'' Ov. ''Met.'' xii. 475.) and the rotary motion of the spindle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Fusus|fusus]]''), as it hung in a perpendicular line from the distaff, the upright position suggesting the name. All these particulars are distinctly illustrated by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Stamen 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 618.jpg|wood-cut |caption=Stamen/1.1}}, representing a female spinning, from a Roman bas-relief.

2. The warp or warp threads in an upright [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tela|loom]], at which the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Textor|weaver]] stood instead of sitting. (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 113. Ov. ''Met.'' vi. 54, 55. 58. Senec. ''Ep.'' 90.) They were extended in a perpendicular direction from the warp-beam (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Insubulum|insubulum]]''), or from the yoke of the loom (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Jugum|jugum]]''), as exhibited in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Stamen 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 618.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Stamen/2.1}}, representing Circe's loom in the Vatican Virgil; and formed the groundwork into which the threads of the woof (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subtemen|subtemen]]'') were inserted; whence the term is also given to any thing made of thread, as a garment (Claud. ''in Eutrop.'' i. 304.); or a fillet round the head. Prop. iv. 9. 52.

3. The strings of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lyra|lyre]] (Ov. ''Met.'' xi. 169.); so named from the resemblance which they bore to the warp-threads of an upright loom, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Stamen 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 618.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Stamen/3.1}} from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] in the Nasonian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sepulcrum|sepulchre]] near Rome.

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File:Stamen 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 618.jpg|Stamen/1.1
File:Stamen 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 618.jpg|Stamen/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STAPES''' or '''STAPIA'''. A word found in some inscriptions, evidently not of an early character, in which it signifies a ''stirrup''. It appears to be formed from the German ''staff'', a step; and though inserted in the Latin dictionaries is to be considered as a word of modern invention, for which there is not the slightest ancient authority. Compare [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalae|SCALA]] 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STATE'RA'''. A ''steel-yard''; an instrument of much later invention than the balance (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Libra|libra]]''). It consisted of the yard (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scapus|scapus]]'') divided into fractional parts by points (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Punctum|puncta]]''), and suspended from above by a hook or chain, called the handle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ansa|ansa]]''). The short end of the yard was furnished with a hook, to which the objects to be weighed were fixed, and sometimes with a scale (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lancula|lancula]]'') for holding them; the longest end, on the other side of the centre of revolution, with a sliding weight (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aequipondium|aequipondium]]''). Vitruv. x. 3. 4. The whole of these particulars mentioned by Vitruvius are exhibited in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figures |imagelink=Media:Statera 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 619.jpg|annexed figures |caption=Statera/1.1}}, both from originals discovered at Pompeii.

2. Sometimes used without discrimination for ''libra'', a ''balance''. Pet. ''Sat.'' 35. 4. Suet. ''Vesp.'' 25.

3. A ''curricle bar'' or yoke, placed across the withers of a pair of horses, and to which the pole (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Temo|temo]]'') was attached, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Statera 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 619.jpg|annexed example |caption=Statera/3.1}} from a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] at Pompeii. Stat. ''Sylv.'' iv. 3. 35.

4. A kind of dish, probably of a flat circular form, like the scale appended to the steel-yard in the first example. Corn. Nepos. ''ap.'' Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxiii. 52.

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File:Statera 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 619.jpg|Statera/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STATO'RES'''. Officials or public servants who attended upon Roman [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Magistratus|magistrates]] in the provinces, and more especially employed for carrying letters, messages, dispatches, &amp;c. (Cic. ''Fam.'' ii. 17. ''ib.'' 19. x. 21.) Their office was abolished by Septimius Severus, and the duties discharged by them transferred to the military. Lamprid. ''Alex. Sev.'' 52. Ulp. ''Dig.'' 1. 16. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STEG'A''' ({{lang|grc|στέγη}}). A word merely transferred from the Greek, signifying the ''deck'' of a ship (Plaut. ''Bacch.'' ii. 3. 44. Id. ''Stich.'' iii. 1. 12.); for which the Romans use the expression [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Constratum|CONSTRATUM NAVIS]], under which an illustration is given.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STE'LE''' ({{lang|grc|στήλη}}). A word merely transferred from the Greek (Plin. ''H. N.'' vi. 32.); for which the genuine Latin term is [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cippus|CIPPUS]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STEMMA''' ({{lang|grc|στέμμα}}). Properly speaking a Greek word, in which language it signified a garland or wreath bound round with fillets of wool and worn as a chaplet on the head, or employed as a decoration for other objects, as well as the person ([[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Corona|CORONA]]. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Infula|INFULA]]). But the Romans adopted the term in a more special sense to designate a long scroll decorated with garlands, and having a list of the family names emblazoned on it, which it was customary to hang upon the ancestral busts, as they stood in their cases (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aedicula|aediculae]]'') round the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Atrium|atrium]] (Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxv. 2. Senec. ''Ben.'' iii. 28.); whence the word came also to signify a ''genealogical tree'', pedigree, or lineal ''stem''. Suet. ''Galb.'' 2. ''Nero'', 37. Mart. v. 35.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STEREOB'ATA'''. (Vitruv. iv. 3. 1.) Same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stylobata|STYLOBATA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STIBAD'IUM'''. A circular dining couch, adapted to a round table (Plin. ''Ep.'' v. 6. 36. Mart. xiv. 87. Sidon. ''Ep.'' i. 11. Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' i. 698.); otherwise called [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Sigma|SIGMA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STIGMAT'IAS''' ({{lang|grc|στιγματίας}}). A slave marked with the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stigma|stigma]]''. Cic. ''Off.'' ii. 7.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STIG'MA''' ({{lang|grc|στίγμα}}). Literally, a mark made by puncture; whence, a brand, or mark ''pricked'' into (''scriptum'' and ''inscriptum'', Quint. vii. 4. 14. Sen. ''Ben.'' iv. 47.), or ''stamped'' upon (''impressum'', Pet. ''Sat.'' 105. 11.), the ''forehead'' of a slave (Id. 103. 2. and 4.), convicted of thieving, running away, &amp;c. A single letter, such as {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=F}}, for ''fur'', might in some cases be deemed sufficient for the purpose; but the last passage cited from Petronius expressly mentions an entire word, if not a sentence, in large letters covering the face.

2. A mark pricked into the arm of conscripts (Veg. ''Mil.'' i. 8. Id. ii. 5.) after they had been approved as capable of military duty, in order that they might be called out when required; and likewise upon labourers employed in the state factories to prevent them from deserting their employments, and accepting work from other masters. (Impp. Arcad. et Honor. ''Cod.'' 11. 9. 3.) The same was sometimes pricked on the hand. Imp. Zeno ''Cod.'' 42. 10.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STIGMO'SUS''' (Pet. ''Sat.'' 109. 8.) Same as the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stigmatias|preceding]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STIL'US''' or '''STYL'US''' ({{lang|grc|γραφίς}}). An {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=instrument |imagelink=Media:Stilus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 620.jpg|instrument |caption=Stilus/1.1}} made of iron or bone (Isidor. ''Orig.'' vi. 9.), pointed at one end, but having a broad flat blade at the other (Sympos. ''Aenigm.'' 1.), and employed for writing upon [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cera|tablets]] covered with a thin coat of wax (Plaut. ''Bacch.'' iv. 3. 79. and 91.). The point served for tracing the letters, and the flat end for making corrections by smoothing over the surface of the wax so as to obliterate the writing, whence the expression ''vertere stilum'' (Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 10. 72.) means to erase or correct the composition. Scholars generally trace the word to the Greek one, {{lang|grc|στῦλος}}, a ''pillar''; but as the best Latin authorities spell it with an ''i'' instead of ''y'', and the Latin penult is short, while the Greek one is long, it is more probable that it comes from {{lang|grc|στέλεχος}}, a ''stalk'', which is also one of the meanings of the Latin ''stilus'' (Columell. xi. 3. 46. v. 10. 2.).

2. ''Stilus caecus''; the spike of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Murex|caltrop]], which was placed upon the ground, so that it would be concealed by herbage, while it effectually disabled cavalry from advancing. (Hirt. ''B. Afr.'' 31. Sil. Ital. x. 414.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Stilus 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 620.jpg|example |caption=Stilus/2.1}} is from an original.

3. The pin or index of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Solarium|sundial]] (Mart. Capell. vi. 194.); otherwise called [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gnomon|GNOMON]], under which an example is given.

4. A bronze needle, or sharp-pointed rod, employed for destroying maggots and insects in fruit trees. Pallad. iv. 10. 20.

5. A wooden probe employed in the kitchen garden for inoculating the seed of one plant into the pithy stalk of a different species. Columell. xi. 3. 53.

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File:Stilus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 620.jpg|Stilus/1.1
File:Stilus 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 620.jpg|Stilus/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STIM'ULUS''' ({{lang|grc|κέντρον}}). A ''goad'' or stick with an iron prick at the end, employed for driving animals, oxen, horses, mules, and slaves. (Tibull. i. 1. 10. Columell. ii. 2. 26. Sil. Ital. vii. 702. Plaut. ''Most.'' i. 1. 54.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Stimulus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 620.jpg|example |caption=Stimulus/1.1}} is from a terra-cotta at Veletri, after Ginzrot.

2. ''Stimulus cuspidatus rallo.'' A goad with a spud (''rallum'') affixed to one end, which was employed by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arator|ploughman]] in cleansing the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Vomer|ploughshare]], as the point was for driving his oxen. Plin. ''H. N.'' xviii. 49. § 2. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Stimulus 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 621.jpg|example |caption=Stimulus/2.1}} is from an Etruscan bronze.

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File:Stimulus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 620.jpg|Stimulus/1.1
File:Stimulus 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 621.jpg|Stimulus/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STI'PES''' ({{lang|grc|στύπος}}). A round stake fixed in the ground (Festus ''s. v.''); as a land mark (Ov. ''Fast.'' ii. 642.); as a stay for tethering other things to (Id. iv. 331. Suet. ''Nero'', 29.), or for supporting them, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Stipes 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 621.jpg|annexed example |caption=Stipes/1.1}} from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]] of Trajan, which represents the manner in which the soldiery piled their [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Galea|helmets]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scutum|shields]] when engaged upon field works, making fortifications, &amp;c.

2. A stake set up for practising recruits at their exercises (Mart. vii. 32.); same as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Palus|PALUS]].

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File:Stipes 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 621.jpg|Stipes/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STI'VA''' ({{lang|grc|ἐχέτλη}}). The ''plough-staff'', or handle of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aratrum|plough]]; consisting, in its simplest form, of a single upright branch (Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 135.), forming part of the same piece as the plough tail (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Bura|buris]]''), which the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arator|ploughman]] held in his left hand to guide the machine, or pressed down to make the share penetrate the ground, in the manner shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Stiva 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 621.jpg|annexed example |caption=Stiva/1.1}}, from a Roman bas-relief; which also graphically illustrates such expressions as ''stivae paene rectus innititur'' (Columell. i. 9. 3.); ''stivae innixus'' (Ov. ''Met.'' viii. 218.); ''stivam premens'' (Id. ''Fast.'' iv. 826.). Other plough-staffs, upon a more improved plan, are exhibited under the words [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aratrum|ARATRUM]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Bura|BURA]].

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File:Stiva 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 621.jpg|Stiva/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STLA'TA'''. A particular kind of sea-going vessel (Aul. Gell. x. 25. Auson. ''Ep.'' xxii. 31.), constructed with an unusual breadth of beam, and lying low upon the water (Festus ''s. v.''); characteristics which are not sufficiently apparent on any ancient monuments to afford a trustworthy example.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STOLA'TA'''. Wearing the robe of a Roman matron (Pet. ''Sat.'' 44. 18.), as described and illustrated ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stola|STOLA]] 1.; particularly as indicative of a chaste and virtuous female (whence ''pudor stolatus.'' Mart. i. 36.), because women of abandoned character, or who had been divorced on the ground of adultery, were not permitted to wear that article of attire.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STOL'A'''. A female robe, which constituted the characteristic feature in the attire of a Roman matron, as the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Toga|toga]]'' did in that of the male sex (Pet. ''Sat.'' 81. 5. Compare Cic. ''Phil.'' ii. 18. though in the latter passage the reading has been controverted). It was a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tunica|tunic]] made very full, and sometimes with long sleeves; at others with short ones, fastened down the fleshy part of the arm with clasps, but put on as an ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Indumentum|indumentum]]'' (Senec. ''Vit. B.'' 13.) over the chemise (''tunica intima''), and fastened with a double girdle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Succinctus|succincta]]'', Enn. ''ap.'' Non. p. 198.), one under the breast, and the other over the hips, so as to produce an ample display of small irregular folds (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ruga|rugae]]'', Mart. iii. 93.) when compressed by and drawn through its ligatures. Thus far the ''stola'' does not materially differ from the outer tunic usually worn by the Roman ladies. But what constituted its distinguishing feature was an appendage termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Instita|instita]]'', sewed on under the girdle (''subsuta'', Hor. ''Sat.'' i. 2. 29.), and trailing ''behind'', so as to cover the back half of the feet (''medios pedes.'' Ov. ''A. Am.'' i. 32.), from the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Astragalus|astragals]] or ankle bones (''talos'', Hor. ''l. c. Ib.'' i. 2. 99.), which it is now confidently suggested is exhibited by the long train (''instita longa'', Ov. ''l. c.'') so distinctly visible behind the lower half of the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Stola 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 621.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Stola/1.1}}, believed to represent Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, from a fresco [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pictura|painting]] in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thermae|Thermae]] of Titus. It is to be observed that neither lexicographers nor archaeologists have been able to specify with certainty what the ''instita'' really was, though general assent is found to describe it as a sort of ''flounce'' sewed ''round the bottom of'' a tunic in order to constitute a ''stola''; which opinion was adopted, doubtfully however and undecidedly, in the explanation given under [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Instita|that word]]. But a subsequent examination of the engraving, from which the figure here introduced is copied, and which had previously escaped attention; as well as the very peculiar character of the train attached behind, which in the original design is still more forcibly shown to be a seperate adjunct fastened under the lowest girdle, and not a component part of the tunic; and an attentive consideration of the passages above cited from Horace and Ovid, manifestly resolving that the ''instita'' was not an addition ''all round'' the bottom of the dress, but one which hung behind and concealed only the heels or half the feet, exactly as shown by the example, altogether produce a chain of evidence so clear, circumstantial, and harmoniously supported, that it is difficult not to be impressed with its truth. Moreover the image presented by a passage of Statius (''Theb.'' vii. 654.), which describes an ''instita'' as being tied for an ornament under the head of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Thyrsus|thyrsus]]{{mdash}}''pampineo subnectitur instita'', &amp;c.{{mdash}}agrees far better with the notion of a long breadth or scarf, like the one above, than that of a circular flounce, as will be readily acknowledged upon a reference to the article and illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Mitra|MITRA]]. 1., for which term the one employed by Statius is merely adopted as a poetical expression.

2. ({{lang|grc|στολὴ}}). The Greeks made use of the term in a more general sense, applying it to any kind of robe worn by men as well as women; and in this they were followed by the elder Latin writers. Ennius ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 537.

3. A long and loose flowing tunic worn by musicians (Varro, ''R. R.'' iii. 13. 3.), and possessing considerable resemblance to the female robe described above, for it was of considerable length, and made much wider at bottom than at the top, so that it would trail on the ground behind, as if there were an ''instita'' attached to it. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Stola 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 622.jpg|illustration |caption=Stola/3.1}}, from a statue of Apollo in the Vatican, will establish the above-mentioned affinity, and thus account for the name; though it was more commonly termed ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Palla|palla]] [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cithara|citharoedica]]''.

4. At a later period, a robe worn by certain priests (Apul. ''Met.'' xi. p. 257.); probably of a similar character to the last example.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Stola 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 621.jpg|Stola/1.1
File:Stola 3.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 622.jpg|Stola/3.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STOR'EA''' and '''STO'RIA'''. A covering or a mat, made of rushes or string. Caes. ''B. C.'' ii. 9. Liv. xxx. 3. Plin. ''H. N.'' xv. 18. § 1.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRA'GULUM''' ({{lang|grc|στρῶμα}}). A general term for any thing which is spread out or over something else, to make an under coverlet for lying upon; more particularly applied to the articles used for laying over the mattress of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectus|sleeping bed]] (Cic. ''Tusc.'' v. 21. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 167. Senec. ''Ep.'' 87.); or a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Capulus|bier]] upon which the corpse is laid out (Pet. ''Sat.'' 42. 6. Id. 78. 1.); in all which passages the term is used to distinguish the under sheet or blanket upon which the body reposes, as contradistinct from the upper one, or coverlet (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Operimentum|operimentum]]'', ''opertorium''), thrown over it.

2. ({{lang|grc|ἐπίβλημα}}). A ''caparison'' for riding horses (Mart. xiv. 86.); placed under the padsaddle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ephippium|ephippium]]''), or used instead of it, and consisting of the furred skin of some wild beast, such as the lion or tiger (Virg. ''Aen.'' viii. 553. Sil. ''Ital.'' v. 148.), of sufficient size to cover nearly the whole body of the animal (Virg. ''l. c.''), like the sheep skins of our heavy cavalry, and the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Stragulum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 623.jpg|example |caption=Stragulum/2.1}} above from a Greek coin; or, without the fur, and then made of leather covered over with scale armour (Virg. ''Aen.'' xi. 770.), like the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=present example |imagelink=Media:Stragulum 2.2 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 623.jpg|present example |caption=Stragulum/2.2}} from the Theodosian [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]], which exactly resembles in its outlines the caparisons now used in our light cavalry regiments.

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File:Stragulum 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 623.jpg|Stragulum/2.1
File:Stragulum 2.2 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 623.jpg|Stragulum/2.2
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRA'TOR''' ({{lang|grc|ἀναβολεύς}}). A soldier who acted as military groom, or equerry to the emperor, and to a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Consul|consul]] or ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Praetor|praetor]]'' in the Roman armies (Ulp. ''Dig.'' i. 16. 4.); it being his duty to purchase cavalry horses for the service of the commander (Ammian. xxix. 3. 5.), as well as to [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ephippium|saddle]] them, lead them out, and assist the officer in mounting (Id. xxx. 5. 19. Spart. ''Caracall.'' 7.), as [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalae|stirrups]] were not brought into use until a very late period. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Strator 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 623.jpg|illustration |caption=Strator/1.1}} represents an equerry of this description, holding the emperor's horse, from the column of Trajan. He wears the military cloak, ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Paludamentum|paludamentum]]'', thus indicating that his rank was considerable. Other examples are frequently represented on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|triumphal arches]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]], both with and without the said cloak, though always in military costume; but civilians of rank and fortune also kept servants who performed the same duties, and went by the same description.

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File:Strator 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 623.jpg|Strator/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRE'NA'''. A present which the Romans were accustomed to send to one another on a festal day, or clients to their patrons, and citizens to the emperor; more particularly on the calends of January, as a ''new year's gift''. Festus, ''s. v.'' Suet. ''Aug.'' 57. Id. ''Cal.'' 42.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRIATU'RA''' ({{lang|grc|βάβδωσις}}). The ''fluting'' of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]]. (Vitruv. iv. 3. 9.) [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stria|STRIA]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRIA'TUS''' ({{lang|grc|ῥαβδωτός}}). ''Fluted'', like a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]]. Vitruv. vii. 5. 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRIA''' ({{lang|grc|ῥάβδος, ξυστρίς}}). The ''flute'' of a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]], including the list or fillet between two channels, as well as the channel itself. Vitruv. iii. 5. 14. Id. iv. 4. 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRIGILE'CULA''' ({{lang|grc|στλεγγίδιον}}). (Apul. ''Flor.'' ii. 9. 2.) Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Strigilis|STRIGILIS]].{TR: Lemma added for use in Wiki-Version.}

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRIG'ILIS''' ({{lang|grc|στλεγγίς, ξυστρίς}}). A ''strigil'' or ''scraper'', employed in Greece and Italy for scraping off the moisture and impurities thrown out upon the surface of the skin by the heat of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Laconicum|vapour bath]], or the violent exercise of the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Palaestra|palaestra]]. (Cic. ''Fin.'' iv. 12. Suet. ''Aug.'' 80. Pers. v. 126.) It was made of iron or bronze, with a handle, into which the hand could be inserted (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Clausula|clausula]]''), and a curved blade (Mart. xiv. 51.) hollowed into a channel (''tubulatio''), down which the moisture and perspiration would flow as in a gutter (Apul. ''Flor.'' ii. 9. 2.) When used, the edge was lubricated with a few drops of oil, to prevent abrasion of the skin. The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Strigilis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 624.jpg|example |caption=Strigilis/1.1}}, which possesses all the properties enumerated, is copied from an original of bronze, discovered at Pompeii, together with three others, upon a ring, which also held an oil flask (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ampulla|ampulla]]''), and a shallow pan with a handle (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scaphium|scaphium]]''); the whole as mentioned by Plautus (''Pers.'' i. 3. 44.). The method of using it is shown by the woodcut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Aliptes|ALIPTES]].

2. ({{lang|grc|ὠτεγχύτης}}). A [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chirurgus|surgical]] instrument for introducing lotions into the ear (Celsus. vi. 7. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxv. 103.); which may be readily imagined to have received the name from being formed with a hollow channel down its length, like that of the scraper above described.

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File:Strigilis 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 624.jpg|Strigilis/1.1
&lt;/gallery&gt;

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRO'MA''' ({{lang|grc|στρῶμα}}). (Capitol. ''Ver.'' 4.) A Greek word, corresponding with the Latin [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stragulum|STRAGULUM]]; which see.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STROPHIA'RIUS'''. One who makes and sells ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Strophium|strophia]]''. Plaut. ''Aul.'' 111. 5. 42.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STROPH'IOLUM'''. Diminutive of [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Strophium|STROPHIUM]]. A small chaplet or twisted band for the head. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxi. 2. Tertull. ''Cor. Mil.'' 15.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STROPH'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|στρόφιον}}). A sash, or rather scarf (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Mitra|mitra]]''), twisted or rolled up into a long, round, and even form (''tereti strophio'', Catull. lxiv. 65. {{lang|grc|στρογγύλη ζώνη.}} Hesych.), and fastened round the bust close under the breast, to serve as a support to the bosom for young women who had attained their full development. (Cic. ''Fragm.'' ''ap.'' Non. ''s. v.'' p. 538. Catull. ''l. c.''). It was not flat, nor was it worn next to the skin, like the bosom band (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Mamillare|mamillare]]''), but over a little [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tunica|tunic]] or chemise (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tunicula|tunicula]]''), as is clear from a passage of Turpilius (''ap.'' Non. ''l. c.''), in which a girl is introduced lamenting the loss of a letter that she had deposited ''between'' her chemise and ''strophium'' {{mdash}} ''inter vias epistola cecidit mihi, Infelix, inter tuniculam et strophium quam collocaveram'' {{mdash}} and precisely as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed figure |imagelink=Media:Strophium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 624.jpg|annexed figure |caption=Strophium/1.1}}, from a statue believed to represent a young Doric female, dressed for the foot-race (compare Pausan. v. 16. 2., who there describes a costume of exactly the same character as the one her shown). A similar appendage is frequently met with on statues and other representations of Diana, the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Venatrix|huntress]], which is unaccountably mistaken for the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Chlamys|chlamys]]''. We may also infer from these peculiar instances, that it was not intended as a contrivance for compressing the form artificially, nor worn by all females, but only by those whose figures, or active habits of life, rendered such an assistance necessary.

2. A wreath worn round the head, Virg. ''Cop.'' 31., where it is made of roses: see the wood-cuts ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Corona|CORONA]], 10. and 11.

3. The cable of an [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ancora|anchor]]. Apul. ''Met.'' xi. p. 250. [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ancorale|ANCORALE]], and wood-cut ''s. v.''

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File:Strophium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 624.jpg|Strophium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRUC'TOR''' ({{lang|grc|τραπεζοποιός}}). A slave whose duty it was to arrange the several dishes of each course upon the trays (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Ferculum|fercula]]'', Serv. ''ad'' Virg. ''Aen.'' i. 704.), and place them in proper order in the dinner-basket (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Repositorium|repositorium]]'', Pet. ''Sat.'' 35. 2.); sometimes also to take upon himself the office of carver (Mart. x. 48. Juv. v. 120.), and to set out in a tasty manner, or construct in artificial devices, the fruits and delicacies of the dessert. Lamprid. ''Elag.'' 27.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRUCTU'RA'''. Generally, the putting together of things in regular order; whence the term is specially applied to designate ''masonry'', or the constructive arrangement of stones in a wall. (Vitruv. ii. 8. Plin. ''H. N.'' xxxvi. 51.) Six different styles are enumerated in the practice of the Roman and Greek architects, each presenting a distinct pattern to the eye, as exhibited in contrast by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed engraving |imagelink=Media:Structura 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 625.jpg|annexed engraving |caption=Structura/1.1}}; viz. 1. ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Reticulatus|reticulata]]'', reticulated, which has a chequered pattern like the meshes of a net, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=A.}} 2. ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Caementicius|caementicia]] antiqua'' or ''incerta'', irregular masonry of stones, not squared nor cut into any certain form, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=B.}} 3. ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Isodomos|isodomum]]'', ashlar, of large stones, and in which all the courses are of the same height, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=C}}; 4. ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pseudisodomum|pseudisodomum]]'', also ashlar, and of large stones, but in which the courses are of different relative heights, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=D.}} 5. ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Emplecton|emplecton]]'', in which both the outside surfaces of the wall are formed of ashlar, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=E}}, bound together by girders, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=F}}, and the central part filled in with rubble, {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Inscription|text=G.}} 6. ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Diamicton|diamicton]]'', which is the same as the last, without the girders.

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File:Structura 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 625.jpg|Structura/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STRUPPUS''' ({{lang|grc|τροπός, τροπωτήρ}}). A twisted thong of leather, or cord, by which the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Remus|oar]] is fastened to its thowl (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Scalmus|scalmus]]''). (Vitruv. x. 3. 6. Liv. ''ap.'' Isidor. ''Orig.'' xix. 4. 9.) The contrivance is explained by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed wood-cut |imagelink=Media:Struppus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 625.jpg|annexed wood-cut |caption=Struppus/1.1}}, which exhibits the manner of fastening the oars in the Mediterranean galleys of the 16h century.

2. The thong of a palanquin (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lectica|lectica]]''), (Gracchus, ''ap.'' Gell. x. 3. 2.); by which the conveyance was attached to its carrying-pole (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Asser|asser]]''), as an oar is to its thowl. it was fastened down (''deligatus'') to the shafts (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Amites|amites]]''), like the back-band of a cart, and the carrying-pole passed through it; which raised and supported the carriage by resting on the shoulders of the bearers, in the manner represented by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed engraving |imagelink=Media:Struppus 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 625.jpg|annexed engraving |caption=Struppus/2.1}}, which exhibits the mode of transporting a palanquin in China. Although the illustration is not from a genuine Greek or Roman model, little doubt will be felt that the contrivance employed by those nations was the same, if reference be made to the wood-cut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Phalangarii|PHALANGARII]], which exhibits the same object applied in a very similar manner to the transport of a butt of wine.

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File:Struppus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 625.jpg|Struppus/1.1
File:Struppus 2.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 625.jpg|Struppus/2.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STYLOB'ATA''' or '''-ATES''' ({{lang|grc|στυλοβάτης}}). A ''stylobate'' or ''pedestal''; upon which a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|column]], or row of columns, is raised, in order to lengthen or give an extra elevation to them. (Vitruv. iv. 3. 3. and 5. Varro, ''R. R.'' iii. 5. 11.) A separate stylobate is sometimes placed under each column, as in the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Stylobata 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 626.jpg|annexed example |caption=Stylobata/1.1}}, representing the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|arch]] of Septimius Severus; at others a long continuous one is constructed, upon which the whole range rests; as in the illustration ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pronaus|PRONAOS]].

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File:Stylobata 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 626.jpg|Stylobata/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''STYLUS'''. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Stilus|STILUS]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUA'RIUS''' ({{lang|grc|ὑοβοσκός}}). A ''swine-herd'' (Plin. ''H. N.'' iii. 77.); a ''pig-dealer'' (Id. xxi. 7. Inscript. ''ap.'' Orelli. 2672.).

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUAVIL'LUM''' or '''SAVIL'LUM'''. A sort of sweet cake, made with flour, eggs, cheese, and honey. Cato, ''R. R.'' 84.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBARMA'LE'''. An article of clothing, the precise nature of which is not satisfactorily ascertained. Some suppose it to be so termed from passing under one shoulders (''armus''), like an ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Exomis|exomis]]'' (see the wood-cut ''s. v.''); others from being worn under the body armour (''arma''), like the equestrian statue of N. Balbus (see the wood-cut ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lorica|LORICA]], 2.), and many of the soldiers on the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arcus|triumphal arches]] and [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Columna|columns]]. Mart. Capell. v. 136. Spart. ''Sev.'' 6. Vopisc. ''Aurel.'' 13.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBCENTU'RIO'''. An adjunct to the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Centurio|centurion]], by whom he was selected to watch over and protect his superior in the dangers of the field. Liv. viii. 8.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBGRUNDA'RIUM'''. A place where infants who died before they had cut their teeth were deposited; for it was not customary to burn them at that tender age. (Fulgent. ''s. v.'' p. 560. Compare Plin. ''H. N.'' vii. 15. Juv. xv. 139.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=illustration |imagelink=Media:Subgrundarium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 626.jpg|illustration |caption=Subgrundarium/1.1}} is from a work on the antiquities of Cadiz, by Jo. Bapt. Suarez, which also accounts for the peculiarity of the term, by showing that the deposits were arranged, like swallows' nests, under a projecting roof or eaves (''sub-grunda'').

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File:Subgrundarium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 626.jpg|Subgrundarium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBJUG'IUM''' ({{lang|grc|μέσαβον}}). the ''under-yoke''; a wooden frame fastened underneath the yoke (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Jugum|jugum]]''), at each of its extremities, by a bolt, or a leathern thong (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Lorum|lorum]] subjugium'', Cato, ''R. R.'' lxiii. Id. cxxxv. 5.), which rested upon the animal's neck, and encircled it like a collar, as exhibited by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Subjugium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 626.jpg|annexed example |caption=Subjugium/1.1}}, from an ancient MS. of Hesiod. (Vitruv. x. 3. 8. Hesiod. ''Op.'' 469. Callim. Gram. ''ap.'' Procl. ''ad l.'' {{lang|grc|μέσσαβα βοῦς ὑποδύς.}}) When the yoke itself was formed with two curvatures at its extremities, as was frequently the case (see the example ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Jugum|JUGUM]]), there would be no necessity for these additional collars; but their object was to enable the carter, or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Arator|ploughman]], to distribute the work between two animals of unequal powers in a proportion suitable to the strength of each, by making the point of draught farther removed from the centre on one side than on the other, which would throw the most work upon the animal nearest to the pole (Vitruv. ''l. c.''), and could be easily effected by shifting one of the collars nearer to, or further from it.

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File:Subjugium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 626.jpg|Subjugium/1.1
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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUB'LICA'''. A ''pile'' driven into the earth, or into the ground under water, for the purpose of raising some other superstructure upon it. Liv. xxiii. 37. Vitruv. iv. 3. 2.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBLIC'IUS'''. Made of wood, and supported upon piles. See [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Pons|PONS]], 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBLIGA'CULUM''' ({{lang|grc|διάζωμα}}). A cloth fastened round the waist, then passed through or between the thighs, and fastened under the fork (Non. ''s. v.'' p. 29.), to answer the purpose of drawers, like that worn by itinerant tumblers in our own [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Via|streets]], as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed example |imagelink=Media:Subligaculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 627.jpg|annexed example |caption=Subligaculum/1.1}}, from a small figure in the Collegio Romano. It was also worn upon the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|stage]] as a safeguard against any casual or indelicate exposure of the person. Cic. ''Off.'' i. 35.

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File:Subligaculum 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 627.jpg|Subligaculum/1.1
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'''SUB'LIGAR'''. (Mart. iii. 87. Juv. vi. 70.) Same as the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subligaculum|preceding]].

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBLIGA'TUS'''. Wearing the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subligar|subligar]]''; of men, as shown by the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Subligar|preceding example]]; of women (Mart. vii. 67.), as shown by the {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=annexed one |imagelink=Media:Subligatus 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 627.jpg|annexed one |caption=Subligatus/1.1}}, representing a female tumbler, from a fictile vase of Italo-Greek manufacture.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBMIN'IA'''. A garment mentioned by Plautus (''Epid.'' ii. 2. 48.) in a catalogue of female apparel. Probably, only a name in vogue at his day, descriptive of a reddish tint (''minium'') with which it was dyed.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUB'SCUS'''. A ''tenon'', in carpentry, joinery, &amp;c.; that is, the end of a piece of wood or metal cut or moulded into a certain form, to be received into a hole of corresponding size and shape, called a mortise (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Securicula|securicula]]''), for the joining of both together. Vitruv. x. 5. 2. Id. iv. 7. 4.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBSEL'LIUM'''. A moveable ''bench'' or ''form'' supported upon legs, but without any back, and of sufficient length to contain several persons upon it at the same time (Celsus, vii. 26. 1. Varro, ''L. L.'' v. 128.); especially used in places where a number of people are assembled together; in a [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Triclinium|dining-room]] (Suet. ''Terent.''; auction-room (Id. ''Cal.'' 39.); [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Curia|senate-house]] (Cic. ''Cat.'' i. 7. Suet. ''Claud.'' 23.); for the judges, lawyers, suitors, and witnesses in a court of justice. (Cic. ''Vat.'' 14. ''Rosc. Am.'' 6.) The {{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Image Location|text=example |imagelink=Media:Subsellium 1.1 - Anthony Rich, Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon, p. 627.jpg|example |caption=Subsellium/1.1}} is from an original of bronze found in the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Balineae|baths]] of Pompeii.

2. In the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Theatrum|theatre]], [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Amphitheatrum|amphitheatre]], or [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Circus|circus]] (Plaut. ''Amph. Prol.'' 65. Id. ''Poen. Prol.'' 5. Suet. ''Aug.'' 43. and 44.), a line of seats encircling the interior of the edifice (''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Cavea|cavea]]''), and rising in tiers or steps one over the other, as explained and illustrated ''s.'' [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Gradus|GRADUS]], 3.

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== Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon (Rich, 1849) ==

'''SUBSTRUC'TIO''' ({{lang|grc|ἀνάλημμα}}). A wall, pier, buttress, or any work of like nature, constructed underground as a foundation (Vitruv. vi. 11. 5.); or above ground as an underprop to support a superincumbent structure (Liv. xxxviii. 28. Dionys. iii. 69.); such, for example, as the elder Tarquin is reputed to have raised on the Capitoline hill, for the purpose of forming a level platform as a site for the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Templum|temple]] of Jupiter Capitolinus, some remains of which are still extant; or those on the sde of the same hill facing the [[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Forum|forum]], which were executed by Q. Catulus as a support for the ''[[Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Tabularium|tabularium]]'' (Inscript. ''ap.'' Orelli, 3267.), and still remain exposed to view in a state of considerable preservation.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:RICH-2K/Articles]]
[[Category:RICH-2K/RICH-1849]]
[[Category:RICH-2K/References missing or incomplete]]
[[Category:RICH-2K/Comparison with 1890-edition outstanding]]
[[Category:RICH-2K/Articles without images]]
[[Category:Classed Index/Mouldings, Ornaments, and Basement]]</text>
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      <text bytes="362" sha1="nt37qm0nno0isv85f466640hotxguwb" xml:space="preserve">== Disclaimer ==

The content in this lesson are either copied/paraphrased from a set of notes provided by Professor Nastassia Savage at ODU for PSYC303. Her contact information is [https://www.odu.edu/directory/nastassia-savage here]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:54, 7 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
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Mathematical text/Definition
|Text=
Let {{mat|term=V|pm=}} be a
{{
Definitionlink
|Premath={{KRC}}
|vector space|
|Context=|
|pm=,
}}
endowed with an
{{
Definitionlink
|inner product|
|pm=.
}}
A
{{
Definitionlink
|basis|
|Context=vs|
|pm=
}}
{{
Mathcond|term=
v_i
||condterm1=
i \in I
||condterm2=
|pm=,
}}
of {{mat|term=V|pm=}} is called an {{Word of definition|orthogonal basis|pm=}} if
{{
Math/display|term=
  {{op:Inner product|v_i|v_j}} = 0 \text{ for }  i \neq j
|pm=
}}
holds.
|Textform=Definition
|Category=  
|Word of definition=Orthogonal basis
}}</text>
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Mathematical text/Definition
|Text=
Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a
{{
Definitionlink
|Premath= {{KRC|}} 
|vector space|
|pm=,
}}
endowed with an
{{
Definitionlink
|inner product|
|pm=
}}
{{mathl|term= {{op:Inner product|-|-}} |pm=.}} A 
{{
Definitionlink
|basis|
|Context=vs|
|pm=
}}
{{
Mathcond|term=
v_i
||condterm1=
i \in I
||condterm2=

|pm=,
}}
of {{mat|term= V |pm=}} is called an {{Word of definition|orthonormal basis|pm=}} if
{{
 Math/display|term=
 {{op:Inner product|v_i|v_i}}= 1 \text{ for all } i \in I \text{ and }  {{op:Inner product|v_i|v_j}}= 0 \text{ for } i \neq j
|pm=
}}
holds.
|Textform=Definition
|Category=   
|Word of definition=Orthonormal basis
}}</text>
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Mathematical text/Fact
|Text=
{{
Factstructure|typ=
|Situation=
Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a
{{
Definitionlink
|Premath= {{KRC|}} 
|vector space|
|Context=|
|pm=,
}}
endowed with an
{{
Definitionlink
|inner product|
|Context=|
|pm=,
}}
and let
{{
Mathcond|term=
u_i
||condterm1=
i \in I
||condterm2=

|pm=,
}}
be an
{{
Definitionlink
|orthonormal basis|
|Context=|
|pm=
}}
of {{mat|term= V |pm=.}}
|Condition=
|Segue=
|Conclusion=
Then the coefficients of a vector {{mat|term= v |pm=,}} with respect to this basis, are given by
{{
Relationchain/display
| v
|| \sum_{i \in I}  {{op:Inner product|v|u_i}}  u_i
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
|Extra=
}}
|Textform=Fact 
|Category=
|Request=Coefficients for an orthonormal basis
}}</text>
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Mathematical text/Proof
|Text=
{{
Proofstructure
|Strategy=
|Notation=
|Proof=
Since we have a basis, there exists a unique representation
{{
Relationchain/display
| v
|| \sum_{j \in I } a_j  u_j
||
||
||
|pm=
}}
{{
Extra/Bracket
|text=where all {{mat|term= a_j|pm=}} are {{mat|term= 0 |pm=}} up to finitely many|
|Ipm=|Epm=.
}}
Therefore, the claim follows from
{{
Relationchain/display
|  {{op:Inner product| v | u_i }} 
|| {{op:Inner product| \sum_{j \in I} a_j  u_j | u_i }} 
|| \sum_{j \in I}  a_j {{op:Inner product| u_j | u_i }} 
|| a_i
||
|pm=.
}}
|Closure=
}}
|Textform=Proof 
|Category=See
}}</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{ Mathematical text/Fact |Text= {{ Factstructure|typ= |Situation= Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a {{ Definitionlink |finite-dimensional| |pm= }} {{ Definitionlink |Premath= {{KRC|}}  |vector space| |pm=, }} endowed with an {{ Definitionlink |inner product| |pm=, }} and let {{mathl|term=  v_1 ,v_2 {{commadots|}} v_n |pm=}} be a {{ Definitionlink |basis| |Context=vs| |pm= }} of {{mat|term= V |pm=.}} |Condition=  |Segue= |Conclusion= Then there exists an {{ Definitionlink |o...&quot;</comment>
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Mathematical text/Fact
|Text=
{{
Factstructure|typ=
|Situation=
Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a
{{
Definitionlink
|finite-dimensional|
|pm=
}}
{{
Definitionlink
|Premath= {{KRC|}} 
|vector space|
|pm=,
}}
endowed with an
{{
Definitionlink
|inner product|
|pm=,
}}
and let {{mathl|term=  v_1 ,v_2 {{commadots|}} v_n |pm=}} be a
{{
Definitionlink
|basis|
|Context=vs|
|pm=
}}
of {{mat|term= V |pm=.}}
|Condition=

|Segue=
|Conclusion=
Then there exists an
{{
Definitionlink
|orthonormal basis|
|pm=
}}
{{mathl|term= u_1,u_2 {{commadots|}} u_n|pm=}} of {{mat|term= V |pm=}} with{{
Extra/{{{extra1|}}}
|text=Here, {{mathl|term=  \langle - \rangle |pm=}} denotes the
{{
Definitionlink
|linear subspace|
|pm=
}}
spanned by the vectors, not the inner product|
|Ipm=.|Epm=
}}
{{
Relationchain/display
|  {{op:Span|v_1,v_2  {{commadots|}} v_i|}}
||  {{op:Span|u_1,u_2  {{commadots|}} u_i|}} 
||
||
||
|pm=
}}
for alle
{{
Relationchain
| i
|| 1 {{commadots|}} n
|| 
|| 
|| 
|pm=.
}}
|Extra=
}}
|Textform=Fact 
|Category=
|Factname=Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization
}}</text>
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Mathematical text/Proof
|Text=
{{
Proofstructure
|Strategy=
|Notation=
|Proof=
We prove the statement by induction over {{mat|term= i |pm=,}} that is, we construct successively a family of orthonormal vectors spanning the same linear subspaces. For
{{
Relationchain
|i
||1
||
||
||
|pm=,
}}
we just have to normalize {{mat|term= v_1 |pm=,}} that is, we replace it by
{{
Relationchain
| u_1
|| {{op:Fraction|v_1| {{op:Norm|v_1|}} }}
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
Now suppose that the statement is already proven for {{mat|term= i |pm=.}} Let a family of orthonormal vectors {{mathl|term=  u_1 {{commadots|}} u_i |pm=}} fulfilling
{{
Relationchain
| {{op:Span| u_1 {{commadots|}} u_i |}}
|| {{op:Span| v_1 {{commadots|}} v_i }}
||
||
||
|pm=
}}
be already constructed. We set
{{
Relationchain/display/handleft
| w_{i+1}
|| v_{i+1} - {{op:Inner product|v_{i+1}|u_1}} u_1 {{minusdots|}} {{op:Inner product|v_{i+1}|u_i}}  u_i
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
Due to
{{
Relationchain/align/handleft
| {{op:Inner product |w_{i+1}|u_j }} 
|| {{op:Inner product |v_{i+1} - {{op:Inner product|v_{i+1}|u_1}} u_1 {{minusdots|}} {{op:Inner product|v_{i+1}|u_i}} u_i|u_j }} 
|| {{op:Inner product |v_{i+1}|u_j }} - \sum_{k \leq i, k \neq j} {{op:Inner product|v_{i+1}|u_k}}  {{op:Inner product|u_k |u_j}} - {{op:Inner product|v_{i+1}|u_j}} {{op:Inner product| u_j|u_j }} 
|| {{op:Inner product |v_{i+1}|u_j }} - {{op:Inner product |v_{i+1}|u_j }}
|| 0
|pm=,
}}
this vector is orthgonal to all {{mathl|term= u_1 {{commadots|}} u_i |pm=,}} and also
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Span|u_1 {{commadots|}} u_i ,w_{i+1} |}}
|| {{op:Span|v_1 {{commadots|}} v_i ,v_{i+1} |}}
||
||
||
|pm=
}}
holds. By normalizing {{mathl|term= w_{i+1} |pm=,}} we obtain {{mathl|term= u_{i+1} |pm=.}} 
|Closure=
}}
|Textform=Proof 
|Category=See
}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2681818</id>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T10:05:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bocardodarapti</username>
        <id>289675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot; {{ Mathematical text/Example |Text= Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be the  {{ Definitionlink |kernel| |Context=| |pm= }} of the {{ Definitionlink |linear mapping| |Context=| |pm= }} {{ Mapping/display |name= |\R^3|\R |(x,y,z)|2x+3y-z |pm=. }} As a linear subspace of {{mat|term= \R^3 |pm=,}} {{mat|term= V |pm=}} carries the induced inner product. We want to determine an orthonormal basis of {{mat|term= V |pm=.}} For this, we consider the basis consisting of the vectors {{ Math...&quot;</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2630" sha1="as0355wdz8vsh4105lxzsmulkwkwhq0" xml:space="preserve"> {{
Mathematical text/Example
|Text=
Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be the 
{{
Definitionlink
|kernel|
|Context=|
|pm=
}}
of the
{{
Definitionlink
|linear mapping|
|Context=|
|pm=
}}
{{
Mapping/display
|name=
|\R^3|\R
|(x,y,z)|2x+3y-z
|pm=.
}}
As a linear subspace of {{mat|term= \R^3 |pm=,}} {{mat|term= V |pm=}} carries the induced inner product. We want to determine an orthonormal basis of {{mat|term= V |pm=.}} For this, we consider the basis consisting of the vectors
{{
Mathcor/display|term1=
v_1= {{op:Column vector|1|0|2}} 
|and|term2=
v_2 = {{op:Column vector|0|1|3}} 
|pm=.
}}
We have
{{
Relationchain
|  {{op:Norm|v_1|}} 
|| \sqrt{5}
||
||
||
|pm=;
}} 
therefore,
{{
Relationchain/display
| u_1  
|| {{op:Fraction|v_1| {{op:Norm|v_1|}} }}
||  {{op:Column vector| {{op:Fraction|1|\sqrt{5} }}|0|{{op:Fraction|2|\sqrt{5} }}  }} 
||
||
|pm=
}} 
is the corresponding  normed vector. According to{{
Extra/{{{extra1|}}}
|text=Often, it is computationally better, first to orthogonalize and to normalize at the very end, see
{{
Examplelink
|Examplename=
R^3/Kernel of 2x+3y-z/Orthonormal basis/Example
|Nr=
|pm=
}}
|Ipm=.|Epm=
}}
{{
Factlink
|Preword=|orthonormalization process|Factname=
Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthonormalization/Fact
|Nr=
|pm=,
}}
we set 
{{
Relationchain/align
| w_2 
|| v_2 - {{op:Inner product|v_2|u_1}} u_1 
|| {{op:Column vector|0|1|3}} - {{op:Inner product|{{op:Column vector|0|1|3}}|{{op:Column vector| {{op:Fraction|1|\sqrt{5} }}|0|{{op:Fraction|2|\sqrt{5} }}|}} }} {{op:Column vector| {{op:Fraction| 1 | \sqrt{5} }}| 0 | {{op:Fraction| 2 | \sqrt{5} }} }} 
|| {{op:Column vector|0|1|3}} - {{op:Fraction| 6 | \sqrt{5} }} {{op:Column vector| {{op:Fraction|1|\sqrt{5} }} | 0 | {{op:Fraction|2|\sqrt{5} }} }} 
|| {{op:Column vector| 0 | 1 | 3 }} - {{op:Column vector| {{op:Fraction| 6 | 5 }} | 0 | {{op:Fraction|12| 5  }} }}
|| {{op:Column vector| - {{op:Fraction| 6 | 5 }} | 1 | {{op:Fraction| 3 | 5  }} }}
|pm=.
}}
We have
{{
Relationchain/display
|  {{op:Norm|w_2|}} 
|| {{op:Norm|{{op:Column vector| - {{op:Fraction|6| 5 }}|1|{{op:Fraction|3| 5 }} }} |}} 
|| \sqrt{ {{op:Fraction|36|25}} + 1 + {{op:Fraction|9|25}} }
|| \sqrt{ {{op:Fraction|70|25}}  }
|| {{op:Fraction|\sqrt{14}|\sqrt{5} }}
|| 
|pm=.
}}
Therefore,
{{
Relationchain/display
| u_2
|| {{op:Fraction| \sqrt{5} | \sqrt{14} }} {{op:Column vector| - {{op:Fraction|6|5}} | 1 | {{op:Fraction|3|5}} }}
|| {{op:Column vector|- {{op:Fraction|6|\sqrt{70} |}} | {{op:Fraction|\sqrt{5}|\sqrt{14} }} | {{op:Fraction|3|\sqrt{70}|}} }}  
||
||
|pm=
}}
is the second vector of the orthonormal basis.
|Textform=Example 
|Category=
}}</text>
      <sha1>as0355wdz8vsh4105lxzsmulkwkwhq0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthogonal complement/Direct sum/Fact</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>315619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681819</id>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T10:32:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bocardodarapti</username>
        <id>289675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{ Mathematical text/Fact |Text= {{ Factstructure|typ= |Situation= Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a finite-dimensional {{ Definitionlink |Premath={{KRC|}}  |vector space| |Context=| |pm=, }} endowed with an {{ Definitionlink |inner product| |Context=| |pm=, }} and let {{ Relationchain | U | \subseteq | V || || || |pm= }} denote a {{ Definitionlink |linear subspace| |pm=. }} |Condition=  |Segue= |Conclusion= Then, we have {{ Relationchain/display | V   || U \oplus  {{op:Orth...&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2681819</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="791" sha1="nc7b70fq1iajccc87l8moh0i7dntrml" xml:space="preserve">{{
Mathematical text/Fact
|Text=
{{
Factstructure|typ=
|Situation=
Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a finite-dimensional
{{
Definitionlink
|Premath={{KRC|}} 
|vector space|
|Context=|
|pm=,
}}
endowed with an
{{
Definitionlink
|inner product|
|Context=|
|pm=,
}}
and let
{{
Relationchain
| U
| \subseteq | V
||
||
||
|pm=
}}
denote a
{{
Definitionlink
|linear subspace|
|pm=.
}}
|Condition=

|Segue=
|Conclusion=
Then, we have
{{
Relationchain/display
| V  
|| U \oplus  {{op:Orthogonal complement|U}}
||
||
|pm=,
}}
that is, {{mat|term= V |pm=}} is the 
{{
Definitionlink
|direct sum|
|Context=|
|pm=
}}
of {{mat|term= U |pm=}} and its
{{
Definitionlink
|orthogonal complement|
|Context=|
|pm=.
}}
|Extra=
}}
|Textform=Fact 
|Category=
|Factname=
|Request=Orthogonal complement and direct sum
}}</text>
      <sha1>nc7b70fq1iajccc87l8moh0i7dntrml</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthonormal basis/Existence/Fact</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>315620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681820</id>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T10:34:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bocardodarapti</username>
        <id>289675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{ Mathematical text/Fact |Text= {{ Factstructure|typ= |Situation= Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a {{ Definitionlink |finite-dimensional| |Context=vs| |pm= }} {{ Definitionlink |Premath= {{KRC|}}  |vector space| |Context=| |pm=, }} endowed with an {{ Definitionlink |inner product| |Context=| |pm=. }} |Condition=  |Segue= |Conclusion= Then there exists an {{ Definitionlink |orthonormal basis| |Context=| |pm= }} of {{mat|term= V |pm=.}} |Extra= }} |Textform=Fact  |Category= }}&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2681820</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="477" sha1="t6qzbog860j38r57idur52izc5lr59e" xml:space="preserve">{{
Mathematical text/Fact
|Text=
{{
Factstructure|typ=
|Situation=
Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a
{{
Definitionlink
|finite-dimensional|
|Context=vs|
|pm=
}}
{{
Definitionlink
|Premath= {{KRC|}} 
|vector space|
|Context=|
|pm=,
}}
endowed with an
{{
Definitionlink
|inner product|
|Context=|
|pm=.
}}
|Condition=

|Segue=
|Conclusion=
Then there exists an
{{
Definitionlink
|orthonormal basis|
|Context=|
|pm=
}}
of {{mat|term= V |pm=.}}
|Extra=
}}
|Textform=Fact 
|Category=
}}</text>
      <sha1>t6qzbog860j38r57idur52izc5lr59e</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthonormal basis/Existence/Fact/Proof</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>315621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681821</id>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T10:35:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bocardodarapti</username>
        <id>289675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{ Mathematical text/Proof |Text= {{ Proofstructure |Strategy= |Notation= |Proof= This follows directly from {{ Factlink |Factname= Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthonormalization/Fact |Nr= |pm=. }} |Closure= }} |Textform=Proof  |Category=See }}&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2681821</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="264" sha1="arz6fo0ll4h05p2gcqts0hpq81dyg05" xml:space="preserve">{{
Mathematical text/Proof
|Text=
{{
Proofstructure
|Strategy=
|Notation=
|Proof=
This follows directly from
{{
Factlink
|Factname=
Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthonormalization/Fact
|Nr=
|pm=.
}}
|Closure=
}}
|Textform=Proof 
|Category=See
}}</text>
      <sha1>arz6fo0ll4h05p2gcqts0hpq81dyg05</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthogonal complement/Direct sum/Fact/Proof</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>315622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681822</id>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T10:40:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bocardodarapti</username>
        <id>289675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{ Mathematical text/Proof |Text= {{ Proofstructure |Strategy= |Notation= |Proof= From {{ Relationchain | u |\in|  U \cap  {{op:Orthogonal complement|U|}} || || || |pm= }}  we get directly {{ Relationchain/display | {{op:Inner product|u|u}}  || 0 || || || |pm=, }} thus {{ Relationchain |u || 0 || || || |pm=. }} This means that the sum direct. Let {{mathl|term= u_1 {{commadots|}} u_k |pm=}} be an  {{ Definitionlink |orthonormal basis| |Context=| |pm= }} of {{mat|term= U |...&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2681822</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="838" sha1="scym0935qicd8nq9xqhxyf1lkh4hbxj" xml:space="preserve">{{
Mathematical text/Proof
|Text=
{{
Proofstructure
|Strategy=
|Notation=
|Proof=
From
{{
Relationchain
| u
|\in|  U \cap  {{op:Orthogonal complement|U|}}
||
||
||
|pm=
}} 
we get directly
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Inner product|u|u}} 
|| 0
||
||
||
|pm=,
}}
thus
{{
Relationchain
|u
|| 0
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
This means that the sum direct. Let {{mathl|term= u_1 {{commadots|}} u_k |pm=}} be an 
{{
Definitionlink
|orthonormal basis|
|Context=|
|pm=
}}
of {{mat|term= U |pm=.}} We extend it to an orthonormal basis {{mathl|term= u_1 {{commadots|}} u_n |pm=}} of {{mat|term= V |pm=.}} Then we have
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Orthogonal complement|U|}} 
||  {{op:Span|u_{k+1} {{commadots|}} u_n|}} 
||
||
||
|pm=;
}}
Therefore, {{mat|term= V |pm=}} is the sum of the linear subspaces.
|Closure=
}}
|Textform=Proof 
|Category=See
}}</text>
      <sha1>scym0935qicd8nq9xqhxyf1lkh4hbxj</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthogonal complement/Structural properties/Fact</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>315623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681823</id>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T10:44:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bocardodarapti</username>
        <id>289675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{ Mathematical text/Fact |Text= {{ Factstructure|typ= |Situation= Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a {{ Definitionlink |Premath={{KRC|}}  |vector space| |Context=| |pm=, }} endowed with an {{ Definitionlink |inner product| |Context=K| |pm= }} {{mathl|term= {{op:Inner product|-|-}} |pm=.}}  |Condition=  |Segue=Then the following statements hold. |Conclusion= {{ Enumeration4 |For a  {{ Definitionlink |linear subspace| |Context=| |pm= }} {{ Relationchain | U | \subseteq | U' |...&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2681823</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1282" sha1="208v7kai9ccm6opbxfrmt8ou92m9aqr" xml:space="preserve">{{
Mathematical text/Fact
|Text=
{{
Factstructure|typ=
|Situation=
Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a
{{
Definitionlink
|Premath={{KRC|}} 
|vector space|
|Context=|
|pm=,
}}
endowed with an
{{
Definitionlink
|inner product|
|Context=K|
|pm=
}}
{{mathl|term= {{op:Inner product|-|-}} |pm=.}} 
|Condition=

|Segue=Then the following statements hold.
|Conclusion=
{{
Enumeration4
|For a 
{{
Definitionlink
|linear subspace|
|Context=|
|pm=
}}
{{
Relationchain
| U
| \subseteq | U'
| \subseteq | V
||
||
|pm=,
}} 
we have
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Orthogonal space|U|}} 
|\supseteq| {{op:Orthogonal space|U'|}} 
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
|We have
{{
Relationchain
| {{op:Orthogonal space|0|}} 
|| V
||
||
||
|pm=
}}
and
{{
Relationchain
| {{op:Orthogonal space|V|}} 
|| 0
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
|Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be
{{
Definitionlink
|finite-dimensional|
|Context=|
|pm=.
}}
Then we have
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Orthogonal space| {{mabr| {{op:Orthogonal space|U|}} |}} |}} 
|| U
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
|Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be finite-dimensional. Then we have
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Dimension vector space|  {{op:Orthogonal space|U|}} |}} 
|| {{op:Dimension vector space|V|}} -  {{op:Dimension vector space|U|}} 
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
}}
|Extra=
}}
|Textform=Fact 
|Category=
}}</text>
      <sha1>208v7kai9ccm6opbxfrmt8ou92m9aqr</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vector space/K/Inner product/Finite-dimensional/Orthogonal complement/Structural properties/Fact/Proof/Exercise</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>315624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2681824</id>
      <timestamp>2024-11-08T10:46:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bocardodarapti</username>
        <id>289675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{ Mathematical text/Exercise{{{opt|}}} |Text= Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a {{ Definitionlink |Premath={{KRC|}}  |vector space| |Context=| |pm=, }} endowed with an {{ Definitionlink |inner product| |Context=K| |pm= }} {{mathl|term= {{op:Inner product|-|-}} |pm=.}}  Show the following statements. |Conclusion= {{ Enumeration4 |For a  {{ Definitionlink |linear subspace| |Context=| |pm= }} {{ Relationchain | U | \subseteq | U' | \subseteq | V || || |pm=, }}  we have {{ Rela...&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2681824</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1230" sha1="oa0udp8cs0uxomz193nfpri6zqs1mm8" xml:space="preserve">{{
Mathematical text/Exercise{{{opt|}}}
|Text=
Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be a
{{
Definitionlink
|Premath={{KRC|}} 
|vector space|
|Context=|
|pm=,
}}
endowed with an
{{
Definitionlink
|inner product|
|Context=K|
|pm=
}}
{{mathl|term= {{op:Inner product|-|-}} |pm=.}}  Show the following statements.
|Conclusion=
{{
Enumeration4
|For a 
{{
Definitionlink
|linear subspace|
|Context=|
|pm=
}}
{{
Relationchain
| U
| \subseteq | U'
| \subseteq | V
||
||
|pm=,
}} 
we have
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Orthogonal space|U|}} 
|\supseteq| {{op:Orthogonal space|U'|}} 
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
|We have
{{
Relationchain
| {{op:Orthogonal space|0|}} 
|| V
||
||
||
|pm=
}}
and
{{
Relationchain
| {{op:Orthogonal space|V|}} 
|| 0
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
|Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be
{{
Definitionlink
|finite-dimensional|
|Context=|
|pm=.
}}
Then we have
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Orthogonal space| {{mabr| {{op:Orthogonal space|U|}} |}} |}} 
|| U
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
|Let {{mat|term= V |pm=}} be finite-dimensional. Then we have
{{
Relationchain/display
| {{op:Dimension vector space|  {{op:Orthogonal space|U|}} |}} 
|| {{op:Dimension vector space|V|}} -  {{op:Dimension vector space|U|}} 
||
||
||
|pm=.
}}
}}
|Textform=Exercise 
|Category=
}}</text>
      <sha1>oa0udp8cs0uxomz193nfpri6zqs1mm8</sha1>
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