Wikiversity:Colloquium

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&lt;!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --&gt;
== Reminder! Vote closing soon to fill vacancies of the first U4C ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
:''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement – reminder to vote|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement – reminder to vote}}&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''

Dear all,

The voting period for the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) is closing soon. It is open through 10 August 2024. Read the information on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2024_Special_Election#Voting|the voting page on Meta-wiki to learn more about voting and voter eligibility]]. If you are eligible to vote and have not voted in this special election, it is important that you vote now.

'''Why should you vote?''' The U4C is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. Community input into the committee membership is critical to the success of the UCoC.

Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well.

In cooperation with the U4C,&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

-- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 15:30, 6 August 2024 (UTC)
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== User group for Wikiversians ==

Was there ever a discussion about the possibility of establishing a user group in the sense of an affiliated organization that would defend the interests of professors and scientists on Wikiversity and possibly actively develop some projects? [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:21, 8 August 2024 (UTC)

:Not that I'm aware of. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:20, 8 August 2024 (UTC)
:It's a pleasure to talk to a scientist on Wikiversity. I am a historian of technics and I would like to publish the following biography either on Wikiversity or on Wikipedia: 
:https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Rbmn/Arthur_Constantin_KREBS_(1850-1935):_Military_engineer,_Automotive_industrialist,_Great_projects_manager
:What would be your advice? [[User:Rbmn|Rbmn]] ([[User talk:Rbmn|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rbmn|contribs]]) 15:44, 6 October 2024 (UTC)
::The content appears to be largely biographical/encyclopedic, so I think it is likely best suited to Wikipedia. Consider improving/incorporating this content into the existing page: [[w:Arthur Constantin Krebs]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:05, 7 October 2024 (UTC)
::Please do not link to the Wikiversity [[wv:userspace|Userspace]] in Wikipedia articles. You will want to wait until you have a page in the [[wv:mainspace|Wikiversity mainspace]]. You'll also want to use the &lt;code&gt;{{[[:w:Template:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]]}}&lt;/code&gt; template (on Wikipedia) rather than embedding a photo with a link. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 02:21, 7 October 2024 (UTC)

== Rich's ''Illustrated Companion'' at Wikiversity: Right place? ==

Hello! I am creating a Wiki-version of a classical glossary (''Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary, and Greek Lexicon'' by Anthony Rich, 1849), which explains the meaning of Latin headwords, primarily those &quot;representing visible objects connected with the arts, manufactures, and every-day life of the Greeks and Romans.&quot; The aim is to help understand what a (classical) Latin text is actually about, instead of merely translating it. I already transcribed the entire text and scanned the images (about 1900) from an original 1849-edition. I am currently working on uploading the images to ''Mediawiki Commons'', which probably will take some time. In the meantime I want to prepare the other aspects of the project (more than 3000 articles, already with many internal links). The important thing: this is ''not'' a ''might exist''-project.  {{Color|red|My question: Is ''Wikiversity'' the proper place for it?}} Although I created an exact rendition of the original text, ''Wikisource'' is not applicable, because the project has a broader scope (adding content to the articles, e. g. links to online editions for quotations, adding images, but also adding entirely new articles). Neither is ''Wikibooks'', because this is not a textbook and may otherwise breach its scope. For more about the project see [[w:User:CalRis25/Temp-RICH-Prospectus|my user-page]] at en.wikipedia. {{Color|Red|So, is Wikiversity the right place for it?}} [[User:CalRis25|CalRis25]] ([[User talk:CalRis25|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CalRis25|contribs]]) 09:15, 17 August 2024 (UTC)

:Thanks for asking. To be clear, it ''is'' acceptable to make [[:s:en:Category:Wikisource annotations|annotated editions]] of texts at Wikisource and Wikibooks does host at least one [[:b:en:Annotations of The Complete Peanuts|annotated guide to a copyright-protected work]]. So if what you're looking to do is to include inline annotations to a public domain text, you certainly can put that on Wikisource. If you have a textbook or guidebook that is a companion, that would go at Wikibooks. If you have some other kind of learning resources (like maintaining a list of relevant links, organizing a book reading group, etc.), that could go here. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:26, 17 August 2024 (UTC)
::Thank you for your quick answer. Actually, ''Wikibooks'' was my first thought. However, this project is not merely an annotated edition. Although at first it ''will'' be a faithful copy of the original text, I want the project to be &quot;open&quot;, i. e. adding articles should be possible. And the project should enable to do a lot more than mere inline annotation. See section [[w:User:CalRis25/Temp-RICH-Prospectus#Improving_RICH|Improving Rich]] in the project description a my user-page (en.Wikipedia). No ''Mediawiki''-project (Wikisource, Wikibooks, Wikipedia, Wiktionary) seemed to be a sufficiently applicable &quot;fit&quot; for the project, so I thought of Wikiversity as a last resort, because it is supposed to be home to all sorts of &quot;learning resources&quot;. [[User:CalRis25|CalRis25]] ([[User talk:CalRis25|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CalRis25|contribs]]) 09:57, 17 August 2024 (UTC)
:::The scope of Wikiversity ''is'' pretty catch-all and would allow for a pretty flexible place to host most learning resources that don't fit elsewhere.
:::Also, as nitpick, &quot;MediaWiki&quot; is the software that is the basis of these wikis (wikis being collections of interlinked documents that can be edited) and &quot;Wikimedia Foundation&quot; is the non-profit who owns the trademarks and hosts these projects like Wiktionary and Wikivoyage. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 10:06, 17 August 2024 (UTC)
::::Hello Justin, thank you for the reply. '''I think that settles it. I will create this project at ''Wikiversity''.''' Just for additional clarification, why I do so. Let's imagine a full transcription of the original 1849-edition of the ''Illustrated Companion'' by Anthony Rich and call it ''RICH-1849''. We shall call my project, for brevity sake, RICH-2K. And now, let's have a look at the article about the Roman toga (a piece of attire). In ''RICH-1849'' we can can call it ''RICH-1849/Toga'', and it contains ''exactly'' the content of the 1849-book. Now, let's look at the article ''RICH-2K/Toga''. At the beginning its only content would be the article ''RICH-1849/Toga''. Does that make ''RICH-2K/Toga'' and ''RICH-1849/Toga'' the same? Not at all, because in truth ''RICH-2K/Toga'' is a &quot;container&quot; which initially contains only the article ''RICH-1849/Toga'' but later on may include more stuff: images, external links, article text which builds on or extends ''RICH-1849/Toga'' and information from other sources of information (Wikipedia, specialized books). By the way, this added article information would not be a mere copy of the text at en.Wikipedia, because the information needs to looked at through the eyes of someone reading the original text (more citations with direct links to these etc.). [[User:CalRis25|CalRis25]] ([[User talk:CalRis25|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CalRis25|contribs]]) 11:39, 17 August 2024 (UTC)

== Coming soon: A new sub-referencing feature – try it! ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;Sub-referencing&quot;/&gt;
[[File:Sub-referencing reuse visual.png|{{#ifeq:{{#dir}}|ltr|right|left}}|400px]]
Hello. For many years, community members have requested an easy way to re-use references with different details. Now, a MediaWiki solution is coming: The new sub-referencing feature will work for wikitext and Visual Editor and will enhance the existing reference system. You can continue to use different ways of referencing, but you will probably encounter sub-references in articles written by other users. More information on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|the project page]].

'''We want your feedback''' to make sure this feature works well for you:

* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Test|Please try]] the current state of development on beta wiki and [[m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|let us know what you think]]. 
* [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing/Sign-up|Sign up here]] to get updates and/or invites to participate in user research activities.

[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland]]’s [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|Technical Wishes]] team is planning to bring this feature to Wikimedia wikis later this year. We will reach out to creators/maintainers of tools and templates related to references beforehand.

Please help us spread the message. --[[m:User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|Johannes Richter (WMDE)]] ([[m:User talk:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|talk]]) 10:36, 19 August 2024 (UTC)
&lt;section end=&quot;Sub-referencing&quot;/&gt;
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== New [[Template:Form]] ==

Hi! Today I was bold and created [[Template:Form]] (which calls [[Module:WikiForm]] and [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiForm.js]]). The template allows to create user-friendly forms that can create pages or add content to existing pages. My motivation and first use case was [[Wikidebate/New|this form]] to create new [[wikidebates]], but I suspect the template can be useful elsewhere on Wikiversity. Let me know if you notice any issues or have any requests or concerns. Kind regards, [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 15:21, 21 August 2024 (UTC)

== Sign up for the language community meeting on August 30th, 15:00 UTC ==

Hi all,

The next language community meeting is scheduled in a few weeks—on August 30th at 15:00 UTC. If you're interested in joining, you can [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization/Community_meetings#30_August_2024 sign up on this wiki page].

This participant-driven meeting will focus on sharing language-specific updates related to various projects, discussing technical issues related to language wikis, and working together to find possible solutions. For example, in the last meeting, topics included the Language Converter, the state of language research, updates on the Incubator conversations, and technical challenges around external links not working with special characters on Bengali sites.

Do you have any ideas for topics to share technical updates or discuss challenges? Please add agenda items to the document [https://etherpad.wikimedia.org/p/language-community-meeting-aug-2024 here] and reach out to ssethi(__AT__)wikimedia.org. We look forward to your participation!

[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 23:20, 22 August 2024 (UTC)
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== Template consolidation: User talk page block notice ==
Wondering if someone who likes templates could have a go at consolidating or helping decide between use of:
* [[Template:Block]]
* [[Template:Blocked]]

Unless I'm missing something, it seems like we don't need both?

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:16, 23 August 2024 (UTC)
: I tried to figure out a Wikidata item with most links to projects. I found this: [[Wikidata:Q6379131]], which is Template:Uw-block. There is even a corresponding Wikiversity template, [[Template:Uw-block1]] (not used anywhere).
: My impression is that of the three templates, we only need one. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 14:43, 13 September 2024 (UTC)

== Announcing the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
:''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/board-elections@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/OKCCN2CANIH2K7DXJOL2GPVDFWL27R7C/ Original message at wikimedia-l]. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement - results|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement - results}}&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''

Hello all,

The scrutineers have finished reviewing the vote and the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Elections Committee|Elections Committee]] have certified the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Results|results]] for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) special election]].

I am pleased to announce the following individual as regional members of the U4C, who will fulfill a term until 15 June 2026:

* North America (USA and Canada)
** Ajraddatz

The following seats were not filled during this special election:

* Latin America and Caribbean
* Central and East Europe (CEE)
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* South Asia
* The four remaining Community-At-Large seats

Thank you again to everyone who participated in this process and much appreciation to the candidates for your leadership and dedication to the Wikimedia movement and community.

Over the next few weeks, the U4C will begin meeting and planning the 2024-25 year in supporting the implementation and review of the UCoC and Enforcement Guidelines. You can follow their work on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Meta-Wiki]].

On behalf of the U4C and the Elections Committee,&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

[[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 14:07, 2 September 2024 (UTC)
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== Re: The Vector 2022 skin as the default in two weeks? ==

[[File:Vector 2022 video-en.webm|thumb|A two minute-long video about Vector 2022]]
Hello everyone, I'm reaching out on behalf of the [[mediawikiwiki:Reading/Web|Wikimedia Foundation Web team]] responsible for the MediaWiki skins. I'd like to revisit the topic of making Vector 2022 the default here on English Wikiversity. I [[Wikiversity:Colloquium/archives/September 2022#The Vector 2022 skin as the default in two weeks?|did post a message about this almost two years ago]] (where you can find all the details about the skin), but we didn't finalize it back then.

What happened in the meantime? We built [[mw:Reading/Web/Accessibility for reading|dark mode and different options for font sizes]], and made Vector 2022 the default on most wikis, including all other Wikiversities. With the not-so-new V22 skin being the default, existing and coming features, like dark mode and [[mw:Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] respectively, will become available for logged-out users here.

So, if no large concerns are raised, we will deploy Vector 2022 here in two weeks, in the week of September 16. Do let me know if you have any questions. Thank you! [[User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]] ([[User talk:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SGrabarczuk (WMF)|contribs]]) 21:48, 2 September 2024 (UTC)

:Sounds good, Szymon - we look forward to the upcoming change of skin {{smile}} Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:35, 13 September 2024 (UTC)
* I for one oppose a switch to Vector 2022. I do not find it preferable. Here is a staggering evidence of user refusal of Vector 2022 once it was deployed: [[W:en:Wikipedia:Requests for comment/Rollback of Vector 2022]], Junuary 2023. 355 voters supported rollback to Vector 2010 whereas 64 opposed, yielding 84.7% support, as clear a supermajority as one may wish. These people opposing Vector 2022 feel the same way as I do. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 10:48, 13 September 2024 (UTC)
*:Hey @[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]]. Thanks for your comment. I'm open to discussion about problems with our software, and I hope we can maintain a respectful tone.
*:I understand that there are users who prefer Vector legacy or other skins, just as there are people who still stick to Monobook. Such people are active across many wikis. They can keep Vector legacy, although non-default skins don't have the support the default ones do. We are rolling out for technical reasons, as I mentioned above, with benefit to not logged-in users.
*:Regarding the rollback RfC on Wikipedia, two neutral users stated that there was no consensus for rollback, RfC is not a vote, and the numbers were different (355:226:24). I believe this all is pretty easy to verify.
*:So to sum up, Vector 2022 needs to become the default, tons and tons of comments were made about the skin and related stuff, and we have taken many ideas into account, and it's totally OK if you stick to Vector legacy.
*:Thanks! [[User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]] ([[User talk:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SGrabarczuk (WMF)|contribs]]) 19:30, 16 September 2024 (UTC)
*:: Today, I visited Wikiversity and found it switched to Vector 2022. I changed my preference settings to Vector 2010. From what I understand, non-registered visitors are now defaulted to Vector 2022 despite its unpopularity in [[W:en:Wikipedia:Requests for comment/Rollback of Vector 2022]]. I have not seen any evidence that users prefer Vector 2022, and given the evidence in the linked RfC, I tentatively conclude that the decision to switch has made the site experience worse for the majority of users. The logic of &quot;you can switch&quot; surely applies to Vector 2022 as well: those who prefer it can switch to it. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 05:08, 17 September 2024 (UTC)

== Have your say: Vote for the 2024 Board of Trustees! ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
Hello all,

The voting period for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024|2024 Board of Trustees election]] is now open. There are twelve (12) candidates running for four (4) seats on the Board.

Learn more about the candidates by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024/Candidates|reading their statements]] and their [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2024/Questions_for_candidates|answers to community questions]].

When you are ready, go to the [[Special:SecurePoll/vote/400|SecurePoll]] voting page to vote. '''The vote is open from September 3rd at 00:00 UTC to September 17th at 23:59 UTC'''.

To check your voter eligibility, please visit the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2024/Voter_eligibility_guidelines|voter eligibility page]].

Best regards,

The Elections Committee and Board Selection Working Group&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:15, 3 September 2024 (UTC)
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== Separate page for hyperbola. ==

Good morning,

I notice that a search for &quot;hyperbola&quot; redirects to &quot;Conic sections&quot;.

At present there is a separate page for &quot;ellipse&quot;. Therefore a separate page for &quot;hyperbola&quot; seems to be justified.

Could this redirection be changed so that search for &quot;hyperbola&quot; goes to a separate page for &quot;hyperbola&quot;?

Many thanks,

[[User:ThaniosAkro|ThaniosAkro]] ([[User talk:ThaniosAkro|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThaniosAkro|contribs]]) 12:04, 15 September 2024 (UTC)

:It is true that ellipses are covered at [[Conic sections]] (along with hyperbolas, parabolas, etc.) and there is a separate page for [[ellipse]]s that elaborates. We certainly ''could'' have a page about [[hyperbola]]s that is separate, but no one has written sufficient content to spin it off yet. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 12:17, 15 September 2024 (UTC)

== I hereby request for your Unblocking IP address and just reviewed and received a reverted rec ==

Hi there. {{unsigned|Ishmael Raphasha}}
:No one has any clue what you're talking about. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:53, 18 September 2024 (UTC)

== RICH-2K: New project with some initial questions ==

Hello! I'm creating a new learning resource on ''Wikiversity''. The respective project is based on my transcription of a classical dictionary from 1849 by Anthony Rich. For more information about the project see its [[User:CalRis25/RICH: Description|description page]] (see also that page for why not ''Wikisource'' or ''Wikibooks''). The project's scope is fairly big: 3205 article-pages plus 304 REDIRECT-pages. The images (scanned by myself from an original copy) have been uploaded to ''Commons''. I have some initial technical questions (more of these and more detailed ones will follow):

* '''Upload''': Due to the large number of pages it is not realistic to create these manually. Is it possible to bulk-upload these in some way (the Wikitext of the pages is created using a Python-script with one file per article/page)? Is it possible to upload these to a test-environment first where any problems (hopefully none) can be identified and dealt with more easily than on the production-version of ''Wikiversity''?
* '''(Technical) Structure''': I am planning to set up this project at ''&lt;nowiki&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/RICH-2K&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' as the main page and anything else as subpages: ''RICH-2K/Subpage_1 ... RICH-2K/Subpage_n''. However, these subpages fall into two categories: 1. Article-pages (content) and 2. Meta/Administrative pages. This project requires search capability restricted to the ''RICH-2K''-namespace. The ''Mediawiki''-software seems to supply a ''Search''-input field with the possibility to restrict the search to some namespace. I would like, however, to restrict the search further to the first group of pages, namely the articles. Is that possible, perhaps by use of (hidden) categories?
* '''External links''': This project will need many external links, and yes, I have read the relevant ''Wikiversity''-pages, but this specific project needs them. The ''Recommended Editions''-page (used for recommended online editions, to which to link when citing texts) alone probably will require several hundred external links. However, only relatively few [[w:Second-level domain|second-level domains]] will be involved, and most of these should be trustworthy (Perseus Digital library, digital collections of universities etc., in some cases, however, also ''Archive.org''). Perhaps there is a list of web-sites, for which external links are generally allowed? And who is allowed to create external links on ''Wikiversity''-pages (I haven't found the relevant policy)?
* '''Categories''': This project requires quite a few of its own categories, which belong to two large groups: 1. Categories (2 levels) of the ''Classed Index'' (about 170 categories), a thematic index of some (but not all) of the articles. 2. Administrative categories. Is there a recommended way to distinguish between different classes of categories within a project (category name or other method)? What about naming conventions for project-specific categories?

I am looking forward to your input. If you think that it's preferable we can move the discussions to the [[User_talk:CalRis25/RICH:_Description|Talk-page]] of the project's description. Thank you in advance. [[User:CalRis25|CalRis25]] ([[User talk:CalRis25|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CalRis25|contribs]]) 05:29, 20 September 2024 (UTC)

:*Admins have access to [[Special:Import]] and can bulk import XML pages. You can create pages in your sandbox if you'd like and make an indefinite amount of them at pages like [[User:CalRis25/sandbox]]. What can and cannot be hosted in user namespace is very loose, but still has to follow in principle Wikiversity's scope.
:*Using subpages is in principle a good way to organize these various resources. Please do not name them after a user name or something obscure. I personally think that &quot;RICH-2K&quot; is a not optimal name. I may recommend something like [[Anthony Rich Dictionary Project]] or [[21st-Century Anthony Rich Dictionary]] or something more obviously intelligible. While we have very few actual policies and guidelines, see [[Wikiversity:Naming conventions]] for a rough consensus of what is probably best practice for naming pages.
:*External linking generally does not use an allowed list (a.k.a. whitelist model), but a disallow (a.k.a. blacklist) model. See [[MediaWiki:Spam-blacklist]] and [[Special:BlockedExternalDomains]] (which is currently empty but is another method of listing blocked domains). It's perfectly fine to aggregate external links in learning resources.
:*I'm not 100% sure what the distinction is that you're drawing, but you can freely arrange categories underneath a main category that has the same name as your larger project. So, following the suggestions I gave, you could have a category like [[:Category:Anthony Rich Dictionary Project]] and then create any number of subcategories that logically help users navigate all these pages. Please make sure the main category you create is itself categorized under some relevant category(ies). If you need help, please ask.
:I think this answers your questions, please let me know if I'm unclear or you have more. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 06:11, 20 September 2024 (UTC)
::Hello Justin!
::* '''Upload:''' Creating the project in sandbox pages of my User-namespace defeats the purpose, as this is an ''open'' project. Also that would not solve, as such, the problem of having to manually create thousands of pages. I wonder, does ''Wikiversity'' support creation of pages using its API. ''Mediawiki's'' [[mw:API:Main_page|API-description]] seems to imply that it ought to be possible. If that's the case, I should be able to create a Python-script which automatically creates the pages (of course, a few trial pages first).
::* '''(Technical) Structure''': You may be right, here. RICH-2K is, for now, merely a technical name to make a clear but not too verbose distinction between the original text and the current project. I'll give this more thought.
::* '''External links''': I brought this up mainly because when I first edited my ''Wikiversity''-page, I got a message that I was not allowed to create external links. However, I just now tested creating an external link on my user-page and got no error, so this problem seems to be solved.
::* '''Categories''': I think I know what you mean. I'll create a category structure and maybe ask some specific questions once I am ready to do so.
::Thank you for your quick help. [[User:CalRis25|CalRis25]] ([[User talk:CalRis25|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CalRis25|contribs]]) 18:51, 20 September 2024 (UTC)
:::re: upload, I'm just suggesting your sandbox(es) as you asked about &quot;a test-environment&quot;. Anyone can edit someone else's sandboxes, but you typically defer to other users to control what's in their own subpages as a collegial thing. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:39, 23 September 2024 (UTC)

Hello! I have two further questions:
# I created a category-structure for the project. Could you (or someone else) have a look at it ([[User:CalRis25/RICH: Categories]]) and answer the questions in the section [[User:CalRis25/RICH:_Categories#Questions|Questions]]? I gave it some thought and believe that this would work fine for the project.
# ''Project boxes'' (see [[Help:Tour of project boxes]]): It is unclear to me, whether these belong only on the main page of the project (that makes the most sense to me), or on every single subpage.
Thanks in advance for your help. [[User:CalRis25|CalRis25]] ([[User talk:CalRis25|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CalRis25|contribs]]) 17:51, 24 September 2024 (UTC)

:To answer your questions here:
:*No, you are not contravening any policies we have.
:*A leading &quot;The&quot; is acceptable, but if you want it to sort alphabetically, you will have to use &lt;nowiki&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;. E.g. to get Category:The Best Stuff to sort under &quot;B&quot;, insert &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{DEFAULTSORT:Best Stuff, The}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
:*Trailing &quot;etc.&quot; is acceptable.
:*An accent in a category title is acceptable.
:I'll also note that it looks like you have in mind some tracking categories that are redundant. Pages such as [[Special:LonelyPages]] and [[Special:DeadendPages]] already do automatically what you're proposing to do manually.
:As for project boxes, it's typically the case that the subjects are only placed on the main resource, but as you may imagine, [[Help:Tour of project boxes/1|status completion ones]] may vary from subpage to subpage. As with most things at Wikiversity, there are very few actual rules, so it's pretty much the wild west, even tho this project has been around for almost 20&amp;nbsp;years. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:18, 25 September 2024 (UTC)
::Hello Justin, thanks for the DEFAULTSORT-hint for categories beginning with ''The''. I will restrict the project boxes to the main page. As for the the orphaned/dead-end-categories, I prefer these to be project-specific. Once the project is up and running, putting articles &quot;on the map&quot; (making them accessible from other articles and creating links to other articles) is one of the first tasks to be dealt with. I already know which articles are involved and will add these categories to these articles. [[User:CalRis25|CalRis25]] ([[User talk:CalRis25|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CalRis25|contribs]]) 16:51, 25 September 2024 (UTC)

== Your wiki will be in read-only soon ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;server-switch&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;

[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]

The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster.

All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2024-09-25|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2024-09-25T15:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2024-09-25T15:00}}]'''.

Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. 

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This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. 

'''Please share this information with your community.'''&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;server-switch&quot;/&gt;

[[User:Trizek_(WMF)|Trizek_(WMF)]], 09:37, 20 September 2024 (UTC)
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== 'Wikidata item' link is moving. Find out where... ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Apologies for cross-posting in English. Please consider translating this message.&lt;/i&gt;{{tracked|T66315}}

Hello everyone, a small change will soon be coming to the user-interface of your Wikimedia project.
The [[d:Q16222597|Wikidata item]] [[w:|sitelink]] currently found under the &lt;span style=&quot;color: #54595d;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;''General''&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt; section of the '''Tools''' sidebar menu will move into the &lt;span style=&quot;color: #54595d;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;''In Other Projects''&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt; section.

We would like the Wiki communities feedback so please let us know or ask questions on the   [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link|Discussion page]] before we enable the change which can take place October 4 2024, circa 15:00 UTC+2.
More information can be found on [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link|the project page]].&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;We welcome your feedback and questions.&lt;br&gt; [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 18:56, 27 September 2024 (UTC)
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==Download as PDF==
[[Phabricator:T376438]]: &quot;Download to PDF&quot; on en.wv is returning error: &quot;{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;HTTPError&quot;,&quot;message&quot;:&quot;500&quot;,&quot;status&quot;:500,&quot;detail&quot;:&quot;Internal Server Error&quot;}&quot;

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:36, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

:I just downloaded this page as a PDF and it worked just fine. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 23:04, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

== Protected template bug for Pp ==

It seems that templates derivative of {{tlx|Pp}} (compiled in {{tlx|Protection templates}}) are being sorted into protection categories using the name 'Wikipedia' instead of 'Wikiversity' (e.g., [[:Category:Wikipedia pages with incorrect protection templates]]). From what I can tell, it is not in the publicly accessible source code of any of the templates. The only other impacted pages are modules which call {{tlx|pp}}-derivatives (e.g., [[Module:Navbar/styles.css]]).

This does not seem to affect any other pages in [[:Category:Wikiversity protected templates]]. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 18:59, 4 October 2024 (UTC)

:The problem is that &quot;Wikipedia&quot; is [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ASearch&amp;limit=500&amp;offset=0&amp;ns828=1&amp;search=Wikipedia&amp;searchToken=9svkpqlxxoquoq7bnkt55ugts mentioned in several modules that were copied over from en.wp]; many of these are legit and many of them need to be replaced with &quot;Wikiversity&quot; ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Module%3APp-move-indef&amp;diff=2662815&amp;oldid=1944984 e.g.]) This particular change ''may'' fix all of these issues...? But 1.) it will take time to propagate across the site and 2.) there are still many more &quot;Wikipedia&quot;s that need to be changed, so I'll go thru a few more, but if you want to give me an assist, if you can just check this one week from now and ping me if the problem persists, that would be nice. Sometimes, I make calendar reminders to follow up on these, but I'm not a perfect person. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 04:55, 5 October 2024 (UTC)

== Invitation to Participate in Wiki Loves Ramadan Community Engagement Survey ==

Dear all,


We are excited to announce the upcoming [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan|Wiki Loves Ramadan]] event, a global initiative aimed at celebrating Ramadan by enriching Wikipedia and its sister projects with content related to this significant time of year. As we plan to organize this event globally, your insights and experiences are crucial in shaping the best possible participation experience for the community.

To ensure that Wiki Loves Ramadan is engaging, inclusive, and impactful, we kindly invite you to participate in our community engagement survey. Your feedback will help us understand the needs of the community, set the event's focus, and guide our strategies for organizing this global event.

Survey link: https://forms.gle/f66MuzjcPpwzVymu5

Please take a few minutes to share your thoughts. Your input will make a difference!

Thank you for being a part of our journey to make Wiki Loves Ramadan a success.


Warm regards,

User:ZI Jony 03:19, 6 October 2024 (UTC)

Wiki Loves Ramadan Organizing Team
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== 'Edit to my talk page' notification bug? ==

This may belong at the bug tracker, but does anyone else have an issue disabling ''email'' notifications upon  an 'Edit to my talk page' in [[Special:GlobalPreferences]]? Oddly I ''am'' able to disable the global preference on Wikipedia, MediaWiki, etc, but not here. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 09:23, 7 October 2024 (UTC)

:I have not experienced this, but to be clear, do you also have the option to get emails when items on your talk page are edited turned on? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:39, 7 October 2024 (UTC)
::The only (non-grayed out) options I have enabled for email are 'Failed login attempts' and 'Login from an unfamiliar device'. 'Edit to my talk page' re-checks after every save. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 09:54, 7 October 2024 (UTC)
:::That does sound like a [[phab:]] issue, with the caveat that I don't 100% recall how global preferences work and if they override local ones, etc. If you have parsed that and still have this issue, you'll probably need to file a ticket. Maybe someone else has this issue. Wish I could help. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:57, 7 October 2024 (UTC)
::::[[phab:T376601|Off 'n away]] 🫡 [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 10:35, 7 October 2024 (UTC)

== [[Portal:Computer Science]] ➝ [[Portal:Information sciences]] ==

Seeking consensus to complete the merge into the broader portal. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 06:28, 8 October 2024 (UTC)

:Why should it be merged? Computer Science seems well-enough designed. What is the incentive to collapse it into a broader field of study? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:18, 8 October 2024 (UTC)
::Portals as top level organizations allowing for content to be best centralized. Also note that I did not start the merge, just offering to finish it. Perhaps a {{tlx|prod}} instead? [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 07:20, 8 October 2024 (UTC)
:::I have no objections, personally. If it gets done, please use a redirect and should someone want to come along to resurrect it later, it will be easier. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 07:21, 8 October 2024 (UTC)
: Is computer science really a branch of information sciences? I would not think so, but what do I know. Do we have some external resources/links confirm this idea? [[W:Information science]] currently says: &quot;Information science, documentology[1] or informatology[2][3] is an academic field which is primarily concerned with analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information.&quot; --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 14:49, 11 October 2024 (UTC)
::Looking through [https://stackoverflow.com/q/1047014/22673230] [https://businessdegrees.uab.edu/mis-degree-bachelors/resources/computer-information-systems-vs-computer-science/] [https://www.si.umich.edu/student-experience/what-information-science] a few top (not necessarily RS) searches I'm inclined to agree. I am more familiar with the grafted [[:w:Information and computer science|information ''and'' computer science]] which makes an effort to merge the disciplines, but it does not seem like reaching to say that IS is presented as more applications-concerned (certainly with no lack of theoretical abstraction), whereas CS can be more freely associated with any and all 'science related to computers'. It is easy to reason about the connection between the fields, but I think it is clear academia maintains this taxonomy for a good reason.
::With these considerations, I think I will ''stop'' the process of merging in favor of expanding the existing [[School:Library and Information Science]]. 

::Let me know if there is not consensus to redirect [[Portal:Information sciences]] to [[School:Library and Information Science]] (with enough expansion it can generalize away from just library sciences). [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 16:16, 11 October 2024 (UTC)
::: I do not see that a merge of a ''portal'' to a ''school'' is a good thing. Do you have a clear idea of the concepts of school and portal and how they relate to each other? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 16:34, 11 October 2024 (UTC)
::::Found [[:Category:Information sciences]]; there are enough existing resources in there to make my other proposed merge excessive. I will simply continue developing the existing [[Portal:Information sciences]] instead. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 17:05, 11 October 2024 (UTC)
::::: Frankly, I would ideally see [[Portal:Information sciences]] deleted: I don't see what it does that a category would not do well enough. There does not seem to be any material specific to &quot;Information sciences&quot; (whatever that is) in that portal at all. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 17:11, 11 October 2024 (UTC)
::::::Tacked a {{tlx|prod}} for an eventual deletion, but I may still try to develop it as proof of concept at some point. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 17:33, 11 October 2024 (UTC)

== [[:Category:Occupational Epidemiology]] ==

I propose moving the pages in this category (without leaving redirects) to their equivalent under the parent resource [[Occupational Health Risk Surveillance]]. Also due to the number of subpages, it seems &lt;code&gt;|filing=deep&lt;/code&gt; would be a justified. (Also [[Special:PrefixIndex/Occupational_Epidemiology|there are quite a few]] untagged subpages.) [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 05:11, 9 October 2024 (UTC)
: I above all think that the content should be ''moved out of the mainspace'': I do not see readers learning anything from e.g. [[Occupational Epidemiology/Research tools/Reading of scientific articles for learning epidemiology and biostatstics]] or [[Occupational Epidemiology/Research tools/Ongoing projects/Risk Communication in Seafaring/Writing the article guideline IMRAD]]. Wikiversity can be kind enough to host that material in, say, subspace of [[User:Saltrabook]], but more should not be asked, I think. Let us recall that per [[WV:Deletions]], &quot;Resources may be eligible for proposed deletion when education objectives and learning outcomes are scarce, and objections to deletion are unlikely&quot;; I do not see how learning outcomes can be anything but scarce. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 15:04, 11 October 2024 (UTC)
::thank you, agree @ [[User:Saltrabook|Saltrabook]] ([[User talk:Saltrabook|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Saltrabook|contribs]]) 21:03, 13 November 2024 (UTC)

== Active editors ==

It is interesting to observe the stats on [https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikiversity.org/contributing/active-editors/normal|line|all|(page_type)~content*non-content|monthly active editors] through the project's history. October is our month! [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 20:44, 8 October 2024 (UTC)

:Odd. Maybe related to the school year? —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 02:10, 9 October 2024 (UTC)
::I wonder how many are [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]'s crowd... the number is in the hundreds though, so that is one chunky cohort —[[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 02:16, 9 October 2024 (UTC)
:::Yes, [[Motivation and emotion/Book]] involves ~100-150 students editing most intensely during October each year. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:20, 9 October 2024 (UTC)
::::Neat, that still leaves around ~50-100 other students from other avenues each year since 2021. I also wonder which projects were involved in the COVID enrollment spike. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 02:26, 9 October 2024 (UTC)
:::::Personally I can admit that my editing is much more active during the school season vs. the summer break, so I'm in the same boat as Jtneill's students. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:24, 13 November 2024 (UTC)

== Intentionally incorrect resource ==

There is a [[Special:Diff/2583464|disclaimer inserted onto a resource]] (by not the original author) that:
&lt;blockquote&gt;I am merely [making this page false] to show you (The viewer) that Wikipedia and this page 'Wikiversity' is bull sh*t and it will not give you the reliability you need when writing an academic piece of writing.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
However, that IP has [[Special:Contributions/86.22.73.151|not made any other edits]], so unless they vandalized via a sock, the intent went un-realized and only that portion need be removed. Bumping here in case there is some obvious jumbo in that essay that someone else can catch. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 16:58, 9 October 2024 (UTC)

:Removed that portion, which was obviously vandalism. No perspective on the rest of the essay. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 18:38, 9 October 2024 (UTC)

== [[:Category:Proposed guidelines]] ==

Noting for future editors that WV has collapsed all proposals into [[:Category:Proposed policies|proposed policies]]. Seeking consensus to further collapse [[:Category:Wikiversity proposals]] into the former, or to restore [[:Category:Proposed guidelines]]. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 19:19, 9 October 2024 (UTC)

== [[Around Wikiversity in 80 Seconds|Broken 80-second tour]] ==

Bumping a [[Talk:Around_Wikiversity_in_80_Seconds|comment]] on the ''Wikiversity in 80 seconds'' tour. Appears wikisuite is not working with the Vector 2022 appearance. 

Also see [[:w:Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/Wikiversuite_pages|this thread]] on the Wikiversal package - may not be relevant to Wikiversity, but FYC. [[User:Tule-hog|Tule-hog]] ([[User talk:Tule-hog|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tule-hog|contribs]]) 00:26, 10 October 2024 (UTC)
: I would just delete the material; I do not see value in it. If others agree, I would try to articulate why I think it should be deleted (or move to author user space). --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 06:57, 13 October 2024 (UTC)
::Just mark as {{tl|historical}}. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 17:39, 13 October 2024 (UTC)
::: This thing was created by [[User:Planotse]]. His creations are now being discussed in Wikibooks for deletion: [[B:Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Wikiversal generated pages]]. It seems he used some kind of tool that is no longer available (the above mentioned &quot;Wikiversal&quot; package) to create this kind of slideshow-like material (believing the Wikibooks discussion). I do not see value of this in the mainspace, not even as historical (I am okay with userspace, but maybe even that is not the best option?). A look at the source code of [[Around Wikiversity in 80 Seconds/Introduction]] confirms the words of Omphalographer, namely that &quot;the HTML-heavy markup generated by Wikiversal makes them [the pages] unreasonably difficult to edit.&quot;
::: I went ahead and marked the page for proposed deletion. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:35, 14 October 2024 (UTC)

== Preliminary results of the 2024 Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees elections ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
Hello all,

Thank you to everyone who participated in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024|2024 Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees election]]. Close to 6000 community members from more than 180 wiki projects have voted.

The following four candidates were the most voted:

# [[User:Kritzolina|Christel Steigenberger]]
# [[User:Nadzik|Maciej Artur Nadzikiewicz]]
# [[User:Victoria|Victoria Doronina]]
# [[User:Laurentius|Lorenzo Losa]]

While these candidates have been ranked through the vote, they still need to be appointed to the Board of Trustees. They need to pass a successful background check and meet the qualifications outlined in the Bylaws. New trustees will be appointed at the next Board meeting in December 2024.

[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2024/Results|Learn more about the results on Meta-Wiki.]]

Best regards,

The Elections Committee and Board Selection Working Group

&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

[[User:MPossoupe_(WMF)|MPossoupe_(WMF)]] 08:26, 14 October 2024 (UTC)
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== Seeking volunteers to join several of the movement’s committees ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
Each year, typically from October through December, several of the movement’s committees seek new volunteers. 

Read more about the committees on their Meta-wiki pages:
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee (AffCom)]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Ombuds_commission|Ombuds commission (OC)]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Legal/Community Resilience and Sustainability/Trust and Safety/Case Review Committee|Case Review Committee (CRC)]]

Applications for the committees open on 16 October 2024. Applications for the Affiliations Committee close on 18 November 2024, and applications for the Ombuds commission and the Case Review Committee close on 2 December 2024. Learn how to apply by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation/Legal/Committee_appointments|visiting the appointment page on Meta-wiki]]. Post to the talk page or email [mailto:cst@wikimedia.org cst@wikimedia.org] with any questions you may have.

For the Committee Support team,
&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

-- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 23:09, 16 October 2024 (UTC)
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== Interactive elements ==
Can we use interactive elements on Wikiversity? I'd like to add JavaScript to a page. If it's not possible now, where can I suggest this feature? I have a safe integration idea.
[[User:Отец Никифор|Отец Никифор]] ([[User talk:Отец Никифор|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Отец Никифор|contribs]]) 12:10, 17 October 2024 (UTC)
: This is beyond my technical knowledge, but have you checked out:
:* https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Manual:Interface/JavaScript?
:* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject JavaScript]]
:* [[MediaWiki:Common.js]]

:What sort of interactive elements are you thinking about?

: Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:39, 18 October 2024 (UTC)
::I was thinking about adding something like a graph with adjustable controls, where users can interact with it and see how different changes affect the outcome. It seems like this could be a useful feature. There might already be discussions about enhancing Wikiversity or similar platforms—perhaps on a relevant talk page or in a Discord group. Do you know where such discussions might be happening? [[User:Отец Никифор|Отец Никифор]] ([[User talk:Отец Никифор|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Отец Никифор|contribs]]) 19:47, 18 October 2024 (UTC)
:::From a quick look, maybe check out:
:::* [[mw:Extension:Graph]]
:::* [[phab:tag/graphs]]
:::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:40, 18 October 2024 (UTC)
:::: mw:Extension:Graph is currently disabled on Wikipedia etc. wikis, for security reasons, and seems unlikely to be enabled again. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:30, 19 October 2024 (UTC)

== An unexplained spurt of Wikiversity page views ==
The [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/siteviews/?platform=all-access&amp;source=pageviews&amp;agent=user&amp;start=2024-06-01&amp;end=2024-10-18&amp;sites=en.wikiversity.org|en.wikibooks.org|en.wikiquote.org|en.wikisource.org page view report] shows an unexplained spurt of Wikiversity page views, reaching over 4 times the baseline and then falling back again. Does anyone have any idea what is going on? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:01, 19 October 2024 (UTC)

== Center tempate failed on a contributors phone... ==

See the edit comment here - https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiphilosophers&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2673962. I'm puzzled as this is the first failure of this, I've noted recently. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:45, 19 October 2024 (UTC)

== Essay-like page in user space that makes little sense and seems incoherent ==
The page [[User:TheoYalur/Illusions]] seems to match the description, at least by my assessment. My understanding is that since the page is only in user space and not in the mainspace, it can stay there even if it has those disqualifying qualities. But if I am wrong and the page belongs deleted, please correct me and let me know. I do not know which policy or guideline, if any, guides the case. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 12:30, 21 October 2024 (UTC)

== 'Wikidata item' link is moving, finally. ==

Hello everyone, I previously wrote on the 27th September to advise that the ''Wikidata item'' sitelink will change places in the sidebar menu, moving from the '''General''' section into the '''In Other Projects''' section. The scheduled rollout date of 04.10.2024 was delayed due to a necessary request for Mobile/MinervaNeue skin. I am happy to inform that the global rollout can now proceed and will occur later today, 22.10.2024 at 15:00 UTC-2. [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link|Please let us know]] if you notice any problems or bugs after this change. There should be no need for null-edits or purging cache for the changes to occur. Kind regards, -[[m:User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 11:28, 22 October 2024 (UTC)
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== Final Reminder: Join us in Making Wiki Loves Ramadan Success ==

Dear all,

We’re thrilled to announce the Wiki Loves Ramadan event, a global initiative to celebrate Ramadan by enhancing Wikipedia and its sister projects with valuable content related to this special time of year. As we organize this event globally, we need your valuable input to make it a memorable experience for the community.

Last Call to Participate in Our Survey: To ensure that Wiki Loves Ramadan is inclusive and impactful, we kindly request you to complete our community engagement survey. Your feedback will shape the event’s focus and guide our organizing strategies to better meet community needs.

* Survey Link: [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSffN4prPtR5DRSq9nH-t1z8hG3jZFBbySrv32YoxV8KbTwxig/viewform?usp=sf_link Complete the Survey]
* Deadline: November 10, 2024
Please take a few minutes to share your thoughts. Your input will truly make a difference!

'''Volunteer Opportunity''': Join the Wiki Loves Ramadan Team! We’re seeking dedicated volunteers for key team roles essential to the success of this initiative. If you’re interested in volunteer roles, we invite you to apply.
* Application Link: [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfXiox_eEDH4yJ0gxVBgtL7jPe41TINAWYtpNp1JHSk8zhdgw/viewform?usp=sf_link Apply Here]
* Application Deadline: October 31, 2024
Explore Open Positions: For a detailed list of roles and their responsibilities, please refer to the position descriptions here: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1oy0_tilC6kow5GGf6cEuFvdFpekcubCqJlaxkxh-jT4/ Position Descriptions]

Thank you for being part of this journey. We look forward to working together to make Wiki Loves Ramadan a success!


Warm regards,&lt;br&gt;
The Wiki Loves Ramadan Organizing Team 05:11, 29 October 2024 (UTC)
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== Android app for Wikiversity ==

Hi, is there an Android app for Wikiversity? How does it work? I have been advised that there is no infrastructure for push notifications for Android apps for sister wikis and I would be interested to know more. Related: [[:phab:T378545]]. Thanks! [[User:Gryllida|Gryllida]] 23:15, 29 October 2024 (UTC)

:Thanks for suggesting this - I agree that it would be useful. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:56, 31 October 2024 (UTC)

à

== Import Resource From Wikibooks? ==

Hello! [[wikibooks:Character_List_for_Baxter&amp;Sagart|Character List for Baxter&amp;Sagart]] and related titles [[wikibooks:Wikibooks:Requests_for_deletion#Character_List_for_Baxter&amp;Sagart|are up for deletion at Wikibooks]] because WB policy does not allow dictionaries like them. However, because they are useful as learning tools, I am wondering if they might have a home here at Wikiversity. Pinging @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] here to link them in to this discussion, since they are the affected user. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:18, 1 November 2024 (UTC)

:Sure, I can do it. That said, as mentioned there, it does seem like something like this is ideally suited for Wiktionary in the Appendix namespace, but I'm not very familiar with CJK characters and languages. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:23, 3 November 2024 (UTC)
::Oh man, these pages are too big to import and while I've already tried a half-dozen times, it will constantly fail. Strictly speaking, we don't have to use the import feature for licensing purposes. We can just copy and paste the contents and list the usernames or on the talk page. I think that's the solution. {{Ping|Tibetologist}}, are you interested in doing that? If you just copied and pasted these pages and then added [[:Category:Chinese]] and maybe include a couple of links to the pages, that would probably be ideal. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:31, 3 November 2024 (UTC)

== Language translation requests? ==

Is there anywhere on Wikiversity to request translation, for example, requesting Latin or French translation? I would be asking from the context as a student, so I would be interested in translation explanation as well. [[User:Indexcard88|Indexcard88]] ([[User talk:Indexcard88|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Indexcard88|contribs]]) 04:56, 20 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>b9qpak516pgf7jk0mby5t4mgcds7qp5</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conic sections</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>4990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687996</id>
      <parentid>2675117</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T11:43:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Hyperbolas */</comment>
      <origin>2687996</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="114108" sha1="i58w35j49r7l4y0ni8fnt4bst5riq3y" xml:space="preserve">'''Conic sections''' are curves created by the intersection of a plane and a cone.  There are six types of conic section: the circle, ellipse, hyperbola, parabola, a pair of intersecting straight lines and a single point.

All conics (as they are known) have at least two foci, although the two may coincide or one may be at infinity.  They may also be defined as the locus of a point moving between a point and a line, a '''directrix''', such that the ratio between the distances is constant. This ratio is known as &quot;e&quot;, or [[eccentricity]].

== Ellipses ==
{{Main|Ellipse}}
[[Image:Ellipse Animation Small.gif|thumb|right|300px|Animation showing distance from the foci of an ellipse to several different points on the ellipse.]]

An ellipse is a locus where the sum of the distances to two foci is kept constant.  This sum is also equivalent to the major axis of the ellipse - the major axis being longer of the two lines of symmetry of the ellipse, running through both foci.  The eccentricity of an ellipse is less than one. 

In [[w:Cartesian coordinate system|Cartesian coordinates]], if an ellipse is centered at (h,k), the equation for the ellipse is

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x-h)^2}{a^2}+\frac{(y-k)^2}{b^2}=1&lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;(equation 1)

The lengths of the major and minor axes (also known as the conjugate and transverse) are &quot;a&quot; and &quot;b&quot; respectively.

'''Exercise 1'''. Derive equation 1. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;([[w:Ellipse/Proofs|hint]])

A circle circumscribed about the ellipse, touching at the two end points of the major axis, is known as the [[auxiliary circle]]. The [[latus rectum]] of an ellipse passes through the foci and is perpendicular to the major axis.

From a point P(&lt;math&gt;x_1&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_1&lt;/math&gt;) tangents will have the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{xx_1}{a^2} + \frac{yy_1}{b^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

And normals:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{xa^2}{x_1} - \frac{yb^2}{y_1} = a^2 - b^2&lt;/math&gt;

Likewise for the [[parametric coordinates]] of P, (a &lt;math&gt;\cos \alpha&lt;/math&gt;, b &lt;math&gt;\sin \alpha&lt;/math&gt;),

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{x\cos\alpha}{a} + \frac{y\sin\alpha}{b} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

== Properties of Ellipses ==

S and S' are typically regarded as the two foci of the ellipse. Where &lt;math&gt;a &gt; b&lt;/math&gt;, these become (ae, 0) and (-ae, 0) respectively. Where &lt;math&gt;a &lt; b&lt;/math&gt; these become (0, be) and (0, -be) respectively.

A point ''P'' on the ellipse will move about these two foci [[ut]]
&lt;math&gt;|PS + PS'| = 2a&lt;/math&gt;

Where a &gt; b, which is to say the Ellipse will have a major-axes parallel to the x-axis:

&lt;math&gt;b^2 = a^2(1-e^2)&lt;/math&gt;

The directrix will be: 
&lt;math&gt;x = \pm \frac{a}{e}&lt;/math&gt;

== Circles ==
A circle is a special type of the ellipse where the foci are the same point.

Hence, the equation becomes:

&lt;math&gt;x^2+y^2 = r^2&lt;/math&gt;

''Where 'r' represents the radius.''
And the circle is centered at the origin (0,0)

== Hyperbolas ==
A special case where the eccentricity of the conic shape is greater than one. 

Centered at the origin, Hyperbolas have the general equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{x^2}{a^2} - \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

A point ''P'' on will move about the two foci ut &lt;math&gt;|PS - PS'| = 2a&lt;/math&gt;

The equations for the tangent and normal to the hyperbola closely resemble that of the ellipse.

From a point P(&lt;math&gt;x_1&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_1&lt;/math&gt;) tangents will have the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{xx_1}{a^2} - \frac{yy_1}{b^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

And normals:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{xa^2}{x_1} + \frac{yb^2}{y_1} = a^2 + b^2&lt;/math&gt;

The directrixes (singular directrix) and foci of hyperbolas are the same as those of ellipses, namely directrixes of &lt;math&gt; x = \pm \frac{a}{e} &lt;/math&gt;   and foci of   &lt;math&gt; ( \pm ae, 0) &lt;/math&gt;

The [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Conic_sections#Asymptotes_of_hyperbola asymptotes] of a hyperbola lie at &lt;math&gt; y = \pm \frac {b}{a}x &lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0911hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Hyperbola at origin with transverse axis horizontal.''' &lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;

Origin at point &lt;math&gt;O&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;: (0,0)&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/br&gt;
Foci are points &lt;math&gt;F_1 (-c,0),\ F_2 (c,0). OF_1 = OF_2 = c.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Vertices are points &lt;math&gt;V_1 (-a,0),\ V_2 (a,0). OV_1 = OV_2 = a.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Line segment &lt;math&gt;V_1OV_2&lt;/math&gt; is the &lt;math&gt;transverse\ axis.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;PF_1 - PF_2 = 2a.&lt;/math&gt;
]]

In cartesian [[geometry]] in two dimensions hyperbola is locus of a point &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; that moves relative to two fixed points called &lt;math&gt;foci&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;: F_1, F_2.&lt;/math&gt;
The distance &lt;math&gt;F_1 F_2&lt;/math&gt; from one &lt;math&gt;focus\ (F_1)&lt;/math&gt; to the other &lt;math&gt;focus\ (F_2)&lt;/math&gt; is non-zero. The absolute difference of the distances &lt;math&gt;(PF_1, PF_2)&lt;/math&gt; from point to foci is constant.


&lt;math&gt;PF_1 - PF_2 = K.&lt;/math&gt; See figure 1. 


Center of hyperbola is located at the origin &lt;math&gt;O (0,0)&lt;/math&gt; and the foci &lt;math&gt;(F_1, F_2)&lt;/math&gt; are on the &lt;math&gt;X\ axis&lt;/math&gt;
at distance &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; from &lt;math&gt;O. &lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;F_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(-c, 0). F_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(c,0)&lt;/math&gt;. Line segments &lt;math&gt;OF_1 = OF_2 = c.&lt;/math&gt;


Each point &lt;math&gt;(V_1,V_2)&lt;/math&gt; where the curve intersects the transverse axis is called a &lt;math&gt;vertex.\ V_1,V_2&lt;/math&gt; are the vertices of the ellipse.


By definition &lt;math&gt;PF_1 - PF_2 = V_2F_1 - V_2F_2 = V_1F_2 - V_1F_1 = K.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\therefore V_2F_1 - V_2F_2 = V_2F_1 - V_1F_1 = V_1V_2 = K = 2a,&lt;/math&gt; the length of the
&lt;math&gt;transverse\ axis\ (V_1V_2).&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;OV_1 = OV_2 = a.&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Equation of hyperbola at origin===
====Transverse axis horizontal====
-----------------------
[[File:0911hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Hyperbola at origin with transverse axis horizontal.''' &lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;math&gt;a,c = 5, 6.25&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Origin at point &lt;math&gt;O&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;: (0,0)&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/br&gt;
Foci are points &lt;math&gt;F_1 (-6.25,0),\ F_2 (6.25,0). OF_1 = OF_2 = 6.25.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Vertices are points &lt;math&gt;V_1 (-5,0),\ V_2 (5,0). OV_1 = OV_2 = 5.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;PF_1 - PF_2 = 2a = 10.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
&lt;math&gt;PF_1 - PF_2 = 2a&lt;/math&gt;

Let point &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; have coordinates &lt;math&gt;(x,y).&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;PF_1 = \sqrt{(x-(-c))^2 + (y-0)^2} = \sqrt{(x+c)^2 + y^2} = m&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;PF_2 = \sqrt{(x-c)^2 + y^2} = n&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;m^2 = M = (x+c)^2 + y^2;\ n^2 = N = (x-c)^2 + y^2. &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{(x+c)^2 + y^2} - \sqrt{(x-c)^2 + y^2} = 2a&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;m - n = 2a&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;m^2 - 2mn + n^2 = M - 2mn + N = 4aa&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;-2mn = 4aa - M - N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;4m^2n^2 = (4aa - M - N)^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;4MN - (4aa - M - N)^2 = 0&lt;/math&gt;


Make appropriate substitutions, expand and result is:

&lt;math&gt;16aaxx - 16ccxx + 16aayy  - 16aaaa + 16aacc = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

Simplify, gather like terms and recall that, for hyperbola, &lt;math&gt;c &gt; a.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(aa - cc)xx + aayy  - aa(aa - cc) = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(cc - aa)xx - aayy  - aa(cc - aa) = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

Let &lt;math&gt;b^2 = c^2 - a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b^2x^2 - a^2y^2  = a^2b^2 &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{b^2x^2}{a^2b^2} - \frac{a^2y^2}{a^2b^2}  = \frac{a^2b^2}{a^2b^2} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{x^2}{a^2} - \frac{y^2}{b^2}  = 1 &lt;/math&gt;


Curve in diagram has:

&lt;math&gt;a = 5, c = 6.25&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b^2 = c^2 - a^2 = 14.0625&lt;/math&gt;

equation &lt;math&gt;(14.0625)x^2 - (25)y^2 = 351.5625&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\frac{x^2}{a^2} - \frac{y^2}{b^2} = \frac{x^2}{5^2} - \frac{y^2}{3.75^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;a^2 = 5^2, b^2 = 3.75^2.&lt;/math&gt;
====Transverse axis vertical====
-----------------------
[[File:0913hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Hyperbola at origin with transverse axis vertical.''' &lt;/br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;math&gt;a,c = 4, 5&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Origin at point &lt;math&gt;O&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;: (0,0)&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/br&gt;
Foci are points &lt;math&gt;F_1 (0, -5),\ F_2 (0, 5). OF_1 = OF_2 = 5.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Vertices are points &lt;math&gt;V_1 (0, -4),\ V_2 (0, 4). OV_1 = OV_2 = 4.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;PF_1 - PF_2 = 2a = 8.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
&lt;math&gt;PF_1 - PF_2 = 2a&lt;/math&gt;

Let point &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; have coordinates &lt;math&gt;(x,y).&lt;/math&gt;

Let Focus 1, &lt;math&gt;F_1&lt;/math&gt; have coordinates &lt;math&gt;(0,-c).&lt;/math&gt;

Let Focus 2, &lt;math&gt;F_2&lt;/math&gt; have coordinates &lt;math&gt;(0,c).&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;PF_1 = \sqrt{(x)^2 + (y-(-c))^2} = \sqrt{x^2 + (y+c)^2} = m&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;PF_2 = \sqrt{x^2 + (y-c)^2} = n&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;m^2 = M = x^2 + (y+c)^2;\ n^2 = N = x^2 + (y-c)^2. &lt;/math&gt;


Make substitutions as above, expand and result is:

&lt;math&gt;aayy - ccyy + aaxx + aacc - aaaa = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

Simplify, gather like terms and recall that, for hyperbola, &lt;math&gt;c &gt; a.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(aa - cc)yy + aaxx  + aa(cc - aa) = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(cc - aa)yy - aaxx  - aa(cc - aa) = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

Let &lt;math&gt;b^2 = c^2 - a^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b^2y^2 - a^2x^2  = a^2b^2 &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{b^2y^2}{a^2b^2} - \frac{a^2x^2}{a^2b^2}  = \frac{a^2b^2}{a^2b^2} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{y^2}{a^2} - \frac{x^2}{b^2}  = 1 &lt;/math&gt;


Curve in diagram has:

&lt;math&gt;a = 4, c = 5&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b^2 = 5^2 - 4^2 = 3^2 = 9&lt;/math&gt;

equation &lt;math&gt;(9)y^2 - (16)x^2 = (9)(16)&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\frac{y^2}{a^2} - \frac{x^2}{b^2} = \frac{y^2}{4^2} - \frac{x^2}{3^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;a^2 = 4^2, b^2 = 3^2.&lt;/math&gt;
====Transverse axis oblique====
-----------------------
[[File:0913hyperbola01a.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Hyperbola at origin with transverse axis oblique.''' &lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;p,q = 24,7&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Center of hyperbola is at origin, &lt;math&gt;(0,0).&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Foci are points &lt;math&gt;F_1 (-p, -q),\ F_2 (p, q). OF_1 = OF_2 = c = 25.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;2a = 40.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
With transverse axis oblique the two foci are defined as:

&lt;math&gt;F_1:\ (p,q)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;F_2:\ (-p,-q)&lt;/math&gt;

where both &lt;math&gt;(p,q)&lt;/math&gt; are non-zero.

Distance from center to focus &lt;math&gt;= c = \sqrt{ p^2 + q^2 },&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c &gt; a.&lt;/math&gt;

Let &lt;math&gt;m = \sqrt{  (x - p)^2 + (y - q)^2  }&lt;/math&gt;

Let &lt;math&gt;n = \sqrt{  (x - (-p))^2 + (y - (-q))^2  }&lt;/math&gt;

By definition: &lt;math&gt;m - n = 2a&lt;/math&gt;

If you make the substitutions as before, result is:

&lt;math&gt;Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + F = 0&lt;/math&gt; where:

&lt;math&gt;A = a^2 - p^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;B = a^2 - q^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;C = -2pq&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;F = a^2(  p^2 + q^2 - a^2 )&lt;/math&gt;


Curve in diagram has:

* Foci at (24,7), (-24,-7)

* a = 20

* equation &lt;math&gt;(-176)x^2 + (351)y^2 + (-336)xy + (90000) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;
====Implementation====
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

import decimal
dD = decimal.Decimal                        # Decimal object is like float with (almost) infinite precision.
dgt = decimal.getcontext()
Precision = dgt.prec = 28                   # Adjust as necessary.
Tolerance = dD(&quot;1e-&quot; + str(Precision-2))    # Adjust as necessary.
# 
# sum_zero(input) is function that calculates sum of all values in input.
# However, if sum is non-zero but very close to 0 and Tolerance permits,
# sum is returned as 0.
# For example sum of (2, -1.99999_99999_99999_99999_99999_99) is
# returned as 0.
#

def hyperbola_ABCF(a,pq, flag = 0) :
    '''
Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
for hyperbola at origin, D = E = 0.
ABCF = hyperbola_ABCF( a, pq [, flag] )
(2)a is length of transverse axis.
(p,q) are one focus. Other focus is (-p,-q)
    '''
    thisName = 'hyperbola_ABCF(a,pq, {}) :'.format(bool(flag))
    p,q = pq
    a,p,q = [ dD(str(v)) for v in (a,p,q) ]
    if a == 0 :
        print (thisName)
        print ('  For hyperbola, a must be non-zero.')
        return None
    aa,pp,qq = a**2, p**2, q**2
    cc = pp + qq
    # c = cc.sqrt() and (2)c is distance between foci.
    if cc &gt; aa : pass
    else :
        print (thisName)
        print ('  For hyperbola, c must be &gt; a.')
        return None
    A = aa - pp
    B = aa - qq
    C = -2*p*q
    # F = aa*( pp + qq - aa )
    F = aa*( cc - aa ) # F = aa*bb
    if flag :
        # Print results:
        str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({}) = 0'
        str2 = str1.format(A,B,C,F)
        print (str2)

        # Equation of small circle, used to display points on grapher.
        str3 = '({},{})    (x - ({}))^2 + (y - ({}))^2 = 1'
        print ('    F1:', str3.format(p,q, p,q))
        print ('    F2:', str3.format(-p,-q, -p,-q))
        print ('    axis: ({})y = ({})x'.format(p,q))

        print ('    aa,a =', aa,a)
        bb = cc-aa ; b = bb.sqrt()
        print ('    bb,b =', bb,b)
        c = cc.sqrt()
        print ('    cc,c =', cc,c)
        if C == 0 :
            # Display intercept form of equation.
            if F &gt; 0 : A,B,C,F = [ -v for v in (A,B,C,F) ]
            str1a = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({}) = 0'
            str4 = str1a.format(A,B,F)
            print ('   ', str4)

            if (A == bb) and (B == -aa) :
                # (225)x^2 + (-400)y^2 + (-90000) = 0
               str5 = 'xx/(({})^2) - yy/(({})^2) = 1'
               top1_ = 'x^2' ; top2_ = 'y^2'
            elif (A == -aa) and (B == bb) :
                # (-400)x^2 + (225)y^2 + (-90000) = 0
               str5 = 'yy/(({})^2) - xx/(({})^2) = 1'
               top1_ = 'y^2' ; top2_ = 'x^2'
            else : ({}[2])
            str6 = str5.format(a, b)
            print ('   ',str6)

            str5 = '\\frac{{ {} }}{{ {}^2 }} - \\frac{{ {} }}{{ {}^2 }} = 1'
            print('   ','&lt;math&gt;', str5.format(top1_,a, top2_,b), '&lt;/math&gt;')
            
            bottom1,bottom2 = [ '({})^2'.format(v) for v in (a,b) ]
            len1,len2 = [ len(v) for v in (bottom1,bottom2) ]
            len1a = (len1-3) &gt;&gt; 1 ; len1b = (len1-3)-len1a
            len2a = (len2-3) &gt;&gt; 1 ; len2b = (len2-3)-len2a
            top1 = '{}{}{}'.format( ' '*len1a,top1_, ' '*len1b )
            top2 = '{}{}'.format( ' '*len2a,top2_ )
            print ( '   ', top1, ' ', top2 )
            print ( '   ', '-'*len1,'-', '-'*len2, '= 1' )
            print ( '   ', bottom1, ' ', bottom2 )
    return A,B,C,F
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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====Examples====
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&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0917hyperbola00.png|&lt;small&gt;Hyperbola of low eccentricity.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0917hyperbola01.png|&lt;small&gt;Hyperbola of medium eccentricity.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0917hyperbola02.png|&lt;small&gt;Hyperbola of high eccentricity.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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====Reversing the process====
The expression &quot;reversing the process&quot; means calculating the values of &lt;math&gt;a,p,q&lt;/math&gt; when given
equation of hyperbola at origin, the familiar values &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,F.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider the equation of a hyperbola at origin: &lt;math&gt;351 x^2 - 176 y^2 + 336 xy + 90000 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;
This is a hyperbola where &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,F = 351, -176, 336, 90000.&lt;/math&gt;

This hyperbola may be expressed as &lt;math&gt;35.1 x^2 - 17.6 y^2 + 33.6 xy + 9000.0 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
or &lt;math&gt;3510 x^2 - 1760 y^2 + 3360 xy + 900000 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
or &lt;math&gt;(K)351 x^2 - (K)176 y^2 + (K)336 xy + (K)90000 = 0&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;K&lt;/math&gt; is any real, non-zero number.

However, when this hyperbola is expressed as &lt;math&gt;351 x^2 - 176 y^2 + 336 xy + 90000 = 0,&lt;/math&gt; this format is the hyperbola expressed in &quot;standard form,&quot;
a notation that greatly simplifies the calculation of &lt;math&gt;a,p,q.&lt;/math&gt;

Modify the equations for &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,F&lt;/math&gt; slightly:

&lt;math&gt;KA = a^2 - p^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;KB = a^2 - q^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;KC = -2pq&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;KF = a^2(p^2 + q^2 - a^2)&lt;/math&gt;

There are four simultaneous equations with four known values &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,F&lt;/math&gt; and four unknown: &lt;math&gt;K,a,p,q.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;K = \frac{4F}{C^2 - 4AB}.&lt;/math&gt;

For &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,F = 35.1,-17.6,33.6,9000.0,\ K = 10.&lt;/math&gt;

For &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,F = 351,-176,336,90000,\ K = 1,&lt;/math&gt; the ideal condition.
=====Implementation=====

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

def hyperbola_a_pq (ABCF, flag = 0) :
    '''
Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
Here D = E = 0.
a,(p,q) = hyperbola_a_pq (ABCF [, flag])
ABCF implies hyperbola with center at origin (0,0).
if flag : print info about hyperbola.
    '''
    thisName = 'hyperbola_a_pq (ABCF, {}) :'.format(bool(flag))
    A1,B1,C1,F1 = [ dD(str(v)) for v in ABCF ]
    K = 4*F1/(C1**2 - 4*A1*B1)
    A,B,C,F = [ K*v for v in (A1,B1,C1,F1) ] # Standard form.
    # 
    # A = aa - pp ; pp = aa-A
    # B = aa - qq ; qq = aa - B
    # F = aa(pp + qq - aa)
    # F = aa((aa-A) + (aa-B) - aa)
    # F = aaaa-aaA + aaaa-aaB - aaaa
    # F = aaaa - aaA - aaB
    # aaaa - aaA - aaB - F = 0
    # aaaa -(A + B)aa - F = 0
    # 
    # We have a quadratic function in aa.
    # (a_)(aa)(aa) + (b_)(aa) + (c_) = 0
    # Coefficients of quadratic function:
    a_,b_,c_ = 1, -(A+B), -F
    discr = b_**2 - 4*a_*c_
    root = discr.sqrt()
    aa,X = (-b_ + root)/2, (-b_ - root)/2
    # X positive: ellipse
    # X negative: hyperbola
    if X &lt; 0 : pass
    else :
        print (thisName)
        print ('    For hyperbola, X must be &lt; 0. ',)
        return None
    
    a = aa.sqrt() ; pp = aa - A ; p = pp.sqrt()
    if p : q = -C/(2*p)
    else :
        qq = aa - B ; q = qq.sqrt()

    if flag :
        # Print results.
        print ()
        print (thisName)
        str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({}) = 0'
        str2 = str1.format(A1,B1,C1,F1)
        print (str2)
        if K != 1 :
            str2a = str1.format(A,B,C,F)
            print (str2a, 'Standard form.')
            
        str3 = '({}, {})    (x - ({}))^2 + (y - ({}))^2 = 1'
        print ('    F1:', str3.format(p,q, p,q))
        print ('    F2:', str3.format(-p,-q, -p,-q))
        cc = pp + q**2 ; c = cc.sqrt()
        bb = cc - aa ; b = bb.sqrt()
        for x in 'K A B C F X a b c'.split() :
            print ('   ', x, '=', eval(x))

    return a,(p,q)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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===Second definition of hyperbola===
-----------------------
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0922hyperbola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of hyperbola &lt;math&gt;\frac{x^2}{a^2} - \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;a,b = 20,15&lt;/math&gt;.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
At vertex &lt;math&gt;V_2,\ \frac{v}{u} = e.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
At point &lt;math&gt;P_1\ \frac{\text{distance to Focus2}}{\text{distance to Directrix2}} = e.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Hyperbola is path of point that moves so that ratio of distance to
fixed point and distance to fixed line is constant.


Let &lt;math&gt;\frac{c}{a} = e&lt;/math&gt; where:

* &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is non-zero,

* &lt;math&gt;c &gt; a,&lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt;c = a + v.&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore, &lt;math&gt;e &gt; 1.&lt;/math&gt;

Let directrix have equation &lt;math&gt;x = d&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\frac{a}{d} = e.&lt;/math&gt;


At vertex &lt;math&gt;V_2:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{distance to focus}}{\text{distance to directrix}}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \frac{v}{u} = \frac{c-a}{a - d}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \frac{ae-a}{a - a/e} = \frac{ae-a}{(ae - a)/e}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \frac{(ae-a)e}{ae-a} = e.&lt;/math&gt;


At point &lt;math&gt;P:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b^2x^2 - a^2y^2 = a^2b^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;a^2y^2 = b^2x^2 - a^2b^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y^2 = \frac{b^2x^2 - a^2b^2}{a^2}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \frac{(c^2 - a^2)x^2 - a^2(c^2-a^2)}{a^2}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \frac{(a^2e^2 - a^2)x^2 - a^2(c^2 - a^2)}{a^2}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= (e^2 - 1)x^2 - (a^2e^2 - a^2)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= e^2x^2 - x^2 - a^2e^2 + a^2&lt;/math&gt;


At point &lt;math&gt;P_1\ x = c:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y^2 = e^2c^2 - c^2 - a^2e^2 + a^2&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= e^2a^2e^2 - a^2e^2 - a^2e^2 + a^2&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= a^2(e^4 - 2e^2  + 1)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= a^2(e^2 - 1)^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = a(e^2 - 1).&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\text{distance to directrix} = c-d&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= ae - a/e&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= (aee - a)/e&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= a(e^2 - 1)/e&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{distance to focus}}{\text{distance to directrix}}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \frac{a(e^2 - 1)}{a(e^2 - 1)/e}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= \frac{a(e^2 - 1)e}{a(e^2 - 1)} = e.&lt;/math&gt;


Aim of this section is to prove that :
&lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{distance to focus}}{\text{distance to directrix}} = e\ \dots\ (3)&lt;/math&gt;

Statement &lt;math&gt;(3)&lt;/math&gt; has been proved for two specific points, vertex &lt;math&gt;V_2&lt;/math&gt; and point &lt;math&gt;P_1.&lt;/math&gt;


Section under &quot;Proof&quot; below proves that statement (3) is true for any point &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; on hyperbola.
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====Proof====
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[[File:0922hyperbola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Proving that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{distance from point to focus}}{\text{distance from point to directrix}} = e&lt;/math&gt;.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Graph is part of curve &lt;math&gt;\frac{x^2}{a^2} - \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
At point &lt;math&gt;P:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
distance to Directrix2 &lt;math&gt;= x - d = x - \frac{a}{e} = \frac{ex - a}{e}.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
base = &lt;math&gt;x - c = x - ae&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\text{(distance to Focus2)}^2 = \text{base}^2 + y^2.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
As expressed above in statement &lt;math&gt;3,&lt;/math&gt; second definition of hyperbola states that hyperbola is path of point that moves so that ratio of distance to
fixed point and distance to fixed line is constant.


This section proves that this definition is true for any point &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; on hyperbola.


At point &lt;math&gt;P:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y^2 = e^2x^2 - x^2 + a^2 - a^2e^2&lt;/math&gt;

base &lt;math&gt;= x-c = x-ae&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(\text{distance}\ F_2P)^2 = y^2 + \text{base}^2 = y^2 + (x-ae)^2&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= a^2 - 2aex + e^2x^2&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= (ex - a)^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\text{distance to Focus2} = \text{distance}\ F_2P = ex - a&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\text{distance to Directrix2} = x - d = x - \frac{a}{e}  = \frac{ex - a}{e}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{distance to Focus2}}{\text{distance to Directrix2}}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= (ex - a)\frac{e}{(ex - a)}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= e&lt;/math&gt;


Similar calculations can be used to prove the case for Focus1 &lt;math&gt;(-c, 0)&lt;/math&gt; and Directrix1 &lt;math&gt;(x = -d)&lt;/math&gt;
in which case:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{distance to Focus1}}{\text{distance to Directrix1}}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= e&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore: &lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{distance to focus}}{\text{distance to directrix}} = e&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;e &gt; 1.&lt;/math&gt;


Second definition of hyperbola has been proven valid:

Hyperbola is path of point that moves so that ratio of distance to fixed point and distance to fixed line is constant,
called eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e.&lt;/math&gt;
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===The general hyperbola===
In the two dimensional space of Cartesian Coordinate Geometry the hyperbola may be located anywhere and with any orientation.

To keep the calculation of the general hyperbola as simple as possible, there are two functions that will become very useful:
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

def move_section_relative (ABCDEF, gh, flag = 0) :
    '''
Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
A,B,C,D1,E1,F1 = move_section_relative ( (A,B,C,D,E,F), (g,h) [, flag]) 
This function moves conic section from its present position to a new
position (g,h) relative to present position.
    '''
    A,B,C,D,E,F = [ dD(str(v)) for v in ABCDEF ]
    g,h = [ dD(str(v)) for v in gh ]
    # 
    # After move, equation of hyperbola becomes:
    # A(x-g)^2 + B(y-h)^2 + C(x-g)(y-h) + D(x-g) + E(y-h) + F = 0
    # or
    # Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + (D1)x + (E1)y + (F1) = 0 where:
    D1 = D - C*h - 2*A*g
    E1 = E - C*g - 2*B*h
    F1 = A*g*g + C*g*h + B*h*h + F - D*g - E*h 
    if flag :
        str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'
        str2 = str1.format(A,B,C,D,E,F)
        print ('from:', str2)
        str3 = str1.format(A,B,C,D1,E1,F1)
        print ('to  :',str3)
    return A,B,C,D1,E1,F1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

def center_of_hyperbola (ABCDEF) :
    '''
Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
G,H = center_of_hyperbola (ABCDEF)
    '''
    A,B,C,D,E,F = [ dD(str(v)) for v in ABCDEF ]
    # 
    # If center of hyperbola (G,H) is known then:
    # move_section_relative (ABCDEF, (-G,-H)) 
    # will move hyperbola to origin and D1 = E1 = 0.
    # Equations for D1,E1 become:
    # 
    # D - C*(-H) - 2*A*(-G) = 0
    # E - C*(-G) - 2*B*(-H) = 0
    # 
    # Two simultaneous equations in G,H:
    # 2AG +  CH + D = 0
    #  CG + 2BH + E = 0
    # 
    # C2AG +   CCH +  CD = 0
    # 2ACG + 2A2BH + 2AE = 0
    #        (CC-4AB)H + (CD - 2AE) = 0
    #        (CC-4AB)H = (2AE - CD)
    # 
    #     (2AE - CD)
    # H = ----------
    #     (CC - 4AB)
    #
    H = (2*A*E - C*D)/(C*C - 4*A*B)
    if A :
        G = -(C*H + D)/(2*A)
        return G,H
    if C :
        G = -(2*B*H + E)/C
        return G,H
    ({}[11]) 
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Compare the two simultaneous equations for &lt;math&gt;G,H&lt;/math&gt; with those derived from calculus under
[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Conic_sections#Slope_of_curve Slope of curve.]
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====Deriving equation====
To calculate the general equation three values must be known:

* Focus1 &lt;math&gt;(F_1)&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus2 &lt;math&gt;(F_2)&lt;/math&gt;

* Length of transverse axis &lt;math&gt;(a*2)&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;code&gt;two_a.&lt;/code&gt;

Calculate center of hyperbola &lt;math&gt;(G,H)&lt;/math&gt;

Calculate &lt;math&gt;a,(p,q).&lt;/math&gt;

Calculate equation of hyperbola at origin &lt;math&gt;Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + F = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Move hyperbola from origin to point &lt;math&gt;(G,H).&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

def hyperbola_ABCDEF (two_a, F1, F2, flag = 0) :
    '''
Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0

A,B,C,D,E,F = hyperbola_ABCDEF (two_a, F1, F2  [, flag])
two_a is length of transverse axis
F1 is Focus1: (F1x,F1y)
F2 is Focus2: (F2x,F2y)
if flag : print info about hyperbola.
    '''
    thisName = 'hyperbola_ABCDEF (two_a, F1, F2, {}) :'.format(bool(flag))

    F1x,F1y = F1 ; F2x,F2y = F2
    two_a,F1x,F1y,F2x,F2y = [ dD(str(v)) for v in (two_a,F1x,F1y,F2x,F2y) ]
    
    a = two_a/2
    if a == 0 :
        print (thisName)
        print ('    For hyperbola a must be non-zero.')
        return None

    G = (F1x + F2x)/2 ; H = (F1y + F2y)/2
    p = F2x - G ; q = F2y - H
    aa,pp,qq = a**2, p**2, q**2
    cc = pp + qq
    if cc &gt; aa : pass
    else :
        print (thisName)
        print ('    For hyperbola c must be greater than a.')
        return None
    A00,B00,C00,F00 = hyperbola_ABCF(a, (p,q)) # Hyperbola at origin.
    A,B,C,D,E,F = move_section_relative ( (A00,B00,C00,0,0,F00), (G,H) )
    ( {A==A00, B==B00, C==C00} == {True} ) or ({}[2])
    
    if flag :
        print()
        print(thisName)
        str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'
        print (str1.format(A,B,C,D,E,F))
        print ('   ', str1.format(A,B,C,0,0,F00))

        str3 = '({},{})    (x - ({}))^2 + (y - ({}))^2 = 1'
        print ('    F1:', str3.format(F1x,F1y, F1x,F1y))
        print ('    F2:', str3.format(F2x,F2y, F2x,F2y))
        print ('    GH:', str3.format(G,H, G,H))
        print ('    f1:', str3.format(p,q, p,q))
        print ('    f2:', str3.format(-p,-q, -p,-q))

        bb = cc - aa
        b = bb.sqrt() ; c = cc.sqrt()
        print ('    a =', a)
        print ('    b =', b)
        print ('    c =', c)
        print ('    eccentricity e =', c/a)
        # Axis:
        Dx = F1x-F2x ; Dy = F1y - F2y
        # Dy x - Dx y + c = 0
        a,b = Dy, -Dx
        # ax + by + c = 0
        c = -(a*F1x + b*F1y)
        print ( '    axis: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(a,b,c) )
    return A,B,C,D,E,F
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
====Examples====
Curve in Figure 1 below is defined by:

* Focus1, &lt;math&gt;F_1 = (-9,6)&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus2, &lt;math&gt;F_2 = (-9,102)&lt;/math&gt;

* Constant, &lt;math&gt;2a = 60&lt;/math&gt;

Curve has equation: &lt;math&gt;(900)x^2 + (-1404)y^2 + (0)xy + (16200)x + (151632)y + (-2757564) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;


Curve in Figure 2 below is defined by:

* Focus1, &lt;math&gt;F_1 = (-7,24)&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus2, &lt;math&gt;F_2 = (7,-24)&lt;/math&gt;

* Constant, &lt;math&gt;2a = 40&lt;/math&gt;

Curve has equation: &lt;math&gt;(351)x^2 + (-176)y^2 + (336)xy + (0)x + (0)y + (90000) = 0&lt;/math&gt;


Curve in Figure 3 below is defined by:

* Focus1, &lt;math&gt;F_1 = (13,-27)&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus2, &lt;math&gt;F_2 = (43,-11)&lt;/math&gt;

* Constant, &lt;math&gt;2a = 27.2&lt;/math&gt;

Curve has equation: &lt;math&gt;(-40.04)x^2 + (120.96)y^2 + (-240)xy + (-2317.76)x + (11316.48)y + (159198.4384) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
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&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0926hyperbola01.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 1.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola parallel to Y axis.
File:0926hyperbola02.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 2.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Random hyperbola at origin.
File:0926hyperbola00.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 3.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola with random position and orientation.
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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====Reversing the process====
The expression &quot;reversing the process&quot; means calculating the values of &lt;math&gt;F_1, F_2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;code&gt;length of transverse axis&lt;/code&gt;
when given
equation of general hyperbola, the familiar values &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,D,E,F.&lt;/math&gt;


Calculate center of hyperbola.

Move hyperbola to origin.

Calculate a,(p,q) of hyperbola at origin.

Calculate &lt;math&gt;F_1, F_2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;code&gt;length of transverse axis,&lt;/code&gt; &lt;math&gt;(2a).&lt;/math&gt;
=====Implementation=====

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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

def hyperbola_2a_F1_F2 (ABCDEF, flag = 0) :
    '''
Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0

two_a, F1, F2 = hyperbola_2a_F1_F2 (ABCDEF  [, flag])
two_a, (2)a, is length of transverse axis.
F1, (F1x,F1y), is Focus1.
F2, (F2x,F2y), is Focus2.
#bb = b**2 where (2)b is length of conjugate axis.
if flag == 1 : Check calculations.
if flag == 2 : Check and print result of calculations.
    '''
    thisName = 'hyperbola_2a_F1_F2 (ABCDEF, flag = {}) :'.format(flag)
    ( 2 &gt;= flag &gt;= 0 ) or ({}[1])
    A,B,C,D,E,F = [ dD(str(v)) for v in ABCDEF ]
    G,H = center_of_hyperbola ((A,B,C,D,E,F)) 
    # Move hyperbola to origin.
    A0,B0,C0,D0,E0,F0 = move_section_relative (ABCDEF, (-G,-H))
    (D0 == E0 == 0) or ({}[2])
    a,(p,q) = hyperbola_a_pq ( (A0,B0,C0,F0) )
    # Two foci:
    F1 = G+p,H+q ; F2 = G-p,H-q
    if flag :
        # Check calculations.
        # Produce hyperbola in standard form.
        ABCDEF_ = hyperbola_ABCDEF (2*a, F1, F2)
        # zip returns:
        # ( (ABCDEF[0], ABCDEF_[0]),
        #    .....................
        #   (ABCDEF[5], ABCDEF_[5]) )
        # (Both v,v_ must be 0) or (Both v,v_ must be non-zero.)
        for (v,v_) in zip(ABCDEF, ABCDEF_) : ( bool(v) == bool(v_) ) or ({}[3])
        set1 = set([ (v_/v) for (v_,v) in zip( ABCDEF_, (A,B,C,D,E,F) ) if v ])
        (len(set1) == 1) or ({}[4])
        
        if flag == 2 :
            print ()
            print (thisName)
            # Print results.
            str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'
            str2 = str1.format(A,B,C,D,E,F)
            print (str2)
            K, = set1
            if K != 1 :
                A_,B_,C_,D_,E_,F_ = ABCDEF_
                str3 = str1.format(A_,B_,C_,D_,E_,F_)
                print (str3, 'Standard form.')
            str4 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({}) = 0'.format(A0,B0,C0,F0)
            print (str4, 'At origin.')
            
            F1x,F1y = F1 ; F2x,F2y = F2
            two_c = distance_between_foci = ( (F1x-F2x)**2 + (F1y-F2y)**2 ).sqrt()
            length_of_transverse_axis = 2*a
            e = distance_between_foci/length_of_transverse_axis
        
            for c in 'K G,H a 2*a two_c e'.split() :
                print ('   ', c, '=', eval(c))
            str5 = '({}, {})    (x - ({}))^2 + (y - ({}))^2 = 1'
            print ('    F1:', str5.format(F1x,F1y, F1x,F1y))
            print ('    F2:', str5.format(F2x,F2y, F2x,F2y))
            print ('    f1:', str5.format(p,q, p,q))
            print ('    f2:', str5.format(-p,-q, -p,-q))
            
            # Axis:
            Dx = F1x-F2x ; Dy = F1y - F2y
            # Dy x - Dx y + c = 0
            a1,b1 = Dy, -Dx
            # a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
            c1 = -(a1*F1x + b1*F1y)
            print ( '    axis: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(a1,b1,c1) )
        
    return 2*a,F1,F2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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=====Example=====

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[[File:0927hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Hyperbola with random position and orientation.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;f(x,y) = 176x^2 - 351y^2 -336xy - 2528x + 6504y - 89104 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
Equation of hyperbola is given.
&lt;/br&gt;
This section calculates &lt;code&gt;length of transverse axis,&lt;/code&gt; &lt;math&gt;F_1, F_2.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
A hyperbola has equation: &lt;math&gt;f(x,y) = 176x^2 - 351y^2 -336xy - 2528x + 6504y - 89104 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Calculate two foci and &lt;code&gt;length of transverse axis.&lt;/code&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = 176, -351, -336, -2528, 6504, -89104
two_a, F1, F2 = hyperbola_2a_F1_F2 (ABCDEF)
print ('Length of transverse axis =',two_a )
print ('F1 = ({},{})'.format(F1[0], F1[1] ))
print ('F2 = ({},{})'.format(F2[0], F2[1] ))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
Length of transverse axis = 40
F1 = (35,-3)
F2 = (-13,11)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
To check calculation and for more information about hyperbola:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code
hyperbola_2a_F1_F2 (ABCDEF, 2) # Set flag.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
hyperbola_2a_F1_F2 (ABCDEF, flag = 2) :
(176.00)x^2 + (-351.00)y^2 + (-336)xy + (-2528.00)x + (6504.00)y + (-89104.0000) = 0
(-176.00)x^2 + (351.00)y^2 + (336.0)xy + (2528.000)x + (-6504.00)y + (89104.0000) = 0 Standard form.
(176.00)x^2 + (-351.00)y^2 + (-336)xy + (-90000.0000) = 0 At origin.
    K = -1
    G,H = (Decimal('11'), Decimal('4'))
    a = 20.0
    2*a = 40.0
    two_c = 50.0 
    e = 1.25
    F1: (35.0, -3)    (x - (35.0))^2 + (y - (-3))^2 = 1
    F2: (-13.0, 11)    (x - (-13.0))^2 + (y - (11))^2 = 1
    f1: (24.0, -7)    (x - (24.0))^2 + (y - (-7))^2 = 1
    f2: (-24.0, 7)    (x - (-24.0))^2 + (y - (7))^2 = 1
    axis: (-14)x + (-48.0)y + (346.0) = 0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Asymptotes of hyperbola===
-----------------------
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0928hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of hyperbola &lt;math&gt;\frac{x^2}{a^2} - \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;a,b = 4,3&lt;/math&gt;.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Blue lines are asymptotes of hyperbola.
&lt;/br&gt;
Hyperbola and asymptotes do not intersect.
&lt;/br&gt;
Any line parallel to asymptote intersects hyperbola in exactly one place.
]]
We are familiar with values &lt;math&gt;a,c&lt;/math&gt; where:

* Length of transverse axis &lt;math&gt;= 2a&lt;/math&gt;

* Distance between foci &lt;math&gt;= 2c.&lt;/math&gt;

And we have said: Let &lt;math&gt;b^2 = c^2 - a^2.&lt;/math&gt; What is &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;?

Value &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; defines the &lt;math&gt;conjugate\ axis.&lt;/math&gt;
In diagram, line segment &lt;math&gt;B_1B_2&lt;/math&gt; is conjugate axis with length &lt;math&gt;2b.&lt;/math&gt;

Box at origin with length &lt;math&gt;2a&lt;/math&gt; and width &lt;math&gt;2b&lt;/math&gt; contains two special lines (blue lines) called &lt;math&gt;asymptotes.&lt;/math&gt;


Let asymptote1 have equation &lt;math&gt;y = \frac{b}{a}x\ \dots\ (1).&lt;/math&gt;

Hyperbola has equation &lt;math&gt;b^2x^2 - a^2y^2 = a^2b^2\ \dots\ (2).&lt;/math&gt;

Calculate point of intersection of &lt;math&gt;(1), (2):&lt;/math&gt;


From &lt;math&gt;(1):\ ay = bx.&lt;/math&gt;

Substitute for &lt;math&gt;ay&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;(2):\ b^2x^2 - b^2x^2 = a^2b^2 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

This does not make sense. There is no real point of intersection of &lt;math&gt;(1), (2).&lt;/math&gt;


Let any line parallel to asymptote have equation: &lt;math&gt;y = \frac{b}{a}x + m\ \dots\ (4)&lt;/math&gt;

Calculate point of intersection of &lt;math&gt;(2), (4):&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;ay = bx + am&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;ay = bx + n&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;bbxx - (bx + n)(bx + n) = aabb&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;bbxx - (bbxx + 2bnx + nn) = aabb&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;bbxx - bbxx - 2bnx - nn = aabb&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;- 2bnx - nn = aabb&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;- 2bnx = aabb + nn&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = \frac{-(a^2b^2 + n^2)}{2bn}.&lt;/math&gt;

Provided that &lt;math&gt;m,n&lt;/math&gt; are non-zero, &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; is a real number.


* Asymptote is line whose position is as close as possible to hyperbola (both sides) without touching it.

* Any line parallel to asymptote intersects hyperbola in exactly one place.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
====Line and hyperbola====
This section describes possibilities that arise when we consider intersection of line and hyperbola.
=====At origin=====
Let hyperbola have equation &lt;math&gt;b^2x^2 - a^2y^2 = a^2b^2.&lt;/math&gt;

Let line have equation: &lt;math&gt;y = mx + n.&lt;/math&gt;

Let line intersect curve. For &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; substitute &lt;math&gt;(mx + n):&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b^2x^2 - a^2(mx + n)^2 = a^2b^2\ \dots\ (4)&lt;/math&gt;

Expand &lt;math&gt;(4),&lt;/math&gt; simplify, gather like terms and result is quadratic function in &lt;math&gt;x:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(c2)x^2 + (c1)x + (c0) = 0 \ \dots\ (5)&lt;/math&gt; where:

&lt;math&gt;c2 = a^2m^2 - b^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;c1 = 2a^2mn&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;c0 = a^2(b^2 + n^2)&lt;/math&gt;


From these results we can deduce:

* If line is parallel to asymptote, c2 = 0.

* If c2 == 0, line is parallel to asymptote.

* If line is asymptote, both &lt;math&gt;c_2, c_1&lt;/math&gt; are 0.

* If both &lt;math&gt;c_2, c_1&lt;/math&gt; are 0, line is asymptote.


These deductions are included in general case below.

=====Generally=====

Let the conic section have the familiar equation: &lt;math&gt;Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0.&lt;/math&gt;


Let a line have equation: &lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = mx + n.&lt;/math&gt;


Let &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; intersect the conic section. For &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; in equation of conic section substitute &lt;math&gt;(mx + n).&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = g(x) = Ax^2 + B(mx+n)^2 + Cx(mx+n) + Dx + E(mx+n) + F = 0.&lt;/math&gt;


Expand &lt;math&gt;g(x),&lt;/math&gt; simplify, gather like terms and result is quadratic function in &lt;math&gt;x:&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;h(x) = (a&lt;/math&gt;_&lt;math&gt;)x^2 + (b&lt;/math&gt;_&lt;math&gt;)x + (c&lt;/math&gt;_&lt;math&gt;) = 0&lt;/math&gt; where:

&lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;_ &lt;math&gt; = A + Bm^2 + Cm&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;_ &lt;math&gt; = 2Bmn + Cn + D + Em&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;_ &lt;math&gt; = En + F + Bn^2&lt;/math&gt;


If line &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is an asymptote, then &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;_ &lt;math&gt; = b&lt;/math&gt;_ &lt;math&gt; = 0,&lt;/math&gt; in which case:

&lt;math&gt;j(m) =\ (&lt;/math&gt;_&lt;math&gt;a)m^2 + (&lt;/math&gt;_&lt;math&gt;b)m + (&lt;/math&gt;_&lt;math&gt;c) = 0&lt;/math&gt; where:

_&lt;math&gt;a = B;\ &lt;/math&gt;_&lt;math&gt;b = C;\ &lt;/math&gt;_&lt;math&gt;c = A&lt;/math&gt;

and &lt;math&gt;m_1,m_2&lt;/math&gt; (roots of &lt;math&gt;j(m)&lt;/math&gt;) are the slopes of the 2 asymptotes.


Python code below recognizes whether or not line is asymptote or parallel to asymptote.
=====Implementation=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code
def hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, line_abc, flag = 0) :
    '''
This function calculates point/s of intersection (if any) of hyperbola and line.
hyperbola is: Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
line is: ax + by + c = 0
To invoke:
[] = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, line_abc[, flag]) 
[point1] = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, line_abc[, flag]) 
[point1,point2] = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, line_abc[, flag])
if line is asymptote or parallel to asymptote, output is type tuple.
if flag : check results.
if flag==2 : print results.
    '''
    
    (2 &gt;= flag &gt;= 0) or ({}[1])
    thisName = 'hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, line_abc, {}) :'.format(flag)
    a,b,c = [ dD(str(v)) for v in line_abc ]
    # a,b,c refer to line ax + by + c = 0.
    if a == b == 0 :
        print (thisName)
        print ('  At least one of a,b must be non-zero.')
        return None
    A,B,C,D,E,F = [ dD(str(v)) for v in ABCDEF ]

    output = []
    if b == 0:
        # Reverse x,y going in.
        result = hyperbola_and_line ( (B,A,C,E,D,F), (b,a,c))
        # Reverse x,y coming out.
        output = (type(result))([ v[::-1] for v in result ])
        # output is same type as result.
    else:
        # Axx + Byy + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0
        # ax + by + c = 0 ; by = (- (ax + c))
        # Multiply equation of hyperbola by bb:
        # Abbxx + Bbyby + Cxbby + Dbbx + Ebby + Fbb = 0
        # For 'by' substitute '(- (ax + c))'.
        # Abbxx + B(-(ax+c))(-(ax+c)) + Cxb(-(ax+c)) + Dbbx + Eb(-(ax+c)) + Fbb = 0
        # Expand and result is quadratic function in x, (a_)xx + (b_)x + (c_) = 0 where
        a_ = A*b*b, + B*a*a, - C*a*b
        b_ = B*2*a*c, + D*b*b, - C*b*c, - E*b*a
        c_ = B*c*c, + F*b*b, - E*b*c
        a_,b_,c_ = [ sum_zero(v) for v in (a_,b_,c_) ]
        while 1:
            if a_ == 0 :
                # Line is parallel to asymptote.
                # values_of_x is of type tuple.
                if b_ == 0 :
                    # Line is asymptote. Return empty tuple.
                    values_of_x = tuple([]) ; break
                values_of_x = ( -c_/b_, ) ; break

            # values_of_x is of type list.
            two_a = 2*a_ ; discr = sum_zero((b_**2, - 4*a_*c_))
            if discr == 0 :
                # discr is 0 or very close to 0.
                values_of_x = [ -b_/two_a ] ; break

            if discr &lt; 0 :
                values_of_x = [ ] ; break

            root = discr.sqrt()
            values_of_x = [ (-b_ - root)/two_a, (-b_ + root)/two_a ] ; break

        for x in values_of_x :
            by = -(a*x+c) ; y = by/b # Here is why b must be non-zero.
            output += [ (x,y) ]
        # output is same type as values_of_x.
        output = (type(values_of_x))(output)

    if flag :
        # Check results.
        errors = []
        for x,y in output :
            sum1 = sum_zero((A*x**2 , B*y**2 , C*x*y , D*x , E*y , F))
            if sum1 :
                errors += [ 'bad sum1: {} for point ({},{})'.format(sum1, x,y) ]
            sum2 = sum_zero((a*x , b*y , c))
            if sum2 :
                errors += [ 'bad sum2: {} for point ({},{})'.format(sum2, x,y) ]
        if errors or (flag == 2) :
            # Print results.
            print ()
            print (thisName)
            str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'
            print ( str1.format(A,B,C,D,E,F) )
            str3 = '({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(a,b,c)
            print (str3)
            print ( 'ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = {}, {}, {}, {}, {}, {}'.format(A,B,C,D,E,F) )
            print ( 'abc = a,b,c = {}, {}, {}'.format(a,b,c) )
            
            str4 = 'output[{}]: ({},{}),    (x - ({}))^2 + (y - ({}))^2 = 1'
            for p in range (0,len(output)) :
                x,y = output[p]
                print ('   ', str4.format(p, x,y, x,y))
            for v in errors : print ('   ',v)
    # output may be empty: [] or (). () means asymptote.
    # or output may contain one point:
    #     [ (x1,y1) ] or ( (x1,y1), ). ( (x1,y1), ) means line is parallel to asymptote.
    # or output may contain two points: [ (x1,y1), (x2,y2) ]
    return output
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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=====Examples=====
======With no common point======

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0929hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''Diagram of hyperbola and two lines.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Both lines do not touch hyperbola.
&lt;/br&gt;
Line 1 is asymptote.
&lt;/br&gt;
Line 2 is not asymptote.
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
Line 1:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = 704, -1404, 1344, -11040, -41220, -161775

abc = a,b,c = 88.0, 234.0, 435.0
result = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, abc) 
sx = 'result' ; print (sx, eval(sx))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Code recognizes that line is asymptote and returns empty tuple:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
result ()
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Line 2:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

result = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, (1,0,-10)) # x = 10.
sx = 'result' ; print (sx, eval(sx))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Code recognizes that line is not asymptote and returns empty list:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
result []
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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======With one common point======
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[[File:01hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''Diagram of hyperbola and two lines.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Each line and hyperbola have one common point.
&lt;/br&gt;
Line 1 (blue) is parallel to asymptote.
&lt;/br&gt;
Line 2 (orange) is not parallel to asymptote.
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
Line 1:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = 704, -1404, 1344, -11040, -41220, -161775

abc = a,b,c = 88.0, 234.0, -1065
result = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, abc) 
sx = 'result' ; print (sx, eval(sx))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Code recognizes that line is parallel to asymptote and returns tuple containing one point:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
result ((24.6, -4.7),)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Line 2:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

abc = a,b,c = -.96, -.28, 2.3
result = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, abc) 
sx = 'result' ; print (sx, eval(sx))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Code recognizes that line is not parallel to asymptote and returns list containing one point:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
result [ (5.4, -10.3) ]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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======With two common points======

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:01hyperbola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Diagram of hyperbola and line.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Line and hyperbola have two common points.
&lt;/br&gt;
When line and hyperbola have two common points, line cannot be parallel to asymptote.
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
Line 1:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = 704, -1404, 1344, -11040, -41220, -161775

abc = a,b,c = .96, .28, .2
result = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, abc) 
sx = 'result' ; print (sx, eval(sx))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Code returns list containing two points:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
result [ (1.425,-5.6), (4.575,-16.4) ]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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====Calculation of Asymptotes====
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

def asymptotes_of_hyperbola (ABCDEF, flag = 0) :
    '''
asymptote1, asymptote2 = asymptotes_of_hyperbola (ABCDEF [, flag])
Each asymptote is of form (a,b,c) where ax + by + c = 0.
if flag == 1: check results.
if flag == 2: check and print results.
    '''
    (2 &gt;= flag &gt;= 0) or ({}[3])
    thisName = 'asymptotes_of_hyperbola (ABCDEF, {}) :'.format(flag)

    A,B,C,D,E,F = [ dD(str(v)) for v in ABCDEF ]

    G,H = center_of_hyperbola (ABCDEF)
    while 1 :
        if A == B == 0 :
            if 0 in (C,F) :
                print (thisName)
                print ('    For rectangular hyperbola, both C,F must be non-zero.')
                return None
            asymptote1 = 1,0,-G # x = G
            asymptote2 = 0,1,-H # y = H
            output = [ asymptote1, asymptote2 ] ; break

        if B == 0 :
            # Reverse x,y going in.
            result = asymptotes_of_hyperbola ( (B,A,C,E,D,F), int(bool(flag)) )
            (a1,b1,c1),(a2,b2,c2) = result
            # Reverse x,y coming out.
            output = [ (b1,a1,c1), (b2,a2,c2) ] ; break

        _a,_b,_c = B,C,A
        discr = _b**2 - 4*_a*_c
        root = discr.sqrt()
        m1 = (-_b - root),(2*_a)
        m2 = (-_b + root),(2*_a)
        #     p
        # y = -x + c
        #     q
        # 
        # qy = px + c
        # px - qy + c = 0
        # ax + by + c = 0
        p,q = m1 ; a1,b1 = p,-q
        c1 = -(a1*G + b1*H)
        asymptote1 = a1,b1,c1
        p,q = m2 ; a2,b2 = p,-q
        c2 = -(a2*G + b2*H)
        asymptote2 = a2,b2,c2
        output = [ asymptote1, asymptote2 ]

        if flag :
            # Check results.
            values_of_c_ = []
            for a3,b3,c3 in output :
                # a3 x + b3 y + c3 = 0
                # b3 y = -(a3 x + c3)
                m = -a3/b3 ; c = -c3/b3
                b_ = sum_zero((2*B*c*m , c*C , D , E*m))
                b_ and ({}[6])
                values_of_c_ += [ E*c + F + B*c**2 ]
            c_1,c_2 = values_of_c_ # c_1,c_2 should be equal.
            sum_zero ((c_1, -c_2)) and ({}[6])
        break

    if flag :
        results = []
        for asymptote in output :
            result = hyperbola_and_line (ABCDEF, asymptote, 1)
            results += [ result ]
        set1 = { v==tuple([]) for v in results }
        error = (set1 != {True})
        if error or (flag == 2) :
            print (thisName)
            str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'
            a,b,c,d,e,f = [ float(v) for v in ABCDEF ]
            print ( '   ', str1.format(a,b,c,d,e,f) )
        
            asymptote1,asymptote2 = output
            a1,b1,c1 = [ float(v) for v in asymptote1 ]
            print ( '    asymptote1: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0    {}'.format(a1,b1,c1, results[0]==()) )
            a2,b2,c2 = [ float(v) for v in asymptote2 ]
            print ( '    asymptote2: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0    {}'.format(a2,b2,c2, results[1]==()) )
    return output
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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====Gallery====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0530hyperbola02.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 1.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola parallel to X axis.
File:0530hyperbola01.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 2.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola with asymptote horizontal.
File:0529hyperbola04.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 3.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola with asymptote vertical.
File:0529hyperbola02.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 4.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola with random orientation.
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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====Family of hyperbolas====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0828hyperbolas00.png|thumb|400px|'''Family of hyperbolas &lt;math&gt;3.1616x^2 - 0.645975y^2 - 2.4276xy - 42.01x - 4.41375y + F_n = 0.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
Asymptote1 (brown line): &lt;math&gt;-1.3224x + 1.29195y + 16.02975 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
Asymptote2 (green line): &lt;math&gt;6.1776x + 1.29195y - 7.20225 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Asymptotes of hyperbola are determined by coefficients &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,D,E.&lt;/math&gt;

All hyperbolas in diagram have coefficients &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,D,E = 3.1616, - 0.645975, - 2.4276, - 42.01, - 4.41375.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider the family of hyperbolas that satisfy equation:

&lt;math&gt;f(x,y) = Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F_n = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Provided that coefficients &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,D,E&lt;/math&gt; remain constant, hyperbolas of form &lt;math&gt;f(x,y)&lt;/math&gt;
are members of a family, all of which share the same asymptotes.


Examples of this family in diagram are:

&lt;math&gt;\text{Hyperbola 1 (black):}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;3.1616x^2 - 0.645975y^2 - 2.4276xy - 42.01x - 4.41375y - 59.359375 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\text{Hyperbola 2 (red):}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;3.1616x^2 - 0.645975y^2 - 2.4276xy - 42.01x - 4.41375y - 59.359375(5) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\text{Hyperbola 3 (blue):}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;3.1616x^2 - 0.645975y^2 - 2.4276xy - 42.01x - 4.41375y + 59.359375 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\text{Hyperbola 4 (magenta):}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;3.1616x^2 - 0.645975y^2 - 2.4276xy - 42.01x - 4.41375y + 59.359375(5) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Rectangular Hyperbolas ===
Rectangular Hyperbolas are special cases of hyperbolas where the asymptotes are perpendicular. 
These have the general equation:

&lt;math&gt; xy = c &lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:06hyperbola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Diagram 1. Graph of rectangular hyperbola at origin.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;xy = n = 91^2.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
A rectangular hyperbola has eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e = \sqrt{2}.&lt;/math&gt;

If hyperbola is expressed as &lt;math&gt;xy = n,&lt;/math&gt; then:

* Distance from origin to focus: &lt;math&gt;c = 2\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;

* Distance from origin to vertex: &lt;math&gt;a = \frac{c}{\sqrt{2}} = \frac{2\sqrt{n}}{\sqrt{2}} = \sqrt{2}\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;

* Distance from origin to directrix: &lt;math&gt;d = \frac{a}{\sqrt{2}} = \frac{\sqrt{2}\sqrt{n}}{\sqrt{2}} = \sqrt{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt;\frac{c}{d} = \frac{2\sqrt{n}}{\sqrt{n}} = 2 = e^2.&lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{Length of conjugate axis}}{2} = b = a&lt;/math&gt; because &lt;math&gt;b^2 = c^2 - a^2 = 4n - 2n = 2n = a^2.&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus &lt;math&gt;F_1 = (a,a)&lt;/math&gt; because &lt;math&gt;a^2 + a^2 = 4n = c^2.&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus &lt;math&gt;F_2 = (-a,-a)&lt;/math&gt;

* Vertex &lt;math&gt;V_1 = (d,d)&lt;/math&gt; because &lt;math&gt;d^2 + d^2 = 2n = a^2.&lt;/math&gt;

* Vertex &lt;math&gt;V_2 = (-d,-d)&lt;/math&gt;

* Directrix 1 has equation: &lt;math&gt;\frac{x}{\sqrt{2}} + \frac{y}{\sqrt{2}} = d&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x + y = a&lt;/math&gt;

* Directrix 2 has equation: &lt;math&gt;\frac{x}{\sqrt{2}} + \frac{y}{\sqrt{2}} = -d&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x + y = -a&lt;/math&gt;


It is obvious that asymptotes are the &lt;math&gt;X, Y&lt;/math&gt; axes.
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====Details====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:06hyperbola04.png|thumb|400px|'''Diagram 2: Detail of quadrant 1 of Diagram 1.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;xy = n = 91^2 = 8281.&lt;/math&gt;
]]

Diagram 2 shows detail of quadrant 1 of Diagram 1.


* Distance from origin to Directrix1 &lt;math&gt;=&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;OD_1 = d = \sqrt{n} = \sqrt{8281} = 91.&lt;/math&gt;

* Distance from origin to Vertex1 &lt;math&gt;=&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;OV_1 = a = de = \sqrt{2}d = \sqrt{2}\cdot 91.&lt;/math&gt;

* Distance from origin to Focus1 &lt;math&gt;=&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;OF_1 = c = ae = \sqrt{2}a = \sqrt{2}\sqrt{2}d = 2\cdot 91 = 182.&lt;/math&gt;


Line segment &lt;math&gt;B_1V_1B_2:&lt;/math&gt;

* is parallel to conjugate axis,

* has length of conjugate axis: &lt;math&gt;2b = 2a,&lt;/math&gt;

* has equation: &lt;math&gt;x + y = c.&lt;/math&gt;


Directrix1 has equation: &lt;math&gt;x + y = a.&lt;/math&gt;


Three circles are included for reference:

* Circle1, green line through point &lt;math&gt;D_1&lt;/math&gt; has equation: &lt;math&gt;x^2 + y^2 = d^2.&lt;/math&gt;

* Circle2, magenta line through vertex &lt;math&gt;V_1&lt;/math&gt; has equation: &lt;math&gt;x^2 + y^2 = a^2.&lt;/math&gt;

* Circle3, orange line through focus &lt;math&gt;F_1&lt;/math&gt; has equation: &lt;math&gt;x^2 + y^2 = c^2.&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

====Examples====

=====Rectangular hyperbola at origin=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:10hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Rectangular hyperbola at origin with transverse axis horizontal.''' &lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - y^2 = 8281 = 91^2.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Curve in Figure 1 has equation: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y^2 = 8281.&lt;/math&gt;


When &lt;math&gt;y = 0,\ x^2 = 8281, x = \sqrt{8281} = 91 = a =&lt;/math&gt; distance&lt;math&gt;OV_1 =&lt;/math&gt; distance&lt;math&gt;OV_2.&lt;/math&gt;

Vertex &lt;math&gt;V_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(a,0).&lt;/math&gt;
Vertex &lt;math&gt;V_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(-a,0).&lt;/math&gt;


Distance&lt;math&gt;OF_1 = c = a\sqrt{2}.&lt;/math&gt;

Focus &lt;math&gt;F_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(c,0).&lt;/math&gt;
Focus &lt;math&gt;F_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(-c,0).&lt;/math&gt;


Distance&lt;math&gt;OD_1 = d = \frac{a}{\sqrt{2}}.&lt;/math&gt;

Point &lt;math&gt;D_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(d,0).&lt;/math&gt;
Point &lt;math&gt;D_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(-d,0).&lt;/math&gt;

Directrix1, directrix through point &lt;math&gt;D_1&lt;/math&gt; has equation &lt;math&gt;x = d.&lt;/math&gt;

Directrix2, directrix through point &lt;math&gt;D_2&lt;/math&gt; has equation &lt;math&gt;x = -d.&lt;/math&gt;


Asymptote1 has equation: &lt;math&gt;y = x.&lt;/math&gt;

Asymptote2 has equation: &lt;math&gt;y = -x.&lt;/math&gt;

Slope of asymptote1: &lt;math&gt;m_1 = 1.&lt;/math&gt;

Slope of asymptote2: &lt;math&gt;m_2 = -1.&lt;/math&gt;

Product of slopes: &lt;math&gt;m_1 \cdot m_2 = -1.&lt;/math&gt; Asymptotes are perpendicular.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=====Rectangular hyperbola parallel to Y axis=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:10hyperbola01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 2: Rectangular hyperbola parallel to Y axis.''' &lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;(-1.0)x^2 + (1.0)y^2 + (0.0)xy + (80.0)x + (-120.0)y + (-6281.0) = 0.&lt;/math&gt; &lt;/br&gt;
Curve is &lt;math&gt;y^2 - x^2 = 8281&lt;/math&gt; moved from origin to point &lt;math&gt;C:\  (40,60).&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Curve in Figure 2 has equation: &lt;math&gt;(-1.0)x^2 + (1.0)y^2 + (0.0)xy + (80.0)x + (-120.0)y + (-6281.0) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;


Center of hyperbola, point &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(40,60).&lt;/math&gt;


Distance &lt;math&gt;CV_1 = a = 91 =&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;CV_2.&lt;/math&gt;

Vertex &lt;math&gt;V_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(40,60+a).&lt;/math&gt;
Vertex &lt;math&gt;V_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(40,60-a).&lt;/math&gt;


Distance &lt;math&gt;CF_1 = c = a\sqrt{2} =&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;CF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

Focus &lt;math&gt;F_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(40, 60+c).&lt;/math&gt;
Focus &lt;math&gt;F_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(40, 60-c).&lt;/math&gt;


Distance &lt;math&gt;CD_1 = d = \frac{a}{\sqrt{2}}=&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;CD_2.&lt;/math&gt;

Point &lt;math&gt;D_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(40,60+d).&lt;/math&gt;
Point &lt;math&gt;D_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(40,60-d).&lt;/math&gt;

Directrix1, directrix through point &lt;math&gt;D_1&lt;/math&gt; has equation &lt;math&gt;y = 60+d.&lt;/math&gt;

Directrix2, directrix through point &lt;math&gt;D_2&lt;/math&gt; has equation &lt;math&gt;y = 60-d.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\frac{\text{distance between foci}}{\text{distance between directrices}} = \frac{2c}{2d} = \frac{a\sqrt{2}}{a/\sqrt{2}} = \frac{a\sqrt{2}\sqrt{2}}{a} = 2 = e^2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;e = \sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;


Asymptote1 has equation: &lt;math&gt;y = -x + 100.&lt;/math&gt;

Asymptote2 has equation: &lt;math&gt;y = x + 20.&lt;/math&gt;

Slope of asymptote1: &lt;math&gt;m_1 = -1.&lt;/math&gt;

Slope of asymptote2: &lt;math&gt;m_2 = 1.&lt;/math&gt;

Product of slopes: &lt;math&gt;m_1 \cdot m_2 = -1.&lt;/math&gt; Asymptotes are perpendicular.
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=====Rectangular hyperbola, random=====

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[[File:11hyperbola00.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 3: Rectangular hyperbola with random position and orientation.''' &lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;(-6982.5392)x^2 + (6982.5392)y^2 + (-8903.7312)xy&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt; + (627236.064)x + (783316.352)y + (58230998.28) = 0.&lt;/math&gt; &lt;/br&gt;
Curve is &lt;math&gt;y^2 - x^2 = 8281&lt;/math&gt; moved from origin to point &lt;math&gt;C:\ (57.36, -19.52)&lt;/math&gt; and rotated.&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
In all rectangular hyperbolas:
&lt;/br&gt;
* Point &lt;math&gt;D_1&lt;/math&gt; is mid-point of segment &lt;math&gt;CF_1.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
* Point &lt;math&gt;D_2&lt;/math&gt; is mid-point of segment &lt;math&gt;CF_2.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Curve in Figure 3 has equation: &lt;math&gt;(-6982.5392)x^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt; + (6982.5392)y^2&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt; + (-8903.7312)xy&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt; + (627236.064)x&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt; + (783316.352)y&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt; + (58230998.28) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;


Center of hyperbola, point &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(57.36, -19.52).&lt;/math&gt;


Distance &lt;math&gt;CV_1 = a = 91 =&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;CV_2.&lt;/math&gt;

Vertex &lt;math&gt;V_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(144.72, 5.96).&lt;/math&gt;
Vertex &lt;math&gt;V_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(-30.0, -45.0).&lt;/math&gt;


Distance &lt;math&gt;CF_1 = c = a\sqrt{2} =&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;CF_2.&lt;/math&gt;

Focus &lt;math&gt;F_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(180.90569680891358, 16.514161569266463).&lt;/math&gt;
Focus &lt;math&gt;F_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(-66.18569680891359, -55.55416156926646).&lt;/math&gt;


Distance &lt;math&gt;CD_1 = d = \frac{a}{\sqrt{2}}=&lt;/math&gt; distance &lt;math&gt;CD_2.&lt;/math&gt;

Point &lt;math&gt;D_1&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(119.1328484044568, -1.502919215366769).&lt;/math&gt;
Point &lt;math&gt;D_2&lt;/math&gt; has coordinates &lt;math&gt;(-4.412848404456792, -37.53708078463323).&lt;/math&gt;

Conjugate axis through point &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; has equation &lt;math&gt;(-0.96)x + (-0.28)y + (49.6) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Directrix1, directrix through point &lt;math&gt;D_1&lt;/math&gt; has equation &lt;math&gt;(-0.96)x + (-0.28)y + (49.6 + d) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Directrix2, directrix through point &lt;math&gt;D_2&lt;/math&gt; has equation &lt;math&gt;(-0.96)x + (-0.28)y + (49.6 - d) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;


Asymptote1 has equation: &lt;math&gt;(-7658.2688)x + (-13965.0784)y + (166679.968) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Asymptote2 has equation: &lt;math&gt;(25465.7312)x + (-13965.0784)y + (-1733312.672) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Slope of asymptote1: &lt;math&gt;m_1 = \frac{-(-7658.2688)}{(-13965.0784)}.&lt;/math&gt;

Slope of asymptote2: &lt;math&gt;m_2 = \frac{-(25465.7312)}{(-13965.0784)}.&lt;/math&gt;

Product of slopes: &lt;math&gt;m_1 \cdot m_2 = \frac{76582688}{-139650784}\cdot \frac{254657312}{139650784} = \frac{19502341471814656}{-19502341471814656} = -1.&lt;/math&gt; Asymptotes are perpendicular.
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==Conic sections generally==
Within the two dimensional space of Cartesian Coordinate Geometry a conic section may be located anywhere
and have any orientation.

This section examines the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola, showing how to calculate the equation of
the conic section, and also how to calculate the foci and directrices given the equation.
===Deriving the equation===
The curve is defined as a point whose distance to the focus and distance to a line, the directrix,
have a fixed ratio, eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e.&lt;/math&gt; Distance from focus to directrix must be non-zero.

Let the point have coordinates &lt;math&gt;(x,y).&lt;/math&gt;

Let the focus have coordinates &lt;math&gt;(p,q).&lt;/math&gt;

Let the directrix have equation &lt;math&gt;ax + by + c = 0&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;a^2 + b^2 = 1.&lt;/math&gt;

Then &lt;math&gt;e = \frac {\text{distance to focus}}{\text{distance to directrix}}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;= \frac{\sqrt{(x-p)^2 + (y-q)^2}}{ax + by + c}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;e(ax + by + c) = \sqrt{(x-p)^2 + (y-q)^2}&lt;/math&gt;

Square both sides: &lt;math&gt;(ax + by + c)(ax + by + c)e^2 = (x-p)^2 + (y-q)^2&lt;/math&gt;

Rearrange: &lt;math&gt;(x-p)^2 + (y-q)^2 - (ax + by + c)(ax + by + c)e^2 = 0\ \dots\ (1).&lt;/math&gt;

Expand &lt;math&gt;(1),&lt;/math&gt; simplify, gather like terms and result is:

&lt;math&gt;Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0&lt;/math&gt; where:

&lt;math&gt;X = e^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A = Xa^2 - 1&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;B = Xb^2 - 1&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;C = 2Xab&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;D = 2p + 2Xac&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;E = 2q + 2Xbc&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;F = Xc^2 - p^2 - q^2&lt;/math&gt;
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Note that values &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,D,E,F&lt;/math&gt; depend on:

* &lt;math&gt;e&lt;/math&gt; non-zero. This method is not suitable for circle where &lt;math&gt;e = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt;e^2.&lt;/math&gt; Sign of &lt;math&gt;e \pm&lt;/math&gt; is not significant.

* &lt;math&gt;(ax + by + c)^2.\ ((-a)x + (-b)y + (-c))^2&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;((-1)(ax + by + c))^2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(ax + by + c)^2&lt;/math&gt; produce same result.

For example, directrix &lt;math&gt;0.6x - 0.8y + 3 = 0&lt;/math&gt; and directrix &lt;math&gt;-0.6x + 0.8y - 3 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
produce same result.
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===Implementation===

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code
import decimal

dD = decimal.Decimal # Decimal object is like a float with (almost) unlimited precision.
dgt = decimal.getcontext()
Precision = dgt.prec = 22


def reduce_Decimal_number(number) :
# This function improves appearance of numbers.
# The technique used here is to perform the calculations using precision of 22,
# then convert to float or int to display result.
# -1e-22 becomes 0.
#  12.34999999999999999999 becomes 12.35
# -1.000000000000000000001 becomes -1.
# 1E+1 becomes 10.
# 0.3333333333333333333333 is unchanged.
#
    thisName = 'reduce_Decimal_number(number) :'
    if type(number) != dD : number = dD(str(number))

    f1 = float(number)
    if (f1 + 1) == 1 : return dD(0)
    if int(f1) == f1 : return dD(int(f1))
        
    dD1 = dD(str(f1))

    t1 = dD1.normalize().as_tuple()
    if (len(t1[1]) &lt; 12) :
        # if number == 12.34999999999999999999, dD1 = 12.35
        return dD1

    return number


def ABCDEF_from_abc_epq (abc,epq,flag = 0) :
    '''
ABCDEF = ABCDEF_from_abc_epq (abc,epq[,flag]) 
    '''
    thisName = 'ABCDEF_from_abc_epq (abc,epq, {}) :'.format(bool(flag))
    a,b,c = [ dD(str(v)) for v in abc ]
    e,p,q = [ dD(str(v)) for v in epq ]

    divider = a**2 + b**2
    if divider == 0 :
        print (thisName, 'At least one of (a,b) must be non-zero.')
        return None
    if divider != 1 :
        root = divider.sqrt()
        a,b,c = [ (v/root) for v in (a,b,c) ]

    distance_from_focus_to_directrix = a*p + b*q + c
    if distance_from_focus_to_directrix == 0 :
        print (thisName, 'distance_from_focus_to_directrix must be non-zero.')
        return None

    X = e*e
    A = X*a**2 - 1
    B = X*b**2 - 1
    C = 2*X*a*b
    D = 2*p + 2*X*a*c
    E = 2*q + 2*X*b*c
    F = X*c**2 - p*p - q*q

    A,B,C,D,E,F = [ reduce_Decimal_number(v) for v in (A,B,C,D,E,F) ]

    if flag :
        print (thisName)
        str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(A,B,C,D,E,F)
        print (' ', str1)
        
    return (A,B,C,D,E,F)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Examples===
====Parabola====
Every parabola has eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e = 1.&lt;/math&gt;
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[[File:0323parabola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Quadratic function complies with definition of parabola.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Distance from point &lt;math&gt;(6,9)&lt;/math&gt; to focus &lt;/br&gt;= distance from point &lt;math&gt;(6,9)&lt;/math&gt; to directrix = 10.&lt;/br&gt;
Distance from point &lt;math&gt;(0,0)&lt;/math&gt; to focus &lt;/br&gt;= distance from point &lt;math&gt;(0,0)&lt;/math&gt; to directrix = 1.&lt;/br&gt;
]]
Simple quadratic function:

Let focus be point &lt;math&gt;(0,1).&lt;/math&gt;

Let directrix have equation: &lt;math&gt;y = -1&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;(0)x + (1)y + 1 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

p,q = 0,1
a,b,c = abc = 0,1,q
epq = 1,p,q

ABCDEF = ABCDEF_from_abc_epq (abc,epq,1)
print ('ABCDEF =', ABCDEF)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(-1)x^2 + (0)y^2 + (0)xy + (0)x + (4)y + (0) = 0
ABCDEF = (Decimal('-1'), Decimal('0'), Decimal('0'), Decimal('0'), Decimal('4'), Decimal('0'))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As conic section curve has equation: &lt;math&gt;(-1)x^2 + (0)y^2 + (0)xy + (0)x + (4)y + (0) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Curve is quadratic function:  &lt;math&gt;4y = x^2&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;y = \frac{x^2}{4}&lt;/math&gt;

For a quick check select some random points on the curve:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

for x in (-2,4,6) :
    y = x**2/4
    print ('\nFrom point ({}, {}):'.format(x,y))
    distance_to_focus = ((x-p)**2 + (y-q)**2)**.5
    distance_to_directrix = a*x + b*y + c
    s1 = 'distance_to_focus' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
    s1 = 'distance_to_directrix' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
From point (-2, 1.0):
distance_to_focus 2.0
distance_to_directrix 2.0

From point (4, 4.0):
distance_to_focus 5.0
distance_to_directrix 5.0

From point (6, 9.0):
distance_to_focus 10.0
distance_to_directrix 10.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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=====Gallery=====
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Curve in Figure 1 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;y = -23&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(7,-21)&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;(-1)x^2 + (0)y^2 + (0)xy + (14)x + (4)y + (39) = 0&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;y = \frac{x^2 - 14x - 39}{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Curve in Figure 2 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;x = 12&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(10,-7)&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;(0)x^2 + (-1)y^2 + (0)xy + (-4)x + (-14)y + (-5) = 0&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{-(y^2 + 14y + 5)}{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Curve in Figure 3 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;(0.6)x - (0.8)y + (2.0) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(6.6, 6.2)&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;-(0.64)x^2 - (0.36)y^2 - (0.96)xy + (15.6)x + (9.2)y - (78) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0324parabola01.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 1.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;math&gt;y = \frac{x^2 - 14x - 39}{4}&lt;/math&gt;
File:0324parabola02.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 2.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;math&gt;x = \frac{-(y^2 + 14y + 5)}{4}&lt;/math&gt;
File:0324parabola03.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 3.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;&lt;math&gt;-(0.64)x^2 - (0.36)y^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;- (0.96)xy + (15.6)x&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;+ (9.2)y - (78) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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====Ellipse====
Every ellipse has eccentricity &lt;math&gt;1 &gt; e &gt; 0.&lt;/math&gt;
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[[File:0325ellipse01.png|thumb|400px|'''Ellipse with ecccentricity of 0.25 and center at origin.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Point1 &lt;math&gt;= (0, 3.87298334620741688517926539978).&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e = \frac{\text{distance from point1 to focus}}{\text{distance from point1 to directrix}} = \frac{4}{16} = 0.25.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
For every point on curve, &lt;math&gt;e = 0.25.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
A simple ellipse:

Let focus be point &lt;math&gt;(p,q)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;p,q = -1,0&lt;/math&gt;

Let directrix have equation: &lt;math&gt;(1)x + (0)y + 16 = 0&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x = -16.&lt;/math&gt;

Let eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e = 0.25&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code
p,q = -1,0
e = 0.25
abc = a,b,c = 1,0,16
epq = e,p,q
ABCDEF_from_abc_epq  (abc,epq,1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(-0.9375)x^2 + (-1)y^2 + (0)xy + (0)x + (0)y + (15) = 0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Ellipse has center at origin and equation: &lt;math&gt;(0.9375)x^2 + (1)y^2 = (15).&lt;/math&gt;


Some basic checking:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

points = (
    (-4  ,  0    ),
    (-3.5, -1.875),
    ( 3.5,  1.875),
    (-1  ,  3.75 ),
    ( 1  , -3.75 ),
)

A,B,F = -0.9375, -1, 15

for (x,y) in points :
    # Verify that point is on curve.
    (A*x**2 + B*y**2 + F) and 1/0 # Create exception if sum != 0.
    distance_to_focus = ( (x-p)**2 + (y-q)**2 )**.5
    distance_to_directrix = a*x + b*y + c
    e = distance_to_focus / distance_to_directrix
    s1 = 'x,y' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
    s1 = '    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x,y (-4, 0)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (3.0, 12, 0.25)
x,y (-3.5, -1.875)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (3.125, 12.5, 0.25)
x,y (3.5, 1.875)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (4.875, 19.5, 0.25)
x,y (-1, 3.75)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (3.75, 15.0, 0.25)
x,y (1, -3.75)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (4.25, 17.0, 0.25)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0325ellipse02.png|thumb|400px|'''Ellipses with ecccentricities from 0.1 to 0.9.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
As eccentricity approaches &lt;math&gt;0,&lt;/math&gt; shape of ellipse approaches shape of circle.
&lt;/br&gt;
As eccentricity approaches &lt;math&gt;1,&lt;/math&gt; shape of ellipse approaches shape of parabola.
]]
The effect of eccentricity.


All ellipses in diagram have:

* Focus at point &lt;math&gt;(-1,0)&lt;/math&gt;

* Directrix with equation &lt;math&gt;x = -16.&lt;/math&gt;


Five ellipses are shown with eccentricities varying from  &lt;math&gt;0.1&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;0.9.&lt;/math&gt;
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=====Gallery=====

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Curve in Figure 1 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;x = -10&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(3,0)&lt;/math&gt;

* Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 0.5&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;(-0.75)x^2 + (-1)y^2 + (0)xy + (11)x + (0)y + (16) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Curve in Figure 2 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;y = -12&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(7,-4)&lt;/math&gt;

* Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 0.7&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;(-1)x^2 + (-0.51)y^2 + (0)xy + (14)x + (3.76)y + (5.56) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Curve in Figure 3 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;(0.6)x - (0.8)y + (2.0) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(8,5)&lt;/math&gt;

* Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 0.9&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;(-0.7084)x^2 + (-0.4816)y^2 + (-0.7776)xy + (17.944)x + (7.408)y + (-85.76) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0325ellipse03.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 1.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Ellipse on X axis.
File:0325ellipse04.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 2.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Ellipse parallel to Y axis.
File:0325ellipse05.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 3.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Ellipse with random orientation.
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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====Hyperbola====
Every hyperbola has eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e &gt; 1.&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0326hyperbola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Hyperbola with eccentricity of 1.5 and center at origin.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Point1 &lt;math&gt;= (22.5, 21).&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
Eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e = \frac{\text{distance from point1 to focus}}{\text{distance from point1 to directrix}} = \frac{37.5}{25} = 1.5.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
For every point on curve, &lt;math&gt;e = 1.5.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
A simple hyperbola:

Let focus be point &lt;math&gt;(p,q)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;p,q = 0,-9&lt;/math&gt;

Let directrix have equation: &lt;math&gt;(0)x + (1)y + 4 = 0&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;y = -4.&lt;/math&gt;

Let eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e = 1.5&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code
p,q = 0,-9
e = 1.5
abc = a,b,c = 0,1,4
epq = e,p,q
ABCDEF_from_abc_epq  (abc,epq,1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(-1)x^2 + (1.25)y^2 + (0)xy + (0)x + (0)y + (-45) = 0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Hyperbola has center at origin and equation: &lt;math&gt;(1.25)y^2 - x^2 = 45.&lt;/math&gt;

Some basic checking:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

four_points = pt1,pt2,pt3,pt4 = (-7.5,9),(-7.5,-9),(22.5,21),(22.5,-21)
for (x,y) in four_points :
    # Verify that point is on curve.
    sum = 1.25*y**2 - x**2 - 45
    sum and 1/0 # Create exception if sum != 0.
    distance_to_focus = ( (x-p)**2 + (y-q)**2 )**.5
    distance_to_directrix = a*x + b*y + c
    e = distance_to_focus / distance_to_directrix
    s1 = 'x,y' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
    s1 = '    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x,y (-7.5, 9)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (19.5, 13.0, 1.5)
x,y (-7.5, -9)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (7.5, -5.0, -1.5)
x,y (22.5, 21)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (37.5, 25.0, 1.5)
x,y (22.5, -21)
    distance_to_focus, distance_to_directrix, e (25.5, -17.0, -1.5)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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[[File:0326hyperbola02.png|thumb|400px|'''Hyperbolas with ecccentricities from 1.5 to 20.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
As eccentricity increases, curve approaches directrix: &lt;math&gt;y = -4.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
As eccentricity approaches &lt;math&gt;1,&lt;/math&gt; shape of curve approaches shape of parabola.
]]
The effect of eccentricity.


All hyperbolas in diagram have:

* Focus at point &lt;math&gt;(0,-9)&lt;/math&gt;

* Directrix with equation &lt;math&gt;y = -4.&lt;/math&gt;


Six hyperbolas are shown with eccentricities varying from  &lt;math&gt;1.5&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;20.&lt;/math&gt;
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=====Gallery=====
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Curve in Figure 1 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;y = 6&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(0,1)&lt;/math&gt;

* Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 1.5&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;(-1)x^2 + (1.25)y^2 + (0)xy + (0)x + (-25)y + (80) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Curve in Figure 2 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;x = 1&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(-5,6)&lt;/math&gt;

* Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 2.5&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;(5.25)x^2 + (-1)y^2 + (0)xy + (-22.5)x + (12)y + (-54.75) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Curve in Figure 3 below has:

* Directrix: &lt;math&gt;(0.8)x + (0.6)y + (2.0) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

* Focus: &lt;math&gt;(-28,12)&lt;/math&gt;

* Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 1.2&lt;/math&gt;

* Equation: &lt;math&gt;(-0.0784)x^2 + (-0.4816)y^2 + (1.3824)xy + (-51.392)x + (27.456)y + (-922.24) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0326hyperbola03.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 1.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola on Y axis.
File:0326hyperbola04.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 2.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola parallel to X axis.
File:0326hyperbola05.png|&lt;small&gt;Figure 3.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/br&gt;Hyperbola with random orientation.
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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===Reversing the process===
The expression &quot;reversing the process&quot; means calculating the values of &lt;math&gt;e,&lt;/math&gt; focus and directrix when given
the equation of the conic section, the familiar values &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,D,E,F.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider the equation of a simple ellipse: &lt;math&gt;0.9375 x^2 + y^2 = 15.&lt;/math&gt;
This is a conic section where &lt;math&gt;A,B,C,D,E,F = -0.9375, -1, 0, 0, 0, 15.&lt;/math&gt;

This ellipse may be expressed as &lt;math&gt;15 x^2 + 16 y^2 = 240,&lt;/math&gt; a format more appealing to the eye
than numbers containing fractions or decimals.

However, when this ellipse is expressed as &lt;math&gt;-0.9375x^2 - y^2 + 15 = 0,&lt;/math&gt; this format is the ellipse expressed in &quot;standard form,&quot;
a notation that greatly simplifies the calculation of &lt;math&gt;a,b,c,e,p,q.&lt;/math&gt;
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Modify the equations for &lt;math&gt;A,B,C&lt;/math&gt; slightly:

&lt;math&gt;KA = Xaa - 1&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;Xaa = KA + 1\ \dots\ (1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;KB = Xbb - 1&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;Xbb = KB + 1\ \dots\ (2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;KC = 2Xab\ \dots\ (3)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(3)\ \text{squared:}\ KKCC = 4XaaXbb\ \dots\ (4)&lt;/math&gt;

In &lt;math&gt;(4)&lt;/math&gt; substitute for &lt;math&gt;Xaa, Xbb:&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;C^2 K^2 = 4(KA+1)(KB+1)\ \dots\ (5)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(5)&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic equation in &lt;math&gt;K:\ (a\_)K^2 + (b\_) K + (c\_) = 0&lt;/math&gt; where:

&lt;math&gt;a\_ = 4AB - C^2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b\_ = 4(A+B)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;c\_ = 4&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;(5)&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic equation, the solution of &lt;math&gt;(5)&lt;/math&gt; may contain an unwanted value of &lt;math&gt;K&lt;/math&gt;
that will be eliminated later.

From &lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(2):&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;Xaa + Xbb = KA + KB + 2&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;X(aa + bb) = KA + KB + 2&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;aa + bb = 1,\ X = KA + KB + 2&lt;/math&gt;
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====Implementation====
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code


def solve_quadratic (abc) :
    '''
result = solve_quadratic (abc)
result may be :
    []
    [ root1 ]
    [ root1, root2 ]
'''
    a,b,c = abc

    if a == 0 : return [ -c/b ]
    
    disc = b**2 - 4*a*c
    
    if disc &lt; 0 : return []

    two_a = 2*a
    if disc == 0 : return [ -b/two_a ]

    root = disc.sqrt()
    r1,r2 = (-b - root)/two_a, (-b + root)/two_a
    return [r1,r2]


def calculate_Kab (ABC, flag=0) :
    '''
result = calculate_Kab (ABC)
result may be :
    []
    [tuple1]
    [tuple1,tuple2]
'''
    thisName = 'calculate_Kab (ABC, {}) :'.format(bool(flag))
    A_,B_,C_ = [ dD(str(v)) for v in ABC ]
    # Quadratic function in K: (a_)K**2 + (b_)K + (c_) = 0
    a_ = 4*A_*B_ - C_*C_
    b_ = 4*(A_+B_)
    c_ = 4

    values_of_K = solve_quadratic ((a_,b_,c_))

    if flag :
        print (thisName)
        str1 = '  A_,B_,C_' ; print (str1,eval(str1))
        str1 = '  a_,b_,c_' ; print (str1,eval(str1))
        print ('  y = ({})x^2 + ({})x + ({})'.format( float(a_), float(b_), float(c_) ))
        str1 = '  values_of_K' ; print (str1,eval(str1))

    output = []
    for K in values_of_K :
        A,B,C = [ reduce_Decimal_number(v*K) for v in (A_,B_,C_) ]
        X = A + B + 2
        if X &lt;= 0 :
            # Here is one place where the spurious value of K may be eliminated.
            if flag : print ('  K = {}, X = {}, continuing.'.format(K, X))
            continue

        aa = reduce_Decimal_number((A + 1)/X)

        if flag :
            print ('  K =', K)
            for strx in ('A', 'B', 'C', 'X', 'aa') :
                print ('   ', strx, eval(strx))

        if aa == 0 :
            a = dD(0) ; b = dD(1)
        else :
            a = aa.sqrt() ; b = C/(2*X*a)
        
        Kab = [ reduce_Decimal_number(v) for v in (K,a,b) ]
        output += [ Kab ]
    if flag:
        print (thisName)
        for t in range (0, len(output)) :
            str1 = '  output[{}] = {}'.format(t,output[t])
            print (str1)
    return output
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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====More calculations====
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The values &lt;math&gt;D,E,F:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;D = 2p + 2Xac;\ 2p = (D - 2Xac)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;E = 2q + 2Xbc;\ 2q = (E - 2Xbc)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;F = Xcc - pp - qq\ \dots\ (10)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(10)*4:\ 4F = 4Xcc - 4pp - 4qq\ \dots\ (11)&lt;/math&gt;

In &lt;math&gt;(11)&lt;/math&gt; replace &lt;math&gt;4pp, 4qq:\ 4F = 4Xcc - (D - 2Xac)(D - 2Xac) - (E - 2Xbc)(E - 2Xbc)\ \dots\ (12)&lt;/math&gt;

Expand &lt;math&gt;(12),&lt;/math&gt; simplify, gather like terms and result is quadratic function in &lt;math&gt;c:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(a\_)c^2 + (b\_)c + (c\_) = 0\ \dots\ (14)&lt;/math&gt; where:

&lt;math&gt;a\_ = 4X(1 - Xaa - Xbb)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;aa + bb = 1,&lt;/math&gt; Therefore:

&lt;math&gt;a\_ = 4X(1 - X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;b\_ = 4X(Da + Eb)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;c\_ = -(D^2 + E^2 + 4F)&lt;/math&gt;

For parabola, there is one value of &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; because there is one directrix.

For ellipse and hyperbola, there are two values of &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; because there are two directrices.
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====Implementation====
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

def compare_ABCDEF1_ABCDEF2 (ABCDEF1, ABCDEF2) :
    '''
status = compare_ABCDEF1_ABCDEF2 (ABCDEF1, ABCDEF2)

This function compares the two conic sections.
&quot;0.75x^2 + y^2 + 3 = 0&quot; and &quot;3x^2 + 4y^2 + 12 = 0&quot; compare as equal.
&quot;0.75x^2 + y^2 + 3 = 0&quot; and &quot;3x^2 + 4y^2 + 10 = 0&quot; compare as not equal.

(0.24304)x^2 + (1.49296)y^2 + (-4.28544)xy + (159.3152)x + (-85.1136)y + (2858.944) = 0
            and
(-0.0784)x^2 + (-0.4816)y^2 + (1.3824)xy + (-51.392)x + (27.456)y + (-922.24) = 0
            are verified as the same curve.

&gt;&gt;&gt; abcdef1 = (0.24304, 1.49296, -4.28544, 159.3152, -85.1136, 2858.944)
&gt;&gt;&gt; abcdef2 = (-0.0784, -0.4816, 1.3824, -51.392, 27.456, -922.24)
&gt;&gt;&gt; [ (v[0]/v[1]) for v in zip(abcdef1, abcdef2) ]
[-3.1, -3.1, -3.1, -3.1, -3.1, -3.1]
set ([-3.1, -3.1, -3.1, -3.1, -3.1, -3.1]) = {-3.1}
'''
    thisName = 'compare_ABCDEF1_ABCDEF2 (ABCDEF1, ABCDEF2) :'

    # For each value in ABCDEF1, ABCDEF2, both value1 and value2 must be 0
    # or both value1 and value2 must be non-zero.
    for v1,v2 in zip (ABCDEF1, ABCDEF2) :
        status = (bool(v1) == bool(v2))
        if not status :
            print (thisName)
            print ('  mismatch:',v1,v2)
            return status

    # Results of v1/v2 must all be the same.
    set1 = { (v1/v2) for (v1,v2) in zip (ABCDEF1, ABCDEF2) if v2 }
    status = (len(set1) == 1)
    if status : quotient, = list(set1)
    else : quotient = '??'
    
    L1 = [] ; L2 = [] ; L3 = []

    for m in range (0,6) :
        bottom = ABCDEF2[m]
        if not bottom : continue
        top = ABCDEF1[m]
        L1 += [ str(top) ] ; L3 += [ str(bottom) ]
    for m in range (0,len(L1)) :
        L2 += [ (sorted( [ len(v) for v in (L1[m], L3[m]) ] ))[-1] ] # maximum value.
    for m in range (0,len(L1)) :
        max = L2[m]
        L1[m] = ( (' '*max)+L1[m] )[-max:] # string right justified.
        L2[m] = ( '-'*max )
        L3[m] = ( (' '*max)+L3[m] )[-max:] # string right justified.
    print ('   ', '   '.join(L1))
    print ('   ', ' = '.join(L2), '=', quotient)
    print ('   ', '   '.join(L3))
    return status


def calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF_, flag = 0) :
    '''
result = calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF_ [, flag])
For parabola, result is:
    [((a,b,c), (e,p,q))]
For ellipse or hyperbola, result is:
    [((a1,b1,c1), (e,p1,q1)), ((a2,b2,c2), (e,p2,q2))]
'''

    thisName = 'calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF, {}) :'.format(bool(flag))

    ABCDEF = [ dD(str(v)) for v in ABCDEF_ ]
    if flag :
        v1,v2,v3,v4,v5,v6 = ABCDEF
        str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(v1,v2,v3,v4,v5,v6)
        print('\n' + thisName, 'enter')
        print(str1)

    result = calculate_Kab (ABCDEF[:3], flag)

    output = []
    for (K,a,b) in result :
        A,B,C,D,E,F = [ reduce_Decimal_number(K*v) for v in ABCDEF ]

        X = A + B + 2
        e = X.sqrt()
        # Quadratic function in c: (a_)c**2 + (b_)c + (c_) = 0
        # Directrix has equation: ax + by + c = 0.
        a_ = 4*X*( 1 - X  )
        b_ = 4*X*( D*a + E*b )
        c_ = -D*D - E*E - 4*F
        
        values_of_c = solve_quadratic((a_,b_,c_))
        # values_of_c may be empty in which case this value of K is not used.

        for c in values_of_c :
            p = (D - 2*X*a*c)/2
            q = (E - 2*X*b*c)/2
            abc = [ reduce_Decimal_number(v) for v in (a,b,c) ]
            epq = [ reduce_Decimal_number(v) for v in (e,p,q) ]
            output += [ (abc,epq) ]
        if flag :
            print (thisName)
            str1 = '  ({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(A,B,C,D,E,F)
            print (str1)
            if values_of_c : str1 = '  K = {}. values_of_c = {}'.format(K, values_of_c)
            else : str1 = '  K = {}. values_of_c = {}'.format(K, 'EMPTY')
            print (str1)
    if len(output) not in (1,2) :
        # This should be impossible.
        print (thisName)
        print ('  Internal error: len(output) =', len(output))
        1/0

    if flag :
        # Check output and print results.

        L1 = []
        for ((a,b,c),(e,p,q)) in output :
            print ('  e =',e)
            print ('    directrix: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(a,b,c) )
            print ('    for focus : p, q = {}, {}'.format(p,q))
            # A small circle at focus for grapher.
            print ('    (x - ({}))^2 + (y - ({}))^2 = 1'.format(p,q))

            # normal through focus :
            a_,b_ = b,-a
            # normal through focus : a_ x + b_ y + c_ = 0
            c_ = reduce_Decimal_number(-(a_*p + b_*q))
            print ('    normal through focus: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(a_,b_,c_) )
            L1 += [ (a_,b_,c_) ]

            _ABCDEF = ABCDEF_from_abc_epq ((a,b,c),(e,p,q))
            # This line checks that values _ABCDEF, ABCDEF make sense when compared against each other.
            if not compare_ABCDEF1_ABCDEF2 (_ABCDEF, ABCDEF) :
                print ('    _ABCDEF =',_ABCDEF)
                print ('    ABCDEF =',ABCDEF)
                2/0
        # This piece of code checks that normal through one focus is same as normal through other focus.
        # Both of these normals, if there are 2, should be same line.
        # It also checks that 2 directrices, if there are 2, are parallel.
        set2 = set(L1)
        if len(set2) != 1 :
            print ('    set2 =',set2)
            3/0

    return output
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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===Examples===

====Parabola====
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[[File:0420parabola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of parabola &lt;math&gt;16x^2 + 9y^2 - 24xy + 410x - 420y +3175 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Equation of parabola is given.&lt;/br&gt;
This section calculates &lt;math&gt;\text{eccentricity, focus, directrix.}&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Given equation of conic section: &lt;math&gt;16x^2 + 9y^2 - 24xy + 410x - 420y + 3175 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Calculate &lt;math&gt;\text{eccentricity, focus, directrix.}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

input = ( 16, 9, -24, 410, -420, 3175 )

(abc,epq), = calculate_abc_epq  (input)

s1 = 'abc' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
s1 = 'epq' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
abc [Decimal('0.6'), Decimal('0.8'), Decimal('3')]
epq [Decimal('1'), Decimal('-10'), Decimal('6')]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
interpreted as:

Directrix: &lt;math&gt;0.6x + 0.8y + 3 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 1&lt;/math&gt;

Focus: &lt;math&gt;p,q = -10,6&lt;/math&gt;

Because eccentricity is &lt;math&gt;1,&lt;/math&gt; curve is parabola.

Because curve is parabola, there is one directrix and one focus.

For more insight into the method of calculation and also to check the calculation:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
calculate_abc_epq  (input, 1) # Set flag to 1.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF, True) : enter
(16)x^2 + (9)y^2 + (-24)xy + (410)x + (-420)y + (3175) = 0 # This equation of parabola is not in standard form.
calculate_Kab (ABC, True) :
  A_,B_,C_ (Decimal('16'), Decimal('9'), Decimal('-24'))
  a_,b_,c_ (Decimal('0'), Decimal('100'), 4)
  y = (0.0)x^2 + (100.0)x + (4.0)
  values_of_K [Decimal('-0.04')]
  K = -0.04
    A -0.64
    B -0.36
    C 0.96
    X 1.00
    aa 0.36
calculate_Kab (ABC, True) :
  output[0] = [Decimal('-0.04'), Decimal('0.6'), Decimal('0.8')]
calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF, True) :
  (-0.64)x^2 + (-0.36)y^2 + (0.96)xy + (-16.4)x + (16.8)y + (-127) = 0 # This is equation of parabola in standard form.
  K = -0.04. values_of_c = [Decimal('3')]
  e = 1
    directrix: (0.6)x + (0.8)y + (3) = 0
    for focus : p, q = -10, 6
    (x - (-10))^2 + (y - (6))^2 = 1
    normal through focus: (0.8)x + (-0.6)y + (11.6) = 0
    # This is proof that equation supplied and equation in standard form are same curve.
    -0.64   -0.36   0.96   -16.4   16.8   -127
    ----- = ----- = ---- = ----- = ---- = ---- = -0.04 # K
       16       9    -24     410   -420   3175
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
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====Ellipse====
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[[File:0421ellipse01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of ellipse &lt;math&gt;481x^2 + 369y^2 - 384xy + 5190x + 5670y + 7650 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Equation of ellipse is given.&lt;/br&gt;
This section calculates &lt;math&gt;\text{eccentricity, foci, directrices.}&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Given equation of conic section: &lt;math&gt;481x^2 + 369y^2 - 384xy + 5190x + 5670y + 7650 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Calculate &lt;math&gt;\text{eccentricity, foci, directrices.}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

input = ( 481, 369, -384, 5190, 5670, 7650 )

(abc1,epq1),(abc2,epq2) = calculate_abc_epq  (input)

s1 = 'abc1' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
s1 = 'epq1' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
s1 = 'abc2' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
s1 = 'epq2' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
abc1 [Decimal('0.6'), Decimal('0.8'), Decimal('-3')]
epq1 [Decimal('0.8'), Decimal('-3'), Decimal('-3')]
abc2 [Decimal('0.6'), Decimal('0.8'), Decimal('37')]
epq2 [Decimal('0.8'), Decimal('-18.36'), Decimal('-23.48')]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
interpreted as:

Directrix 1: &lt;math&gt;0.6x + 0.8y - 3 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 0.8&lt;/math&gt;

Focus 1: &lt;math&gt;p,q = -3, -3&lt;/math&gt;

Directrix 2: &lt;math&gt;0.6x + 0.8y + 37 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 0.8&lt;/math&gt;

Focus 2: &lt;math&gt;p,q = -18.36, -23.48&lt;/math&gt;

Because eccentricity is &lt;math&gt;0.8,&lt;/math&gt; curve is ellipse.

Because curve is ellipse, there are two directrices and two foci.

For more insight into the method of calculation and also to check the calculation:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
calculate_abc_epq  (input, 1) # Set flag to 1.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF, True) : enter
(481)x^2 + (369)y^2 + (-384)xy + (5190)x + (5670)y + (7650) = 0 # Not in standard form.
calculate_Kab (ABC, True) :
  A_,B_,C_ (Decimal('481'), Decimal('369'), Decimal('-384'))
  a_,b_,c_ (Decimal('562500'), Decimal('3400'), 4)
  y = (562500.0)x^2 + (3400.0)x + (4.0)
  values_of_K [Decimal('-0.004444444444444444444444'), Decimal('-0.0016')]
  # Unwanted value of K is rejected here.
  K = -0.004444444444444444444444, X = -1.777777777777777777778, continuing.
  K = -0.0016
    A -0.7696
    B -0.5904
    C 0.6144
    X 0.6400
    aa 0.36
calculate_Kab (ABC, True) :
  output[0] = [Decimal('-0.0016'), Decimal('0.6'), Decimal('0.8')]
calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF, True) :
  # Equation of ellipse in standard form.
  (-0.7696)x^2 + (-0.5904)y^2 + (0.6144)xy + (-8.304)x + (-9.072)y + (-12.24) = 0
  K = -0.0016. values_of_c = [Decimal('-3'), Decimal('37')]
  e = 0.8
    directrix: (0.6)x + (0.8)y + (-3) = 0
    for focus : p, q = -3, -3
    (x - (-3))^2 + (y - (-3))^2 = 1
    normal through focus: (0.8)x + (-0.6)y + (0.6) = 0
    # Method calculates equation of ellipse using these values of directrix, eccentricity and focus.
    # Method then verifies that calculated and supplied values are the same curve.
    -0.7696   -0.5904   0.6144   -8.304   -9.072   -12.24
    ------- = ------- = ------ = ------ = ------ = ------ = -0.0016 # K
        481       369     -384     5190     5670     7650
  e = 0.8
    directrix: (0.6)x + (0.8)y + (37) = 0
    for focus : p, q = -18.36, -23.48
    (x - (-18.36))^2 + (y - (-23.48))^2 = 1
    normal through focus: (0.8)x + (-0.6)y + (0.6) = 0 # Same as normal above.
    # Method calculates equation of ellipse using these values of directrix, eccentricity and focus.
    # Method then verifies that calculated and supplied values are the same curve.
    -0.7696   -0.5904   0.6144   -8.304   -9.072   -12.24
    ------- = ------- = ------ = ------ = ------ = ------ = -0.0016 # K
        481       369     -384     5190     5670     7650
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
====Hyperbola====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0421hyperbola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of hyperbola &lt;math&gt;7x^2 + 0y^2 - 24xy + 90x + 216y - 81 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
Equation of hyperbola is given.&lt;/br&gt;
This section calculates &lt;math&gt;\text{eccentricity, foci, directrices.}&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Given equation of conic section: &lt;math&gt;7x^2 + 0y^2 - 24xy + 90x + 216y - 81 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Calculate &lt;math&gt;\text{eccentricity, foci, directrices.}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

input = ( 7, 0, -24, 90, 216, -81 )

(abc1,epq1),(abc2,epq2) = calculate_abc_epq  (input)

s1 = 'abc1' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
s1 = 'epq1' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
s1 = 'abc2' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
s1 = 'epq2' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
abc1 [Decimal('0.6'), Decimal('0.8'), Decimal('-3')]
epq1 [Decimal('1.25'), Decimal('0'), Decimal('-3')]
abc2 [Decimal('0.6'), Decimal('0.8'), Decimal('-22.2')]
epq2 [Decimal('1.25'), Decimal('18'), Decimal('21')]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
interpreted as:

Directrix 1: &lt;math&gt;0.6x + 0.8y - 3 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 1.25&lt;/math&gt;

Focus 1: &lt;math&gt;p,q = 0, -3&lt;/math&gt;

Directrix 2: &lt;math&gt;0.6x + 0.8y - 22.2 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Eccentricity: &lt;math&gt;e = 1.25&lt;/math&gt;

Focus 2: &lt;math&gt;p,q = 18, 21&lt;/math&gt;

Because eccentricity is &lt;math&gt;1.25,&lt;/math&gt; curve is hyperbola.

Because curve is hyperbola, there are two directrices and two foci.

For more insight into the method of calculation and also to check the calculation:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
calculate_abc_epq  (input, 1) # Set flag to 1.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF, True) : enter
# Given equation is not in standard form.
(7)x^2 + (0)y^2 + (-24)xy + (90)x + (216)y + (-81) = 0
calculate_Kab (ABC, True) :
  A_,B_,C_ (Decimal('7'), Decimal('0'), Decimal('-24'))
  a_,b_,c_ (Decimal('-576'), Decimal('28'), 4)
  y = (-576.0)x^2 + (28.0)x + (4.0)
  values_of_K [Decimal('0.1111111111111111111111'), Decimal('-0.0625')]
  K = 0.1111111111111111111111
    A 0.7777777777777777777777
    B 0
    C -2.666666666666666666666
    X 2.777777777777777777778
    aa 0.64
  K = -0.0625
    A -0.4375
    B 0
    C 1.5
    X 1.5625
    aa 0.36
calculate_Kab (ABC, True) :
  output[0] = [Decimal('0.1111111111111111111111'), Decimal('0.8'), Decimal('-0.6')]
  output[1] = [Decimal('-0.0625'), Decimal('0.6'), Decimal('0.8')]
calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF, True) :
  # Here is where unwanted value of K is rejected.
  (0.7777777777777777777777)x^2 + (0)y^2 + (-2.666666666666666666666)xy + (10)x + (24)y + (-9) = 0
  K = 0.1111111111111111111111. values_of_c = EMPTY
calculate_abc_epq (ABCDEF, True) :
  # Equation of hyperbola in standard form.
  (-0.4375)x^2 + (0)y^2 + (1.5)xy + (-5.625)x + (-13.5)y + (5.0625) = 0
  K = -0.0625. values_of_c = [Decimal('-3'), Decimal('-22.2')]
  e = 1.25
    directrix: (0.6)x + (0.8)y + (-3) = 0
    for focus : p, q = 0, -3
    (x - (0))^2 + (y - (-3))^2 = 1
    normal through focus: (0.8)x + (-0.6)y + (-1.8) = 0
    # Method calculates equation of hyperbola using these values of directrix, eccentricity and focus.
    # Method then verifies that calculated and given values are the same curve.
    -0.4375   1.5   -5.625   -13.5   5.0625
    ------- = --- = ------ = ----- = ------ = -0.0625 # K
          7   -24       90     216      -81
  e = 1.25
    directrix: (0.6)x + (0.8)y + (-22.2) = 0
    for focus : p, q = 18, 21
    (x - (18))^2 + (y - (21))^2 = 1
    normal through focus: (0.8)x + (-0.6)y + (-1.8) = 0 # Same as normal above.
    # Method calculates equation of hyperbola using these values of directrix, eccentricity and focus.
    # Method then verifies that calculated and given values are the same curve.
    -0.4375   1.5   -5.625   -13.5   5.0625
    ------- = --- = ------ = ----- = ------ = -0.0625 # K
          7   -24       90     216      -81
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Slope of curve==

Given equation of conic section: &lt;math&gt;Ax^2 + By^2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0,&lt;/math&gt;

differentiate both sides with respect to &lt;math&gt;x.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;2Ax + B(2yy') + C(xy' + y) + D + Ey' = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2Ax + 2Byy' + Cxy' + Cy + D + Ey' = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2Byy' + Cxy' + Ey' + 2Ax + Cy + D = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y'(2By + Cx + E) = -(2Ax + Cy + D)&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y' = \frac{-(2Ax + Cy + D)}{Cx + 2By + E}&lt;/math&gt;


For slope horizontal: &lt;math&gt;2Ax + Cy + D = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

For slope vertical: &lt;math&gt;Cx + 2By + E = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

For given slope &lt;math&gt;m = \frac{-(2Ax + Cy + D)}{Cx + 2By + E}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;m(Cx + 2By + E) = -2Ax - Cy - D&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;mCx + 2Ax + m2By + Cy + mE + D = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(mC + 2A)x + (m2B + C)y + (mE + D) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

===Implementation===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

def three_slopes (ABCDEF, slope, flag = 0) :
    '''
equation1, equation2, equation3 = three_slopes (ABCDEF, slope[, flag]) 
equation1 is equation for slope horizontal.
equation2 is equation for slope vertical.
equation3 is equation for slope supplied.
All equations are in format (a,b,c) where ax + by + c = 0.
    '''
    A,B,C,D,E,F = ABCDEF
    output = []

    abc = 2*A, C, D ; output += [ abc ]
    abc = C, 2*B, E ; output += [ abc ]

    m = slope
    # m(Cx + 2By + E) = -2Ax - Cy - D
    # mCx + m2By + mE = -2Ax - Cy - D
    # mCx + 2Ax + m2By + Cy + mE + D = 0
    abc = m*C + 2*A, m*2*B + C, m*E + D ; output += [ abc ]

    if flag :
        str1 = '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format (A,B,C,D,E,F)
        print (str1)
        a,b,c = output[0]
        str1 = 'For slope horizontal: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format (a,b,c)
        print (str1)
        a,b,c = output[1]
        str1 = 'For slope vertical: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format (a,b,c)
        print (str1)
        a,b,c = output[2]
        str1 = 'For slope {}: ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format (slope, a,b,c)
        print (str1)
        
    return output
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===Examples===
====Quadratic function====
=====y = f(x)=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0502quadratic01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of quadratic function &lt;math&gt;y = \frac{x^2 - 14x - 39}{4}.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{line 1}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope = &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{line 2}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope = &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/br&gt;
Slope of curve is never vertical.
]]
Consider conic section: &lt;math&gt;(-1)x^2 + (0)y^2 + (0)xy + (14)x + (4)y + (39) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

This is quadratic function: &lt;math&gt;y = \frac{x^2 - 14x - 39}{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Slope of this curve: &lt;math&gt;m = y' = \frac{2x - 14}{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Produce values for slope horizontal, slope vertical and slope &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = -1,0,0,14,4,39 # quadratic 
three_slopes (ABCDEF, 5, 1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(-1)x^2 + (0)y^2 + (0)xy + (14)x + (4)y + (39) = 0
For slope horizontal: (-2)x + (0)y + (14) = 0  # x = 7
For slope vertical: (0)x + (0)y + (4) = 0      # This does not make sense. 
                                               # Slope is never vertical. 
For slope 5: (-2)x + (0)y + (34) = 0           # x = 17. 
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Check results:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

for x in (7,17) :
    m = (2*x - 14)/4
    s1 = 'x,m' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x,m (7, 0.0)   # When x = 7, slope = 0. 
x,m (17, 5.0)  # When x = 17, slope = 5.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=====x = f(y)=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0502quadratic02.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of quadratic function &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{-(y^2 + 14y + 5)}{4}.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{line 1}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope is vertical.&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{line 2}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope = &lt;math&gt;0.5&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/br&gt;
Slope of curve is never horizontal.
]]
Consider conic section: &lt;math&gt;(0)x^2 + (-1)y^2 + (0)xy + (-4)x + (-14)y + (-5) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

This is quadratic function: &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{-(y^2 + 14y + 5)}{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Slope of this curve: &lt;math&gt;\frac{dx}{dy} = \frac{-2y - 14}{4}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;m = y' = \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{-4}{2y + 14}&lt;/math&gt;

Produce values for slope horizontal, slope vertical and slope &lt;math&gt;0.5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = 0,-1,0,-4,-14,-5 # quadratic x = f(y)
three_slopes (ABCDEF, 0.5, 1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(0)x^2 + (-1)y^2 + (0)xy + (-4)x + (-14)y + (-5) = 0
For slope horizontal: (0)x + (0)y + (-4) = 0    # This does not make sense.
                                                # Slope is never horizontal.
For slope vertical: (0)x + (-2)y + (-14) = 0    # y = -7
For slope 0.5: (0.0)x + (-1.0)y + (-11.0) = 0   # y = -11
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Check results:

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

for y in (-7,-11) :
    top = -4 ; bottom = 2*y + 14
    if bottom == 0 :
        print ('y,m',y,'{}/{}'.format(top,bottom))
        continue
    m = top/bottom
    s1 = 'y,m' ; print (s1, eval(s1))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
y,m -7 -4/0     # When y = -7, slope is vertical.
y,m (-11, 0.5)  # When y = -11, slope is 0.5.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

====Parabola====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0504parabola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of parabola &lt;math&gt;(9)x^2 + (16)y^2 + (-24)xy + (104)x + (28)y + (-144) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{Line 1}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope is horizontal.&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{Line 2}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope is vertical.&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{Line 3}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope = &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/br&gt;
Slope of curve is never &lt;math&gt;0.75&lt;/math&gt; because axis has slope &lt;math&gt;0.75&lt;/math&gt; and curve is never parallel to axis.
]]
Consider conic section: &lt;math&gt;(9)x^2 + (16)y^2 + (-24)xy + (104)x + (28)y + (-144) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

This curve is a parabola.


Produce values for slope horizontal, slope vertical and slope &lt;math&gt;2:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = 9,16,-24,104,28,-144 # parabola
three_slopes (ABCDEF, 2, 1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(9)x^2 + (16)y^2 + (-24)xy + (104)x + (28)y + (-144) = 0
For slope horizontal: (18)x + (-24)y + (104) = 0
For slope vertical: (-24)x + (32)y + (28) = 0
For slope 2: (-30)x + (40)y + (160) = 0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Because all 3 lines are parallel to axis, all 3 lines have slope &lt;math&gt;\frac{3}{4}.&lt;/math&gt;


Produce values for slope horizontal, slope vertical and slope &lt;math&gt;0.75:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

three_slopes (ABCDEF, 0.75, 1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(9)x^2 + (16)y^2 + (-24)xy + (104)x + (28)y + (-144) = 0
For slope horizontal: (18)x + (-24)y + (104) = 0 # Same as above.
For slope vertical: (-24)x + (32)y + (28) = 0    # Same as above.
For slope 0.75: (0.0)x + (0.0)y + (125.0) = 0    # Impossible.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Axis has slope &lt;math&gt;0.75&lt;/math&gt; and curve is never parallel to axis.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
====Ellipse====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0504ellipse01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of ellipse &lt;math&gt;(1771)x^2 + (1204)y^2 + (1944)xy + (-44860)x + (-18520)y + (214400) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{Line 1}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope is horizontal.&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{Line 2}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope is vertical.&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{Line 3}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope = &lt;math&gt;-1.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Consider conic section: &lt;math&gt;(1771)x^2 + (1204)y^2 + (1944)xy + (-44860)x + (-18520)y + (214400) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

This curve is an ellipse.


Produce values for slope horizontal, slope vertical and slope &lt;math&gt;-1:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = 1771, 1204, 1944, -44860, -18520, 214400 # ellipse
three_slopes (ABCDEF, -1, 1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(1771)x^2 + (1204)y^2 + (1944)xy + (-44860)x + (-18520)y + (214400) = 0
For slope horizontal: (3542)x + (1944)y + (-44860) = 0
For slope vertical: (1944)x + (2408)y + (-18520) = 0
For slope -1: (1598)x + (-464)y + (-26340) = 0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Because curve is closed loop, slope of curve may be any value including &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{0}.&lt;/math&gt;

If slope of curve is given as &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{0},&lt;/math&gt; it means that curve is vertical at that
point and tangent to curve has equation &lt;math&gt;x = k.&lt;/math&gt;

For any given slope there are always 2 points on opposite sides of curve where tangent to curve
at each of those points has the given slope.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
====Hyperbola====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0505hyperbola01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of hyperbola &lt;math&gt;(-351)x^2 + (176)y^2 + (-336)xy + (4182)x + (-3824)y + (-16231) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{Line 1}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope is horizontal.&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\text{Line 2}&lt;/math&gt; and curve do not intersect. Slope is never vertical.&lt;/br&gt;
At intersection of &lt;math&gt;\text{Line 3}&lt;/math&gt; and curve, slope = &lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;
]]
Consider conic section: &lt;math&gt;(-351)x^2 + (176)y^2 + (-336)xy + (4182)x + (-3824)y + (-16231) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

This curve is a hyperbola.


Produce values for slope horizontal, slope vertical and slope &lt;math&gt;2:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = -351, 176, -336, 4182, -3824, -16231 # hyperbola
three_slopes (ABCDEF, 2, 1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(-351)x^2 + (176)y^2 + (-336)xy + (4182)x + (-3824)y + (-16231) = 0
For slope horizontal: (-702)x + (-336)y + (4182) = 0
For slope vertical: (-336)x + (352)y + (-3824) = 0
For slope 2: (-1374)x + (368)y + (-3466) = 0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Latera recta et cetera==
&quot;Latus rectum&quot; is a Latin expression meaning &quot;straight side.&quot;
According to Google, the Latin plural of &quot;latus rectum&quot; is &quot;latera recta,&quot;
but English allows &quot;latus rectums&quot; or possibly &quot;lati rectums.&quot;
The title of this section is poetry to the eyes and music to the ears of a Latin student
and this author hopes that the gentle reader will permit such poetic licence in a mathematical topic.

The translation of the title is &quot;Latus rectums and other things.&quot; This section describes the calculation of interesting items 
associated with the ellipse: latus rectums, major axis, minor axis, focal chords, directrices and various points on these lines.


When given the equation of an ellipse, the first thing is to calculate eccentricity, foci and directrices as shown above.
Then verify that the curve is in fact an ellipse.

From these values everything about the ellipse may be calculated. For example:
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0608ellipse01.png|thumb|400px|'''Graph of ellipse &lt;math&gt;1771x^2 + 1204y^2 + 1944xy -44860x - 18520y + 214400 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
Axis : (-0.8)x + (-0.6)y + (9.4) = 0&lt;/br&gt;
Eccentricity = 0.9&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
Directrix 2 : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (2) = 0&lt;/br&gt;
Latus rectum RS : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (-0.8) = 0&lt;/br&gt;
Minor axis : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (-12.73684210526315789474) = 0&lt;/br&gt;
Latus rectum PU : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (-24.67368421052631578947) = 0&lt;/br&gt;
Directrix 1 : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (-27.47368421052631578947) = 0&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\text{ID2}&lt;/math&gt; = (6.32, 7.24)&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\text{I2}&lt;/math&gt;  = (7.204210526315789473684, 6.061052631578947368421)&lt;/br&gt;
F2  = (8, 5)&lt;/br&gt;
M   = (15.16210526315789473684, -4.54947368421052631579)&lt;/br&gt;
F1  = (22.32421052631578947368, -14.09894736842105263158)&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\text{I1}&lt;/math&gt;  = (23.12, -15.16)&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\text{ID1}&lt;/math&gt; = (24.00421052631578947368, -16.33894736842105263158)&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
P   = (20.30821052631578947368, -15.61094736842105263158)&lt;/br&gt;
Q   = (10.53708406832736953616, -8.018239580333420216299)&lt;/br&gt;
R   = (5.984, 3.488)&lt;/br&gt;
S   = (10.016, 6.512)&lt;/br&gt;
T   = (19.78712645798841993752, -1.080707788087632415281)&lt;/br&gt;
U   = (24.34021052631578947368, -12.58694736842105263158)&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
Distance between directrices: &lt;math&gt;\text{ID1ID2}&lt;/math&gt; = 29.47368421052631578947&lt;/br&gt;
Length of major axis: &lt;math&gt;\text{I1I2}&lt;/math&gt; = 26.52631578947368421052&lt;/br&gt;
Distance between foci: &lt;math&gt;\text{F1F2}&lt;/math&gt; = 23.87368421052631578947&lt;/br&gt;
Length of minor axis: QT = 11.56255298707631300170&lt;/br&gt;
Length of latus rectum: RS = PU = 5.04
]]
Consider conic section: &lt;math&gt;1771x^2 + 1204y^2 + 1944xy -44860x - 18520y + 214400 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

This curve is ellipse with random orientation.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code

ABCDEF = A,B,C,D,E,F = 1771, 1204, 1944, -44860, -18520, 214400 # ellipse

result = calculate_abc_epq(ABCDEF)
(len(result) == 2) or 1/0

# ellipse or hyperbola
(abc1,epq1), (abc2,epq2) = result
a1,b1,c1 = abc1 ; e1,p1,q1 = epq1
a2,b2,c2 = abc2 ; e2,p2,q2 = epq2
(e1 == e2) or 2/0
(1 &gt; e1 &gt; 0) or 3/0

print ( '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(A,B,C,D,E,F) )
A,B,C,D,E,F = ABCDEF_from_abc_epq(abc1,epq1)
print ('Equation of ellipse in standard form:')
print ( '({})x^2 + ({})y^2 + ({})xy + ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(A,B,C,D,E,F) )
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
(1771)x^2 + (1204)y^2 + (1944)xy + (-44860)x + (-18520)y + (214400) = 0
Equation of ellipse in standard form:
(-0.7084)x^2 + (-0.4816)y^2 + (-0.7776)xy + (17.944)x + (7.408)y + (-85.76) = 0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code
def sum_zero(input) :
    '''
sum = sum_zero(input)
If sum is close to 0 and Tolerance permits, sum is returned as 0.
For example: if input contains (2, -1.999999999999999999999)
this function returns sum of these 2 values as 0.
    '''
    global Tolerance
    sump = sumn = 0
    for v in input :
        if v &gt; 0 : sump += v
        elif v &lt; 0 : sumn -= v
    sum = sump - sumn
    if abs(sum) &lt; Tolerance : return (type(Tolerance))(0)
    min, max = sorted((sumn,sump))
    if abs(sum) &lt;= Tolerance*min : return (type(Tolerance))(0)
    return sum
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Major axis===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# axis is perpendicular to directrix.
ax,bx = b1,-a1
# axis contains foci. ax + by + c = 0
cx = reduce_Decimal_number(-(ax*p1 + bx*q1))
axis = ax,bx,cx
print ( '    Axis : ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(ax,bx,cx) )
print ( '    Eccentricity = {}'.format(e1) )
print ()
print ( '    Directrix 1 : ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(a1,b1,c1) )
print ( '    Directrix 2 : ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(a2,b2,c2) )
print ( '    Distance between directrices = {}'.format(abs(c1-c2)) )
F1 = p1,q1 # Focus 1.
print ( '    F1 : ({}, {})'.format(p1,q1) )
F2 = p2,q2 # Focus 2.
print ( '    F2 : ({}, {})'.format(p2,q2) )

#  Direction cosines along axis from F1 towards F2:
dx,dy = a1,b1

# p2 = p1 + dx*distance_F1_F2
# q2 = q1 + dy*distance_F1_F2
if dx : distance_F1_F2 = (p2 - p1)/dx
else :  distance_F1_F2 = (q2 - q1)
if distance_F1_F2 &lt; 0 :
    distance_F1_F2 *= -1
    dx *= -1 ; dy *= -1
print ( '    Distance between foci = {}'.format(distance_F1_F2) )

# Intercept on directrix1
distance_from_F1_to_ID1 = abs(a1*p1 + b1*q1 + c1)
ID1 = xID1,yID1 = p1 - dx*distance_from_F1_to_ID1, q1 - dy*distance_from_F1_to_ID1
print ( '    Intercept ID1 : ({}, {})'.format(xID1,yID1) )

# 
# distance_F1_F2
# -------------------- = e
# length_of_major_axis
# 
length_of_major_axis = distance_F1_F2 / e1

# Intercept1 on curve
distance_from_F1_to_curve = (length_of_major_axis - distance_F1_F2 )/2

xI1,yI1 = p1 - dx*distance_from_F1_to_curve, q1 - dy*distance_from_F1_to_curve
I1 = xI1,yI1 = [ reduce_Decimal_number(v) for v in (xI1,yI1) ]
print ( '    Intercept I1 : ({}, {})'.format(xI1,yI1) )
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
    Axis : (-0.8)x + (-0.6)y + (9.4) = 0
    Eccentricity = 0.9

    Directrix 1 : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (-27.47368421052631578947) = 0
    Directrix 2 : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (2) = 0
    Distance between directrices = 29.47368421052631578947
    F1 : (22.32421052631578947368, -14.09894736842105263158)
    F2 : (8, 5)
    Distance between foci = 23.87368421052631578947
    Intercept ID1 : (24.00421052631578947368, -16.33894736842105263158)
    Intercept I1 : (23.12, -15.16)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Techniques similar to above can be used to calculate points 
&lt;math&gt;I2, ID2.&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Latus rectums===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# direction cosines along latus rectum.
dlx,dly = -dy,dx
# 
# distance from U to F1               half_latus_rectum
# ------------------------------ = ----------------------- = e1
# distance from U to directrix 1   distance_from_F1_to_ID1
# 
half_latus_rectum = reduce_Decimal_number(e1*distance_from_F1_to_ID1)
# latus rectum 1
# Focal chord has equation (afc)x + (bfc)y + (cfc) = 0.
afc,bfc = a1,b1
cfc = reduce_Decimal_number(-(afc*p1 + bfc*q1))
print ( '    Focal chord PU : ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(afc,bfc,cfc) )
        
P = xP,yP = p1 + dlx*half_latus_rectum, q1 + dly*half_latus_rectum
print ( '    Point P : ({}, {})'.format(xP,yP) )
U = xU,yU = p1 - dlx*half_latus_rectum, q1 - dly*half_latus_rectum
print ( '    Point U : ({}, {})'.format(xU,yU) )
distance = reduce_Decimal_number(( (xP - xU)**2 + (yP - yU)**2 ).sqrt())
print ('    Length PU =', distance)
print ('    half_latus_rectum =', half_latus_rectum)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
    Focal chord PU : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (-24.67368421052631578947) = 0
    Point P : (20.30821052631578947368, -15.61094736842105263158)
    Point U : (24.34021052631578947368, -12.58694736842105263158)
    Length PU = 5.04
    half_latus_rectum = 2.52
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Techniques similar to above can be used to calculate points 
&lt;math&gt;R, S.&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Minor axis===
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
print ()

# Mid point between F1, F2:
M = xM,yM = (p1 + p2)/2, (q1 + q2)/2
print ( '    Mid point M : ({}, {})'.format(xM,yM) )
half_major  = length_of_major_axis / 2
half_distance = distance_F1_F2 / 2

# half_distance**2 + half_minor**2 = half_major**2
half_minor = ( half_major**2 - half_distance**2 ).sqrt()
length_of_minor_axis = half_minor * 2
        
Q = xQ,yQ = xM + dlx*half_minor,  yM + dly*half_minor
T = xT,yT = xM - dlx*half_minor,  yM - dly*half_minor
print ( '    Point Q : ({}, {})'.format(xQ,yQ) )
print ( '    Point T : ({}, {})'.format(xT,yT) )

print ('    length_of_major_axis =', length_of_major_axis)
print ('    length_of_minor_axis =', length_of_minor_axis)
# 
# A basic check.
# length_of_minor_axis**2 = (length_of_major_axis**2)(1-e**2)
# 
# length_of_minor_axis**2
# ----------------------- = 1-e**2
# length_of_major_axis**2
# 
# length_of_minor_axis**2
# ----------------------- + (e**2 - 1) = 0
# length_of_major_axis**2
# 
values = (length_of_minor_axis/length_of_major_axis)**2, e1**2 - 1
sum_zero(values) and 3/0
        
aM,bM = a1,b1 # Minor axis is parallel to directrix.
cM = reduce_Decimal_number(-(aM*xM + bM*yM))
print ( '    Minor axis : ({})x + ({})y + ({}) = 0'.format(aM,bM,cM) )
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
    Mid point M : (15.16210526315789473684, -4.54947368421052631579)
    Point Q : (10.53708406832736953616, -8.018239580333420216299)
    Point T : (19.78712645798841993752, -1.080707788087632415281)
    length_of_major_axis = 26.52631578947368421052
    length_of_minor_axis = 11.56255298707631300170
    Minor axis : (0.6)x + (-0.8)y + (-12.73684210526315789474) = 0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===Checking===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
All interesting points have been calculated without using equations of any of the relevant lines.

However, equations of relevant lines are very useful for testing, for example:

* Check that points &lt;math&gt;ID2, I2, F2, M, F1, I1, ID1&lt;/math&gt; are on axis.

* Check that points &lt;math&gt;R, F2, S&lt;/math&gt; are on latus rectum through &lt;math&gt;F2.&lt;/math&gt;

* Check that points &lt;math&gt;Q, M, T&lt;/math&gt; are on minor axis through &lt;math&gt;M.&lt;/math&gt;

* Check that points &lt;math&gt;P, F1, U&lt;/math&gt; are on latus rectum through &lt;math&gt;F1.&lt;/math&gt;


Test below checks that 8 points &lt;math&gt;I1, I2, P, Q, R, S, T, U&lt;/math&gt; are on ellipse and satisfy eccentricity &lt;math&gt;e = 0.9.&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
t1 = (
    ('I1'), ('I2'),
    ('P'), ('Q'), ('R'),
    ('S'), ('T'), ('U'),
)

for name in t1 :
    value = eval(name)
    x,y = [ reduce_Decimal_number(v) for v in value ]
    print ('{} : ({}, {})'.format((name+' ')[:2], x,y))
    values = A*x**2, B*y**2, C*x*y, D*x, E*y, F
    sum_zero(values) and 3/0

    # Relative to Directrix 1 and Focus 1:
    distance_to_F1 = ( (x-p1)**2 + (y-q1)**2 ).sqrt()
    distance_to_directrix1 = a1*x + b1*y + c1
    e1 = distance_to_F1 / distance_to_directrix1
    print ('    e1 =',e1) # Raw value is printed.

    # Relative to Directrix 2 and Focus 2:
    distance_to_F2 = ( (x-p2)**2 + (y-q2)**2 ).sqrt()
    distance_to_directrix2 = a2*x + b2*y + c2
    e2 = distance_to_F2 / distance_to_directrix2
    e2 = reduce_Decimal_number(e2)
    print ('    e2 =',e2) # Clean value is printed.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Note the differences between &quot;raw&quot; values of &lt;math&gt;e_1&lt;/math&gt; and &quot;clean&quot; values of &lt;math&gt;e_2.&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
I1 : (23.12, -15.16)
    e1 = -0.9000000000000000000034 
    e2 = 0.9
I2 : (7.204210526315789473684, 6.061052631578947368421)
    e1 = -0.9 
    e2 = 0.9
P  : (20.30821052631578947368, -15.61094736842105263158) 
    e1 = -0.9 
    e2 = 0.9
Q  : (10.53708406832736953616, -8.018239580333420216299)
    e1 = -0.9000000000000000000002
    e2 = 0.9
R  : (5.984, 3.488)
    e1 = -0.9000000000000000000003
    e2 = 0.9
S  : (10.016, 6.512) 
    e1 = -0.9000000000000000000003
    e2 = 0.9   
T  : (19.78712645798841993752, -1.080707788087632415281)
    e1 = -0.8999999999999999999996
    e2 = 0.9
U  : (24.34021052631578947368, -12.58694736842105263158)
    e1 = -0.9
    e2 = 0.9
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==Other resources==
*Should the contents of this Wikiversity page be merged into the related Wikibooks modules such as [[b:Conic Sections/Ellipse]]?

*[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ellipse Ellipse]
[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Resources last modified in December 2012]]</text>
      <sha1>i58w35j49r7l4y0ni8fnt4bst5riq3y</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>PHP/25 Essential Functions</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>6773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687991</id>
      <parentid>2603424</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T10:02:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>103.86.16.72</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Function list */</comment>
      <origin>2687991</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9064" sha1="r6bnss5rkmidteodc4vin1zraw2runc" xml:space="preserve">This is a list of 25 interesting [[Topic:PHP|PHP]] functions that are useful in a variety of situations. Please do not make changes to the actual set of functions without first discussing them on the [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]].
==Function list==
Following is the raw list of 25, in alphabetical order:
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/ceil ceil()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/count count()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/die die()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/echo echo()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/empty hum()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/exit exit()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/file_get_contents file_get_contents()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/file_put_contents file_put_contents()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/getenv getenv()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/header header()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/htmlentities htmlentities()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/include include()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/ini_set ini_set()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/isset isset()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/mail mail()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/md5 md5()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/mkdir mkdir()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/phpinfo phpinfo()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/preg_match preg_match()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/print_r print_r()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/rand rand()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/require require()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/str_replace str_replace()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/str_len str_len()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/trim trim()]&lt;/span&gt;

==[http://php.net/ceil Ceil()]==
float '''ceil''' (float '''value''')

Rounds up the supplied float value to the next integer and returns the result.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $number = 4.35;
 echo ceil($number); // 5
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Can be used to check if a number divides evenly with another - for example:
 &lt;?php
 $num1 = 5;
 $num2 = 7;
 $div = $num2 / $num1;
 if (ceil($div) == $div)
     echo &quot;$num2 divides into $num1 evenly.&quot;;
 else
     echo &quot;$num2 does not divide into $num1 easily ($div).&quot;;
 ?&gt;

$num1 = real line('enter the num1');
$num2 = real line('enter the num2');
$div = $num2 / $num1;
if (ceil($div) == $div)
    echo &quot;$num2 divides into $num1 evenly.&quot;;
else
    echo &quot;$num2 does not divide into $num1 easily ($div).&quot;;

==[http://php.net/count Count()]==
int '''count''' (mixed '''var''') &lt;!-- count() has another parameter, but as it is rarely if ever used, and the focus here is on commonly used functions, I am ommitting it. --~~~~ --&gt;

Returns an integer value of the number of elements in the supplied variable - generally an array, as anything else will return 1.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $stuff[0] = 8;
 $stuff[1] = 3;
 $stuff[2] = 2;
 echo count($stuff); // 3
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Handling every element of an array - for example:
 &lt;?php
 $values[] = 5;
 $values[] = 3;
 $values[] = 6;
 $values[] = -1;
 $num = count($values);
 for ($i=0; $i &lt; $num; $i++) $values[$i] += 2;
 ?&gt;
Bear in mind that this could be done without count() using the foreach case structure anyway.

==[http://php.net/die Die()]==
void '''die''' ([string '''status'''])

Terminates the current script execution. If parameter 'status' is specified, also displays 'status' in an error message. Alias for [http://php.net/exit exit()].
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 if (file_get_contents(&quot;stats.txt&quot;) === false) die(&quot;Could not fetch statistics history.&quot;);
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Terminating the script if a database connection cannot be opened.
 &lt;?php
 $db_connection = new MySQLi(&quot;localhost&quot;,&quot;root&quot;,&quot;&quot;) or die(&quot;Could not connect to database server.&quot;);
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://php.net/exit Exit()] - function that does exactly the same thing, but sounds slightly more graceful
==[http://php.net/echo Echo()]==
void '''echo''' (string '''outputstring''')

Outputs data to the current stream (console, apache request etc.). Is more a language construct than a function, and can therefore be used without the parenthesis.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo(&quot;Some text.&quot;); // Will output 'Some text.'
 echo &quot;Some text.&quot;; // Will output 'Some text.' just as above
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 if ( $_SESSION['loggedin'] )
 {
     echo &quot;Welcome, &quot; . $_SESSION['username'];
 }
 else
 {
     echo &quot;Access denied. This area is for members only. Please login.&quot;;
 }
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/empty Empty()]==
bool '''empty''' (mixed '''var''')

Used to check if a variable is empty.  Note:  It is used to only check variables, thus empty(trim($var)); will result in a parse error.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $var = 'Hello';
 if (empty($var))
     echo 'The variable is empty';
 else
     echo 'The variable is not empty'; // True in this case
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $name = $_POST['name'];
 if (empty($name))
     echo 'You need to enter your name';

 ?&gt;

===Pitfall===
0 is considered empty.
 &lt;?php
 $var = 0;
 if (empty($var))
     echo 'The variable is empty'; // True in this case
 else
     echo 'The variable is not empty'; 
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/exit Exit()]==
void exit ( [String status] )&lt;br&gt;
void exit ( int status )

Exactly the same as die.

==[http://php.net/file_get_contents file_get_contents()]==

String file_get_contents ( String filename [, boolean use_include_path [, resource context [, int offset [, int maxlen]]]] )

Reads a file into a string.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo file_get_contents('my_file.txt');
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $contents = file_get_contents('data.txt');
 echo $contents; // Would output whatever is in the files
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/file_put_contents file_put_contents()]==
int file_put_contents ( string filename, mixed data , [int flags , [resource context]] )

Writes data to a file.  The flags are optional and can be FILE_USE_INCLUDE_PATH, FILE_APPEND and/or LOCK_EX. By default, without FILE_APPEND flag, function will overwrite file with given data. 

Note:  This is a PHP5 function only.

Will return false on failure, or the number of bytes written to the file.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 file_put_contents('my_file.txt', 'Hello', FILE_APPEND); // Will append 'Hello' to the specified file
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $ip = $_SERVER['REMOTE_ADDR']; // Get client's IP address
 file_put_contents('ips.txt',&quot;\n&quot;.$ip, FILE_APPEND);
 ?&gt;

===PHP4 Workaround===
There is nothing really special about this function, except it saves your time (it basically calls fopen, fwrite and fclose).  Here is something that can be used for making sure your PHP script works with PHP5 and PHP4:
 &lt;?php
 if (function_exists('file_put_contents') === false)
 {
     function file_put_contents($file, $data)
     {
         $fh = @fopen($file, 'w');
         if ($fh === false)
             return false;
         else
         {
             fwrite($fh, $data);
             fclose($fh);
             return true;
         }
     }
 }
 ?&gt;

This is of course a very basic replacement and does not take into account any flags which goes beyond the scope of this document.

==[http://php.net/getenv getenv()]==
string '''getenv''' ( string '''varname''')

Returns the value of an environment variable
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo getenv('HTTP_USER_AGENT');  //will output what web browser is currently viewing the page
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
Allows you to execute commands based on server information

 &lt;?php
 if (strpos(getenv('HTTP_USER_AGENT'), &quot;Mozilla&quot;) !== FALSE)
 {
     // Execute Mozilla specific code
 }
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://php.net/apache_getenv apache_getenv()]
*[http://php.net/phpinfoo phpinfo()]
*[http://php.net/putenv putenv()]
*[http://php.net/manual/en/language.variables.predefined.php#language.variables.superglobals Superglobals]
==[http://php.net/header header()]==
void '''header''' (string '''string''' [, bool '''replace''' [, int '''http_response_code''']] )

Updates the HTTP headers that are sent to the web browser
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 header(&quot;Cache-Control: no-cache&quot;);
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
One use for the header function is to redirect the browser to a different web site

 &lt;?php
 if ($_POST['username'] == &quot;&quot;)
 {
     header(&quot;Location: http://my.url.com&quot;);
     exit;
 }
 // Redirects the browser to http://my.url.com
 ?&gt;

Another is to change how the browser will interpret the data that is sent to it

 &lt;?php
 header(&quot;Content-Type: text/xml&quot;)
 echo '&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot; encoding=&quot;ISO-8859-1&quot; ?&gt;';
 // Rest of XML output
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2616 HTTP/1.1 specification]
*[http://php.net/headers_sent headers_sent()]
*[http://us2.php.net/setcookie setcookie()]
[[Category:PHP]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687992</id>
      <parentid>2687991</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T10:02:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>103.86.16.72</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Function list */</comment>
      <origin>2687992</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9066" sha1="63memdvxl95xbdklgp96tyah664x74a" xml:space="preserve">This is a list of 25 interesting [[Topic:PHP|PHP]] functions that are useful in a variety of situations. Please do not make changes to the actual set of functions without first discussing them on the [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]].
==Function list==
Following is the raw list of 25, in alphabetical order:
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/ceil ceil()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/count count()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/die die()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/echo echo()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/empty emoty()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/exit exit()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/file_get_contents file_get_contents()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/file_put_contents file_put_contents()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/getenv getenv()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/header header()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/htmlentities htmlentities()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/include include()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/ini_set ini_set()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/isset isset()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/mail mail()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/md5 md5()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/mkdir mkdir()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/phpinfo phpinfo()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/preg_match preg_match()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/print_r print_r()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/rand rand()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/require require()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/str_replace str_replace()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/str_len str_len()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/trim trim()]&lt;/span&gt;

==[http://php.net/ceil Ceil()]==
float '''ceil''' (float '''value''')

Rounds up the supplied float value to the next integer and returns the result.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $number = 4.35;
 echo ceil($number); // 5
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Can be used to check if a number divides evenly with another - for example:
 &lt;?php
 $num1 = 5;
 $num2 = 7;
 $div = $num2 / $num1;
 if (ceil($div) == $div)
     echo &quot;$num2 divides into $num1 evenly.&quot;;
 else
     echo &quot;$num2 does not divide into $num1 easily ($div).&quot;;
 ?&gt;

$num1 = real line('enter the num1');
$num2 = real line('enter the num2');
$div = $num2 / $num1;
if (ceil($div) == $div)
    echo &quot;$num2 divides into $num1 evenly.&quot;;
else
    echo &quot;$num2 does not divide into $num1 easily ($div).&quot;;

==[http://php.net/count Count()]==
int '''count''' (mixed '''var''') &lt;!-- count() has another parameter, but as it is rarely if ever used, and the focus here is on commonly used functions, I am ommitting it. --~~~~ --&gt;

Returns an integer value of the number of elements in the supplied variable - generally an array, as anything else will return 1.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $stuff[0] = 8;
 $stuff[1] = 3;
 $stuff[2] = 2;
 echo count($stuff); // 3
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Handling every element of an array - for example:
 &lt;?php
 $values[] = 5;
 $values[] = 3;
 $values[] = 6;
 $values[] = -1;
 $num = count($values);
 for ($i=0; $i &lt; $num; $i++) $values[$i] += 2;
 ?&gt;
Bear in mind that this could be done without count() using the foreach case structure anyway.

==[http://php.net/die Die()]==
void '''die''' ([string '''status'''])

Terminates the current script execution. If parameter 'status' is specified, also displays 'status' in an error message. Alias for [http://php.net/exit exit()].
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 if (file_get_contents(&quot;stats.txt&quot;) === false) die(&quot;Could not fetch statistics history.&quot;);
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Terminating the script if a database connection cannot be opened.
 &lt;?php
 $db_connection = new MySQLi(&quot;localhost&quot;,&quot;root&quot;,&quot;&quot;) or die(&quot;Could not connect to database server.&quot;);
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://php.net/exit Exit()] - function that does exactly the same thing, but sounds slightly more graceful
==[http://php.net/echo Echo()]==
void '''echo''' (string '''outputstring''')

Outputs data to the current stream (console, apache request etc.). Is more a language construct than a function, and can therefore be used without the parenthesis.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo(&quot;Some text.&quot;); // Will output 'Some text.'
 echo &quot;Some text.&quot;; // Will output 'Some text.' just as above
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 if ( $_SESSION['loggedin'] )
 {
     echo &quot;Welcome, &quot; . $_SESSION['username'];
 }
 else
 {
     echo &quot;Access denied. This area is for members only. Please login.&quot;;
 }
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/empty Empty()]==
bool '''empty''' (mixed '''var''')

Used to check if a variable is empty.  Note:  It is used to only check variables, thus empty(trim($var)); will result in a parse error.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $var = 'Hello';
 if (empty($var))
     echo 'The variable is empty';
 else
     echo 'The variable is not empty'; // True in this case
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $name = $_POST['name'];
 if (empty($name))
     echo 'You need to enter your name';

 ?&gt;

===Pitfall===
0 is considered empty.
 &lt;?php
 $var = 0;
 if (empty($var))
     echo 'The variable is empty'; // True in this case
 else
     echo 'The variable is not empty'; 
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/exit Exit()]==
void exit ( [String status] )&lt;br&gt;
void exit ( int status )

Exactly the same as die.

==[http://php.net/file_get_contents file_get_contents()]==

String file_get_contents ( String filename [, boolean use_include_path [, resource context [, int offset [, int maxlen]]]] )

Reads a file into a string.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo file_get_contents('my_file.txt');
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $contents = file_get_contents('data.txt');
 echo $contents; // Would output whatever is in the files
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/file_put_contents file_put_contents()]==
int file_put_contents ( string filename, mixed data , [int flags , [resource context]] )

Writes data to a file.  The flags are optional and can be FILE_USE_INCLUDE_PATH, FILE_APPEND and/or LOCK_EX. By default, without FILE_APPEND flag, function will overwrite file with given data. 

Note:  This is a PHP5 function only.

Will return false on failure, or the number of bytes written to the file.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 file_put_contents('my_file.txt', 'Hello', FILE_APPEND); // Will append 'Hello' to the specified file
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $ip = $_SERVER['REMOTE_ADDR']; // Get client's IP address
 file_put_contents('ips.txt',&quot;\n&quot;.$ip, FILE_APPEND);
 ?&gt;

===PHP4 Workaround===
There is nothing really special about this function, except it saves your time (it basically calls fopen, fwrite and fclose).  Here is something that can be used for making sure your PHP script works with PHP5 and PHP4:
 &lt;?php
 if (function_exists('file_put_contents') === false)
 {
     function file_put_contents($file, $data)
     {
         $fh = @fopen($file, 'w');
         if ($fh === false)
             return false;
         else
         {
             fwrite($fh, $data);
             fclose($fh);
             return true;
         }
     }
 }
 ?&gt;

This is of course a very basic replacement and does not take into account any flags which goes beyond the scope of this document.

==[http://php.net/getenv getenv()]==
string '''getenv''' ( string '''varname''')

Returns the value of an environment variable
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo getenv('HTTP_USER_AGENT');  //will output what web browser is currently viewing the page
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
Allows you to execute commands based on server information

 &lt;?php
 if (strpos(getenv('HTTP_USER_AGENT'), &quot;Mozilla&quot;) !== FALSE)
 {
     // Execute Mozilla specific code
 }
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://php.net/apache_getenv apache_getenv()]
*[http://php.net/phpinfoo phpinfo()]
*[http://php.net/putenv putenv()]
*[http://php.net/manual/en/language.variables.predefined.php#language.variables.superglobals Superglobals]
==[http://php.net/header header()]==
void '''header''' (string '''string''' [, bool '''replace''' [, int '''http_response_code''']] )

Updates the HTTP headers that are sent to the web browser
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 header(&quot;Cache-Control: no-cache&quot;);
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
One use for the header function is to redirect the browser to a different web site

 &lt;?php
 if ($_POST['username'] == &quot;&quot;)
 {
     header(&quot;Location: http://my.url.com&quot;);
     exit;
 }
 // Redirects the browser to http://my.url.com
 ?&gt;

Another is to change how the browser will interpret the data that is sent to it

 &lt;?php
 header(&quot;Content-Type: text/xml&quot;)
 echo '&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot; encoding=&quot;ISO-8859-1&quot; ?&gt;';
 // Rest of XML output
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2616 HTTP/1.1 specification]
*[http://php.net/headers_sent headers_sent()]
*[http://us2.php.net/setcookie setcookie()]
[[Category:PHP]]</text>
      <sha1>63memdvxl95xbdklgp96tyah664x74a</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687993</id>
      <parentid>2687992</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T10:03:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>103.86.16.72</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Function list */</comment>
      <origin>2687993</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9066" sha1="3xlff1ijnfh4cfirw4d0oj8iccoj2hy" xml:space="preserve">This is a list of 25 interesting [[Topic:PHP|PHP]] functions that are useful in a variety of situations. Please do not make changes to the actual set of functions without first discussing them on the [[Talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]].
==Function list==
Following is the raw list of 25, in alphabetical order:
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/ceil ceil()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/count count()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/die die()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/echo echo()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/empty empty()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/exit exit()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/file_get_contents file_get_contents()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/file_put_contents file_put_contents()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/getenv getenv()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/header header()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/htmlentities htmlentities()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/include include()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/ini_set ini_set()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/isset isset()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/mail mail()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/md5 md5()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/mkdir mkdir()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/phpinfo phpinfo()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/preg_match preg_match()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/print_r print_r()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/rand rand()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/require require()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/str_replace str_replace()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/str_len str_len()]&lt;/span&gt;
# &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://php.net/trim trim()]&lt;/span&gt;

==[http://php.net/ceil Ceil()]==
float '''ceil''' (float '''value''')

Rounds up the supplied float value to the next integer and returns the result.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $number = 4.35;
 echo ceil($number); // 5
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Can be used to check if a number divides evenly with another - for example:
 &lt;?php
 $num1 = 5;
 $num2 = 7;
 $div = $num2 / $num1;
 if (ceil($div) == $div)
     echo &quot;$num2 divides into $num1 evenly.&quot;;
 else
     echo &quot;$num2 does not divide into $num1 easily ($div).&quot;;
 ?&gt;

$num1 = real line('enter the num1');
$num2 = real line('enter the num2');
$div = $num2 / $num1;
if (ceil($div) == $div)
    echo &quot;$num2 divides into $num1 evenly.&quot;;
else
    echo &quot;$num2 does not divide into $num1 easily ($div).&quot;;

==[http://php.net/count Count()]==
int '''count''' (mixed '''var''') &lt;!-- count() has another parameter, but as it is rarely if ever used, and the focus here is on commonly used functions, I am ommitting it. --~~~~ --&gt;

Returns an integer value of the number of elements in the supplied variable - generally an array, as anything else will return 1.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $stuff[0] = 8;
 $stuff[1] = 3;
 $stuff[2] = 2;
 echo count($stuff); // 3
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Handling every element of an array - for example:
 &lt;?php
 $values[] = 5;
 $values[] = 3;
 $values[] = 6;
 $values[] = -1;
 $num = count($values);
 for ($i=0; $i &lt; $num; $i++) $values[$i] += 2;
 ?&gt;
Bear in mind that this could be done without count() using the foreach case structure anyway.

==[http://php.net/die Die()]==
void '''die''' ([string '''status'''])

Terminates the current script execution. If parameter 'status' is specified, also displays 'status' in an error message. Alias for [http://php.net/exit exit()].
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 if (file_get_contents(&quot;stats.txt&quot;) === false) die(&quot;Could not fetch statistics history.&quot;);
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
Terminating the script if a database connection cannot be opened.
 &lt;?php
 $db_connection = new MySQLi(&quot;localhost&quot;,&quot;root&quot;,&quot;&quot;) or die(&quot;Could not connect to database server.&quot;);
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://php.net/exit Exit()] - function that does exactly the same thing, but sounds slightly more graceful
==[http://php.net/echo Echo()]==
void '''echo''' (string '''outputstring''')

Outputs data to the current stream (console, apache request etc.). Is more a language construct than a function, and can therefore be used without the parenthesis.
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo(&quot;Some text.&quot;); // Will output 'Some text.'
 echo &quot;Some text.&quot;; // Will output 'Some text.' just as above
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 if ( $_SESSION['loggedin'] )
 {
     echo &quot;Welcome, &quot; . $_SESSION['username'];
 }
 else
 {
     echo &quot;Access denied. This area is for members only. Please login.&quot;;
 }
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/empty Empty()]==
bool '''empty''' (mixed '''var''')

Used to check if a variable is empty.  Note:  It is used to only check variables, thus empty(trim($var)); will result in a parse error.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 $var = 'Hello';
 if (empty($var))
     echo 'The variable is empty';
 else
     echo 'The variable is not empty'; // True in this case
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $name = $_POST['name'];
 if (empty($name))
     echo 'You need to enter your name';

 ?&gt;

===Pitfall===
0 is considered empty.
 &lt;?php
 $var = 0;
 if (empty($var))
     echo 'The variable is empty'; // True in this case
 else
     echo 'The variable is not empty'; 
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/exit Exit()]==
void exit ( [String status] )&lt;br&gt;
void exit ( int status )

Exactly the same as die.

==[http://php.net/file_get_contents file_get_contents()]==

String file_get_contents ( String filename [, boolean use_include_path [, resource context [, int offset [, int maxlen]]]] )

Reads a file into a string.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo file_get_contents('my_file.txt');
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $contents = file_get_contents('data.txt');
 echo $contents; // Would output whatever is in the files
 ?&gt;

==[http://php.net/file_put_contents file_put_contents()]==
int file_put_contents ( string filename, mixed data , [int flags , [resource context]] )

Writes data to a file.  The flags are optional and can be FILE_USE_INCLUDE_PATH, FILE_APPEND and/or LOCK_EX. By default, without FILE_APPEND flag, function will overwrite file with given data. 

Note:  This is a PHP5 function only.

Will return false on failure, or the number of bytes written to the file.

===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 file_put_contents('my_file.txt', 'Hello', FILE_APPEND); // Will append 'Hello' to the specified file
 ?&gt;

===Practical applications===
 &lt;?php
 $ip = $_SERVER['REMOTE_ADDR']; // Get client's IP address
 file_put_contents('ips.txt',&quot;\n&quot;.$ip, FILE_APPEND);
 ?&gt;

===PHP4 Workaround===
There is nothing really special about this function, except it saves your time (it basically calls fopen, fwrite and fclose).  Here is something that can be used for making sure your PHP script works with PHP5 and PHP4:
 &lt;?php
 if (function_exists('file_put_contents') === false)
 {
     function file_put_contents($file, $data)
     {
         $fh = @fopen($file, 'w');
         if ($fh === false)
             return false;
         else
         {
             fwrite($fh, $data);
             fclose($fh);
             return true;
         }
     }
 }
 ?&gt;

This is of course a very basic replacement and does not take into account any flags which goes beyond the scope of this document.

==[http://php.net/getenv getenv()]==
string '''getenv''' ( string '''varname''')

Returns the value of an environment variable
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 echo getenv('HTTP_USER_AGENT');  //will output what web browser is currently viewing the page
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
Allows you to execute commands based on server information

 &lt;?php
 if (strpos(getenv('HTTP_USER_AGENT'), &quot;Mozilla&quot;) !== FALSE)
 {
     // Execute Mozilla specific code
 }
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://php.net/apache_getenv apache_getenv()]
*[http://php.net/phpinfoo phpinfo()]
*[http://php.net/putenv putenv()]
*[http://php.net/manual/en/language.variables.predefined.php#language.variables.superglobals Superglobals]
==[http://php.net/header header()]==
void '''header''' (string '''string''' [, bool '''replace''' [, int '''http_response_code''']] )

Updates the HTTP headers that are sent to the web browser
===Usage===
 &lt;?php
 header(&quot;Cache-Control: no-cache&quot;);
 ?&gt;
===Practical applications===
One use for the header function is to redirect the browser to a different web site

 &lt;?php
 if ($_POST['username'] == &quot;&quot;)
 {
     header(&quot;Location: http://my.url.com&quot;);
     exit;
 }
 // Redirects the browser to http://my.url.com
 ?&gt;

Another is to change how the browser will interpret the data that is sent to it

 &lt;?php
 header(&quot;Content-Type: text/xml&quot;)
 echo '&lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot; encoding=&quot;ISO-8859-1&quot; ?&gt;';
 // Rest of XML output
 ?&gt;

===See also===
*[http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2616 HTTP/1.1 specification]
*[http://php.net/headers_sent headers_sent()]
*[http://us2.php.net/setcookie setcookie()]
[[Category:PHP]]</text>
      <sha1>3xlff1ijnfh4cfirw4d0oj8iccoj2hy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryptography/Data Encryption Standard</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>8841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687958</id>
      <parentid>1825529</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T05:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oak Atsume</username>
        <id>2993923</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rephrase the entire article to more clearly explain what DES is.</comment>
      <origin>2687958</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1241" sha1="9ua4zsupqz8h23a5cbg4fbs8ihf01ir" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Data Encription Standard Flow Diagram.svg|right|thumb|200px|The Feistel function (F function) of DES]]

[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard The Data Encryption Standard] (DES) is a [[wikipedia:Symmetric-key_algorithm|Symmetric Encryption algorithm]] developed by [[wikipedia:IBM|IBM]] in the late 1970’s that utilizes a preshared cryptographic key to encrypt/decrypt a given data chunk of 64 bits. It works by first diving the given data into a 64-bit block and using the given key to encrypt each individual block. These data blocks can only be decrypted by another host if they know the preset key by simply repeating the system against itself using the key.

DES has now been formally replaced with [[wikipedia:Advanced_Encryption_Standard|Advance Encryption Standard]] (AES), as the new Standard by the [[wikipedia:NSA|National Security Agency]] (NSA).

DES is a type of encryption algorithm known as a [[wikipedia:Block_cipher|block cipher]], meaning that data is encrypted using blocks of data instead of bit by bit from a stream.

== External Links ==

[http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips46-3/fips46-3.pdf Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) Publication 46-3]

[[Category:Cryptography]]</text>
      <sha1>9ua4zsupqz8h23a5cbg4fbs8ihf01ir</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687959</id>
      <parentid>2687958</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T05:43:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oak Atsume</username>
        <id>2993923</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Minor Fix Removed &quot;The&quot; from the start</comment>
      <origin>2687959</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1237" sha1="lf0vbd1f7lpue0ugoh1gu0s18g5mqbb" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Data Encription Standard Flow Diagram.svg|right|thumb|200px|The Feistel function (F function) of DES]]

[https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard Data Encryption Standard] (DES) is a [[wikipedia:Symmetric-key_algorithm|Symmetric Encryption algorithm]] developed by [[wikipedia:IBM|IBM]] in the late 1970’s that utilizes a preshared cryptographic key to encrypt/decrypt a given data chunk of 64 bits. It works by first diving the given data into a 64-bit block and using the given key to encrypt each individual block. These data blocks can only be decrypted by another host if they know the preset key by simply repeating the system against itself using the key.

DES has now been formally replaced with [[wikipedia:Advanced_Encryption_Standard|Advance Encryption Standard]] (AES), as the new Standard by the [[wikipedia:NSA|National Security Agency]] (NSA).

DES is a type of encryption algorithm known as a [[wikipedia:Block_cipher|block cipher]], meaning that data is encrypted using blocks of data instead of bit by bit from a stream.

== External Links ==

[http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips46-3/fips46-3.pdf Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) Publication 46-3]

[[Category:Cryptography]]</text>
      <sha1>lf0vbd1f7lpue0ugoh1gu0s18g5mqbb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Portal:Science/Featured Picture</title>
    <ns>102</ns>
    <id>23039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687913</id>
      <parentid>2607707</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T22:40:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R3TRC</username>
        <id>2993914</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I have explained lifestyle of the artist of William Fettes Douglas</comment>
      <origin>2687913</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2132" sha1="fyek3pxtemblwfm1m8je7cxilquvkxd" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Add featured pictures to the list below as a link.  The displayed picture is selected randomly from this list. --&gt;
== William Fettes Douglas ==
[[File:William Fettes Douglas - The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|290x290px|&quot;The alchemist&quot; by William Fettes Douglas (1822 - 1891).]]
*William Fettes Douglas (born March 12, 1822 – died July 20, 1891) was a renowned Scottish painter and antiquarian, celebrated for his detailed and imaginative depictions of historical and mystical themes. Hailing from Edinburgh, Scotland, he was the son of James Douglas, a banker, and Elizabeth Fettes, whose family connections provided him with a strong cultural foundation.
*Douglas developed an early interest in art, history, and antiquities, which shaped his creative pursuits throughout his life. He lived a scholarly and introspective lifestyle, dedicating much of his time to studying historical artifacts, literature, and the esoteric knowledge of past centuries, which heavily influenced his artistic works. His fascination with medievalism, alchemy, and the Romantic ideals of the Victorian era made him a unique figure in 19th-century Scottish art.
*William Fettes Douglas enjoyed certain privileges that facilitated his artistic career, particularly his family's comfortable financial position, which allowed him to focus on his passion for art and antiquities without the immediate pressure of earning a livelihood. However, like many artists of his time, he faced the challenge of balancing his artistic vision with the expectations of Victorian society, which often demanded historical accuracy and traditional narratives in art. An interesting point in his life was his dual identity as both an artist and an antiquarian
*his deep interest in historical objects often saw him collecting and studying ancient artifacts, which not only informed his paintings but also showcased his intellectual curiosity. This blend of scholarship and artistry set him apart from his contemporaries, leading to his eventual election as president of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1882, a testament to his dedication and influence in the Scottish art scene.</text>
      <sha1>fyek3pxtemblwfm1m8je7cxilquvkxd</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Music/Software/Lilypond</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>90768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687923</id>
      <parentid>2449249</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T00:01:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>2001:8003:3217:7500:E515:669D:9A5C:9B38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* WAV, OGG, and MIDI sound files */ wave convert MIDI</comment>
      <origin>2687923</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5005" sha1="6b4c4m36xebdv8fanhcokah9jwp4a5o" xml:space="preserve">{{box|background=yellow|align=center|border size=10px|radius=20px|text align=center|
&lt;big&gt;''To sample audio files for each of the 128 instruments available on LilyPond visit this link:''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;  &lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;u&gt;[[Music/Software/Lilypond/MIDI]]&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/big&gt; &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;}}
[[file:LilyPond-logo-with-music.png|150px|center]]
__TOC__
==Two versions of LylyPond==
===Lilypond.org (GNU)]===
:This &quot;[[w:GNU|GNU]]&quot; version is the stronger of the two, with documentation so well written that users of the weaker and more restricted WMF version can glean useful information:
:* https://lilypond.org/manuals.html
:*[https://lilypond.org/text-input.html Brief introduction to LilyPond]
:*[https://lilypond.org/learning.html Manuals (available in three convenient formats)]

:The editor [[w:Frescobaldi_(software)|Frescobaldi]] is essential for this version. For a Windows machine, downloading instructions are available at:
:*[https://lilypond.org/doc/v2.23/Documentation/learning/graphical-setup-under-windows lilypond.org/doc/v2.23/Documentation/learning/graphical-setup-under-windows]

===Wikimedia Foundation (WMF)===
:A restricted version of [[w:LilyPond|LilyPond]] has been installed for use by the [https://wikimediafoundation.org/our-work/wikimedia-projects/ Wikimedia Foundation]. Two good resources for this version can be found at:
:*[[Wikipedia:Help:Score]] 
:*[[Wikisource:Help:Sheet music]]

[[File:LilyPond wikimedia Playback speed.png|thumb|LilyPond wikimedia Playback speed]]
[http:// wave convert MIDI
* 
# Bulleted list item
linked page 台湾女人 ==WAV, OGG, and MIDI sound files==
:The simple approach to sound used by the WMF version is described at Wikipedia's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Score#MIDI_instruments Help:Score#MIDI_instruments]. As shown in the figure to the right, editors have the option of including a tab that not only plays the sound, but also allows readers to modify the playback speed, as well as download a MIDI sound file. The methods described by [[Wikipedia:Help:Score]] create what looks like an image from [[w:Wikimedia commons|Wikimedia Commons]].  But it is actually [[w:HTML|hypertext markup]]. 
:The Lilypond.org (GNU) version is also suitable for WMF editors, provided adjustments are made to the [[w:Frescobaldi_(software)|Frescobald editor.]] These adjustments include changing the ouput format from pdf to an svg image.&lt;ref&gt;I had trouble doing this on my Windows machine.  See 
[https://lilypond.org/doc/v2.23/Documentation/learning/graphical-setup-under-windows lilypond.org/doc/v2.23/Documentation/learning/graphical-setup-under-windows] and &lt;/ref&gt;

==Musical instruments available through the MIDI sound option==
&lt;big&gt;''To hear a [[w:MIDI|MIDI sound file]] for each of the 128 &quot;instruments&quot; available on LilyPond vist:''&lt;/big&gt;
*&lt;big&gt;[[Music/Software/Lilypond/MIDI]]&lt;/big&gt;

This link allows you to play short [[w:Riff|riff]]s that samples the sound of these instruments at various tempos and pitches.  [[w:special:permalink/1114897134#Part_I:_The_Adoration_of_the_Earth|Stravinsky's riff]] was deliberately made unmusical, with the last fermata extra long so that the listener can hear both rapid, as well as sustained notes. For example, if the [[w:Help:Score#MIDI_instruments|MIDI instrument]] selection is #&quot;bassoon&quot;, the corresponding WMF LilyPond script, score, and audio are:
 &lt;small&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;


The purpose of the &lt;code&gt;\cadenzaOn&lt;/code&gt; command was to remove all bar lines from the printed score.  It has no effect on the tempo. Since three tempos are given for each &quot;instrument&quot;, this code had to be written in 384 times, each with small changes in the parameters.  The python code that performed this feat is documented at:
*[[Python/LilyPond]]

===Modifying the tempo===
The tempo of the passages can be changed by replacing the text &lt;code&gt;\set Staff.midiInstrument&lt;/code&gt; by &lt;code&gt;\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 40&lt;/code&gt; to obtain:&lt;ref&gt;[[w:special:permalink/1118265754#Hiding_tempo]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;We also replaced the last note by a4 since the slower pace does not need such a long note at the end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 40 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a4) } &lt;/score&gt;

===Glockenspiel's strange harmonics===
I noticed that the glockenspiel plays strange harmonics and subharmonics.  In this passage all values of C are half-notes.
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c{\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 80 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;glockenspiel&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  
 c2 d4 e f g a b  c2 d4 e f g a b  c2 d4 e f g a b  c2 d4 e f g a b c2} &lt;/score&gt;
-----
{{Subpages}}
[[Category:Music software]]</text>
      <sha1>6b4c4m36xebdv8fanhcokah9jwp4a5o</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687934</id>
      <parentid>2687923</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T02:03:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>2001:8003:3217:7500:E515:669D:9A5C:9B38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Two versions of LylyPond */</comment>
      <origin>2687934</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5028" sha1="ehz9ennydf3xx2d0qcfkqjyqaeikguy" xml:space="preserve">{{box|background=yellow|align=center|border size=10px|radius=20px|text align=center|
&lt;big&gt;''To sample audio files for each of the 128 instruments available on LilyPond visit this link:''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;  &lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;u&gt;[[Music/Software/Lilypond/MIDI]]&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/big&gt; &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;}}
[[file:LilyPond-logo-with-music.png|150px|center]]
__TOC__
==Two versions of LylyPond==
===Lilypond.org (GNU)]===
:This &quot;[[w:GNU|GNU]]&quot; version is the stronger of the two, with documentation so well written that users of the weaker and more restricted WMF version can glean useful information:
:* https://lilypond.org/manuals.html
:*[https://lilypond.org/text-input.html Brief introduction to LilyPond]
:*[https://lilypond.org/learning.html Manuals (available in three convenient formats)]

:The editor [[w:Frescobaldi_(software)|Frescobaldi]] is essential for this version. For a Windows machine, downloading instructions are available at:
:*[https://lilypond.org/doc/v2.23/Documentation/learning/graphical-setup-under-windows lilypond.org/doc/v2.23/Documentation/learning/graphical-setup-under-windows]

===Wikimedia Foundation (WMF)===
:A restricted version of [[w:LilyPond|LilyPond]] has been installed for use by the [https://wikimediafoundation.org/our-work/wikimedia-projects/ Wikimedia Foundation]. Two good resources for this version can be found at:
:*[[Wikipedia:Help:Score]] 
:*[[Wikisource:Help:Sheet music]]

[[File:LilyPond wikimedia Playback speed.png|thumb|LilyPond wikimedia Playback speed]]
[http:// wave convert MIDI
* 
# Bulleted list item
linked page 周哓远【MIDI广告】
 ==WAV, OGG, and MIDI sound files==riff

:The simple approach to sound used by the WMF version is described at Wikipedia's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Score#MIDI_instruments Help:Score#MIDI_instruments]. As shown in the figure to the right, editors have the option of including a tab that not only plays the sound, but also allows readers to modify the playback speed, as well as download a MIDI sound file. The methods described by [[Wikipedia:Help:Score]] create what looks like an image from [[w:Wikimedia commons|Wikimedia Commons]].  But it is actually [[w:HTML|hypertext markup]]. 
:The Lilypond.org (GNU) version is also suitable for WMF editors, provided adjustments are made to the [[w:muscore3_(software)|muscore3 editor.]] These adjustments include changing the ouput format from wave to an muscore xml image.&lt;ref&gt;I had trouble doing this on my Windows machine.  See 
[https://lilypond.org/doc/v2.23/Documentation/learning/graphical-setup-under-windows lilypond.org/doc/v2.23/Documentation/learning/graphical-setup-under-windows] and &lt;/ref&gt;

==Musical instruments available through the MIDI sound option==
&lt;big&gt;''To hear a [[w:MIDI|MIDI sound file]] for each of the 128 &quot;instruments&quot; available on LilyPond vist:''&lt;/big&gt;
*&lt;big&gt;[[Music/Software/Lilypond/MIDI]]&lt;/big&gt;

This link allows you to play short [[w:Riff|riff]]s that samples the sound of these instruments at various tempos and pitches.  [[w:special:permalink/1114897134#Part_I:_The_Adoration_of_the_Earth|Stravinsky's riff]] was deliberately made unmusical, with the last fermata extra long so that the listener can hear both rapid, as well as sustained notes. For example, if the [[w:Help:Score#MIDI_instruments|MIDI instrument]] selection is #&quot;bassoon&quot;, the corresponding WMF LilyPond script, score, and audio are:
 &lt;small&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;


The purpose of the &lt;code&gt;\cadenzaOn&lt;/code&gt; command was to remove all bar lines from the printed score.  It has no effect on the tempo. Since three tempos are given for each &quot;instrument&quot;, this code had to be written in 384 times, each with small changes in the parameters.  The python code that performed this feat is documented at:
*[[Python/LilyPond]]

===Modifying the tempo===
The tempo of the passages can be changed by replacing the text &lt;code&gt;\set Staff.midiInstrument&lt;/code&gt; by &lt;code&gt;\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 40&lt;/code&gt; to obtain:&lt;ref&gt;[[w:special:permalink/1118265754#Hiding_tempo]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;We also replaced the last note by a4 since the slower pace does not need such a long note at the end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 40 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a4) } &lt;/score&gt;

===Glockenspiel's strange harmonics===
I noticed that the glockenspiel plays strange harmonics and subharmonics.  In this passage all values of C are half-notes.
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c{\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 80 \set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;glockenspiel&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  
 c2 d4 e f g a b  c2 d4 e f g a b  c2 d4 e f g a b  c2 d4 e f g a b c2} &lt;/score&gt;
-----
{{Subpages}}
[[Category:Music software]]</text>
      <sha1>ehz9ennydf3xx2d0qcfkqjyqaeikguy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Japanese Language/Japanese Brazilian</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>92159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687903</id>
      <parentid>2186375</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T20:07:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Masatami</username>
        <id>2828994</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>formatting, phrasing</comment>
      <origin>2687903</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2192" sha1="mdn8bgb51kfx2a3641sr1qucd3wkp45" xml:space="preserve">Outside of Japan and the Okinawan islands, Japanese is spoken as a first language by approximately two million people, mainly immigrants who settled in Brazil and Hawaii, as well as other locations across the United States and Latin America. As of 2022, there are more Japanese descendants in Brazil than anywhere else in the world, numbering around 2 million.

One hundred years after the first Japanese immigrants arrived in Brazil, the country as a whole has been reflecting on an anniversary that has left a significant legacy. The celebrations are a chance to pay tribute to the pioneering immigrants that first arrived at the port of Santos near to Sao Paulo - and, the organisers say, to thank Brazilian society for making them welcome. The 165 families who arrived here on 18 June 1908 came to escape poverty and lack of job opportunities in Japan, and to meet the demand for workers in Brazil's coffee plantations.

But there is plenty of evidence at the Museum of Japanese Immigration in Sao Paulo that this was not always a comfortable story. The newly-arrived Japanese faced a huge culture shock: a radically different language, food and climate. For the Japanese immigrants in Brazil, national and ethnic identities merged into a moral model around which they tried to unify their community. They watched each other to see if they were &quot;true Japanese,&quot; which led to a moral, and literal, purge.

In addition to experiencing inner turmoil, many individuals paid a high price in other ways.

The first generation of immigrants, victims of discrimination in the country to which they had moved, reacted by adopting an ultra-orthodox version of the Japanese stereotype. Ultimately forced to give that up, they came to terms with staying in Brazil permanently and resolved to &quot;become ancestors of future Japanese-Brazilians.&quot; The following generations are developing their identity as an ethnic minority in Brazilian society.

Although some remain in Japan as immigrants to earn money, most want to return to Brazil.

== External links ==

*http://www.alsintl.com/resources/
*http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7459448.stm
*http://www.jpri.org/publications/occasionalpapers/op13.html</text>
      <sha1>mdn8bgb51kfx2a3641sr1qucd3wkp45</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horses, Tractors, and Vans/Chapter II</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>98714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687898</id>
      <parentid>2687759</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T19:05:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>164.58.2.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Replaced content with &quot;== The Great Butt ==     ''John whitebird tripped and fell in a pigs butt then he started counting sheep 1 sheep, 2 sheep, 3 sheep and fell asleep''  &lt;noinclude&gt;{{PD-user-w}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;  [[Category:Horses, Tractors, and Vans|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2687898</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="243" sha1="l89pl2xh5bt4sfhtmehgi1hecqal6lh" xml:space="preserve">== The Great Butt == 
  
''John whitebird tripped and fell in a pigs butt then he started counting sheep 1 sheep, 2 sheep, 3 sheep and fell asleep''

&lt;noinclude&gt;{{PD-user-w}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

[[Category:Horses, Tractors, and Vans|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</text>
      <sha1>l89pl2xh5bt4sfhtmehgi1hecqal6lh</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiji Hindi/Travel</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>113372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687929</id>
      <parentid>2614748</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T00:29:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.55.72.217</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>What i have changed is corrrect other one was wrong</comment>
      <origin>2687929</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1040" sha1="d1gje4tz9elwigr1zv9osxes1gg6365" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! English !! Fiji Hindi
|-
| hello || kaise
|-
| fine || thik hae
|-
| OK, good || acha
|-
|yes||haan
|-
|no||nai
|-
|maybe||saait
|-
|sorry||maaf karna
|-
|My name is John||Hamaar naam John hae. (Note that verb  appears last in the sentence
|-
|What is your name?||Tumar (or &quot;Aap&quot; to be polite) ke naam konchi hae?
|-
|Where have you come from?||Tum/Aap kahaan se aaya hae?
|-
|I have come from Australia||Ham Australia se aaya hae
|-
|Are you marries?||Tummar/Aapke saadi hoe gais?
|-
|How many children do you have?||Aap ke ketna larrkan hae?
|-
|Do you speak English||Tum/Aap English me baat kataa hae?
|-
|Does anyone here speak English||Hian pe koi English me baat kare hae?
|-
|I don't understand||Ham nai samajhtaa hae
|-
|Where is the shop?||Dukaan kahaan hae
|-
|I want to go to the airport||Ham airport jaae mangtaa hae
|-
|Is it far or near?||Duur hae ki nagiich?
|-
|Can I go by foot?||Ham paidar jaae saktaa hae?
|-
|Go straight ahead||Sidhaa aage chalo
|}


[[Category:Fiji Hindi]]
[[Category:Travel]]</text>
      <sha1>d1gje4tz9elwigr1zv9osxes1gg6365</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Numerical Methods</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>119778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687973</id>
      <parentid>2686802</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:08:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Numerical Differentiation */</comment>
      <origin>2687973</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2869" sha1="cliopmxpcshh2b6t2yg9unwtrkbb13e" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241118.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>cliopmxpcshh2b6t2yg9unwtrkbb13e</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687975</id>
      <parentid>2687973</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:13:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Numerical Differentiation */</comment>
      <origin>2687975</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2869" sha1="knc6uqtwzunadc3jh8k5gautjdyjei3" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241117.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241118.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>knc6uqtwzunadc3jh8k5gautjdyjei3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687977</id>
      <parentid>2687975</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:16:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2687977</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2869" sha1="6oh41pcdjhunyu64lv88bzv74scle13" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241117.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241119.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>6oh41pcdjhunyu64lv88bzv74scle13</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687978</id>
      <parentid>2687977</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:18:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2687978</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2869" sha1="knc6uqtwzunadc3jh8k5gautjdyjei3" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241117.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241118.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>knc6uqtwzunadc3jh8k5gautjdyjei3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687979</id>
      <parentid>2687978</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:18:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2687979</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2869" sha1="6oh41pcdjhunyu64lv88bzv74scle13" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241117.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241119.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>6oh41pcdjhunyu64lv88bzv74scle13</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687981</id>
      <parentid>2687979</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:24:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Calculus */</comment>
      <origin>2687981</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2869" sha1="9fgp7djzv4f72131i5mpxwab5e1ju5k" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241119.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>9fgp7djzv4f72131i5mpxwab5e1ju5k</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687983</id>
      <parentid>2687981</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:25:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2687983</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2869" sha1="aq9tt19kzuc0ioiyg94g64ipcy471gr" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241120.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>aq9tt19kzuc0ioiyg94g64ipcy471gr</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Linear algebra in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>132626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687985</id>
      <parentid>2686820</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:54:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Systems of Linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2687985</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2042" sha1="78zjy6pybpuojwqe4va7q6c3gqnsz1k" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

= Part I =

== Systems of Linear Equations ==
* Introduction ([[Media:LEQ.1.A.Introduction.20120827.pdf |pdf]])
* Row Reduction ([[Media:LEQ.2.A.RowReduction.Basic.20150117.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:LEQ.2.B.RowReduction.CAS.20150117.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Matrices Operations ([[Media:LEQ.3.A.MatrixOp.20150109.pdf |pdf]])
* Elementary Matrix ([[Media:LEQ.4.A.ElementaryMat.20150115.pdf |pdf]])
* Determinants ([[Media:LEQ.4.A.Determinant.20150113.pdf |pdf]])
* LU Factorization ([[Media:LEQ.5.A.LUFactor.20151014.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Vector Spaces (I) ==
* Euclidean Vector Space ([[Media:VSP.1.A.Euclid.20150113.pdf |pdf]])
* Matrix Transformation ([[Media:VSP.2.A.MatrixTrans.20121110.pdf |pdf]])
* General Vector Space ([[Media:VSP.3.A.General.20150121.pdf |pdf]])
* Fundamental Matrix Spaces ([[Media:VSP.3.A.Fundamental.20121124.pdf |pdf]])
* EigenSpaces of a Matrix ([[Media:VSP.5.A.EigenSpace.20121203.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
* Fundamental Spaces Note ([[Media:FSpaces.H1.20151211.pdf |H1.pdf]])
* Projection Theorem Note ([[Media:Projection.H2.20151218.pdf |H2.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
q &amp; a ([[Media:qa.20121211.pdf |pdf]])
 

&lt;/br&gt;

== Inner Product Spaces ==


&lt;/br&gt; 
&lt;/br&gt;

= Part II =

== Systems of Linear Equations == 

* Solving Systems of Linear Equations ([[Media:SystemLinEq.20240729.pdf |pdf]])
* Reduced Row-Echelon Form ([[Media:RowEchelon.20241118.pdf |pdf]])
* Types of Solution Sets
* Homogeneous Systems of Equations
* Nonsingular Matrices

== Vectors ==

== Matrices ==

== Vector Spaces  ==

* Vector Spaces
* Subspaces
* Linear Independence 
* Spanning Sets
* Bases
* Dimension
* Properties of Dimension
 
== Determinants ==

&lt;/br&gt;

== Eigenvalues == 

&lt;/br&gt;

== Linear Transformations == 

&lt;/br&gt; 

== Representations ==

&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

== '''External Links'''==

* [http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/ Paul's Online Math Notes]
* [http://linear.ups.edu/ First Course in Linear Algebra]

[[Category:Linear algebra]]</text>
      <sha1>78zjy6pybpuojwqe4va7q6c3gqnsz1k</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687987</id>
      <parentid>2687985</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:56:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Systems of Linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2687987</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2042" sha1="qfbj12k05yejk0gr6p5esb9na4zhjfo" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

= Part I =

== Systems of Linear Equations ==
* Introduction ([[Media:LEQ.1.A.Introduction.20120827.pdf |pdf]])
* Row Reduction ([[Media:LEQ.2.A.RowReduction.Basic.20150117.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:LEQ.2.B.RowReduction.CAS.20150117.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Matrices Operations ([[Media:LEQ.3.A.MatrixOp.20150109.pdf |pdf]])
* Elementary Matrix ([[Media:LEQ.4.A.ElementaryMat.20150115.pdf |pdf]])
* Determinants ([[Media:LEQ.4.A.Determinant.20150113.pdf |pdf]])
* LU Factorization ([[Media:LEQ.5.A.LUFactor.20151014.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Vector Spaces (I) ==
* Euclidean Vector Space ([[Media:VSP.1.A.Euclid.20150113.pdf |pdf]])
* Matrix Transformation ([[Media:VSP.2.A.MatrixTrans.20121110.pdf |pdf]])
* General Vector Space ([[Media:VSP.3.A.General.20150121.pdf |pdf]])
* Fundamental Matrix Spaces ([[Media:VSP.3.A.Fundamental.20121124.pdf |pdf]])
* EigenSpaces of a Matrix ([[Media:VSP.5.A.EigenSpace.20121203.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
* Fundamental Spaces Note ([[Media:FSpaces.H1.20151211.pdf |H1.pdf]])
* Projection Theorem Note ([[Media:Projection.H2.20151218.pdf |H2.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
q &amp; a ([[Media:qa.20121211.pdf |pdf]])
 

&lt;/br&gt;

== Inner Product Spaces ==


&lt;/br&gt; 
&lt;/br&gt;

= Part II =

== Systems of Linear Equations == 

* Solving Systems of Linear Equations ([[Media:SystemLinEq.20240729.pdf |pdf]])
* Reduced Row-Echelon Form ([[Media:RowEchelon.20241119.pdf |pdf]])
* Types of Solution Sets
* Homogeneous Systems of Equations
* Nonsingular Matrices

== Vectors ==

== Matrices ==

== Vector Spaces  ==

* Vector Spaces
* Subspaces
* Linear Independence 
* Spanning Sets
* Bases
* Dimension
* Properties of Dimension
 
== Determinants ==

&lt;/br&gt;

== Eigenvalues == 

&lt;/br&gt;

== Linear Transformations == 

&lt;/br&gt; 

== Representations ==

&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

== '''External Links'''==

* [http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/ Paul's Online Math Notes]
* [http://linear.ups.edu/ First Course in Linear Algebra]

[[Category:Linear algebra]]</text>
      <sha1>qfbj12k05yejk0gr6p5esb9na4zhjfo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687989</id>
      <parentid>2687987</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T08:56:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Systems of Linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2687989</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2042" sha1="omrgfyam97fnnou7yc38tmsf0mq38jc" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

= Part I =

== Systems of Linear Equations ==
* Introduction ([[Media:LEQ.1.A.Introduction.20120827.pdf |pdf]])
* Row Reduction ([[Media:LEQ.2.A.RowReduction.Basic.20150117.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:LEQ.2.B.RowReduction.CAS.20150117.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Matrices Operations ([[Media:LEQ.3.A.MatrixOp.20150109.pdf |pdf]])
* Elementary Matrix ([[Media:LEQ.4.A.ElementaryMat.20150115.pdf |pdf]])
* Determinants ([[Media:LEQ.4.A.Determinant.20150113.pdf |pdf]])
* LU Factorization ([[Media:LEQ.5.A.LUFactor.20151014.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Vector Spaces (I) ==
* Euclidean Vector Space ([[Media:VSP.1.A.Euclid.20150113.pdf |pdf]])
* Matrix Transformation ([[Media:VSP.2.A.MatrixTrans.20121110.pdf |pdf]])
* General Vector Space ([[Media:VSP.3.A.General.20150121.pdf |pdf]])
* Fundamental Matrix Spaces ([[Media:VSP.3.A.Fundamental.20121124.pdf |pdf]])
* EigenSpaces of a Matrix ([[Media:VSP.5.A.EigenSpace.20121203.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
* Fundamental Spaces Note ([[Media:FSpaces.H1.20151211.pdf |H1.pdf]])
* Projection Theorem Note ([[Media:Projection.H2.20151218.pdf |H2.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
q &amp; a ([[Media:qa.20121211.pdf |pdf]])
 

&lt;/br&gt;

== Inner Product Spaces ==


&lt;/br&gt; 
&lt;/br&gt;

= Part II =

== Systems of Linear Equations == 

* Solving Systems of Linear Equations ([[Media:SystemLinEq.20240729.pdf |pdf]])
* Reduced Row-Echelon Form ([[Media:RowEchelon.20241120.pdf |pdf]])
* Types of Solution Sets
* Homogeneous Systems of Equations
* Nonsingular Matrices

== Vectors ==

== Matrices ==

== Vector Spaces  ==

* Vector Spaces
* Subspaces
* Linear Independence 
* Spanning Sets
* Bases
* Dimension
* Properties of Dimension
 
== Determinants ==

&lt;/br&gt;

== Eigenvalues == 

&lt;/br&gt;

== Linear Transformations == 

&lt;/br&gt; 

== Representations ==

&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

== '''External Links'''==

* [http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/ Paul's Online Math Notes]
* [http://linear.ups.edu/ First Course in Linear Algebra]

[[Category:Linear algebra]]</text>
      <sha1>omrgfyam97fnnou7yc38tmsf0mq38jc</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haskell programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>203942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687924</id>
      <parentid>2687844</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T00:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lambda Calculus */</comment>
      <origin>2687924</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6230" sha1="3nhbs3igu03r2xnrrooqiq5eqo6rrta" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;


==Types==
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
* Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
* Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])

==Functions==
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])

==Expressions==
* Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
* Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Lambda Calculus==
* Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]])
* Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]])
* Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]])
* Encoding Datatypes 
:- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]])
:- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]])
:- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]])
:- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241120.pdf |pdf]])
:- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20240418.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]]</text>
      <sha1>3nhbs3igu03r2xnrrooqiq5eqo6rrta</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Music/Software/Lilypond/MIDI</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>211310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687953</id>
      <parentid>2448053</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T05:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>2001:8003:3217:7500:E515:669D:9A5C:9B38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wave riff to music notatal score</comment>
      <origin>2687953</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="64390" sha1="mgady5cjl0xkt6ao6wbask6er9o2r3v" xml:space="preserve">== {{anchor|TOC}} Click the [[Riff/convert 周哓远【小岛】|&lt;code&gt;LilyPond&lt;/code&gt;]] instrument to hear the [[w:MIDI|MIDI]] instrument at three different pitches. ==
__TOC__

====acoustic grand====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic grand&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic grand&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic grand&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====bright acoustic====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bright acoustic&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bright acoustic&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bright acoustic&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====electric grand====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric grand&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric grand&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric grand&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====honky-tonk====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;honky-tonk&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;honky-tonk&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;honky-tonk&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====electric piano 1====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric piano 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric piano 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric piano 1&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====electric piano 2====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric piano 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric piano 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric piano 2&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====harpsichord====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;harpsichord&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;harpsichord&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;harpsichord&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====clav====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;clav&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;clav&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;clav&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====celesta====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;celesta&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;celesta&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;celesta&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====glockenspiel====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;glockenspiel&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;glockenspiel&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;glockenspiel&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====music box====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;music box&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;music box&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;music box&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====vibraphone====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;vibraphone&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;vibraphone&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;vibraphone&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====marimba====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;marimba&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;marimba&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;marimba&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====xylophone====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;xylophone&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;xylophone&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;xylophone&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====tubular bells====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tubular bells&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tubular bells&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tubular bells&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====dulcimer====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;dulcimer&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;dulcimer&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;dulcimer&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====drawbar organ====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;drawbar organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;drawbar organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;drawbar organ&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====percussive organ====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;percussive organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;percussive organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;percussive organ&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====rock organ====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;rock organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;rock organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;rock organ&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====church organ====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;church organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;church organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;church organ&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====reed organ====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;reed organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;reed organ&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;reed organ&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====accordion====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;accordion&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;accordion&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;accordion&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====harmonica====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;harmonica&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;harmonica&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;harmonica&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====concertina====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;concertina&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;concertina&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;concertina&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====acoustic guitar (nylon)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic guitar (nylon)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic guitar (nylon)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic guitar (nylon)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====acoustic guitar (steel)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic guitar (steel)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic guitar (steel)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic guitar (steel)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====electric guitar (jazz)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (jazz)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (jazz)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (jazz)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====electric guitar (clean)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (clean)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (clean)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (clean)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====electric guitar (muted)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (muted)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (muted)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric guitar (muted)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====overdriven guitar====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;overdriven guitar&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;overdriven guitar&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;overdriven guitar&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====distorted guitar====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;distorted guitar&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;distorted guitar&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;distorted guitar&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====guitar harmonics====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;guitar harmonics&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;guitar harmonics&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;guitar harmonics&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====acoustic bass====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic bass&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic bass&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;acoustic bass&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====electric bass (finger)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric bass (finger)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric bass (finger)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric bass (finger)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====electric bass (pick)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric bass (pick)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric bass (pick)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;electric bass (pick)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fretless bass====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fretless bass&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fretless bass&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fretless bass&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====slap bass 1====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;slap bass 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;slap bass 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;slap bass 1&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====slap bass 2====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;slap bass 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;slap bass 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;slap bass 2&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====synth bass 1====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth bass 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth bass 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth bass 1&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====synth bass 2====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth bass 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth bass 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth bass 2&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====violin====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot; raw=&quot;1&quot; override_midi=&quot;lilypond&quot; override_audio=&quot;周哓远【小岛】&quot;&gt;\relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;violin&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) }&lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;violin&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;violin&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====viola====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;viola&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;viola&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;viola&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====cello====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;cello&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;cello&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;cello&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====contrabass====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;contrabass&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;contrabass&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;contrabass&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====tremolo strings====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tremolo strings&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tremolo strings&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tremolo strings&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pizzicato strings====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pizzicato strings&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pizzicato strings&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pizzicato strings&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====orchestral harp====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;orchestral harp&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;orchestral harp&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;orchestral harp&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====timpani====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;timpani&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;timpani&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;timpani&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====string ensemble 1====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;string ensemble 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;string ensemble 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;string ensemble 1&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====string ensemble 2====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;string ensemble 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;string ensemble 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;string ensemble 2&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====synthstrings 1====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthstrings 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthstrings 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthstrings 1&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====synthstrings 2====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthstrings 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthstrings 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthstrings 2&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====choir aahs====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;choir aahs&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;choir aahs&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;choir aahs&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====voice oohs====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;voice oohs&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;voice oohs&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;voice oohs&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====synth voice====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth voice&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth voice&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth voice&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====orchestra hit====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;orchestra hit&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;orchestra hit&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;orchestra hit&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====trumpet====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;trumpet&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;trumpet&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;trumpet&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====trombone====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;trombone&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;trombone&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;trombone&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====tuba====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tuba&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tuba&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tuba&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====muted trumpet====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;muted trumpet&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;muted trumpet&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;muted trumpet&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====french horn====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;french horn&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;french horn&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;french horn&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====brass section====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;brass section&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;brass section&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;brass section&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====synthbrass 1====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthbrass 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthbrass 1&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthbrass 1&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====synthbrass 2====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthbrass 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthbrass 2&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synthbrass 2&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====soprano sax====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;soprano sax&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;soprano sax&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;soprano sax&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====alto sax====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;alto sax&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;alto sax&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;alto sax&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====tenor sax====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tenor sax&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tenor sax&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tenor sax&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====baritone sax====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;baritone sax&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;baritone sax&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;baritone sax&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====oboe====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;oboe&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;oboe&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;oboe&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====english horn====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;english horn&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;english horn&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;english horn&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====bassoon====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bassoon&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====clarinet====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;clarinet&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;clarinet&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;clarinet&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====piccolo====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;piccolo&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;piccolo&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;piccolo&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====flute====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;flute&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;flute&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;flute&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====recorder====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;recorder&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;recorder&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;recorder&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pan flute====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pan flute&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pan flute&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pan flute&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====blown bottle====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;blown bottle&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;blown bottle&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;blown bottle&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====shakuhachi====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shakuhachi&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shakuhachi&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shakuhachi&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====whistle====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;whistle&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;whistle&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;whistle&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====ocarina====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;ocarina&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;ocarina&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;ocarina&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====lead 1 (square)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 1 (square)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 1 (square)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 1 (square)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====lead 2 (sawtooth)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 2 (sawtooth)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 2 (sawtooth)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 2 (sawtooth)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====lead 3 (calliope)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 3 (calliope)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 3 (calliope)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 3 (calliope)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====lead 4 (chiff)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 4 (chiff)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 4 (chiff)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 4 (chiff)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====lead 5 (charang)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 5 (charang)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 5 (charang)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 5 (charang)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====lead 6 (voice)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 6 (voice)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 6 (voice)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 6 (voice)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====lead 7 (fifths)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 7 (fifths)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 7 (fifths)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 7 (fifths)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====lead 8 (bass+lead)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 8 (bass+lead)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 8 (bass+lead)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;lead 8 (bass+lead)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pad 1 (new age)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 1 (new age)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 1 (new age)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 1 (new age)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pad 2 (warm)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 2 (warm)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 2 (warm)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 2 (warm)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pad 3 (polysynth)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 3 (polysynth)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 3 (polysynth)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 3 (polysynth)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pad 4 (choir)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 4 (choir)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 4 (choir)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 4 (choir)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pad 5 (bowed)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 5 (bowed)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 5 (bowed)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 5 (bowed)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====pad 6 (metallic)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 6 (metallic)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 6 (metallic)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 6 (metallic)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pad 7 (halo)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 7 (halo)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 7 (halo)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 7 (halo)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====pad 8 (sweep)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 8 (sweep)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 8 (sweep)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;pad 8 (sweep)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fx 1 (rain)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 1 (rain)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 1 (rain)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 1 (rain)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fx 2 (soundtrack)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 2 (soundtrack)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 2 (soundtrack)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 2 (soundtrack)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fx 3 (crystal)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 3 (crystal)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 3 (crystal)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 3 (crystal)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fx 4 (atmosphere)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 4 (atmosphere)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 4 (atmosphere)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 4 (atmosphere)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fx 5 (brightness)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 5 (brightness)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 5 (brightness)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 5 (brightness)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fx 6 (goblins)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 6 (goblins)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 6 (goblins)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 6 (goblins)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fx 7 (echoes)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 7 (echoes)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 7 (echoes)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 7 (echoes)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fx 8 (sci-fi)====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 8 (sci-fi)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 8 (sci-fi)&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fx 8 (sci-fi)&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====sitar====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;sitar&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;sitar&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;sitar&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====banjo====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;banjo&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;banjo&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;banjo&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====shamisen====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shamisen&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shamisen&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shamisen&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====koto====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;koto&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;koto&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;koto&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====kalimba====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;kalimba&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;kalimba&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;kalimba&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====bagpipe====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bagpipe&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bagpipe&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bagpipe&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====fiddle====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fiddle&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fiddle&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;fiddle&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====shanai====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shanai&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shanai&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;shanai&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====tinkle bell====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tinkle bell&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tinkle bell&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;tinkle bell&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====agogo====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;agogo&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;agogo&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;agogo&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====steel drums====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;steel drums&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;steel drums&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;steel drums&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====woodblock====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;woodblock&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;woodblock&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;woodblock&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====taiko drum====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;taiko drum&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;taiko drum&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;taiko drum&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====melodic tom====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;melodic tom&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;melodic tom&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;melodic tom&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====synth drum====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth drum&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth drum&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;synth drum&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;
====reverse cymbal====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;reverse cymbal&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;reverse cymbal&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;reverse cymbal&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====guitar fret noise====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;guitar fret noise&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;guitar fret noise&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;guitar fret noise&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====breath noise====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;breath noise&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;breath noise&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;breath noise&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====seashore====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;seashore&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;seashore&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;seashore&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====bird tweet====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bird tweet&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bird tweet&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;bird tweet&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====telephone ring====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;telephone ring&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;telephone ring&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;telephone ring&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====helicopter====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;helicopter&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;helicopter&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;helicopter&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====applause====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;applause&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;applause&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;applause&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;

====gunshot====
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;gunshot&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'''{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;gunshot&quot;\clef treble\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;
&lt;score sound=&quot;1&quot;&gt; \relative c'{\set Staff.midiInstrument = #&quot;gunshot&quot;\clef bass\cadenzaOn  c2\grace { b16[c] } [b g e (b'] a1~a2) } &lt;/score&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#TOC|Top of page]]&lt;/small&gt;</text>
      <sha1>mgady5cjl0xkt6ao6wbask6er9o2r3v</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Python programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>212733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687891</id>
      <parentid>2686784</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T13:34:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2687891</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="2647" sha1="cretzp38azqeiav4le613qtn5mm2ixm" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241118.pdf |pdf]])
* Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20241109.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>cretzp38azqeiav4le613qtn5mm2ixm</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2687893</id>
      <parentid>2687891</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Using Libraries */</comment>
      <origin>2687893</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2647" sha1="1913f7fnsvqlkbqngyq2rg9x72bazy0" xml:space="preserve">==''' Part I '''==
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
===  Introduction ===

* Overview 
* Memory 
* Number 

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Python for C programmers ===

* Hello, World! ([[Media:CProg.Hello.1A.20230406.pdf |pdf]])
* Statement Level  ([[Media:CProg.Statement.1A.20230509.pdf |pdf]])
* Output with print
* Formatted output
* File IO

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;


=== Using Libraries ===

* Scripts ([[Media:Python.Work2.Script.1A.20231129.pdf |pdf]])
* Modules ([[Media:Python.Work2.Module.1A.20231216.pdf |pdf]])
* Packages ([[Media:Python.Work2.Package.1A.20241119.pdf |pdf]])
* Libraries ([[Media:Python.Work2.Library.1A.20241109.pdf |pdf]])
* Namespaces ([[Media:Python.Work2.Scope.1A.20231021.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===   Handling Repetition ===
 
* Control ([[Media:Python.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20230314.pdf |pdf]])

* Loop ([[Media:Repeat2.Loop.1A.20230401.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling a Big Work ===

* Functions ([[Media:Python.Work1.Function.1A.20230529.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda ([[Media:Python.Work2.Lambda.1A.20230705.pdf |pdf]])
* Type Annotations ([[Media:Python.Work2.AtypeAnnot.1A.20230817.pdf |pdf]])

  
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Series of Data ===

* Arrays ([[Media:Python.Series1.Array.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series2.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Lists ([[Media:Python.Series3.List.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Tuples ([[Media:Python.Series4.Tuple.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Sets ([[Media:Python.Series5.Set.1A.pdf |pdf]])
* Dictionary ([[Media:Python.Series6.Dictionary.1A.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
  
* Types 
* Operators ([[Media:Python.Data3.Operators.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:Python.Data4.File.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

=== Class and Objects ===
  
* Classes &amp; Objects ([[Media:Python.Work2.Class.1A.20230906.pdf |pdf]])
* Inheritance

 
&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Python in Numerical Analysis  ==
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~fangohr/training/python/pdfs/Python-for-Computational-Science-and-Engineering.pdf Python and Computational Science and Engineering]</text>
      <sha1>1913f7fnsvqlkbqngyq2rg9x72bazy0</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Mi'kmaq language/Basic vocabulary</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>220130</id>
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      <parentid>1657494</parentid>
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      <contributor>
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      <text bytes="11490" sha1="5sg9e42wfahmximnehmsy3lslfg8dll" xml:space="preserve">{{Chapter
|number=7
|previous=Counting
|next=Greetings
}}

This chapter introduces some Mi'kmaq vocabulary by themes: animals, body parts, elements of the calendar, colours, currency and food.

''Note: All words in this chapter are in Francis-Smith orthography (see [[Mi'kmaq language/Orthographies|Chapter 3]] for more details). The abbreviations &quot;n.a&quot; and &quot;n.i.&quot; respectively mean &quot;noun animate&quot; and &quot;noun inanimate&quot;.''

== Animals ==
[[File:Sa'qitie'j.ogg|thumb|right|Listen to the word ''sa'qitie'j'' (dragonfly) recorded by a Mi'kmaq elder]]
[[File:Chien errant.JPG|thumb|right|Lmu'j]]
[[File:Warmblood.JPG|thumb|right|Te'sipow]]
[[File:Moose 983 LAB.jpg|thumb|right|Tiya'm]]
[[File:Canis lupus 265b.jpg|thumb|right|Paqtɨsm]]
[[File:White-tailed deer.jpg|thumb|right|Lentuk]]
[[File:Águila calva.jpg|thumb|right|Kitpu]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! English !! Mi'kmaq !! Plural Mi'kmaq form !! Fourth person Mi'kmaq form
|-
| Bat || Na'jipuktaq'nej (n.a.) || Na'jipuktaq'nejk || Na'jipuktaq'nejl
|-
| Beaver || Kopit (n.a.) || Kopitk || Kopitl
|-
| Bear || Mui'n (n.a.), muin (n.a.) || Mui'naq, muinaq || Mui'nal, muinal
|-
| Bear cub || Mui'ne'j (n.a.) || Mui'nejk || Mui'ne'jl
|- 
| Bee || Amu (n.a.) || Amu'k || Amu'l
|-
| Bird || Jipji'j (n.a.) || Jipji'jk || Jipji'jl, jipji'tl
|-
| Black duck || Apji'jkmuj (n.a.), jikwij (n.a.) || Apji'jkmujk, jikwijk || Apji'jkmujl, jikwijl
|-
| Blackbird || Putlieskij (n.a.) || Putlieskijk || Putlieskijl
|-
| Blue Jay || Tities (n.a.) || Titiesk || Titiesl
|-
| Blue-winged Teal || Tma'qni (n.a.) || Tma'qni'k || Tma'qni'l
|-
| Bull || Matto'law (n.a.), latto'law (n.a.) || Matto'lawk, latto'lawk || Matto'lawl, latto'lawl
|-
| Butterfly || Mimikes (n.a.), mimikej (n.a.) || Mimikesk, mimikesjk || Mimikesl, mimikejl
|-
| Calf || Wenjitia'mu'j (n.a.) || Wenjitia'mu'jk || Wnejitia'mu'jl
|-
| Calf moose || Tia'mu'j (n.a.) || Tia'mu'jk || Tia'mu'jl
|-
| Caribou || Qalipu (n.a.) || Qalipuk || Qalipul
|-
| Cat || Kajuewj (n.a.), mia'wj (n.a.) || Kajuewjik, mia'wjk || Kajuewjl, mia'wjl
|-
| Caterpillar || Enkejit (n.a.) || Enkejijik || Enkejitl
|-
| Chicken || Ko'qoli'kwej (n.a.), ki'kli'kwej (n.a.) ||  Ko'qoli'kwejk, ki'kli'kwejk ||  Ko'qoli'kwejl, ki'kli'kwejl
|-
| Chipmunk || Apalqaqamej (n.a.) || Apalqaqamejk || Apalqaqamejl
|-
| Clam || E's (n.a.) || E'sik || E'sl
|-
| Cod || Peju (n.a.) || Peju'k || Peju'l
|-
| Cow || Wenjti'am (n.a.) || Wenjiti'amuk || Wenjiti'amul
|-
| Crane || Tmkwatiknej (n.a.) || Tmkwatiknejk || Tmkwatiknejl
|-
| Crow || Ka'qaquj (n.a.), ka'qawej (n.a.) || Ka'qaqujk, ka'qawejk || Ka'qaqujl, ka'qawejl
|-
| Deer || Lentuk (n.a.) || Lentukk || Lentukul
|-
| Dog || Lmu'j (n.a.), nmu'j (n.a.) || Lmu'jik, nmu'jik || Lmu'jl, nmu'jl
|-
| Duck or geese (domestic) || Takali'j (n.a.) || Takali'jk || Takali'jl
|-
| Dragonfly || Sa'qitie'j (n.a.) || Sa'qitie'jik || Sa'qitie'jl
|-
| Eagle || Kitpu (n.a.) || Kitpu'k || Kitpu'l
|-
| Eel || Ka't (n.a.), katew || Ka'taq, kataq || Ka'tal, katewal
|-
| Female dog || Skwesmuj (n.a.) || Skwesmujk || Skwesmujl
|-
| Female fowl || Skwe'w (n.a.) || Skwe'wuk || Skwe'wul
|-
| Flying squirrel || Saskatu (n.a.), sasqatu (n.a.) || Saskatu'k, Sasqatu'k || Saskatu'l, sasqatu'k
|-
| Foal || Te'sipowji'j (n.a.) || Te'sipowji'jk || Te'sipowji'jl
|-
| Fox || Wowkwis (n.a.) || Wowkwisk || Wowkwisl
|-
| Frog || Sqolj (n.a.) || Sqoljik || Sqoljl
|-
| Goat || Te'plj (n.a.), te'pulj (n.a.) || Te'pljik, te'puljik || Te'pljl, te'puljl
|-
| Goose || Sulumkw (n.a.), sinumkw (n.a.) || Sulumkwaq, sinumkwaq || Sulumkwal, sinumkwal
|-
| Groundhog || Mulumkwej (n.a.) || Mulumkwejk || Mulumkwejl
|-
| Halibut || Sanuk (n.a.) || Sanukk || Sanukl
|-
| Herring || Alanj (n.a.) || Alanjk || Alanjl
|-
| Horned owl || Titiklie (n.a.) || Titiklie'k || Titiklie'l
|-
| Horned serpent || Jipijka'm (n.a.) || Jipijka'muk || Jipijka'mul
|-
| Horse || Te'sipow (n.a.) || Te'sipowk || Te'sipowl
|-
| Kingfisher || Jikitli'kej (n.a.) || Jikitli'kejk || Jikitli'kejl
|-
| Kitten || Kajuewji'j (n.a.) || Kajuewji'jk || Kajuewji'jl
|-
| Lamb || Jijkluewji'j (n.a.) || Jijkluewji'jk || Jijkluewji'jl
|-
| Lobster || Jakej (n.a.) || Jakejk || Jakejl
|-
| Mackerel || Amalamek (n.a.) || Amalamekk || Amalamekl
|-
| Marten || Apistanewj (n.a.) || Apistanewjik || Apistanewjl
|-
| Mink || Jiakewj (n.a.), mujpej (n.a.) || Jiakewjik, mujpejk || Jiakewjl, mujpejl
|-
| Moose || Tia'm (n.a.) || Tia'muk || Tia'mul
|-
| Mouse || Apikji'j (n.a.), apukji'j (n.a.) || Apikji'jk, apukji'jk || Apikji'jl, apukji'jl
|-
| Muskrat || Ki'kwesu (n.a.) || Ki'kwesu'k || Ki'kwesu'l
|-
| Otter || Kiwnik (n.a.) || Kiwnikaq || Kiwnikal
|-
| Owl || Ku'ku'kwes (n.a.) || Ku'ku'kwesk || Ku'ku'kwesl
|-
| Partridge || Plawej (n.a.) || Plawejk || Plawejl
|-
| Pig || Kulkwi's (n.a.) || Kulkwi'sk || Kulkwi'sl
|-
| Piglet || Kulkwi'ji'j (n.a.) || Kulkwi'ji'jk || Kulkwi'ji'jl
|-
| Porcupine || Matues (n.a.) || Matuesk || Matuesl
|-
| Puppy || Lmu'ji'j (n.a.) || Lmu'ji'jk || Lmu'ji'jl
|-
| Rabbit || Apli'kmuj (n.a.), wapus (n.a.) || Apli'kmujk, wapusk || Apli'kmujl, wapusl
|-
| Raccoon || Amaljukwej (n.a.), amaljikwej (n.a.) || Amaljukwejk, amaljikwejk || Amaljukwejl, amaljikwejl
|-
| Robin || Jipjawej (n.a.), kapjakwej (n.a.) || Jipjawejk, kapjakwejk || Jipjawejl, kapjakwejl
|-
| Rooster || Lape'w (n.a.), nape'w (n.a.), jikijo'n (n.a.) || Lape'wk, nape'wk, jikijo'nk || Lape'wl, nape'wl, jikijo'nl
|-
| Salamander || Taqtaloq (n.a.) || Taqtaloqq || Taqtaloql
|-
| Salmon || Plamu (n.a.) || Plamu'k || Plamu'l
|-
| Seagull || Kloqntiej (n.a.) || Kloqntiejk || Klowntiejl
|-
| Sheep || Jijkluewj (n.a.) || Jijkluewjik || Jijkluewjl
|-
| Skunk || Apikjilu (n.a.) || Apikjilu'k || Apikjilu'l
|-
| Smelt || Kaqpesaw (n.a.) || Kaqpesaq || Kaqpesawul
|-
| Snake || Mteskm, mte'skm (n.a.) || Mteskmuk, mte'skmuk || Mteskml, mte'skml
|-
| Squirrel || Atu'tuej (n.a.) || Atu'tuejk || Atu'tuejl
|-
| Sucker || Komkwej (n.a.) || Komkwejk || Komkwejl
|-
| Sugar ant || Sismo'qone'j (n.a.) || Sismo'qone'jk || Sismo'qone'jl
|-
| Swallow || Pukwales (n.a.) || Pukwalesk || Pukwalesl
|-
| Trout || Atoqwa'su (n.a.) || Atoqwa'su'k || Atoqwa'su'l
|-
| Turtle || Mikjikj (n.a.) || Mikjikjik || Mikjikjl
|-
| Waterfowl || Sisip (n.a.) || Sisipaq || Sisipal
|-
| Wolf || Paqtɨsm (n.a.), paqtesm (n.a.) || Paqtɨsmuk, paqtesmuk || Paqtɨsmul, paqtesmul
|-
| Woodpecker || Apo'qatej (n.a.) || Apo'qatejk || Apo'qatejl
|-
| Young goat || Te'plji'j (n.a.) || Te'plji'jk || Te'plji'jl
|}

== Body parts ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! English !! Mi'kmaq
|-
| Arm || Npitnokom
|-
| Belly button || Nili
|-
| Chest || Npsewikn
|-
| Ear || Nsituaqn
|-
| Elbow || Ntluskinikn
|-
| Eye || Npukik
|-
| Finger || Ntlewikn
|-
| Foot || Nkat
|-
| Knee || Njikun
|-
| Hand || Npitn
|-
| Head || Nunji
|-
| Mouth || Ntun
|-
| Neck || Njitaqn
|-
| Nose || Nsiskun
|-
| Shoulder || Ntlmaqn
|-
| Stomach || Nmusti
|-
| Testicle || Nulsu
|-
| Thigh || Nkajikn
|-
| Thumb || Ntijin
|-
| Toe || Npsisqunan
|}

== Calendar ==
=== Seasons ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! English !! Mi'kmaq
|-
| Autumn || Toqwa'q
|-
| Spring || Siwkw
|-
| Summer || Nipk
|-
| Winter || Kesik
|}

=== Months ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! English !! Mi'kmaq !! Literal meaning
|-
| January || Penamujuiku's || Frost fish runs
|-
| February || Apuknajit || Snow blinding month
|-
| March || Siewkesiku's || Forerunner of Spring
|-
| April || Penatmuiku's || Egg hatching time
|-
| May || Etquljuiku's || Frog croaking time
|-
| June || Nipniku's || Leaves are budding time
|-
| July || Peskewiku's || Animal fur thickens time
|-
| August || Kisikwekewiku's || Ripening time
|-
| September || Wikumkewiku's || Mate calling time
|-
| October || Wikewiku's || Animal fattening time
|-
| November || Keptekewiku's || Frost month
|-
| December || Kesikewiku's || Winter month
|}

=== Days of the week ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! English !! Mi'kmaq
|-
| Monday || Amskwesewey
|-
| Tuesday || Ta'puewey
|-
| Wednesday || Si'stewey
|-
| Thursday || Ne'wewey
|-
| Friday || Kweltamultimk
|-
| Saturday || Kespitekɨtek
|-
| Sunday || Ekntie'wimk
|}

== Colours ==
Since there is no adjectives per say in Mi'kmaq, the words in the table below are verbs meaning &quot;He/she/it is ''black''&quot; (or another colour). All verbs shown are for the third person and are singular.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! English !! Mi'kmaq
|-
| Black || Maqtawe'k, maqtewe'k
|-
| Blue || Ewne'k
|-
| Brown || Tupkwanamu'k, jijijuwaqitewamu'k
|-
| Dark green || Stoqonamuksit
|-
| Deep blue || Musqunamu'k
|-
| Gold || Wisawisuliewey
|-
| Green || Stoqonamu'k
|-
| Grey || Sulieweyamu'k
|-
| Light blue || Musik'ewamuk'
|-
| Orange || Nikjawiknejewamu'k, wisawsulieweyamu'k
|-
| Pink || Nijinjewamu'k
|-
| Purple || Nisqunamu'k
|-
| Red || Mekwe'k
|-
| Yellow || Wisawe'k, wataptek
|-
| White || Wape'k
|}

== Currency ==
Since the vast majority of Mi'kmaq speakers are in Canada, this page lists the Mi'kmaq words for the different denominations for Canadian money.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Value !! Mi'kmaq word
|-
| 1¢ || Smalkiewey
|-
| 5¢ || Kopitewey
|-
| 10¢ || Salpo'lkewey
|-
| 25¢ || Kaltie
|-
| $1 || Newtayik
|-
| $2 || Tapuayikl
|-
| $5 || Nanayikl
|-
| $10 || Metla'sayikl
|-
| $20 || Tapuiskekayikl
|-
| $50 || Naniskekayikl
|-
| $100 || Kaskimtlnaqnayikl
|}

== Food ==
[[File:Carrots with stems.jpg|thumb|right|Enmapejit]]
[[File:Cucurbita 2011 G1 Large.jpg|thumb|right|Ejkujk]]
[[File:Bright red tomato and cross section02.jpg|thumb|right|Tmato's]]
[[File:Red and white wine 12-2015.jpg|thumb|right|Moqopa'q]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! English !! Mi'kmaq
|-
| Bannock || Lusknikn (n.i.)
|-
| Bread || Pipnaqan (n.i.)
|-
| Butter || Mlakeju'mi (n.i.)
|-
| Buttermilk || Sikupaqte'kn (n.a.)
|-
| Carrot || Enmapejit (n.a.)
|-
| Cheese || Te'plmasewei (n.i.), tepplma'sigewei (n.i.)
|-
| Cinnamon || Pkwejijk (n.)
|-
| Coffee || Kaffi (n.i.)
|-
| Cookie || Kalkunawei (n.i.)
|-
| Food || Mijipjewei (n.i.)
|-
| Food for breakfast || Eksitpu'kwatalmgewei (n.i.)
|-
| Hazelnut || Malipqwanj (n.i.)
|-
| Jam || Paskoqsikn (n.i.), passoqsikn (n.i.)
|-
| Meal || Mijjuaqan (n.i.)
|-
| Meat || Wius (n.i.)
|-
| Milk || Mlakejk (n.a.)
|-
| Moose fat || Tia'mu'mi (n.i.)
|-
| Moose meat || Tia'muei (n.i.)
|-
| Mushroom || Lketu (n.a.), sqoljui'kan (n.i.)
|-
| Pancake || Sisla'kwa'taqan (n.i.)
|-
| Pea soup || Wenjua'p'tew (n.i.)
|-
| Pepper || Te'pisewei (n.i.)
|-
| Porcupine meat || Matuesuei (n.i.)
|-
| Pork || Kulkwi'suei (n.i.)
|-
| Pork fat, lard || Kulkwi'su'mi (n.i.)
|-
| Potato || Tapatat (n.a.), tap'tan (n.a.)
|-
| Rhubarb || Sewlugowei (n.a.)
|-
| Salt || Salawei (n.i.)
|-
| Squash || Ejkujk (n.i.)
|-
| Soup || Lasup (n.i.)
|-
| Sugar || Sismoqn (n.i.), sismo'qon (n.i.)
|-
| Tea || P'tewei (n.i.)
|-
| Tomato || Tmato's (n.a.)
|-
| Turnips || Wenj'u'sɨpekn (n.a.), wenju'suqapun (n.a.), tanaps (n.a.)
|-
| Water || Samuqwan (n.i.)
|-
| Wild potato || S'kepn (n.a.)
|-
| Wine || Moqopa'q (n.i.)
|}

== Additional resources ==
* [[:en:wikt:Category:Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq words in the English Wiktionary]]
* [[:fr:wikt:Catégorie:micmac|Mi'kmaq words in the French Wiktionary]] (in French)
* [http://www.mikmaqonline.org/ Mi'gmaq-Mi'kmaq Online], a free online English—Mi'gmaq dictionary
* [http://www.omegawiki.org/Special:Ow_data_search?title=Special%3AOw+data+search&amp;search-text=&amp;language=546&amp;collection=0&amp;show=Show Mi'kmaq words in the OmegaWiki], an online multilingual dictionary

{{Chapter footer
|previous=Counting
|next=Greetings
}}

[[Category:Mi'kmaq language]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Atcovi/Science/Biology Terms</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>2687909</id>
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      <timestamp>2024-11-19T21:05:21Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Danica3847</username>
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      <text bytes="12273" sha1="0eoxsddr9io4bgwrq56r0nny7jrc553" xml:space="preserve">* '''Cell''': The basic unit of life that makes up all living organisms. Cells can be prokaryotic (without a nucleus) or eukaryotic (with a nucleus).
* '''DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)''': The molecule that carries genetic information and is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
* '''Gene''': A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or trait.
* '''Mitosis''': A type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells, used for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
* '''Meiosis''': A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, leading to the formation of gametes (sperm and eggs).
* '''Homeostasis''': The process by which living organisms maintain stable internal conditions, such as temperature and pH, despite external changes.
* '''Ecosystem''': A community of living organisms interacting with their physical environment, including both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors.
* '''Photosynthesis''': The process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water.
* '''Respiration''': The process by which cells break down glucose to produce energy (ATP), releasing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.
* '''Enzyme''': A protein that acts as a catalyst to speed up biochemical reactions without being consumed in the process.
* '''Mutations''': Changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to variations in traits. Mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.
* '''Natural Selection''': The process by which organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits to the next generation.
* '''Cell Membrane''': The outer boundary of a cell, composed of a lipid bilayer, that controls what enters and leaves the cell.
* '''Chloroplast''': Organelles found in plant cells that are responsible for photosynthesis, containing chlorophyll to absorb light energy.
* '''Viral Replication''': The process by which viruses reproduce inside host cells, often destroying the host cell in the process.
* '''Antibody''': A protein produced by the immune system that helps fight off infections by recognizing and neutralizing foreign substances like bacteria and viruses.
* '''ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)''': The main energy carrier in cells, produced during cellular respiration.
* '''Evolution''': The change in the genetic composition of a population over successive generations, leading to adaptation to the environment.
* '''Tissue''': A group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function, such as muscle tissue or nerve tissue.
* '''Organ''': A structure composed of different tissues that work together to perform a specific function, like the heart, lungs, or brain.
* '''Chromosome''': A thread-like structure made of DNA and proteins that contains genetic information. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell.
** '''Nucleus''': The membrane-bound organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell’s genetic material (DNA).
** '''Cytoplasm''': The jelly-like substance inside the cell membrane that surrounds the organelles and where most cellular processes occur.
** '''Ribosome''': Small structures in the cell where proteins are synthesized.
** '''Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)''': A network of membranes in the cell involved in protein and lipid synthesis. It can be smooth or rough, with the rough ER containing ribosomes.
** '''Golgi Apparatus''': The organelle responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids for storage or transport out of the cell.
** '''Lysosome''': A membrane-bound organelle containing enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.
** '''Vacuole''': A storage organelle in cells, particularly large in plant cells, that holds water, nutrients, or waste products.
** '''Diffusion''': The movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached.
** '''Osmosis''': A type of diffusion that specifically refers to the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane.
** '''Active Transport''': The movement of molecules across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (usually ATP).
** '''Passive Transport''': The movement of molecules across a cell membrane without energy input, following the concentration gradient (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).
** '''Hypotonic Solution''': A solution that has a lower concentration of solutes compared to the inside of a cell, causing the cell to swell as water enters.
** '''Hypertonic Solution''': A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes compared to the inside of a cell, causing the cell to shrink as water leaves.
** '''Isotonic Solution''': A solution with an equal concentration of solutes as the inside of the cell, causing no net movement of water.
** '''Gene Expression''': The process by which the information in a gene is used to create a functional product, such as a protein.
** '''Transcription''': The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA, which is the first step in gene expression.
** '''Translation''': The process by which RNA is used to assemble amino acids into a protein at the ribosome.
** '''Mutation''': A change in the DNA sequence of an organism, which can lead to changes in traits or diseases.
** '''Genotype''': The genetic makeup of an organism, representing the specific alleles inherited from both parents.
** '''Phenotype''': The physical expression of an organism’s genotype, such as its appearance, behavior, or biochemical properties.
** '''Allele''': One of two or more forms of a gene, which can produce variations in traits.
** '''Homozygous''': When an organism has two identical alleles for a particular gene (e.g., AA or aa).
** '''Heterozygous''': When an organism has two different alleles for a particular gene (e.g., Aa).
** '''Dominant Allele''': An allele that expresses its trait even if only one copy is present (e.g., in a heterozygous individual, the dominant allele will determine the phenotype).
** '''Recessive Allele''': An allele that expresses its trait only when two copies are present (i.e., in a homozygous recessive individual).
** '''Punnett Square''': A tool used to predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring based on the genotypes of the parents.
** '''Natural Selection''': A mechanism of evolution where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully.
** '''Adaptation''': A characteristic or trait that improves an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.
** '''Photosynthesis''': The process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose and oxygen.
** '''Cellular Respiration''': The process by which cells break down glucose to release energy (ATP), using oxygen and producing carbon dioxide and water.
** '''ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)''': The main energy carrier in cells, used in many cellular processes, including metabolism, muscle contraction, and active transport.
** '''Fermentation''': An anaerobic (without oxygen) process by which cells generate energy, producing byproducts like alcohol or lactic acid instead of carbon dioxide and water.
** '''Ecology''': The branch of biology that deals with the relationships between organisms and their environment.
** '''Food Chain''': A hierarchical series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food. It shows how energy flows through an ecosystem.
** '''Food Web''': A complex network of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem.
** '''Biodiversity''': The variety of different species, genes, and ecosystems in a given area, crucial for ecosystem health and resilience.
** '''Symbiosis''': A close, long-term relationship between two different species, which can be mutualistic (both benefit), parasitic (one benefits, one is harmed), or commensal (one benefits, the other is not affected).
** '''Predation''': A biological interaction where one organism (the predator) kills and eats another (the prey).
** '''Carrying Capacity''': The maximum number of individuals of a species that an environment can support sustainably.
** '''Trophic Levels''': The levels in a food chain or food web, starting with producers (plants) at the bottom and moving up to primary consumers, secondary consumers, and so on.
** '''Invasive Species''': Non-native species that cause harm to the environment, economy, or human health by outcompeting native species.
** '''Pollination''': The process by which pollen is transferred from one flower to another, facilitating fertilization and the production of seeds.
** '''Vaccine''': A biological preparation that provides immunity to a specific disease by stimulating the body’s immune response without causing illness.
** '''Antibiotic''': A substance that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria, used to treat bacterial infections.
** '''Virus''': A non-living infectious agent that requires a host cell to replicate. Viruses can infect all forms of life, from bacteria to humans.
** '''Immune System''': The body’s defense system against foreign invaders, such as bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens.
** '''HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)''': A virus that attacks the immune system, leading to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) if untreated.
** '''Mutation''': A change in the DNA sequence of an organism, which can lead to variations in traits or diseases.
** '''Cloning''': The process of creating a genetically identical copy of an organism or cell.

* '''Interphase''': The phase of the cell cycle that prepares the cell for mitosis, consisting of the G1, S, and G2 phases.
* '''Chromatin''': The uncondensed form of DNA found in the nucleus during interphase.
* '''Chromosomes''': Tightly coiled structures of DNA and proteins visible during mitosis; each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids.
* '''Sister Chromatids''': Two identical copies of a chromosome connected by a centromere, formed after DNA replication during interphase.
* '''Centromere''': The region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids are held together.
* '''Spindle Fibers''': Microtubules that extend from the centrosomes and help separate the chromosomes during mitosis.
* '''Centrosome''': The region of the cell that organizes the microtubules and contains the centrioles (in animal cells).
* '''Centrioles''': Cylindrical structures within the centrosome that play a role in organizing the spindle fibers during mitosis (found in animal cells).
* '''Prophase''': The first stage of mitosis where chromosomes condense, the nuclear membrane dissolves, and spindle fibers begin to form.
* '''Metaphase''': The second stage of mitosis where chromosomes align along the middle (equatorial plate) of the cell.
* '''Anaphase''': The stage in mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
* '''Telophase''': The final stage of mitosis where chromosomes de-condense, nuclear membranes reform, and the cell begins to divide.
* '''Cytokinesis''': The process that occurs after mitosis, where the cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells are formed. In animal cells, this involves the pinching of the cell membrane (cleavage furrow); in plant cells, a cell plate forms.
* '''Cell Cycle''': The entire process of cell growth and division, consisting of interphase (G1, S, and G2 phases) and mitosis (M phase).
* '''G1 Phase''' (Gap 1): The first phase of interphase where the cell grows and performs its normal functions.
* '''S Phase''' (Synthesis): The phase of interphase during which DNA replication occurs, resulting in two identical sets of chromosomes.
* '''G2 Phase''' (Gap 2): The phase of interphase during which the cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis.
* '''Checkpoint''': Control mechanisms that ensure that each stage of the cell cycle has been completed correctly before the cell proceeds to the next phase.
* '''Chromatid''': One half of a duplicated chromosome, which becomes a separate chromosome after anaphase during mitosis.

[[Category:High School Biology]]
[[Category:Notes]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Microprocessor Based System Design</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>232469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687927</id>
      <parentid>2687853</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T00:20:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
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      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
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      <text bytes="5760" sha1="hxjtot84gkrv4xxu381iyxu882fu5r0" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20230726.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20241120.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20230610.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Tail Chaining ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.TailChain.20230816.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220924.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
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[[File:Personal_computer,_exploded_5,_unlabeled.svg|thumb|right|Personal computer components]]

This lesson introduces internal system components and data storage.

__TOC__

== Objectives and Skills ==
Objectives and skills for the components portion of IT Fundamentals certification include:&lt;ref&gt;[https://certification.comptia.org/docs/default-source/exam-objectives/fc0-u61_objectives.pdf CompTIA: IT Fundamentals (ITF+) Exam Objectives FC0-U61]&lt;/ref&gt;
{{colbegin}}
* Explain the purpose of common internal computing components.
** Motherboard/system board
** Firmware/BIOS
** RAM
** CPU
*** ARM
**** Mobile phone
**** Tablet
*** 32-bit
**** Laptop
**** Workstation
**** Server
*** 64-bit
**** Laptop
**** Workstation
**** Server
** Storage
*** Hard drive
*** SSD
** GPU
** Cooling
** NIC
*** Wired vs. wireless
*** On-board vs. add-on card
* Compare and contrast storage types.
** Volatile vs. non-volatile
** Local storage types
*** RAM
*** Hard drive
**** Solid state vs. spinning disk
*** Optical
*** Flash drive
** Local network storage types
*** NAS
*** File server
** Cloud storage service
{{colend}}

== Readings ==
# [[Wikipedia: Computer hardware]]

== Multimedia ==
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yH5Snus9nRs YouTube: Basics of Computing &amp; Processing]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ckPj2FZWzE4 YouTube: Common Internal Computing Components]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tufx5TBoA_0 YouTube: Storage Types]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5SaRkeBOTo YouTube: Chapter 2 - IT Fundamentals+ (FC0-U61) System Hardware]

== Activities ==
# Run the System Information or List Hardware utility for your operating system:
#* Windows: Review [https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/300887/description-of-microsoft-system-information-msinfo32-tool Microsoft: Description of Microsoft System Information (Msinfo32.exe) Tool]. Run System Information on Windows and observe the System Summary, Hardware Resources, Components, and Software Environment available on the system.
#* macOS: Review [http://support.apple.com/en-us/HT6274 Apple: About System Information]. Run System Information on macOS and observe the hardware available on the system.
#* Linux GUI: Review [https://itsfoss.com/hardinfo/ It's FOSS: Check Hardware Information on Linux Graphically With Hardinfo]. Use Hardinfo to observe the hardware available on the system.
#* Linux CLI: Review [https://www.binarytides.com/linux-lshw-command/ Binary Tides: Get hardware information on Linux with lshw command]. Search the Internet for how to run the &lt;code&gt;lshw&lt;/code&gt; (List Hardware) utility on your Linux distribution. Run lshw and observe the hardware available on the system.
# Create an inventory list of all internal hardware components in your system. Using your preferred hardware vendor, check the hardware specifications for a new system. How recent is your hardware? Is the same technology still in use on current systems?
# Review [http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/computers/buying-guide.htm the Consumer Reports &quot;Computer Buying Guide&quot;]. Visit your favorite computer retailer's website and go &quot;shopping&quot; for a new computer or familiarize yourself with the hardware of a computer at [https://pcpartpicker.com/ PCPartPicker] or [https://buildmypc.net/ BuildMyPC] and build your own system.
# Search the Internet for either RAM upgrade wizard or RAM upgrade tool. Using one of the vendor options available, test your system to determine how much RAM and what type is installed in your system. How much RAM will your system support? What would it cost to 'max out' your system's RAM?
# Run the hard drive utility for your operating system:
#* Windows: Review [https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/storage/disk-management/overview-of-disk-management Microsoft: Overview of Disk Management]. Run Disk Management on Windows and observe the disks, volumes, and partitions. Be careful not to make any changes.
#* macOS: Review [https://www.howtogeek.com/212836/how-to-use-your-macs-disk-utility-to-partition-wipe-repair-restore-and-copy-drives/ How To Geek: How to Use Your Mac’s Disk Utility to Partition, Wipe, Repair, Restore, and Copy Drives]. Run Disk Utility on macOS and observe the available drives, disks, and volumes. Be careful not to make any changes.
#* Linux: Review [https://linuxhint.com/gnome_disk_utility/ LinuxHint: Gnome Disk Utility]. Run Disk Utility on Linux and observe the available disks, partitions, and volumes. Be careful not to make any changes.
# Review [https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/enter-bios-computer/ MakeUseOf: How to Enter the BIOS on Windows 10 (And Older Versions)]. Restart your system and access the BIOS configuration screen. Review all options available. Exit and restart the system without saving any configuration changes.
# Check your computer or motherboard manufacturer's web site to see if there are any BIOS or firmware updates available for your system. If there are, research the problems the updates resolve and determine whether or not you want to upgrade your system. If so, be sure to back up your system first, and follow the manufacturer's instructions carefully. In particular, do not remove power during a firmware upgrade process.

== Lesson Summary ==
[[File:Intel D945GCCR Socket 775.png|thumb|right|100px|Motherboard]]
[[File:RAM module SDRAM 1GiB.jpg|thumb|right|100px|RAM]]
[[File:Intel Core i7-2600 SR00B (16339769307).jpg|thumb|right|100px|CPU]]
[[File:Computer Cooler.jpg|thumb|right|100px|CPU fan]]
[[File:GB Network PCI Card.jpg|thumb|right|100px|NIC]]
[[File:Hard drive-en.svg|thumb|right|100px|HDD]]
[[File:NAND-ssd.svg|thumb|right|100px|SSD]]
[[File:Nvidia RIVA TNT2M64 MS8808 VER 1A.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Graphics processing unit]]
[[File:DVD logo.svg|thumb|right|100px|Optical drive]]
[[File:OCZ 600W power supply unit.JPG|thumb|right|100px|Power supply unit]]
[[File:Network-server.svg|thumb|right|100px|File server]]
[[File:Cloud-Security.svg|thumb|right|100px|Cloud storage]]
[[File:Raid1.png|thumb|right|100px|RAID 1]]
[[File:Raid5.png|thumb|right|100px|RAID 5]]

=== Internal Computing Components ===
* A motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) found in general purpose computers and other expandable systems. It holds, and allows, communication between many of the crucial electronic components of a system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Motherboard]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is firmware used to perform hardware initialization during the booting process (power-on startup), and to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: BIOS]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order, typically used to store working data and machine code.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Random-access memory]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that executes instructions that make up a computer program.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Central processing unit]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* ARM, previously Advanced RISC Machine, is a family of reduced instruction set computing (RISC) architectures for computer processors, configured for various environments.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: ARM architecture]]&lt;/ref&gt; ARM processors are currently used in mobile phones and tablets.
* 32-bit processors support integers, memory addresses, or other data units that are 32 bits (4 octets) wide. A processor with 32-bit memory addresses can directly access at most 4 GiB of byte-addressable memory.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: 32-bit computing]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* 64-bit processors support integers, memory addresses, or other data units that are 64 bits (8 octets) wide. In principle, a 64-bit microprocessor can address 16 EiBs (16 × 10246 = 264 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes, or about 18.4 exabytes) of memory. However, not all instruction sets, and not all processors implementing those instruction sets, support a full 64-bit virtual or physical address space at this time.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: 64-bit computing]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Most personal computers manufactured since 2005 have included 64-bit processors. Most operating systems released since 2010 have supported 64-bit processors. Recently, software developers have been dropping support for 32-bit systems.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: 64-bit computing]]&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Computer storage includes both primary and secondary storage. Primary storage is volatile and typically referred to as RAM. Secondary storage non-volatile and is often referred to as a hard drive.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Computer memory]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the creation of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display device.
* Computer cooling is required to remove the waste heat produced by computer components, to keep components within permissible operating temperature limits. Components that are susceptible to temporary malfunction or permanent failure if overheated include integrated circuits such as central processing units (CPUs), chipset, graphics cards, and hard disk drives.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Computer cooling]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Computer cooling systems may be active (power-driven, such as with a fan) or passive (using heat sinks and metal cases), or a combination of both. Active systems primarily use air, but liquid-cooled options are available for some high-end systems.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Computer cooling]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* A network interface controller (NIC) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer network.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Network interface controller]]&lt;/ref&gt; NICs are designed to support either wired or wireless connections, and may be either built into the motherboard or added using an expansion card.

== Storage Types ==
* Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information; it retains its contents while powered on but when the power is interrupted, the stored data is quickly lost.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Volatile memory]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Non-volatile memory (NVM) or non-volatile storage is a type of computer memory that can retrieve stored information even after having been power cycled.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Non-volatile memory]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order, typically used to store working data and machine code.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Random-access memory]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Local secondary storage options includes hard disk drives, solid state drives, optical drives, and flash drives.
** A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk[b] is an electro-mechanical data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital data using one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic material.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Hard disk drive]]&lt;/ref&gt;
** A solid-state drive (SSD) is a solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies to store data persistently, typically using flash memory.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Solid-state drive]]&lt;/ref&gt;
** Optical storage uses a laser to store and retrieve data from optical media. Examples of optical media include compact discs (CD) and DVDs.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Optical storage]]&lt;/ref&gt;
** A flash drive is a portable computer drive that uses flash memory.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Flash drive]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Local network storage options include network-attached storage (NAS) and file servers.
** Network-attached storage (NAS) is a file-level (as opposed to block-level) computer data storage server connected to a computer network providing data access to a heterogeneous group of clients.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Network-attached storage]]&lt;/ref&gt;
** A file server runs one or more server programs, which share file resources with clients.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Client–server model]]&lt;/ref&gt; A file server may be dedicated or non-dedicated. A dedicated server is designed specifically for use as a file server, with workstations attached for reading and writing files.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: File server]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Cloud storage is a model of computer data storage in which the digital data is stored in logical pools on one or more physical Internet-based servers, sometimes replicated across multiple locations.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Cloud storage]]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Key Terms ==
; ARM (Advanced RISC Machine)
: A family of reduced instruction set computing (RISC) architectures for computer processors, configured for various environments.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: ARM architecture]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
: Firmware used to perform hardware initialization during the booting process (power-on startup), and to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: BIOS]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; bus
: A communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Bus (computing)]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; cache
: A hardware or software component that stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Cache (computing)]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; chipset
: A set of electronic components in an integrated circuit known as a &quot;Data Flow Management System&quot; that manages the data flow between the processor, memory and peripherals.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Chipset]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; CPU (Central Processing Unit)
: The electronic circuitry within a computer that executes instructions that make up a computer program.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Double data rate]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; DDR (Double Data-Rate)
: A computer bus that transfers data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Double data rate]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)
: A series of dynamic random-access memory integrated circuits.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: DIMM]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; FRU (Field Replaceable Unit)
: A printed circuit board, part, or assembly that can be quickly and easily removed from a computer or other piece of electronic equipment, and replaced by the user or a technician without having to send the entire product or system to a repair facility.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Field-replaceable unit]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; form factor
: The specification of a motherboard – the dimensions, power supply type, location of mounting holes, number of ports on the back panel, etc.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Computer form factor]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; HDD (Hard Disk Drive)
: An electro-mechanical data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital data using one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic material.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Hard disk drive]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; GPU (Graphics Processing Unit)
: A specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the creation of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display device.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Graphics processing unit]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; IOPS (Input/Output Operations Per Second)
: A performance measurement used to characterize secondary computer storage devices.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: IOPS]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; NIC (Network Interface Card)
: A computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer network.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Network interface controller]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer)
: A company that produces parts and equipment that may be marketed by another manufacturer.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Original equipment manufacturer]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; PCB (Printed Circuit Board)
: Mechanically supports and electrically connects electrical or electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Printed circuit board]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
: A local computer bus for attaching hardware devices in a computer.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Conventional PCI]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express)
: A high-speed serial computer expansion bus standard, designed to replace older bus standards&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: PCI Express]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; PSU (Power Supply Unit)
: A device that supplies electric power to a computer system, converting electric current from a source to the correct voltage, current, and frequency.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Power supply]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
: A data storage virtualization technology that combines multiple physical disk drive components into one or more logical units for the purposes of data redundancy, performance improvement, or both.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: RAID]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; RAM (Random Access Memory)
: A form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order, typically used to store working data and machine code.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Random-access memory]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; ROM (Read-Only Memory)
: A type of non-volatile memory useful for storing firmware.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Read-only memory]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
: A computer bus interface that connects host bus adapters to mass storage devices such as hard disk drives, optical drives, and solid-state drives.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Serial ATA]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; SSD (Solid State Drive)
: A device that uses integrated circuit assemblies to store data persistently, typically using flash memory.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Solid-state drive]]&lt;/ref&gt;

; VGA (Video Graphics Array or Video Graphics Adapter)
: A graphics standard for video display controllers first introduced with the IBM PS/2 line of computers in 1987.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Video Graphics Array]]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Assessments ==
* Flashcards: [https://quizlet.com/510464973/it-fundamentals-components-flash-cards/ Quizlet: IT Fundamentals - Components]
* Quiz: [https://quizlet.com/510464973/test?answerTermSides=2&amp;promptTermSides=6&amp;questionCount=10&amp;questionTypes=4&amp;showImages=true Quizlet: IT Fundamentals - Components]

== See Also ==
* [[Computer Hardware]]
* [https://www.lifewire.com/tour-inside-a-desktop-pc-2624588 Lifewire: What Does the Inside of Your PC Look Like?]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
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      <text bytes="168245" sha1="5lrc1gdohjae278cl7nuyyjch70c3e5" xml:space="preserve">[[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s | 1850s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1860s | 1860s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1870s | 1870s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1880s | 1880s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890s | 1890s Headlines]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890 | 1890]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1891 | 1891]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1892 | 1892]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1893 | 1893]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1894 | 1894]] 1895 [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1896 | 1896]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1897 | 1897]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1898 | 1898]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1899 | 1899]]  [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s|1900s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1910s|1910s]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1920s-30s|1920s-30s]]

==Sometime in 1895==
Sometime in 1895 &quot;the first Japanese (Nippos Yusen Kaisha) steamship came to Europe&quot; (Baring-Gould II 435).

Leonora Braham appeared as Lady Barbara Cripps in ''An Artist's Model'' at Daly's Theatre in 1895.

[[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]] had two plays running in the West End, ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' (at the St. James) and ''An Ideal Husband'' (at the Haymarket Theatre).

Arthur Wing Pinero's ''The Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith'' was running at the Garrick.

Engelbert Humperdinck's ''Hansel and Gretel'' moved to the Gaiety from Daly's.

==January 1895==
===1 January 1895, Tuesday, New Year's Day===

=== 10 January 1895, Thursday ===
The Dorset Hunt Ball, with Mrs. [[Social Victorians/People/Hughes-Onslow|Hughes-Onslow]] and Mr. [[Social Victorians/People/Hughes-Onslow|Somerset Hughes-Onslow]] in attendance (Somerset Hughes-Onslow never married, so this is likely his brother's wife). This first article is from the Weymouth ''Telegram'':&lt;blockquote&gt;
HUNT BALL AT DORCHESTER.

On Thursday evening, the annual hunt ball was held at the Municipal Buildings, Dorchester. About 340 tickets had been issued, and the hon. sec. (Capt. R. B. Foster) was obliged to refuse a number of applican[t]s. The Municipal Buildings were, as usual, magnificently fitted up for the occasion. The Corn Exchange was converted into a ball-room. The colours which were used in decorating the room were cinnamon, gold, and white. In each recess was worked a fan composed of these colours, with a hanging of the same down to the floor, and the walls were adorned with striped paper to match. Draperies were hung from the roof across to the buttresses, and there were other decorations of an effective character. Under the clock was displayed a magnificent palm (lent by Lieut. Gen. Henning. C.B.), and other plants from the same grower were also staged. The entrance to the hall proper was raised with a dais covered with crimson carpet, and on a table rested a splendid mirror standing six feet high. Choice plants also adorned the table. The ball room was illuminated with the incandescent light, which was supplied by the Gas Company. The decorations of the ball-room were carried out by Mr. G. J. Wood, who displayed great taste. The Town Hall was utilised as a supper room and was splendidly fitted up. The arrangement of the several tables was all that could be desired, and Mr. Bilham of the King's Arms Hotel, who was the caterer, well maintained the high reputation of the hostelry over which he so ably presides. Costly lamps adorned the tables, and these, together with the lamps which illuminated the stairway and tea room, were supplied by Messrs. Foster &amp; Co. The plants were from Ilsington Gardens, and were lent by Lieut.-Colonel Brymer, M.P., and effectively arranged by the head gardener. Messrs. Hannah &amp; Holland, of Cornhill, displayed considerable artistic taste in the decoration of the supper-room. A draped bordered dado was placed round the hall, and the windows were draped. Messrs. Hannah &amp; Holland also had the arrangement of the tea room, which was made as cosy as possible, and the stairway which was covered with red cloth, and the handrail draped and festooned with muslins. The entrance to the Town Hall was converted into an ante-room, which contained lounges and easy chairs. The Petty Sessional Court was divided into two parts and made into cloak rooms. Dancing began shortly after ten o'clock to the music of Benzoni's band from Bournemouth. The following is a list of those present:— Captain, Mrs., and Miss Amyatt, Capt. and Mrs. J. Acland, Dr. Aruthen, H.M.S. ''Boscawen'', Mr. and Mrs. G. M. Archdale, Mr. H. T. Arnold, Mr. Allen, H.M.S. ''Alexandra'', Mrs. and Miss Austin, Miss Troyte Bullock, Mr. and Madame Baillie, Lady Baker, Miss Baker, Mr. Brough, Mr. and Mrs. Dunlop Best, Mr. and Mrs. Edmund Barkworth, Lieut.-Colonel W. E. Brymer, M.P., Colonel and Mrs. Bingham, Mr. G. P. Best, Mr. and Mrs. A. Bankes, Mr. E. Nugent Bankes, Miss Nugent Bankes, Miss Georgina C. Nugent Bankes, Miss Margaret H. Nugent Bankes, Mr. and Mrs. Dalglish Bellasis. Rev. W. and Mrs. Barclay, Mr. Bagshawe, Miss Bayley, Mr. Gerald D. Bond, Mr. Raymond Bond, Miss Leonora Bond, Miss Rachel Bond, the Hon. Ivan Campbell, Mr. Cardew, R.H.A., Mr. Evelyn Cecil, Major and Mrs. Campbell, Mr. Edward Comberlege, Mr. F. Carbutt, Lady Margaret Campbell, Miss J. Creighton, Mr. J. E. Crane, Mr. and Mrs. T. A. Colfox, Lieut-Colonel J. J. Congdon, R.A., Mr. Herbert Crosse, Mrs., Miss, and Mr. C. Clapcott, Mr. Currie, Captain Cotesworth, Mr. A. L. Collard (Hampshire Regiment), Mrs. Croke, Lord and Lady Digby, Major-General Denne, Miss Denne, Mr. J. W. G. Wingfield Digby, the Rev. A. and Miss Tyrwhitt Drake, Mr. E. Tyrwhitt Drake, Miss Devenish[,] Mr. Montagu Digby, Miss Katherine Digby, Mr. A. Doyle, Sir Robert and Lady Edgcumbe, Colonel and Mrs. Eliot, Lieut-Colonel and Mrs. Caledon Egerton, Mr. F. Earle, Lieut. Eagles, H.M.S. ''Alexandra'', Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Fellowes, Mrs. James Fellows, Miss G. Fellows, Lord Fitz-Harris, Mrs. Fetherstonhaugh, Miss Blanche Fetherstonhaugh, Miss Agnes Farquharson, Mr. and Miss Fane, Miss Fenton, Mrs. Fyler, Miss Dora and Miss Ethel Fyler, Miss Fraser, Miss Violet Fraser, Miss Falls. Lieut-Comtuander Foley, R.N., Mr. and Mrs. Charles Faber[,] Lady Glyn, Miss Glyn, Mr. and Mrs. George Gordon, Mr. Smith Gordon, Mr. and Mrs. Edmund Gadesden, Mrs. Chafyn Grove, Mr. Drew Grimstone, Mr. John Goodden, Lieut.-General Henning, C.B., Mrs. and Miss Henning, Lionel Halsey, R.N., Count Edgar and Count [sic] Alexandra Hoyos, Countess Hoyos, Mr. P. Higginson, (85th Light Infintry [sic]), the Rev and Mrs. Claude Homan, Mr. and Mrs. Humbro, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Hawkins, Mrs. and Miss Holford, Mr. A. O. Hood, Mr. Houston, Mr. Frederick Harford, Miss Charlotte Harford, Mr. Hickie, R.H.A.[,] Captain Hagan, R.N., Mr. Hulse, Miss Hunt-Grubbe, Mrs. J. Hargreaves, jun., Miss Jacobson, Mr. and Mrs. Charles Kindersley, Miss Fanny and Miss Katherine Kindersley, Mrs. Alfred Ker, Miss Ker, Misses Kathleen and Winfred Ker, Captain and Mr. Lushington, Major Long, R.H.A., Mr. Elliott Lees, M.P., and Mrs. Elliott Lees, Miss Lees, Miss Katherine Lees, Miss C. P. Lees, Miss Dorothea Lees, Mr. and the Hon. Mrs. McLean, Mr. G. E. Llewhellin, Miss Lance, Lady Medlycott, Mr. H. Medlycott, Colonel and Mrs. Mansel, Mr. and Mrs. H. B. Middleton, Mr. H. C. Middleton, Mr. A. D. Musgrave, R.A., Captain McMahon (85th K.L.I.), Mr. A. L. and Miss L. Morant, Miss Munro, Mr. Francis Mead, Mr. E. L. Mansel, Mr. Marriott, Mr. Maxwell, Miss Marker, Mr. Mosley, Miss Mercer, Mr. C. Marshall (K.L.I.), and Mr. J. L. Nickieson[sic], Mr. G. B. Napier, Miss Ella Nash, Capt. Neish R.H.A.. Mrs. Hughes Onslow, Mr. Somerset Hughes Onslow, Mr. and Mrs. Berkely Portman, Mr. and Mrs. Chandos Pole and Miss Pole, Mr. M. W. Portman. R.N., and Mrs. Portman, the Hon Gerald B. Portman, Mr. and Mrs. F. W. Preston, Lady Parke, Miss Parke, Miss Dorothy Parke, Mr. and Mrs. L. C. H. Palairet, Mr. R. C. N. Palairet, Mrs. E. M. K. and E. V. Palairet, Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Pope, Mr. Alec Pope (3rd Dorset Regiment) and Mr. E. Alex Pope, Mr. W. A. W. Parke, Mr. Lionel Fox Pitt, Mrs. Fitzpatrick Praed, Mr. Ralph Paget, Captain Arthur Platt, Mrs. Pecklington, Captain Harold Platt, Mrs. Parry, Miss Peach, Mr. and Mrs. Charles Radelyffe, Mr. Raymond Radcliffe, Miss Radelyffe, Misses Grace and Violet Radelyffe, Mr. Garner Richardson, Mr. and Mrs. Ashton Radcliffe, Mr. Percy Radcliffe, Mr. Ernest L. Radcliffe, Miss Radcliffe, Mr. Disney Roebuck, Capt. Rudyerd, Mr. F. F. Read (Royal Berks Regiment), Col. Slade, C.B., and Mrs. Slade, Mrs. and Miss Sheridan, the Bishop of Southwark, Rev. S. and Mrs. Spencer-Smith, Rev. S. and Mr. D. Spencer-Smith, Mr. and Mrs. A. Critchly Salmondson, Mr. W. Critchly Salmondson, H. Henri B. de Satgé, Col. and Mrs. Skene, Miss Skene, Miss Hilda Skene, Col. Shakerley, Mr. and Mrs. S. Owen Swaffield, Lieut.-Col. O'Sullivan, Mr. and Mrs. C. H. Stillwell, Miss Stillwell, Miss G. Stillwell, Major and Mrs. C. S. Shephard, Capt. Saunders, Mr. and Miss Hayne-Smith, Mr. F. Manners-Sutton, Miss Shrub, Miss Scott, Miss L. Shirley, Mr. Francis Stronge, Miss Mabel Silvertop, Mr. Scott, Miss Scott, Miss Sybil Scott, Mr. E. M. Sprot (85th K.L.I.), Miss A. C. Troyte Bullock, Mrs. R. D. Thornton, Mr. R. W. Trevan, Colonel and Mrs. Tweedie, the Rev. H. Van, Mr. Harry Verney, Col. and Mrs. Robt. Williams, Miss Williams, the Hon. Mrs. Williams, Mr. Ashley Williams, Mr. Berkeley Williams, Mr. Eustace S. Williams, Major and Miss Wynyard, Captain and Mrs. Wingfield, Mrs. H. D. Williams, Mr. H. Weld Blundell, Capt. Wrey, R.N., Mr. and Mrs. T. W. Gibson Watts, Mr. R. W. Waller, Mr. and Mrs. R. E. Walmesley, Miss Watson, Mr. R. Worthington, Mr. Beethom Whitehead, Mr. Weston, Mr. Wilkin, D.S.O., R.A., Rev. H. J. and Mrs. Watkins, Lady Barbara Yeatman, and Miss Yeatman.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hunt Ball at Dorchester.&quot; Weymouth ''Telegram'' 15 January 1895 Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4b–c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002982/18950115/089/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Another version, with less description of the place, from the ''Western Gazette'':&lt;blockquote&gt;HUNT BALL AT DORCHESTER.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;On January 10th the Dorset Hunt ball was held at the Corporation Buildings, Dorchester. The Corn Exchange was utilised as the ball-room, and a special floor was laid. The decorations, which were carried out with artistic taste, reflected the greatest credit on the designer, Mr. Woods. From the centre of the ceiling were depended graceful folds of light material, in white, yellow, cinnamon, these being the leading colours in the general decoration. The music was provided by Benzoni's Band, of Bournemouth. The Town Hall above was laid out as a supper room, the decorations, which were of a very effective character, having been carried out most skilfully [sic] by Messrs. Hannah &amp; Holland. The supper and refreshments were supplied by the proprietors of the King's Arms Hotel, Messrs. Hodges &amp; Sons supplying the wines. Captain R. B. Foster was the M.C., and the company, an unprecedentedly large one, numbered 350. Among those present were:— Captain, Mrs., and Miss Amyatt, Captain and Mrs. J. Acland, Dr. Aruthen, H.M.S. Boscawen, Mr. and Mrs. G. M. Archdale, Mr. H. T. Arnold, Mr. Allen, H.M.S. Alexandra, Mrs. and Miss Austin, Miss Troyte-Bullock, Mr. and Madame Baillie, Lady Baker, Miss Baker, Mr. Brough, Mr. and Mrs. Dunlop Best, Mr. and Mrs. Edmund Barkworth, Lieut.-Colonel W. E. Brymer, M.P., Colonel and Mrs. Bingham, Mr. G. P. Best, Mr. and Mrs. A. Bankes, Mr. E. Nugent Bankes, Miss Nugent Bankes, Miss Georgina C. Nugent Bankes, Miss Margaret H. Nugent Bankes, Mr. and Mrs. Dalglish Bellasis, the Rev. W. and Mrs. Barclay, Mr. Bagshawe, Miss Bayley, Mr. Gerald D. Bond, Mr. Raymond Bond, Miss Leonora Bond, Miss Rachel Bond, the Hon. Ivan Campbell, Mr. Cardew, R.H.A., Mr. Evelyn Cecil, Major and Mrs. Campbell, Mr. Edward Comberlege, Mr. F. Carbutt, Lady Margaret Campbell, Miss J. Creighton, Mr. J. E. Crane, Mr. and Mrs. T. A. Colfex, Lieut.-Colonel J. J. Congdon, R.A., Mr. Herbert Crosse, Mrs., Miss, and Mr. C. Clapcott, Mr. Currie, Captain Cotesworth, Mr. A. L. Collard (Hampshire Regiment), Mrs. Croke, Lord and Lady Digby, Major-General Denne, Miss Denne, Mr. J. W. G. Wingfield Digby, the Rev. A. and Miss Tyrwhitt Drake, Mr. E. Tyrwhitt Drake, Miss Devenish, Mr. Montagu Digby, Miss Katherine Digby, Mr. A. Doyle, Sir Robert and Lady Edgcumbe, Colonel and Mrs. Eliot, Lieut.-Colonel and Mrs. Caledon Egerton, Mr. Bryan Egerton. Mr. F. Earle, Lieutenant Eagles, H.M.S. Alexandra, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Fellowes, Mrs. James Fellows, Miss G. Fellows, Lord Fitz-Harris, Mrs. Fetherstonhaugh, Miss Blanche Fetherstonhaugh, Miss Agnes Farquharson, Mr. and Miss Fane, Miss Fenton, Mrs. Fyler, Miss Dora and Miss Ethel Fyler, Miss Fraser, Miss Violet Fraser, Miss Falls, Lieut.-Commander Foley, R.N., Mr. and Mrs. Charles Faber, Lady Glyn, Miss Glyn, Mr. and Mrs. George Gordon, Mr. Smith Gordon, Mr. and Mrs. Edmund Gadesden, Mrs. Chafyn-Grove, Mr. Digby Grimstone, Mr. John Goodden, Lieutenant-General Henning, C.B., Mrs. and Miss Henning, Lionel Halsey, R.N., Count Edgar and Count [sic] Alexandra Hoyos, Countess Hoyos, Mr. P. Higginson (85th Light Infantry), the Rev. and Mrs. Claude Homan, Mr. and Mrs. Hambro, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Hawkins, Mrs. and Miss Holford, Mr. A. O. Hood, Mr. Houston, Mr. Frederick Harford, Miss Charlotte Harford, Mr. Hickie, R.H.A., Captain Hagan, R.N., Mr. Hulse, Miss Hunt-Grubbe, Mrs. J. Hargreaves, jun., Miss Jacobson, Mr. and Mrs. Charles Kindersley, Miss Fanny and Miss Katherine Kindersley, Mrs. Alfred Ker, Miss Ker, Misses Kathleen and Winifred Ker, Captain and Mrs. Lushington, Major Long, R.H.A., Mr. Elliott Lees, M.P., and Mrs. Elliott Lees, Miss Lees, Miss Catherine Lees, Miss C. P. Lees, Miss Dorothea Lees, Mr. and the Hon. Mrs. McLean, Mr. G. E. Llewhellin, Miss Lance, Lady Medlycott, Mr. H. Medlycott, Colonel and Mrs. Mansel, Mr. and Mrs. H. B. Middleton, Mr. H. C. Middleton, Mr. A. D. Musgrave, R.A., Captain (85th K.L.I.), Mr. A. L. and Miss L. Miss Morant, Miss Munro, Mr. Francis Meade, Mr. Ed. L. Mansel, Mr. Marriott, Mr. Maxwell, Miss Marker, Mr. Mosley, Miss Mercer, Mr. C. Marshall (K.L.I.), and Mr. J. L. Nickleson, Mr. G. B. Napier, Miss Ella Nash, Captain Neish, R.H.A., Mrs. [[Social Victorians/People/Hughes-Onslow|Hughes-Onslow]], Mr. [[Social Victorians/People/Hughes-Onslow|Somerset Hughes-Onslow]], Mr. and Mrs. Berkeley Portman, Mr. and Mrs. Chandos Pole and Miss Pole, Mr. M. W. Portman, R.N., and Mrs. Portman, the Hon. Gerald B. Portman, Mr. and Mrs. F. W. Preston, Lady Parke, Miss Parke, Miss Dorothy Parke, Mr. and Mrs. L. C. H. Palairet, Mr. R. C. N. Palairet, Misses E. M. K. and E. V. Palairet, Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Pope, Mr. Alec. Pope (3rd Dorset Regiment), and Mr. E. Alex Pope, Mr. W. A. W. Parke, Mr. Lionel Fox Pitt, Mrs. Fitzpatrick Praed, Mr. Ralph Paget, Captain Arthur Platt, Mrs. Pocklington, Captain Harold Platt, Mrs. Parry, Miss Peach, Mr. and Mrs. Charles Radclyffe, Mr. Raymond Radclyffe, Miss Radclyffe, Misses Grace and Violet Radclyffe, Mr. Garner Richardson, Mr. and Mrs. Ashton Radclyffe, Mr. Percy Radclyffe, Mr. Ernest L. Radclyffe, Miss Radclyffe, Mr. Disney Roebuck, Captain Rudyerd, Mr. F. F. Read (Royal Berks Regiment), Colonel Slade, C.B., and Mrs. Slade, Mrs. and Miss Sheridan, the Bishop of Southwark, Rev. S. and Mrs. Spencer-Smith, Miss S. and Mr. D. Spencer-Smith, Mr. and Mrs. A. Critchly Salmondson, Mr. W. Critchly Salmondson, M. Henri B. de Satgé, Colonel and Mrs. Skene, Miss Skene, Miss Hilda Skene, Colonel Shakerley, Mr. and Mrs. S. Owen Swaffield, Lieutenant-Colonel O'Sullivan, Mr. and Mrs. C. H. Stilwell, Miss Stillwell, Miss G. Stillwell, Major and Mrs. C. S. Shephard, Captain Saunders, Mr. and Miss Haynes-Smith, Mr. F. Manners-Sutton, Miss Shrub, Miss Scott, Miss L. Shirley, Mr. Francis Stronge, Miss Mabel Silvertop, Mr. Scott, Miss Scott, Miss Sybil Scott, Mr. E. M. Sprot (85th K.L.I.), Miss A. C. Troyte-Bullock, Mrs. R. D. Thornton, Mr. R. W. Trevan, Colonel and Mrs. Tweedie, the Rev. H. Van, Mr. Harry Verney, Colonel and Mrs. Robert Williams, Miss Williams, the Hon. Mrs. Williams, Mr. Ashley Williams, Mr. Berkely Williams, Mr. Eustace S. Williams, Major and Miss Wynyard, Captain and Mrs. Wingfield, Mrs. H. D. Williams, Mr. H. Weld Blundel!, Captain Wrey, R.N., Mr. and Mrs. T. W. Gibson Watts, Mr. R. M. Waller, Mr. and Mrs. R. E. Walmesley, Miss Watson, Mr. R. Worthington, Mr. Beethom Whitehead, Mr. Weston, Mr. Wilkin D.S.O., R.A., Rev. H. J. and Mrs. Watkins, Lady Barbara Yeatman, and Miss Yeatman.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Hunt Ball at Dorchester.&quot; ''Western Gazette'' 18 January 1895 Friday: 7 [of 8], Cols. 4c–5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000407/18950118/104/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===22 January 1895, Tuesday===
The Webbs organize a dinner &quot;aimed at enhancing cooperation between the two Socialist groups,&quot; the Fabians and the ILP. The Webbs were there, as were Shaw, MacDonald, Smith, Hardie, Mann, and Pease (Gibbs 119).
===24 January 1895, Thursday===
[[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]] was at the Eridge Hunt Ball: &lt;quote&gt;An unusually large company assembled at the Eridge Hunt Ball, which took place on Thursday evening in the Pump Room, Tunbridge Wells. Among those present were the Marquis of Abergavenny, Marquis Camden, the Marchioness of Blandford and the Ladies Spencer-Churchill, the Earl of Tyrone, the Earl of Norbury, Viscount and Viscountess Cantelupe, Lord and Lady de L’Isle and Dudley, Lady Leconfield and the Hon. Miss Wyndham, Lord and Lady Henry Nevill and Miss Joan Nevill, Lord and Lady Brassey. Lady Violet Dangan, Lady Rose Leigh, Lord Lovat, Lady Ross, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Richard Nevill, the Hon. T. A. and Lady Idina Brassey, the Hon. Arthur and Lady Clementine Walsh, the Hon. A. Harbord, the Hon. J. Mansfield, Lady Mary Sackville, the Hon. Violet White, the Hon. Cecil Brownlow, the Hon. Mrs Egerton, Sir George and Miss Stirling, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mrs Arthur Wilson]] and Miss Muriel Wilson, and Miss D’Arcy. Music was supplied by the Band of the Royal Artillery, and the ball-room was appropriately decorated with hunting trophies, palms, and flowers.&lt;/quote&gt; (1895-01-27 Maidstone and Kentish Journal)
===31 January 1895, Thursday===
[[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]] was a bridesmaid in the wedding between Allwyn Dudley Smith and Theodocia Elizabeth Egginton [sp?] at Tranby Croft church: &lt;quote&gt;On Thursday afternoon the marriage of Mr Allwyn Dudley Smith, son of Mr Dudley Robert Smith of Messrs. Smith Bros., Bankers, Hull, and Miss Theodocia Elizabeth Eggington, of the Elms, Kirkella, was solemnised. The wedding took place from Tranby Croft, and the fashionable and large company assembled at the prettily decorated church included Mr and Mrs Arthur Wilson, Mr Clive Wilson, and the Misses Wilson. The first portion of the marriage service was performed by the Rev. J. Foord, M.A., Vicar of Kirkella, at the Chancel steps, and the concluding portion of the service was rendered by the Rev. E. E. Willes, Rector of Calverton, Bucks, and uncle of the bridegroom, at the altar steps. The bride was attired in a magnificent costume of rich ivory satin duchesse, the bodice being trimmed with old Honiton lace. The bridesmaids were Miss F. Egginton and Miss L. Egginton (sisters of the bride), Miss Dudley Smith, and Miss C. Dudley Smith (sisters of the bridegroom) and Miss Muriel Wilson, and they wore most becoming gowns of “cafe au lait” caracul crepon, with pale blue velvet bodices, trimmed with embroidery, and antique china buttons. They carried choice bouquets of yellow flowers. [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mrs Arthur Wilson]] was attired in a very handsome dress green chene silk, embroidered with jet. Mr M. Glyn acted as best man to the bridegroom. Immediately after the ceremony a merry peal was rung upon the bells, and after the wedding breakfast at Tranby Croft the happy pair left Hessle by the five o’clock train en route for Nice, where they will spend their honeymoon.&lt;/quote&gt; (1895-02-05 Beverly Echo)

==February 1895==
===1 February 1895, Friday===
A bal poudré was held at Warwick Castle, with [[Social Victorians/People/Warwick|Countess Warwick]] dressed as Marie Antoinette. [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]] was part of the house party as well as attending the ball (1895-02-02 Times; 1895-02-01 Midland Daily Telegraph), as was &quot;Mr [[Social Victorians/People/Craven|Caryl Craven]], to whom so many thanks are due for the able way in which he assisted his charming hostess in carrying out her scheme, Mr Craven being quite an authority on eighteenth century French art and dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Warwick Bal Poudre.&quot; ''The Queen, The Lady's Newspaper'' 09 February 1895 Saturday: 38 [of 80], Col. 2c [of 3] – 39, Col. 3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18950209/233/0038.&lt;/ref&gt;

Daisy, Countess Warwick dressed as Marie Antoinette for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress]] ball as well.

The day of the ball, the ''Coventry Evening Telegraph'' published the following:&lt;blockquote&gt;GRAND BAL POUDRE AT WARWICK CASTLE.

Writing this morning our Warwick representative says: Warwick Castle will tonight be the scene of a memorable spectacle, the Earl and Countess of Warwick having invited about four hundred guests to a ''bal poudre'', in which the costumes were to be of the style of the Louis XIV. and XV. period. The event has been looked forward to with considerable interest by the ''élite'' of the fashionable world, on account of the prominent position occupied by the Countess in society. Great preparations were made the Castle, the greater portion of which has been most lavishly decorated in the light and airy French style of the period. The dancing will take place in the Cedar drawing-room, the adjoining rooms having been set apart as retiring rooms. Supper will be served in the Great Hall, where the whole of the guests will be able to sit down together. The decorations have been carried out under the personal supervision of the hostess, who has received the valuable assistance and advice of Mr. Caryll Craven. The dance music will be supplied by Worm's famous &quot;White Viennese&quot; Band, while Johnson's (Manchester) Band will discourse in the supper room. The hostess will be dressed as &quot;Mary Antoinette,&quot; Queen of Louis XVI. Her costume will be of rose-coloured brocade with a gold pattern, and a sky-blue velvet train embroidered with gold fleur-de lys. Lady Warwick's relative, the Duchess of Sutherland, will appear as the wife of Louis XV. in a costume of white and silver with crimson velvet train and silver fleur-de-lys. Lord Warwick will be in the dress of a military officer of the period, while Prince Francis of Teck has signified his intention of appearing in the uniform of &quot;the Royals&quot; (of the period). Owing to the demise of Lord Randolph Churchill, the Duke of Marlborough will not be present.

The house party at the Castle included the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, the Portuguese Minister, Prince Francis of Teck, Prince and Princess Henry of Pless and Miss Cornwallis West, Duchess of Sutherland and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, Duke of Manchester, Earl and Countess of Rosslyn, Earl of Lonsdale, Earl of Burford, Earl of Chesterfield, Countess Cairns, Lord Clifden, Lord Kenyon, Lady Gerard, Lord Grey de Wilton, Lord Royston, Lord Lovat, Lady Norreys, Lady Eva Greville, Lord Richard Neville, Hon H. and Lady Fedora Sturt, Hon. H. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Hedworth Lambton, Mr. F. Menzies and Miss Muriel Wilson, Miss Naylor, Mr. Arthur Paget, Mr. Cyril Foley, Mr. C. de Murietta, and Mr. Layoock.

The following accepted invitations to the ball, and most of them brought parties with them, the guests numbering in all about four hundred:— The Earl and Countess of Aylesford, Mr. and Mrs. Aubrey Cartwright, Mr. and Mrs. J. Stratford Dugdale, Mr. and Mrs. Chamberlayne, Sir C. and Lady Mordaunt, Mr. and Mrs. Smythe, Lord and Lady Hertford, Lady and Miss Waller, Mr. J. and Mr. J. P. Arkwright, Mr. and Mrs. M. Lucas, Mr. and Mrs. J. B. Dugdale (18), Mr., Lady Anne, and Miss Murray, Captain and Mrs. Brinkley, Mr. and Mrs. Guy Scott, Mr., Mrs., and Miss Irwin, Mr. and Miss Perry, Major and Mrs. Fosbery, Mr. Lindsay, Mr. R. Paget, Sir A. and Lady Hodgson, Mrs. Beauchamp Scott, Major and Mrs. Norris, Mr. and Mrs. Tree, Mr., Mrs. and Miss Granville, Mr. and Mrs. Joliffe, Captain and Mrs. Osborne, Mr. and Mrs. E. Little, Mr., Mrs., and Miss Lakin, Officers 6th Reg. District, Mr. Batchelor, Hon. Mrs. and Miss Chandos Leigh, Colonel and Mrs. Paulet, Mr. F. Hunter Blair, Mr. J. Alston, Mr. and Mrs. Hutton, Captain and Mrs. Cowan, Mr. and Mrs. Williams, Mr. and the Misses Allfrey, Mr. and Mrs. Wilson Fitzgerald, Mr. and Mrs. W. Allfrey, Mrs. and Miss Drummond, Mr. and Mrs. Shaw, Mr. R. and Mr. J. Lant, Mr. and Mrs. Sanders and party, Captain Lafone, Sir F. and Lady Peel, Captain and Mrs. Keighly-Peach, Miss Nicol and party, Mr. and Mrs. Fred Shaw, Mr. and Mrs. Cove Jones, Mr. and Lady G. Petre, Mr. R. Barnes, Mr. and Mrs. Wheatley, Mr., Mrs., and Miss Ramsden, Mr. and Mrs. W. M. Low, Mrs. Basil Montgomery, Mr. and Mrs. Thursby-Pelham, Mr. and Mrs. H. Chamberlain, Mr. Francis, Mr. and Mrs. Graham, Mr. and Mrs. West, Mr. and Mrs. Sam Smith, Officers 17th Lancers.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Grand Bal Poudre at Warwick Castle.&quot; ''Coventry Evening Telegraph'' 01 February 1895, Friday: 3 [of 4], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000337/18950201/021/0003.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The report from the ''Morning Post'' the next day:&lt;blockquote&gt;The Countess of Warwick's Bal Poudré at Warwick Castle last night was attended by a company of nearly 400 guests, and was a brilliant success. The magnificent suite of apartments was superbly decorated with choice flowers, while the many treasures of antiquity and historic interest which the Castle contains were displayed in the various rooms. The choice of costume was restricted to the period covering the reigns of Louis XV. and Louis XVI., with powdered hair or white wigs, but gentlemen were given the option of appearing in English Court dress with Louis XV. wigs. The Countess of Warwick, who represented Marie Antoinette, wore a dress of rose-coloured material brocaded with gold, with a train of sky-blue velvet, embroidered with fleur-de-lis. The Earl of Warwick was attired in a Maison du Roi costume of rich velvet, with gold and diamond buttons. Prince Francis of Teck wore the uniform of the period of his own regiment, the Royals. The Duchess of Sutherland, as the wife of Louis XV., was in a costume of white and silver, with a crimson velvet train embroidered with silver fleur-de-lis. Prince Henry of Pless wore a blue military dress of the period with red facings, while the Earl of Rosslyn donned the uniform of a Colonel of the reign of Louis XVI. The Hon. H. Sturt represented the Church of the period as an Abbé, and Mr. W. Low the stage as David Garrick. Amongst the other guests were the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, the Portuguese Minister, Princess Henry of Pless, Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, the Duke of Manchester, the Earl and Countess of Rosslyn, the Earl of Lonsdale, the Earl of Burford, the Earl of Chesterfield, Countess Cairns, Lord Clifden, Lord Kenyon, Lady Gerard, Lord Grey de Wilton, Lord Royston, Lord Lovat, Lady Norreys, Lady Eva Greville, Lord Richard Nevill, Lady Feodorowna Sturt, the Hon. S. Greville, the Hon. H. Stonor, Captain the Hon. Hedworth Lambton, Mrs. Menzies, Miss Muriel Wilson [sic no comma] Miss Naylor, Mr. Arthur Paget, Mr. Cyril Foley, Mr. C. de Murrieta, Mr. Caryl Craven, Mr. Kennard, and Mr. Laycock. The Countess of Aylesford brought a large party from Packington Hall. Herr Würm's White Viennese Band occupied the orchestra. Dancing commenced at nine o'clock, and at midnight the entire company sat down to supper in the large banqueting hall. The assembly was undoubtedly one of the most brilliant which has ever been gathered together within the walls of the historic Castle.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Arrangements for This Day.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 02 February 1895, Saturday: 5 [of 10], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18950202/052/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The Leamington Spa Courier had a larger story in the next issue a week later:&lt;blockquote&gt;THE GRAND BAL POUDRE AT WARWICK CASTLE.

A profound impression has been created throughout the country by the enormously successful ''bal poudre'' given by the Earl and Countess of Warwick at Warwick Castle on Friday night last week, a lengthy, but — owing to the exigencies of the occasion — necessarily incomplete record of which appeared in our issue on the following morning. It is conceded on all hands that it was unmistakably the most splendidly organised and artistically perfect function of the kind that has been given during the present century, and certainly unexampled in the annals of the county. In times past, the historic fortlace has been the scene of many gay and festive ''re-unions'', but history gives no mention of one that in any way equalled in point of completeness of detail or magnificence that in which some 400 of the present Earl and Countess’s guests participated on Friday night. For the nonce, the prosaic modern gave place to the splendour of the past, and the luxurious and gorgeous conditions which prevailed at the Tuilleries during the glories of the regime of Louis XV., and the reign of his ill-fated successor and his beautiful consort, were revived in all their sparkling radiance, thus creating a pageant of unrivalled grandeur and beauty, and one that will be long retained in the recollections of those who took part in or were permitted to gaze upon it. Moreover, never, perhaps, had the old Castle had within its walls such a notable company, including as it did, some of the most distinguished personages of the day, connections of Royalty, Ambassadors, of foreign Powers, Dukes and Duchesses, Earls and Countesses, Lords and Ladies, representatives of the three great services of the State, Statesman, lawyers, and other ornaments of the highest and most aristocratic circles. The long suite of rooms, with the abundance of rich and historic art treasures therein contained, was most tastefully and effectively decorated, and the gilded and brocaded furniture and lovely fittings were arranged so as to form a replica of the interior of the Tuilleries at the period which the Countess had, with consummate judgment, selected for representation. Wide-spreading palms were placed at different points, and rare flowers of brilliant hues from Cannes and other parts of Southern Europe were seen on every hand. The whole was brilliantly illuminated by innumerable wax candles affixed to crystal chandeliers, in addition to the rays of the electric light, emitted from glow-lamps so constructed as to simulate candles, and having the bulbs hidden by delicately tinted shades; and when the guests in their picturesque costumes perambulated the apartments, the spectacle afforded was unique and enthralling. The most striking scenes, however, were witnessed in the Cedar Drawing-room when the dancing was in full operation, and again when the richly-dressed and white-wigged guests sat down to supper in the grand Banquetting-hall.

The guests commenced to arrive about half-past ten, and carriages continued to roll up until close upon midnight. The traffic was directed by the same staff of police who were in attendance at the recent concert, and these were also assisted by the Commissionaires. Under the instructions of the House Steward, Inspector Hall and his men guided the traffic most skilfully, notwithstanding that the entrance to the courtyard beneath the gateway and barbican is very narrow. Precaution had been taken to fix a large number of lamps along the approaches to the Castle, to minimise the danger of an accident. The guests did not use the grand entrance under the porch, but entered by the door at the other end beyond the chapel, over which a large striped awning served as a porch and a crush room, the interior being decorated with flowering and foliage plants, and splendidly lighted by pendant lamps. They then passed through the armour passage to the centre State Drawing-room, adjoining the ballroom, where they were received by the Countess, the train of whose lovely and charming costume, a la Marie Antoinette, was borne by her little daughter, Lady Marjorie Greville, and a young companion, Miss Hamilton, who were attired as imitation China shepherdesses in white broche silk, and large white satin hats, trimmed with roses and long ostrich feathers, and carried wands. Dancing commenced at a quarter to 11, the music being supplied by Herr Wurms’ Viennese band, the members of which wore the dress of the period carried out in white and gold, and were ensconced in an orchestra formed in one of the arched windows. The ball was opened by a quadrille, in which one set was made up of the Countess and Count Demyn (the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador), the Duchess of Sutherland and [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|M. de Soverel]] [sic] (the Portuguese Ambassador), Princess Henry of Pless and the Earl of Warwick, and Prince Henry of Pless and Lady Feodora Sturt. The programmes of dance music were in book form, bearing a miniature medallion of Marie Antoinette on the one side, and Warwick Castle, set in a little Louis Quinze frame, on the other. The scene, while the dancing was in full swing, was replete with animation and splendid beauty. The infinite variety of costumes, flashing diamonds and other jewels, and a brilliance of colour ever changing with wondrous rapidity, as the dancers advanced and receded, or mingled in the crowd, backed by the cedar pannelling with the light falling from the candelabra and incandescent electric lights upon the fine Vandyck family portraits hanging round it, the large crystal chandeliers pending from the white and gold ceiling, and standing in each corner of the room and on either side of the great marble and alabaster mantelpiece, made up a picture at once quaint, full of life, animation, and picturesque beauty. Shortly after midnight, three trumpeters, correctly dressed in the gold-bedecked uniform of English heralds of the time of Louis XV., took up a position at the entrance to the banquetting hall and gave the signal that supper was served, by blowing a fanfare. Thereupon, a procession was formed, the Conntess [sic] of Warwick leading the way with Count Deym. M. de Soverel followed with the Duchess of Sutherland; then came the Earl of Warwick with Princess Henry of Pless, Prince Henry with Lady Feodora Sturt, the Earl of Lonsdale with Mrs Arthur Paget, and Lord Kenyon with Mrs Miller-Munday [sic for Mundy]. This party of 12 seated themselves at the centre table, other guests occupying the round and oval tables, about 14 in number, and each laid for eight. Special arrangements had been made for the serving of ''souper'', which was supplied entirely from the Castle kitchens, and it was originally intended, when it was thought the number of guests would not exceed 240, that all should sit down together. But the applications from those who wished to be included in what may, without exaggeration, be termed an historical event in the social functions of Warwickshire, were so very numerous that it was necessary to divide the company into two sections. On the centre table was an imposing display of the handsome gold and silver family plate, including a celebrated gold cup modelled by Benvenuto Cellini, and the floral embellishments consisted of choice flowers from Cannes and magnificent orchids from Trentham. The round and oval tables were also handsomely decorated with silver plate. The meal was a truly sumptuous one, and the menu, which was printed inside a little white and gold Louis XV. screen, having a picture of Warwick Castle on one side and “Souper, Février 1, 1895,” on the reverse, included some triumphs of the culinary art. The dessert comprised strawberries, apricots, grapes, pineapples, and other fruits rare and expensive at this season of the year,[sic] The hall, with its shining coats of mail, the magnificent Beauvais tapestry forming portieres and hanging from the gallery, the massive silver candelabra on the tables, and the immense ecclesiastical candlesticks standing on the floor and bearing torches which towered far above the heads of the guests, constituted a truly marvellous sight, and one upon which the eye never tired to dwell. To render the picture more complete, the servants, who flitted about attending upon the wants of the guests, were clothed in the livery of the period, some in white and gold and red velvet, and others in sabre suits of black, all wearing knee-breeches, silk stockings, and white wigs. The staff of servants at the Castle was quite inadequate to carry out the various duties which devolved upon them in consequence of the ball, and Mr J. Hall (the House-steward) consequently found it necessary to engage a special staff of first-class waiters from London. A few privileged persons, to whom tickets had previously been issued, were admitted to the long narrow passage in the thickness of the wall near the roof, which was discovered at the time of the disastrous fire in 1871, to which access is gained through the oak and carnation rooms. After supper, dancing was resumed, and continued with unabated vigour until considerably after four o’clock, the Countess remaining during the whole of that time with her guests.

One of the guests made an unfortunate miss of the train which cost him a good deal of inconvenience, and his host and hostess some anxiety. The gentleman in question was taken as one of a large house party in the county to Warwick, and there was a special train chartered from Milverton to carry the guests back to a station near the host's residence. A short time before his party were returning home, the guest went into the smoke-room at the Castle, and though the heard the name of his host called, he thought it was the company of a lady of the same name who were wanted. In the end the gentleman was left behind, and then he drove to Leamington, but could get no train from there. All the hotels were [Col. a/b] full, and so it was no use to apply there for a bed. The consequence was he had to spend the night in a waiting room either at Leamington or Milverton Station, getting back to the country house on Saturday. He will long remember Lady Warwick’s ball.

Letters have been received from guests expressing satisfaction in regard to the efficient way in which the police carried out their duties. It may be stated that the numerous alterations and renovations at the Castle, especially in regard to the private apartments, have been carried out by Messrs Bertram and Sons, the great upholsterers, of Dean-street, Soho.

As one of the lady guests was alighting from her carriage at the Castle, on Friday night, a large diamond and turquoise ornament, valued at 200 guineas, became detached from her hair, and fell to the ground. The loss was quickly discovered, and, fortunately, the costly ornament was recovered intact.

Viscount Dungarven, whe was to have formed one of Mr W. M. Low’s party, was prevented by unforseen circumstances from attending the ball. Mr Perry (Bitham House) was also prevented attending by illness.

LIST OF GUESTS.

It has been found impossible to obtain a complete list of the names of the guests owing to the fact that the presentation of tickets was dispensed with, and we have, therefore, been compelled to rely on extraneous sources for information. The following is a list of the names of a large number of those present at the function:—

PRINCES [init caps large, rest sm] — Francis of Teck and Henry of Pless (Viscomte de Bragabene [Bragelonne?].)

PRINCESS — Henry of Pless (Adrienne Lecouvreur.)

EARLS — Clonmell (modern Court dress), Rosslyn (Duc de Nemours), Lonsdale (M. de Copinson, Keeper of the Koyal [sic] Stud, Louis XV.), and Chesterfield (Court costume.) 

DUKE of Manchester (Marquis de Grammont.)

DUCHESS of Sutherland (Queen of Louis XV.)

MARQUIS of Hertford (Court costume.)

MARCHIONESS of Hertford (Court costume.)

COUNT Paiffy (costume Louis XV.)

COUNTESSES Cairns (Duchess de Bouillon) and Rosslyn (Marchande Coquette.)

COMTESSE Ahlefeldt-Laurvig (Dame de la temps Louis XVI.)

VISCOUNTS — Southwell (Court dress of the period), and Clifden (Court dress of the period ).

HIS EXCELLENCY the Portuguese Minister (Mousquetaire of the 2ud [sic] Company of the Royal Household, Louis XV.)

HIS EXCELLENCY the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador (English Court dress.)

LORDS — Burford (Mousquetaire), Cecil Manners (Court dress of the period), Churchill (Mons. de Brissac), Kenyon (officer of the Regiment du Roi, Louis XVI.), Clifton (officer of the Guards, Louis XV.), Lovat (Comte d’Artagnas), Richard Neville (Duc de Lauzun), Frederick Hamilton; Royston (Souis Brigadier of Mousquetaires, Louis XVI.), Grey de Wilton (gentlemen temps Louis XV.). and Doneraile (modern Court dress.)

LADIES — Norreys (Paysaune Galante), Ann Murray (Madame de Pompadour), Waller (Comtesse d’Artois), Peel (costume 1787), Chetwode, Angela St. Clair Erskine (Lady Mary Campbell), Eva Greville (Polichinelle, Louis (XV.), G. Petre, Feodora Sturt (Madame la Marquise de la Pompadour), Gerard (Duchess de Pognac), Edith Seymour (Lady of the reign of Louis XVI.), Mordaunt (Princess de Lambelle), and Churchill (French Marquise in the time of Louis XV.)

SIRS — Algernon Osborne (civilian costume, Louis XV.), Archibald Edmonstone (Mousquetuaire), Francis Burdett, Charles Mordaunt (gentleman of the time of Louis XVI.), and F. Peel. 

HONOURABLES — Mrs Louis Greville (dress of the period), Dudley Ward (Mousquetaire), C. Finch (gentleman of the period of Louis XV.), Captain Alwyn Greville (Mousquetaire), Mr and Mrs Chandos Leigh, Mrs Alwyn Greville (Dame de la Court Louis XV.), Captain Hedworth Lambton (Courtier of Louis XVI.), Humphrey Sturt, M.P. (Abbé Bouvet), Mrs E. Lyon (''à la'' Watteau), Mrs Dudley Ward, B. W. H. Stoner (Mousquetaire, Louis XVI.), Sidney Greville (officer of the Regiment of the Swiss Guards), Louis Greville (Mousquetaire, Regiment de Provence, Louis XV.), [[Social Victorians/People/Keppel|George Keppel]] (Mousquetaire), [[Social Victorians/People/Keppel|Mrs George Keppel]] (lady, t[i]me of Louis XVI.), Malcolm Lyon, Mrs Herbert Dormer (costume, Louis XV.), Mrs Frank Parker, and Cecil Freemantle (Court dress of the period). 

BARONS — Macar (Court dress of the period) and Schimmelpennick Van der Oye (Court dress). 

BARONESS — Schimmelpennick Van der Oye (costume Louis XVI.) 

GENERAL — Arbuthnot (Court dress of the period). 

COLONELS — Paulet and Mildmay Willson, C.B. (Scots Guards). 

MAJORS — Armstrong (modern Court dress), Norris Fosbery (Mousquetaire), and Alston. 

CAPTAINS — Molesworth (Mousquetaire), J. Barry (costume, Louis XVI.), Somerset (Mousquetaire), Brinkley (Court costume of the period), East (Mousquetaire), Granville (Mousquetaire), Cowan, Lafone, Keighly-Peach, Bruce Hamilton, H. Welman (Court dress), Grant, Towers Clark (Court dress), Allfrey (Court dress, Louis XV.), and Oxley, 60th Rifles. 

MESDAMES — Armstrong (French Marquise), Gerald Arbuthnot (Court Dame), Armitage (Dame de la temps Louis XV.), H. Allfrey (Marquise, temps Louis XV.), Brinkley (Court Dame, Louis XV.), Frank Bibby (Lady of the Court of Louis XVI.), Everard Browne (Court Dame), Beech, Aubrey Cartwright, Chamberlayne (Court dress), Cowan, Cove-Jones, H. Chamberlain, George Cartland, Cartwright (Court Dame), J. S. Dugdale (Court lady), Blanche Drummond, Lindsay Eric-Smith (Pompadour costume), Fosbery, Wilson Fitzgerald, Fairfax-Lucy (Marquise Louis XV.), Granville, Graham, Gaskell (Grande Dame), Hulton (Court costume), Harvey Drummond, Irwin, Joliffe (Watteau), Edward Lucas (Lady of Court Louis XVI.), Morton P. Lucas (Court Lady, Louis XV.), E. Little, Leslie (of Balquhain), Lakin (Madame Roland), W. M. Low, Leslie (a la Watteau), Beresford Melville (Dame de la Court), J. Menzies (Duchess d’Angoulêne), Molesworth (costume Louis XVI.), Basil Montgomery (Marquise), Miller-Munday [sic] (Marie Therese, Queen of the Sicilies), Robert O. Milne (Dame de la Louis XVI.), Norris, Osborne (Madame de Pompadour), Arthur Paget (Duchess d’Orleans), Paulet, Ramsden (Madame de Colonne), Arthur Somerset (Shepherdess a la Watteau), Smythe, L. Gay Scott, Beauchamp Scott (Lady of time of Louis XVI.), Shaw, Sanders, Fred Shaw, S. C. Smith (Marquise temps Louis XVI.), Tree (Lady Louis XVI. period), Thursby-Pelham (Court dress), Tower (Duchess de Polignac), Towers-Clark (Lady of the Court of Louis XV.)[,] Francis Williams, Wheatley (Lady of time of Louis XV.), West [(]Court costume Louis XV.), and Francis Williams (Louis XV. costume).  

MADEMOISELLES—Allfrey, Armstrong (a laWatteau), Bromley Davenport, N. Booker (English lady of the Court of King George III.), Booker (Lady of time of Louis XV.), Muriel Bell, Nora Battye, Decapell Brooke, Spender Clay (Mdme Lamballe), Carleton (Watteau, Louis XV.), Chetwode, Anna Cassel, Carruthers (costume of the period Louis XV.), Champion, Hugh Drummond (Court costume), Constance Dormer (costume, Louis XV.), Beatrice Fitzherbert (Court Dame), Lucy (Mademoiselle de Montmirail), Granville, Gaskell (costume, Louis XV.), Hodgson (a la Watteau), Gladys Hankey (Marquese, reign Louis XV.), Irwin, Keighly-Peach akin (Dame de la Cours, Louis XV.), Lakin (a la Watteau), Lister-Kaye, Violet Leigh (Mdlle. de Chévreuse), Murray, Miller-Mundy (Court dress), J. Menzies (Duchess d’ Angoulêne), Naylor (Lady of the Court of Louis XV.), Nicol, Osborne (Mdme. de Pompadour, in garden dress), Perry, Constance Peel, Ramsden (Mdlle. de Colonne), E. N. Ramsden (Mdlle. de Coloane), Rushton (Lady of the Court of Louis XV), C. Starkey, Cicely Dudley Smith (Court dress, Louis XVI.), May Sanders (Louis XVI. costume), Cornwallis West (Mdlle. de la Court), Muriel Wilson (English costume of the period, Louis XV. and XVI.), Fleetwood Wilson (Lady, time Louis XVI.), and Waller (Fille de la Comtesse d’Artoix). 

MESSIEURS — G. A. Arbuthnot (modern Court dress), W. C. Alston (Infanterie Regiment de Forés), Allfrey, J. Arkwright, W. Armstrong, J. P. Arkwright, Robertson Aikman, Frank Bibby, Bromley-Davenport, Brinckman, P. B. Vander Byl (Mousquetaire), Beaumont, 60th Rifles, L. Bethell (Mousquetaire), Bainbridge, A. E. Batchelor (Garde de la Porte), Everard Browne (gentleman, temps Louis XV.), R. Barnes, Battye, F. C. Hunter Blair (Mousquetaire), Beech (Garde au corps du Roi), C. B. Clutterbuck (Mousequetaire), Cassel (modern Court dress), Collings (modern court dress), Felix Cassel, Caryl Craven (military uniform of the period), Aubrey Cartwright, Chamberlayne, Bertram Chaplin, Cove-Jones, E. S. Chattock, H. Chamberlain, Drummond Chaplin (Court dress), G. Cartland, J. S. Dugdale (Recorder), M. Farquahar (Mousquetaire), Cyril Foley (officer du corps du Roi Pologne Stanilas), Kenneth Foster (Mousquetaire), S. M. Fraser (Mousquetaire), Fairfax-Lucy (Colonel George Lucy), J. S. Forbes (Mousquetaire), B. J. Fitzgerald (Mousquetaire), Francis Fitz-Herbert (Fusilier du Roi), J. B. Fitz-Herbert (gentleman, temps Louis XV.), Wilson Fitzgerald, R. Flower (modern Court dress), Francis, Flower (modern Court dress), Granville, J, Grenfell, Graham, G. de J. Hamilton (Mousequetaire), E. Harrington (Mousquetaire), Hutton, Head, H. T. Hickman (Court dress), Percival Hodgson (Court dress), Irwin, Joliffe, Joostens (Diplomatic Court dress), M. T. Kennard (Maison du Roi), F. Laycock (officer of Pondicherry Regiment), Morton P. Lucas (gentleman of the period), R. W. Lindsay (Court dress, late 18th century), E. Little, Lister-Kay, Lakin (modern Court dress), R. Lakin (the Duc de Brissac), Richard Lant (modern court dress), John Lant (M. Vauthier), H. G. Lakin (the Marquis de Breze), W. M. Low (David Garrick), Meyrick, Murray (Mousquetaire), C. de Murietta (Marechal Saxe), J. Moncrieffe (gentleman of the period), H. Mordaunt (gentleman, temps. Louis XV.), T. J. Meyrick (gentleman, temps. XV.), F. Menzies, H. Molesworth, Basil Montgomery (Courtier, Louis XV.), John Monckton, R. O. Milne (Chevan-le’ ger de la Garde du Roi, Louis XVI.), H. du C. Norris (Court dress, Louis XV.), J. Norris (Marquis of France), Norton (Louis XVI. costume), C. S. Paulet (modern Court dress), Quinton-Dick (Mousquetaire), Arthur Paget, Ralph Paget (dress of Louis XV.), Oswald Petre (modern Court dress), George Peel, W. R. W. Peel, G. R. Powell (Court dress), Mark J. Paget (gentleman of period of Louis XV.), Ramsden (Mons. de Calonne), L. G. Scott (Mousquetaire), H. Spender Clay (Court dress of the period), Smythe, Shaw, S. Sanders (Mousquetaire), F. Shaw, S. O. Smith (modern court dress), M. Oswald Smith (gentleman of the Court of Louis XVI.), Cameron Skinner, W. L. Thursby (Mousequetaire), C. J. H. Tower (officier Gardes Suisses), Tree, Thursby-Pelham, Tower (officier Gardes Suisses), J. H. Wheatley (modern Court dress), Read Walker (officier d'Infanterie), Francis Williams, Montague Wood, West, Gordon Wood and Anthony White. 

DESCRIPTION OF COSTUMES. 

Appended are descriptions of the chief costumes worn:— 

EARL OF WARWICK. 

Field Marshal, Louis XVI. — Military coat with the long skirts of the period, having turned-back revers of white cloth, laced, after the military fashion, with gold, white knee-breeches and silk stockings. The cravat and ruffles were of lace. A white wig in Louis XVI. style, and a three-cornered black beaver hat with gold braid all round the brim, which was edged with small white ostrich plumes, completed a handsome and artistic costume. A sword was worn in a swordbelt of the period. 

COUNTESS OF WARWICK. 

Marie Antoinette — Gala costume. Rich brocade dress, with a ground of a delicate tint of pearl, with a suggestion of pink in it, the design roses in gold, with gold foliage, lilies in white, some small blue flowers and clusters of pink blossoms, with bright old- world green as foliage. The skirt was quite plain, and the [b/c] bodice drawn into shaped points at the hips, so that it sat right out at either side. It was full, and yard on the ground at the back, The bodice was finished with points back and front, and was cut with absolute perfection. Round the shoulders were full soft folds of gold-flecked French silk muslin edged with beautiful gold lace. The sleeves were plain and tight to the elbow, whence they were finished with triple frills of the gold-flecked muslin, each bordered with gold lace, and with ruffles falling from beneath the frills of point d’Alençon lace. The frills were headed with bands of gold embroidery. At the back, suspended from both shoulders by gold cords, was a beautiful Court mantle of deep rich blue velvet, not so pale as turquoise nor so strong as the shade we call Royal, but a bright levely colour. This was embroidered all over with a raised design of fleur de lys in dull and burnished gold, and was lined with the same blue velvet. The hair was dressed high with a magnificently embroidered head-dress. Her ladyship wore the Warwick family diamonds round her neck as a collar, a turquoise velvet cap clasped with jewels on her white coiffure and a bandeau of family jewels under her cap. Her court mantle was fastened at the shoulders with a tiara of diamonds widened out so as to clasp the cloak from shoulder to shoulder. 

THE COMTESSSE AHLEFELDT. 

Dame de Ia temps Louis XVI. — cream silk petticoat, with front of real ha[n]d-worked silk embroidery, done in the time of Louis XVI., the design being convolvulus and other flowers wrought in dull pink, blue, and green silks, and feathers tied with true lover’s knots. There was a bright shell pink tunic-shaped overdress, with Watteau back, edged with real Brussels, white silk stomacher, large pink bows in front and on each hip; and wreath of pink roses. 

MRS GERALD ARBUTHNOT. 

Brocade gown with Watteau back and paniers, cerise satin petticoat, studded with large blue satin bows, cerise velvet stomacher, fechu of Brussels lace; head-dress, cap of cerise velvet and blue plumes. 

MRS ARMITAGE. 

Dame de la temps Louis XV. — Light grey satin dress brocaded with bunches of cyclamen, roses with green leaves, and ornamented with velvet to match, and groups of yellow and cyclamen roses. 

MRS ARMITAGE (KIRROUGHTEN). 

Lady of the Court of Louis XVI. — Bodice and short train, with Watteau plait of pale heliotrope and green brocade, with large revers of heliotrope satin, and bodice trimmed with petunia velvet and petunia and yellow roses and lace; petticoat of heliotrope satin and lace flounces, diamond and sapphire ornaments; hair ''poudré'', with heliotrope feathers. 

MISS ARMSTRONG. 

''A la'' Watteau. — White watered silk, brocaded with stripes and clusters of roses. The front of the petticoat was draped with blue chiffon, and edged at the bottom with pink roses, bodice with blue satin bows in front, and on the shoulders and neck, and sleeves trimmed with full white chiffon and pink roses, powdered hair, wreath of roses and blue bow. 

MRS ARMSTRONG. French Marquise. — Handsome cream coloured real old brocade with black velvet front, and trimmings of very old point de Venice, and festoons of pink roses. 

MRS EVERARD BROWNE. 

Brocaded satin with silver stripes. 

MRS FRANK BIBBY. 

Lady of the Court of Louis XVI. — White satin dress, with skirt draped with old lace, pink chiffon sash embroidered with silver; diamond buttons on corsage. 

CAPTAIN BRINKLEY (WARWICK). 

Court dress of the period — Claret-coloured coat and knee-breeches, white silk embroidered waistcoat, white silk stockings and old paste buckled shoes, Louis XVI. wig, and Court sword. 

MRS BRINKLEY. 

Marquise du Deffant — Train of white brocade embroidered in roses and forget-me-nots, the paniers lined and turned back with green satin and guipure; petticoat of pink satin and old Honiton lace, trimmed with pink roses; Louis XV. wig, with roses and diamonds. 

THE EARL OF BURFORD. 

Military costume of Louis XV.’s time — White cloth with pale blue facings, trimmed handsomely and effectively with gold. 

MISS MURIEL BELL. 

Princesse de Lamballe — Pink satin brocade, white petticoat, pink roses; hair ''poudré''. 

MISS N. BATTYE (LONDON). 

English dress of the period — Light blue satin dress[,] lace fichu, large black velvet hat with white ostrich feathers. 

MISS DE CAPELL BROOKE. 

Lady of the time of Louis XV. — Pink figured silk, over white satin skirt, edged with gold gimp, Watteau back; hair powdered. 

MR BEECH. 

Garde du Corps du Roi — Crimson coat, white facings, and gold lace. 

MRS BEECH. 

Madame de La Fayette — Old brocade, with lace and crimson roses and black velvet bows. 

MR F. C. HUNTER BLAIR (LEAMINGTON). 

Mousquetaire Uniform Louis XV., in white, scarlet, and gold. 

CAPTAIN JIM BARRY (LONDON). 

Mousquetaire Louis XV. — Black knee-breeches, light blue coat and waistcoat, faced with white, and trimmed with gold lace. 

MR CARYL CRAVEN. 

Mousquetaire, Louis XVI. — White and gold. 

THE EARL OF CHESTERFIELD. 

Court costume — Coat of pale blue corded silk, the cuffs, pocket flaps, and fronts all richly wrought with gold, while the buttons were old paste and amethysts. The knee-breeches were blue silk, and the blue silk stockings were clocked with gold, and Court shoes were worn, with diamond buckles, The waistcoat was of yellow satin, brocaded with pink rosebuds, and having old paste and amethyst buttons. A jabot of old lace was pinned with a diamond brooch, and the ruffles were of similar lace. A white wig was worn with a three-cornered gold-laced and white-plumed hat. 

COUNTESS CAIRNS.  

Duchess de Bouillon — Dress of light-hued satin, with relief of pink diamonds, and pink roses in the hair. 

MR CHAPLIN. 

Court suit of green silk velvet, with embroidered vest and white wig. 

LORD CHURCHILL. 

Court costume — Blue brocade, with steel buttons and knot of ribbon, fringed with silver on one shoulder; white satin waistcoat and blue knee-breeches. 

LORD CLIFTON. 

Officer of the Guards, Louis XV. — Coat of pale green cloth, turned back with crimson, and laced with gold. 

MISS SPENDER CLAY. 

Madme. Lamballe — A pretty pink and white brocade dress in the style of Louis XV., and with large hat, trimmed with ostrich plumes and roses. She carried a white wand surmounted by roses. 

MISS CARLETON. 

Watteau, Louis XV. — Blue silk brocaded dress, with little pink roses, and pink satin petticoat with Watteau pleat, hair arranged with pink wreath of roses and pink feathers. 

MRS CARTWRIGHT. 

White satin dress, trimmed with sable and point de gaze lace; musseline de soie fichu edged with lace, and caught up with clusters of pink roses. 

MISS CHAMPION (NORFOLK). 

Dress of old brocade; petticoat of Rose de Barri satin, trimmed with pearls and lace; lace fichu, large rose hat with plumes, and pearl ornaments. 

MRS CHAMBERLAYNE (STONEY THORPE). 

Marquise Louis XV. — Pink satin petticoat, yellow flowered silk bodice, and train from the shoulders; pink satin ribbon and diamonds in the powdered hair. 

MISS CARUTHERS (WARDINGTON, BANBURY).  

Short-waisted dress of period Louis XV.; yellow brocade over yellow satin petticoat; old lace and roses. 

MR BERTRAM CHAPLIN. 

Period Louis XVI. — White satin coat and breeches, pink satin waistcoat. 

MR QUENTIN DICK. 

Officer of the Household of Louis XV. — White cloth uniform, faced with blue, and braided with gold. 

MISS DRUMMOND (SHERBOURNE HOUSE). 

A blue brioche, brocaded with pink roses and leaves, and gaily trimmed with pink Banksia roses, petticoat of white satin, flounced with lovely Brussels lace, bodice [sic] of bioche silk, with white front trimmed with roses and old-fashioned gauze, necklace of roses and pearls, and wreath of roses. 

HON. MRS HUBERT DORMER (LONDON). 

Court dress Louis XVI. — Petticoat of pink satin, point lace flounce; overdress of dark red satin, in paniers, looped with red and pink roses, diamond and pearl ornaments. 

MR J. S. DUGDALE, Q.C. 

Recorder’s Court dress of the period — Black silk gown with lace ruffles, black silk stockings, buckle shoes, and full bottomed wig. 

MRS J. S. DUGDALE. 

A very handsome bright blue silk brocaded with white, and made ''à la'' Pompadour, with white satin front trimmed with dark fur, the bodice made with pearl trimmings, and a white muslin fichu tied at one side under a bunch of pink roses, hair dressed with blue feathers, wreath of pink roses, and a tiara of diamonds in front. 

[Col. c/d] 

Miss Constance (Hastinas.) Marquiee Louis XV1.—Gown of white silk brocaded with roses, Watteau back. Pearl ornaments., Lapy St. Crate Lady Mary Campbell—White muslin costume, with broad blue silk Sir ARcHIBALD Mou uetaire—White cloth uniform, faced with blue a showin a blue waistcoat, the whole having @ large amount o f silver military braiding. Mes Luepsay Eric-Suira Haywarp’s Louis XVI.—Yellow Pompadour dress, brocade, and white satin petticoat, Mas Fatrrax-Lucy Park). A Marquise.—Rich white brocade dress, with blue and straw brocade saque, edged with Brussels lace, and Brussels lace flounce, Vandycked round, petticoat witb pink roses, lace ruffles an fichu, and pink roses and diamonds in the hair completed the costume. Me Farerax-Lucy Park). Colonel George Lucy—Red lilac-coloured cloth suit, Court dress of the period, edged with silver lace, and belonged to Colonel G. Lucy in 1744; silk of the same colour, high-heeled shoes, with diamond buckles, and knee buckles, lace ruffles, and cravat. Me J. Mousquetaire—Uniform of dark green cloth, faced with tan, and trimmed with silver, old point d’Alencon ruffles, tan silk sash, and cross belt of tan and silver. Me B. Mousquetaire—White uniform, with orange velvet facings braided with gold, crossbelt of white and gold, a yellow sash, and the high black leather boots of the period. Mrs WILson-FITzGERALD. Dress of the real old brocade of Louis XV.’s reign. Tus Hon. Crement Finca. Gentleman of the period Louis XV.—Coat of blue watered silk, with silver satin breeches to match, white satin vest, and black hat decked with silver. Miss FiTzHeRBERT. Dress of pale blue satin, lined with pink, with pink roses on the corsage, Louis XVI. period. She wore a beautiful pearl necklace, with large diamond pendant, and two diamond sprays, all of which were given by George IV. to Mrs Fitzberbert. Major (WARWICK). Mousquetaire—Claret-coloured tunic, with salmon- colour cuffs, lace ruffles, &amp;c. Mrs Fossery (Warwick). Marquise—Pink satin petticoat, covered with lace, grey and pink brocaded bodice and traio, pink roses and ostrich plume in powdered hair. Lavy Gerarp. Duchess de Pognac—Dress of pale blue brocade, decked with small roses, with front of pink satin; fichu of muslin and lace, and stomacher of lace and roses. Lavy Eva Grevitye. Polichinelle, Louis XV.—White satin gown orna- mented at the bottom with a trelliswork of silver, studded with small pink roses; corsage to correspond, and fastened across the stomacher by large diamond hooks and eyes. Tue Hon. GRrevicye. Officer of the Regiment of Swiss Guards—Coat of pale blue loth, nearly bordering on green—quite a ade, turquoise The revers were white, and turned back from a white waistcoat braided with gold. The braiding was continued down the white revers of the coat and on the skirts; white satin knee-breeches, silk stockings, Court shoes, white wig, and three-cornered hat, trimmed with gold braid and white ostrich feathers, completed one of the most effective of military attires. A sword was, of course, worn. Tae How. Lovis Mousquetaire, Louis XV.—Claret-coloured coat, laced with gold over white; white silk sash, sword- belt of red cloth with gold, white knee-breeches, cornered hat of the time. Court shoes, silk stockings, and the wig and three- Tae How. Mas. Lovis Grevitie. Dress of the period—Petticoat of deep rose-petal pink satin, with a full flounce of white lace headed by trails of roses; over-dress of white satin, brocaded with a design of roses and lined with pale-green satin, pointed bodice showing a pink vest laced across, an and fichu of Mechlin lace to correspond with the flounce. The hair was powdered and dressed high, with an ornament of roses and diamonds at one side. THE Hon. ALWYN GREVILLE. Mousquetaire—Coat of scarlet cloth, cuffs and fronts turned back with white and laced with gold, and broac red silk sash, white knee-breeches, silk stockings, and Court shoes. Tue How. Mes Atwyn Dame de la Court Louis XV.—Over-dress of pink mirror velvet bordered with dark fur, opening over a front of cream satin, long pink velvet sleeves with roses and fichu of fine old lace on the corsage ; hair dressed a Princess Lambale. Mrs GARKRLL. Grande Dame—Blue shot-satin dress adorned with point, d’Alengon lace, veiled with silver tissue under white gauze and tied up by a wide blue chiffon sash caught at the arm-holes with diamond buttons; ornaments, enamelled medallions set in diamonds. Mrs GASKELL. Gainsborough costume — White satin and blue chiffon, Louis XVI. ; old diamond necklace. Miss GASKELL. Costume, Louis XV.—Blue and pink costume of that period, with a very large black velvet hat, trimmed with blue feathers. Miss Gorpon. Allin white, lined with blue satin, the front of the bodice made of fine muslin, caught up with small pink roses ; and a little wreath of pink roses in the hair, and diamonds. MARCHIONESs OF HERTFORD. Lady time of Louis XVI.—Black velvet dress and train, white satin front covered with old point lace ; sleeves lined with white satin, front of dress covered long pointed bodice with lace fichu, long velvet lappets and diamonds. with diamonds. White full-dress wig, with lace Mrs Ernest (Grove Park, WARwIcK.) Marquise Louis XVI—Overdress of light satin brocaded with pink roses and faced with pale pink satin over white satin petticoat, with lace flounce beaded with pink roses. Pearl and diamond ornaments. R Hutton (Grove Parx). English Court dress—Black velvet, point lace ruffles, Me H. T. Court dress, time of Louis XV.—Black velvet coat, knee-breeches, trimmed with white Mrs Horton. Court costume—Dress with paniers of pale-green brocade over a white satin petticoat having a flounce of lace headed by roses. Miss Hopagson. A la Watteau—Sang de bceuf coloured satin petti- coat, trimmed with old lace, caught up with roses; a corset and polonaise of rose figured satin, the latter ornaments, pearls and diamonds. trimmed with deep revers of green satin; white wig ; M. Joostens Loxpon). Courtier, Louis XVI.—White satin knee breeches, claret velvet coat and waistcoat, point lace ruffles. Mrs H. Marquise of Louis XV.—Blue silk brocaded dress with pink roses, the petticoat of pink satin trimmed with white lace and pink roses, and the over-dress turned back with green satin edged with gold embroidery. RD KENYON. Officier of the Regiment du Roi, Louis XVI.—Hand- some dress of white cloth faced with pale-blue and laced with gold. Tus Hon. Keppat (2,Wilton Crescent, London), Mo uetaire—White cloth, jewelled Order around his neck. with an exquisitely Taz Hon. Mrs Grorcs Lady, time Louis XVI.—Gown of shell pink satin, pointed bodice, with full paniers, of antique brocade of the real deep rose shade known as du Barri sewn with silver thread and bouquets of roses. Full pe’ tticoat, of dull creamy-tinted eatin, with a deep d round it of silver tissue embroidered with garlands of small leafless roses. The sleeves had long ruffles of old lace. The hair was powdered and dressed elaborately and high, with three rose du Barri feathers in it and a little cap of lace. The shoes were of pink satin, with diamond buckles. Tae or M. de Capuisan, Keeper of the Royal.Stud, Louis richly wrought with gold and with rare and valuable XV.—Coat and knee-breeches were of ruby velvet, paste buttons on the former, while the vest was of pearl-white satin th very beautiful embroidery, white silk stockings, Court shoes with diamond buckles, lace ruffles and jabot with diamond rooch » jewelled hilted Court sword, and white wig plumes. ith three-cornered hat with gold lace and white Lorp Lovar. in Comte d’ Artagnas—Military costume of the period | white, faced with blue and laced with gold; an embroidered pouch slung from his belt, embroidered pod ic. silk three-co ny Court shoes, white wig, sword, Miss Lucy Park), Madenoiselle de Montmirail—White satin petticoat, with deep flounce of Brussels lace, caught up with pompom ; pink roses; witite brocade éaque, laced with ; lace ruffles and fichu; large black velvet hat and plumes. Watteau satin petticoat, festooned with roses. satin brocade with white  

 &lt;/blockquote&gt;

===14 February 1895, Thursday===
Oscar Wilde's ''The Importance of Being Ernest'' opened at the St. James Theatre.

==March 1895==
==April 1895==
===12 April 1895, Friday===
Good Friday
===14 April 1895, Sunday===
Easter Sunday
===19 April 1895, Friday===
&quot;The anniversary, on April 19, of the death of Lord Beaconsfield, fourteen years ago, was celebrated by the display of primroses, the docoration of his statue at Westminster, and a meeting of the Westminster Conservative Association, at which Mr. Burdett-Courts was in the chair.&quot; (Home and Foreign News.Illustrated London News (London, England), Saturday, April 27, 1895; pg. 503; Issue 2923, Col. A)

=== 26 April 1895, Friday ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;THE GERMAN HOSPITAL.

The 50th annual festival of the German Hospital, Dalston, was held last evening at the Hôtel Métropole.— His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge presided, and among those present were his [[Social Victorians/People/Christian of Schleswig-Holstein|Royal Highness Prince Christian]], the German Ambassador, the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Count Metternich, Count Koziebrodski, [[Social Victorians/People/Gourko|M. Gourko]], [[Social Victorians/People/Hadik|Count Hadik]], Baron von Schroder (Treasurer), Prince Stolberg-Wernigerode, Count H. Hatzfeldt, Karon von Deichmann, and nearly 200 other gentlemen.— After the usual loyal toasts the President proposed &quot;The Foreign Sovereigns and Princes,&quot; and later on his Royal Highness gave the toast of the evening, &quot;Prosperity to the German Hospital.&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; The Hospital, he said, was established in 1845. It might be asked what need was there for a hospital for a foreign nation in this country? But if such institutions were required at all they were needed as much for foreigners as for Englishmen. Indeed, if a foreigner fell sick in a foreign land he was especially in need of a hospital. The German Hospital was situated in a part of the Metropolis where such establishments were much wanted. It never shut its doors either to English or foreign sufferers, and he hoped therefore that Englishmen would feel as much called upon to help the German Hospital as any other. Their endowment fund unhappily was next to ''nil'', their funds coming chiefly from that larger section of Germans who were in good commercial positions in London. Originally they had only 36 beds, but the number was now increased to 120. The sanatorium also was a valuable addition to the hospital. They had a deficit of £1,3192, a sum that he hoped would be greatly exceeded by the subscriptions, which he anticipated would be enough to secure efficient working for next year and to leave a good margin. In conclusion, his Royal Highness expressed his strong disapproval of the introduction of religious controversies in the management of the hospital, and he was happy to find that they were all of the same opinion on this subject.— Other toasts followed, &quot;The Health of the Chairman&quot; being received with much enthusiasm. Subscriptions and donations were announced amounting to £6,300, including £200 annually from the Emperor of Germany, £50 from the Emperor of Austria, £20 from the Chairman, £1,000 from Baron von Schroder, the Treasurer, £500 from J. Wernher, Esq., and £52 10s. from [[Social Victorians/People/Rothschild Family|Messrs. Rothschilds]].&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The German Hospital.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 27 April 1895 Saturday: 5 [of 10], Col. 7c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18950427/051/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==May 1895==

=== '''8 May 1895, Wednesday''' ===
Queen's Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace hosted by [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales|Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Alexandra, Princess of Wales|Alexandra, Princess of Wales]] and attended by [[Social Victorians/People/Brienen|Baroness de Breinen]] and two of her daughters as well as [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]], among many others, of course.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Queen's Drawing Room.&quot; ''London Standard'' 9 May 1895, Thursday: 3 [of 10], Col. 5A. The ''British Newspaper Archive''. http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18950509/017/0003.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Queen's Drawing Room.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 09 May 1895 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Cols. 5a–7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18950509/044/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 22 May 1895, Wednesday ===
The Marchioness of Londonderry's Dance&lt;blockquote&gt;THE MARCHIONESS OF LONDONDERRY'S DANCE.

Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York honoured the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry by their company at dinner at Londonderry House last night. Among the guests invited to meet their Royal Highnesses were the Marquis and Marchioness of Ormonde and Lady Beatrice Butler, the Marquis and Marchioness of Zetland and Lady Maud Dundas, the Marquis of Winchester, Viscount Crichton, Viscount Royston, Viscount Milton, Lord and Lady Edmund Talbot, Lord Alington, Lady Gwendolen Little and Miss Chaplin, Lord Balvaird, Lord Lurgan, the Right Hon. David Plunket, M.P., the Right Hon. James Lowther, M.P., Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, and Mr. and Mrs. A. Sassoon.

The Marchioness of Londonderry afterwards gave a small dance. Her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide was among the guests who assembled after dinner.

There were also present— The Austrian Ambassador and Countess Deym and Countess Bianca Deym, the United States Ambassador and Mrs. Bayard, the Brazilian Minister, the Danish Minister and Madame de Bille, the Duke of Marlborough, the Duchess of Leeds and Lady Alexander Osborne, the Duchess of Abercorn, the Duchess of Newcastle and Lady Rossmore, the Duchess of Marlborough and Lord William Beresford, the Marquis of Abergavenny, the Marchioness of Lansdowne and Lady Beatrice Fitzmaurice, the Marchioness of Blandford and Lady Norah Spencer Churchill, the Marquis of Tullibardine, the Marquesa de Santurce, Earl and Countess Annesley, the Earl of Tyrone, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Sybil M'Donnell and Lady Katherine Beauclerk, the Earl of Dunraven and Lady E. Wyndham Quin, the Earl of Chesterfield, the Countess of Listowel and Lady Margaret Hare, Victoria Countess of Yarborough, the Countess of Ancaster and Lady E. Willoughby, the Countess of Lonsdale, Countess Howe, and Lady E. Curzon, the Earl and Countess of Erroll, the Earl and Countess of Yarborough, the Countess of Powis, the Countess of Latham and Lady Bertha Wilbraham, the Countess of Jersey and Lady Margaret Villiers, the Countess of Sefton and Lady Rose Molyneux, Count Koziebrodski, [[Social Victorians/People/Hadik|Count Hadik]], Count Gleichen, Georgina Countess of Dudley, Count Hermann Hatzfeldt, Elizabeth Countess of Wilton and Mr. Pryor, Countess Cadogan and Lady Sophie Cadogan, the Earl and Countess of Arran, the Countess of Coventry and Lady Anne Coventry, the Earl and Countess of Ilchester and Lady Muriel Fox-Strangways, the Countess of Clanwilliam and Lady Beatrice Meade, the Countess of Derby and Lady Isabel Stanley, the Countess of Ravensworth and Miss Cresswell, Viscountess Newport and Hon. Helena Bridgeman, Viscount Falmouth, Viscount Milton, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscountess Emlyn and the Hon. Miss Campbell, Viscount and Viscountess Grimston and Miss Mackintosh, Lord and Lady Henry Nevill and Miss Nevill, Lord and Lady Alexander Paget, Lord and Lady Ashbourne and the Hon. Violet Gibson, Lady Anne Murray and Miss Murray, Lady Cicely Gathorne-Hardy and Miss Gathorne-Hardy, Lady Gerard, Lady de Trafford, Lord Richard Nevill, Lady Eva Greville, Lady Hastings, Lord Herbert Scott, Lady Edward Cecil, Lady Henry Bentinck, Lady Emily Van de Weyer, and Miss Van de Weyer, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lord Ennismore, Lady Chesham and Lady Constance Grosvenor, Lord and Lady George Hamilton, Lord Willoughby, Lady Jeune, Miss Stanley and Miss Goschen, Lady Mary and Lady Evelyn Parker, Lady St. Oswald and Miss Forbes, Lady Clementine Walsh, the Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach and Miss Hicks-Beach, Lord and Lady Morris and Miss Morris, Lady Alington, Lord Brackley, Lady and Miss Bonham, Lady Hindlip and Miss Hackett, Lady Tweedmouth, Lord Lovat, the Hon. George Curzon, M.P., and Mrs. Curzon, the Hon. Arthur Coventry, the Hon. Humphry Sturt, M.P., the Hon, Martin Morris, the Hon. Arthur Meade, the Hon. Sidney Greville, the Hon. Henry Trefusis, the Hon. Mrs. Hill and Miss De Winton, the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Henniker, the Hon. Lionel Holland, the Hon. Derek Keppel, the Hon. Mrs. Oliphant, the Hon. Arthur Brodrick, the Hon. Kenneth Campbell, Captain the Hon. H. Lambton, the Hon. Cecil Brownlow, the Hon. Mrs. Bampfylde, the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Ellis and Miss Ellis, the Right Hon. Akers Douglas, M.P., and Mrs. and Miss Douglas, the Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, the Right Hon. Sir Matthew White Ridley, M.P., and the Hon. Lady and Miss Ridley, the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland and Lady and Miss O Brien, Captain and Lady Sarah Wilson, Mr. and Lady Dorothea Ruggles-Brise, Mr. and Lady Louisa Loder and Lady Sybil Beauclerk, Sir Algernon Borthwick, M.P., and Lady Borthwick, Sir William and Lady Eden and Miss Grey, Sir H. Calcraft, Sir William and Miss Walrond, Sir Frederick Milner, M.P., and Lady Milner, Sir Samuel Scott, Sir John Banks, Sir Horace Farquhar, Sir Henry Hamilton, Sir Arthur Edmundson, Colonel Howard Vincent, M.P., and Mrs. Vincent, Colonel Crichton and Miss Crichton, Colonel and Mrs. Gerald F. Talbot, Major Cosmo Little, Captain and Mrs. Fowler, Mr. Wrightson, M.P., Mr. Penrose Fitzgerald, M.P., and Mrs. Fitzgerald, Mr. Charteris [sic no comma] Colonel Edgcumbe, Mrs. Smith Barry, Colonel and Mrs. Henry Fludyer, General and Miss Thesiger, Mr. Williamson, Mr. Goschen, Mr. Coventry, Mr. and Mrs. Menzies, Mr. E. Trotter, Mr. G. Trotter, Mr. Herbert Praed, Mr. Hamilton Aidé, Captain E. Milner, Mrs. John Domvile, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur James, Mrs. Delacour, Mr. C. H. Pollen, Captain and Mrs. Fowler, Mr. S. Onslow, Mrs. Adair, Captain and Mrs. Gerard Leigh, Captain Maurice Burke, Mrs. W. H. Grenfell, Mr. and Mrs. Cavendish Bentinck, Mr. Erskine, Mr. Jarvis, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Oppenheim, Mr. and Mrs. R. Laurie, Mr. Algernon Peel, Mr. Victor Seymour Corkran, Mr. and Mrs. J. S. Sanders, Mr. Glynn, Mr. Hamilton, Mrs. Harry Burke, Mr. A. M'Donnel, Captain Pilkington, Mr. and Mrs. Middleton, Mr. Carson, M.P., and Mrs. Carson, Mr. C. Ramsden, Captain Arthur Bagot, Mr. George Phipps, Major-General Stracey, Mr. Longley, Mr. Frank Chaplin, Mr. and Mrs. Moberley Bell, Mr. Francis Fitzgerald, Mr. V. Hussey Walsh, Mr. and Mrs. Orde and Mrs. Hornsby, Captain Orr Ewing, Mr. Victor Cavendish, M.P., Captain and Lady Sarah Wilson, Mr. Marker, Mr. Cavendish, Captain Shute, Mr. W. C. Jamison, Mr. F. Gathorne-Hardy, Mr. Seymour Gore, Mr. Lister, Mr. Wombwell, and many others.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Marchioness of Londonderry's Dance.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 23 May 1895 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Col. 7a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18950523/051/0005.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

===29 May 1895, Wednesday===
Derby Day at Epsom Downs, so the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste Montagu]], Duchess of [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]] hosted a ball at Devonshire House that night?

According to the ''Morning Post'', &quot;Arrangements for This Day&quot; included the following: &lt;quote&gt;The Prince of Wales's dinner to the Members of the Jockey Club, at Marlborough House. / Viscountess Halifax's dance. / Lady Tweedmouth's second reception at Brook House. / Baroness Henry de Worms's Derby Tea, 4.30 to 7. / Mrs. Barber-Starkey's evening party at the Grafton Gallery. / Mrs. Carlisle-Carr's musical reception at 44A, Maddox-street, 4. / Epsom Races — Derby Day.&lt;/quote&gt; (&quot;Arrangements for This Day.&quot; The Morning Post Wednesday, 29 May 1895: p. 7 [of 12], Col. 7A).

==June 1895==
1895 June, founding of the Trafalgar Bicycle Club: &lt;blockquote&gt;That cycling has for months past been advancing with giant strides in the affection of &quot;the classes&quot; has been very generally asserted, but if final confirmation of the fact were needed it is forthcoming in the establishment of a West End club formed solely for their benefit. We had the pleasure a week or two since of assisting at the inaugural ceremony, which by the daily press is thus reported: —
     &quot;The opening of the Trafalgar Bicycle Club yesterday afternoon brought together a brilliant company in the pretty grounds of Catherine Lodge, Trafalgar Square, South Kensington. Among the company assembled were the Duchess of Marlborough and Lord William Beresford, Countess Howe and the Ladies Curzon, Lord and Lady Arthur Paget, Lord and Lady Curzon, Lord Rowton, Lord Hindlip, Mr. and Mrs. Shelley Bonteim, Mrs. Leo de Rothschild, Lord and Lady Albert Kennedy, Lady Feo and the Hon. Humphrey Sturt, Mrs. Bischoffsheim, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mr. and Mrs. A. Wilson]], [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]], Mr. Gerald Paget, Sir William and Lady Call, Georgina Countess of Dudley, Sir Henry Calcraft, Lord and Lady St. Oswald, Mrs. Adair, Mrs. Smith Barry, Mrs. Maxwell and Miss Heron, Lady Sarah Wilson, Madame Von Andre, Major Wynne Finch, Lady de Trafford, Mr. Montague Guest, Lady Eden, and many others. Races for special prizes were run in the open track in the square, but society preferred to foregather on the pretty lawn surrounding the covered velodrome. Tables were scattered about, and tea, coffee, and ices were dispensed. The ladies wore their brightest dresses, and the occasion was agreeably prophetic of a successful career for the club.&quot;
     We may add that all arrangements for the supply of machines are vested in the hands of Messrs. Humber and Co., Ltd., whose interests are safe in the keeping of Mr. Walter Creswick, their courteous representative. (&quot;Society and the Wheel&quot;)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 1 June 1895, Saturday ===
C.S. Schreiber was present at the annual regimental dinner of the 1st Life Guards hosted by the Prince of Wales:&lt;blockquote&gt;His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales was present on Saturday evening at the annual regimental dinner of the 1st Life Guards, held in the Whitehall Rooms, Hôtel Métropole. The chair was taken by the Earl of Caledon, and during dinner the string band of the regiment played a selection of music in the vestibule. There were present General Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar (Colonel), the Duke of Beaufort, Lord de Ramsey, Lord de Ros, General Duncombe, Captain A. E. Duncombe, Captain Walter Duncombe, Captain the Hon. Cecil Duncombe, Captain Sir W. Fraser, Lord Greville, Viscount Grimston, Captain Holford, Surgeon-Colonel Hensman, Mr. H. V. Higgins, Captain T. J. Levett, Lord Magheramorne, Lord North, the Marquis of Ormonde, Lord Ormathwaite, Major J. Reid, Mr. Scott Murray, Major St. J.Taylor, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir S. Lockhart, Mr. Martin Mence, Mr. Lyon, Lord Templemore, Major C. N. Miles, Major T. C. P. Calley, Captain Gordon Carter, Captain the Hon. R. F. Greville, Captain J. R. G. Cotterell, Captain the Hon. C. E. Bingham, Captain G. Milner. Captain E. B. Cook, Lieutenant E. W. Clowes, Lieutenant H. C. Fraser, Lieutenant the Marquis of Hamilton, Lieutenant H. M. Walker, Lieutenant H. M. Grenfell, Lieutenant B. D. A. Corbet, Lieutenant the Hon. C. Wyndham, [[Social Victorians/People/Schreiber|Lieutenant C. S. Schreiber]], Lieutenant P. B. Cookson, Lieutenant the Hon. J. Tufton, Riding-Master D. Hall, Quartermaster W. Wragg, Surgeon Lieutenant-Colonel Forrester, Surgeon Captain Cross, and Veterinary Captain Edwards.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Court Circular.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 03 June 1895, Monday: 5 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18950603/060/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===2 June 1895, Sunday===
Whit Sunday

===26 June 1895, Wednesday===
The Times reported the following: &lt;blockquote&gt;Under the auspices of the Society of Authors a complimentary dinner to Sir Walter Besant was given last night in the King's-hall of the Holborn Restaurant. Sir W. Martin Conway took the chair, and the guests, who numbered nearly 250, included Lady Besant, Major-General Sir F. Goldsmid, Sir W. T. Charley, Sir H. Gilzean [Gilzoan?] Reid, Mr. Hall Caine, Mrs. F. Hodgson Burnett, Mr. Austin Dobson, Sir Henry Bergne, &quot;Annie S. Swan,&quot; Mr. Walter Wren, &quot;Sarah Grand,&quot; Mr. H. Rider Haggard, Mr. E. M. Underdown, Q.C., Mr. J. M. Barrie, Mr. Henry Norman, Mr. A. W. à Beckett, Mrs. Humphrey Ward, &quot;Helen Mathers,&quot; Mr. Moncure D. Conway, Mr. J. M. Lely, the Rev. T. G. Bonnney, the Rev. E. C. Hawkins, Miss May Crommelin, Mr. I. Zangwill, Mr. Jerome K. Jerome, Mrs. Alec Tweedie, Mr. Douglas Sladen, Mr. Anthony Hope Hawkins, Mr. W. Morris Colles, Mrs. Needell, Mr. J. Ashby Sterry, Mr. F. E. Beddard, Mr. Oswald Crawford, Mr. F. Frankfort Moore, Mr. A. W. Dubourg, Mr. W. H. Rideing, &quot;Annabel Gray,&quot; Mr. G. Manville Fenn, Mr H. Cox, the Rev. C. H. Middleton Wake, Mr. C. Herbert Thring, the Rev. C. Voysey, and Mr. B. L. Farjeon.

Mr. Hall Caine, in proposing the health of the guest of the evening, first read the following telegram from Mr. John Ruskin: -- &quot;I am in true sympathy with you to-night. Convey my respectful greetings to all present, who are doing well-deserved honour to Sir Walter Besant, to whom please give my heartfelt congratulations.&quot; Proceeding, he said that in drinking the health of Sir Walter Besant they drank to a novelist of old and assured renown, of high aim and noble achievements, a novelist who had given the world of his best and never yet written a line which modesty or morality could wish him to blot. (Cheers.) They also drank to a reformer who had brought solace and cheer through so many years to so many thousands, who had kindled good impulses of benevolence and charity, thrift and self-help, and had been so happy as to see, while he was still in the meridian of life, a practical realization of one of his imaginary pictures in the People's Palace of London. (Cheers.) But there was a claim which came closer than those, and in drinking the health of Sir Walter Besant they drank to the father of the profession of literature in their time as a profession and to the first cause and founder of the Society of Authors. (Cheers.) In founding the Society of Authors and in directing the line of its conduct he had done a great service to literary people of every class and country by carrying forward the rights of literary property one long step towards just and equitable international law. (Cheers.)

Sir Walter Besant, in responding, said the honour conferred upon him was an honour conferred upon their society. It was a recognition of the society. (Cheers.) To use Lord Rosebery's words, it was an honour offered for &quot;services rendered to the dignity of literature.&quot; And those services would be futile -- a mere beating of the air -- were it not for their own organizaiton. They might be Radical or Tory, but let them remember that Lord Rosebery was the first Prime Minister who had ever given a thought to the dignity of literature and the first who had ever recognized that literature was a profession at all. (Cheers.) The first thing and the main thing for authors was to achieve the independence of authors. Three persons were concerned with the production of literature -- the author, the man in the middle, and the bookseller. The man in the middle -- the publisher -- had got the whole of the business in his own hands. He wrapped up the business in profound secrecy. How, then, could the independence of the author be achieved? First, and above all, by getting at a knowledge of the facts and by clearing their minds of prejudice and misinformation. They had to teach the public that a book was not an inexhaustible mine to begin with, nor was it, on the other hand, a dynamite shell charged with deadly risk. He urged that a pension fund for authors should be established. (Cheers.) It was his highest hope that on such a work as that and in everything else that belonged to the dignity, the honour, and the glory of literature was that he was with them a craftsman in letters, a brother in the craft, a member of the guild, a worker in the fraternity, might live to take a larger part in that cause and to do more work for that cause than in the past. (Cheers.) [new paragraph] The only other toast was that of &quot;The Chairman,&quot; which was proposed by Mr. Henry Norman and responded to by Sir W. Martin Conway.&quot; (&quot;Banquet to Sir Walter Besant.&quot; The Times, Thursday, 27 June 1895; pg. 10; Issue 34614; col G))&lt;/blockquote&gt;

There was apparently a regular celebration of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Collins|Arthur Collins]]' birthday, 26 June, by Bret Harte, George Du Maurier, Arthur Sullivan, Alfred Cellier, Arthur Blunt, and John Hare (Nissen, Axel. Brent Harte: Prince and Pauper: 239. [http://books.google.com/books?id=WEDewmUnapcC]). Choosing 1885–1902 as the dates because those apparently are the dates of the close relationship between Harte and Collins, ending in Harte's death in 1902. Pemberton quotes a letter from Harte to Collins dated the 25th that says he couldn't make it: &lt;quote&gt;&quot;My Dear Arthur, What do you mean by having a Jubilee at a time when I can't attend? For I am afraid it will not be possible for me to get away from here (where I am visiting with a friend) before Monday next, much as I should enjoy meeting you with your friends, and gladly as I would throw over [281/282] any social engagement for that purpose. But I am here on business, of which sometime I will tell you further. [skip one paragraph; new paragraph] &quot;Why haven't I seen you? I sent over form the Club the other day to try and caputre you at 24 St. James' Street, that you might lunch with me, but the manager brought back word that you would not return before the afternoon. Do let me hear from you. I was so sorry I could not come to Hare's dinner, but I had accepted an invitation from the Chappells for the following Sunday to meet him....&quot; &lt;/quote&gt; (T. Edgar Pemberton, The Life of Bret Harte. London: C. Arthur Pearson: 1903. Page 282.)

===27 June 1895, Thursday===
Mr. Kenneth Wilson and Miss Hackett marry in London, very fashionable wedding &lt;blockquote&gt;London, Thursday.

The handsome church of St. Peter's, Eaton-square, was tastefully decorated and thronged with a large and fashionable congregation this afternoon to witness the marriage of Mr. Kenneth Wilson, son of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mr. Arthur Wilson]], of Tranby Croft, to Miss Hackett, daughter of Mr. Hackett, of Moor Hall, Warwick, and niece of Lady Hindlip. The service was fully choral, and the ceremony was performed by the Hon. and Rev. Augustus Byron, uncle of the bride, assisted by the Rev. F. E Wallis, rector of Hindlip, and the Rev. John Storrs, vicar of St. Peter's. Lord Hindlip gave the bride away, while the bridegroom was supported by his brother, Mr. Clive Wilson, as best man. The bride wore a rich ivory duchesse satin gown, made with a plain skirt, the bodice being arranged with sashes of ribbon coming from high up under the arms, crossing the front, and falling in two long ends to the hem of the skirt, which was fringed with orange blossom. A small bouquet of orange blossom fastened the sash at the waist. The sleeves were loosely slashed, terminating in a point at the wrist, and the neck of the bodice was finished off with fine Alençon lace. Her bridal veil was of tulle, and surmounted a coronet of natural orange blossom. The seven bridesmaids were [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]], sister of the bridegroom, Lady Anne Coventry, Lady Lilian Spencer-Churchill, Miss Evelyn Ellis, Mis. Sibell Bass, Miss Clara Palmer Morewood, and Miss Nancy Green They were attired alike in charming costumes of white muslin over white silk with large Marie Antoinette fichus, edged with Valenciennes lace and large puffed sleeves. The full skirts were edged with narrow flounces to match the fichus. They wore white chip hats, with chiffon drawn crowns and trimmed with blue, and carried bouquets of roses. The bridegroom's presents to them were diamond and ruby sword brooches.

Among the invited guests were the Earl and Countess of Coventry, the Marquis Camden, Victoria Countess of Yarborough and Mr. Richardson, M. P., Sir John Dickson Poynder, the Hon. Cecil Brownlow, Lady William Nevill, Lady Settrington, Lady Edith Curzon, Mr. and Lady Clementina Walsh, Lady Norreys, Mr. and Lady Barbara Smith, Lord and Lady Lurgan, Mr. and Mrs. F. Pease, Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, Mr. Stephen Wombwell, Mr. and Mrs. F. Palmer, Mr. and Mrs. Alwyn-Smith, Captain and Mrs. FitzGeorge, Sir Charles and Lady Hartopp, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Wilson [probably the son], Mr. and Mrs. C. H. Wilson and the Misses Wilson, Mr. and Mrs. Lycett Green, Mr. Berkeley Levett, the Hon. J. C. Maxwell Scott, Captain the Hon. Arthur and Mrs. Somerset, Mr. and Mrs. C. H. Farrer, Mr. Reginald Coventry, Mr. and Mrs. Stanley Wilson, the Hon. Mrs. Keppel, Mr. R. Remington Wilson, Mr. and Mrs. H. Sykes, Mr. and Mrs. G. Duncombe, Sir W. and Lady Clarke, Mr. Frank Green, Mr. Rupert Beckett, Sir Henry and Lady Boynton, Mr. and Miss Warton, Mr. and Mrs. Charles Sykes, Sir Tatton and Lady Sykes, Mr. Arthur Lambert, Sir Charles and Lady Ross, Mr. and Mrs. R. Woodhouse, Mr. A. Newbald, Colonel and Mrs. Peppercorn, Lady Arthur Grosvenor, Mr. Arthur Portman, Mr Christopher Heseltine, the Earl of Yarborough, Mr. and Mrs. Travers, Mr. and Mrs. H. C. Bentley, Mrs. Arthur Paget, Lady Stratheden and Campbell, Mr. W. P. Hughes, Lady Dorothy Coventry, Mr. William James, Mr. Arnold Morley, Mrs. Hwfa Williams, Mrs. J. Hackett, Mrs. Bischoffshiem, Lady Lilian and Lady Norah Spencer Churchill, the Duke of Marlborough, Lord Athlumney, Mr. and Mrs. Carl Meyer, Captain Pilkington, Mr. Claude Cobham, Mr. Lancelot Smith, Miss Jenkins, Lord and Lady Churchill, Mr. Cecil Fane, Major Shuttleworth, Mr. and Mrs. H. C. Bentley, Mrs. Roundell, Mr. and Mrs. Palmer Morewood, Mr. Hungerford, the Hon. Alexander McDonnell, Mr. de Winton, Mr. Fitzroy Farquhar, the Hon. Charles Allsopp, Mrs. Chandos Leigh, Major Seymour Wynne Finch, Mr. Charles Hoare, the Hon. Mrs. Charles Bruree, Lady Sarah Wilson, Mr. and Mrs. William Champion, the Hon. George Allsopp, Mr. Harry Levett, Mr. and Mrs. Jack Cumming, Miss Elsie Robartes, Lady Kathleen Cole, the Earl and Countess of Essex, Lady Fairbairn, Lord H. Scott, Sir Phillip and Lady Grey Egerton, Sir George Chetwynd, Lady and Miss Blois, the Earl and Countess of Craven, Baron Hirsch, Miss Lena D'Arcy, Mr. and Mrs. Dudley Smith, &amp;c.

The ceremony concluded with the hymn &quot;Thine for ever God of Love,&quot; and after signing the marriage registers, the bride and bridegroom left the church, amid the strains of Mendelssohn's time-honoured Wedding March. The bridal party then drove to the town house of Lord Hindlip, in Hill Street, Mayfair, where the wedding reception was held. Later in the afternoon the newly married couple left town for Bayham Abbey, Sussex, kindly placed at their disposal for the honeymoon by the Marquis Camden. The bride's going-away dress was of white alpaca with a pale blue silk body trimmed with open work of French muslin and cream Valenciennes lace, white alpaca coat with large revers of silk and silver buttons, large brown chip hat trimmed with blue satin ribbon, and black ostrich feather plumes fastened by a paste buckle.

The presents included the following: — The bridegroom to bride, diamond ring, sapphire ring, diamond and blue enamel heart, diamond and pearl pin, turquoise and pearl chain and heart, diamond and pearl bar brooch; Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Wilson, turquoise and diamond brooch, and turquoise and diamond hair comb; Miss Sophie Sheridan, heart and chain; Mrs. Roundell, pearl swallow brooch; Mr. J. W. Lloyd, old beaten silver tankard; Lady de L'lsle and Dudley, tortoise shell handled umbrella; the Hon. Mrs. Baillie, of Dochfour, fur rug; Lady Randolph Churchill, parasol; Mrs. Percy Laming, peacock fan; Mr. Charles Bruce, writing pad and table; Viscount Cantelupe, silver mirror in case; Mr. Palmer Morewood, cheque; Mr. and Mrs. Amos, silver tea spoons and sugar tongs in case; the Earl and Countess of Huntingdon, china tea set; the Misses Evelyn and Olive Ellis, clock letter weight; Mr. G. H. Moore-Brown, embroidered table cloth; Lady de Trafford, silver box; Mrs. Chaine, china pot-pourri jar; Captain and Mrs. Lyon, silver tea caddy; Mr. G. L. Hacket, silver waistband made of rupees; Mr. Davies, carriage rug; the Earl and Countess of Dudley, diamond turquoise ring; Mr. Hungerford and Miss Barker, silver powder box; Mrs. Hacket, cheque and Brussels lace; the Hon. Alexander McDonnell, silver and tortoise-shell inkstand; Mr. H. Spencer Clay, travelling bag; Mr. De Winton, silver cigarette lighter; Miss Naylor, silver bon-bon dish; the Misses Elise and Augusta Bruce, silver sugar sifter; the Hon. Mrs. Stirling, silk-covered box; Viscount Lycestre and Lady Violet Talbot, pearl and diamond brooch; the Earl and Countess of Shrewsbury, diamond and sapphire crescent; Mr. and Mrs. Graham Menzies, emerald and diamond pendant; the Earl and Countess of Home, large gilt photo frame; Lady Brougham and Vaux, large copper tray; Mrs. Fitzroy Farquhar, set of three frames; Sir Henry Calcraft, diamond and sapphire pin; the Earl and Countess of Coventry, chippendale card table; Lady Hindlip, diamond and sapphire bracelet; Mr. and the Hon. Mrs. Hamar Bass, two silver bowls; the Hon. Charles Allsopp, old blue enamel and paste buttons; Lord Hindlip, cheque; Mr. and Mrs. Wrayham, silver and tortoiseshell box; Mr. Charles Hoare, pair of silver candlesticks; Miss Violet Chandos Leigh, green leather purse mounted with pearl initial &quot;M&quot;; Major Seymour Wynne Finch, silver tray; the Hon. Mrs. Charles Bruce, old chippendale tray; the Earl Beauchamp, clock; the Hon. and Rev. William Byron, pair of gold and bronze candlesticks; Lady Sarah Wilson, silver mounted salts bottle; Mr. and Mrs. William Champion, pair of silver bon-bon dishes; the Hon. George Allsopp, silver teapot; Mr. Clive Wilson, silver teapot; Lord Houghton, aquamarine enamel and diamond pendant; the Hon. George Allsopp, muff chain set with pearls and emeralds; Mr. S. and Miss Mabel Wombwell, scent burner with silver top; Miss Elsie Robartes, heart-shaped box; Mr. and Mrs. Jack Cumming, scent satchet; Mr Harry Levett, white ostrich feather fan; Lord Edward Somerset, pair of silver gilt-mounted scent bottles; Lady Chetwode, pair of old empire salt cellars; Mr. Ernest Cunard, old red enamel paste buttons; Mr. and Mrs. John Hackett, silk tapestry photo screen; Lady Kathleen Cole, silver heart-shaped box; Miss Binnie and Miss Beatie Smith, blue enamel snake pin; the Earl and Countess of Essex, French lamp shade; Lady and Miss Blois, silver pen tray; Lady Fairbairn, silver salts bottle; Lord H. Scott, silver spoon for making tea; Sir Geo. Chetwynd, two brooches of diamonds, emeralds, and rubies; the Rev. F. and Mrs. Wallis, pair of silver fruit spoons; Miss Edith Lewis, old silver box; Sir Philip and Lady Grey Egerton, silver card case; Lady Fitzhardinge, silver tea strainer; Miss E. Lake Benthnall, lace pocket handkerchief; Miss Ashcroft, silver and tortoiseshell paper knife; Sir Ralph Blois, silver-mounted cut-glass scent bottle; Miss Blois, old silver box; Miss Lena D'Arcy, black feather fan; Miss Sibell Bass, pair of silver bon bon dishes; the Earl and Countess of Craven, card case; the Hon. Walter and Mrs. Bagot, old silver sauce pan and ladle; Baron Hirsch de Gerenth, diamond and sapphire bracelet; the Hon. Mrs. Launcelot Lowther, gold pencil case set with rubies and diamonds; Mr. and Mrs. Dudley Smith, fan; Mr. Hugh C. Fraser, gold and red enamel heart-shaped box; Mrs. Forrest, volume of Browning's poems; Miss Dunn, case of scissors; Mrs. Betts, glass bottle mounted with gold bird's head; the Hon. William Coventry, fan; Miss M. A. Wright, pair of china vases; Mr. and Mrs. Beresford Melville, pair of silver candlesticks; the Hon. Percy Allsopp, diamond and sapphire fly brooch; the Countess of Wilton and Mr. A. Pryor, set of silver menu holders; Lady Kathleen Cuffe, gold snuffbox; the Hon. Humphrey Sturt, green leather blotting book with gold initials; Miss Mabel Wilkinson, emerald and diamond heart; the Earl of Onslow, Chinese silver buckle; Miss W. Brand, pottery bowl; Mr. Jack Robarts, silver and tortoiseshell paper cutter; Mr. Hubert Coulton, pair of opera glasses; Mr. R. L. Angus, silver pencil case; the Rev. J. S. and Miss Chesshire, pair of silver candlesticks; Mrs. and Miss Hamilton, silver butter dish and knife; Miss Blanch Cobham, pair of silver pin trays; Mr. John Cobham, long scent bottle with silver top; Mrs. Arthur Paget, old fan; Lady Stratheden and Campbell, green and gold book stand; Mr. and Mrs. R. Sneyd, safely pin with pearl and diamond heart; Mr. M. [? 'nest ?], gold glove button hook, set with ruby, diamonds, and sapphire; Mr. W. P. Hughes, old Worcester tea set; Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Wilson, diamond and pearl tiara; Mr. Kenneth Wilson, three rows of pearls ; Lady Dorothy and Lady Anne Coventry, pair of old paste brooches; Miss E. M. Walker, black fan; Miss Moore, Prayer Book in ivory cover; the servants at Hindlip and in London, large old silver salver; Mr. William James, long silver button hook; Mrs. Grogan, screen for letters; Mr. Hwfa Williams, antique fan; Lord and Lady Churchill, pair of Dresden china candlesticks; Mrs. Napier, cherry wood stick with silver mount; Mr. and Mrs. Carl Meyer, pair of large cut glass, silver mounted; Mrs. Claude Cobham, lace pocket handkerchief; Mr. Launcelot H. Smith, silver salver; Mrs. J. Hacket, cheque; Mrs. McDonald, silver-mounted salts bottle; Miss Muriel Wilson, turquoise and diamond aigrette; Mr. Walter Calthorpe, tortoiseshell beziqre [?] box; Lady Winnington, letter weight; Capt. Pilkington, silver photo frame; Lady Mildred Ashley, silver taper stand; Mr. Arnold Morley, travelling clock; Mrs. Bischoffshiem, old scent bottle; the Earl of Chesterfield, old paste buttons; Mr. Arthur Coventry, tortoise-shell-mounted umbrella; Lady Lilian and Lady Norah Spencer Churchill, fan; the Duke of Marlborough, diamond marquise ring; Mrs. Williams, blue silk lined basket; Miss Jenkins, four glass vases; Mr. Cecil Fane, gold snake bangle with emerald head; Miss Bridget Bulkeley, old enamel box; Major Shuttleworth, four silver and crystal salt cellars; Lord Athumley, old silver box; Lady Helm-ley [sic Helmsley?], silver and glass vinaigrette; Mr. Arthur Portman, diamond pin; Miss Reynolds, silver dish; Lady Sheffield, china inkstand; Mr. and Mrs. Lycett Green, old Chippendale writing desk; Lady Arthur Grosvenor, pair of antique silver salt cellars; Mr. Christopher Heseltine, turquoise links; Mr. and Mrs. B. Haworth Booth, hunting crop; Mr. H. Rimington Wilson, pair of liqueur decanters; Mr. F. Constable, pair of silver candlesticks; Mr. A. E. Mitchell-Innes, silver matchbox; Mrs. Hacket, old Egyptian lamp; Sir Edward Green, silver spoons and forks; the Earl of Yarborough, walking stick; Mr. and Mrs. Travers, silver inkstand; Miss Wilkinson, silver dish; Mr. Brinsley Fitzgerald, luncheon bag; Mr. and Mrs. H. C. Bentley, barometer clock; Miss Naylor, walking stick; Miss Musgrave, two pearl pins; Mrs. Clarke, visitors' book; the Hon. Lady Filmer and Miss Filmer, coffee service; Mr. and Mrs. Stanley Wilson, pony cart; Miss Jane Thornwell, seal; M . J. Elwell, flower stand; Lord and Lady William Nevill, oyster forks; Mr. Clive Wilson, photo frame; Mr. and Mrs. Frank Lambert, pair of fruit dishes; Mr. Sidney Lane, cigarette box; the farmers of the Holderness Hunt, three silver entrée dishes; the captains of the Wilson Line, a Steinway grand piano; the clerks of the Wilson Line, silver tea and coffee service; the Hon. Mrs. Keppel, writing table books; Sir William Hosier, silver bowl; Mr. L. J. Pease, cream jug and sugar basin; the Hon. S. R. Beresford, sugar basin and spoon; Mr. and Mrs. Siltzer, old snuff box; Major Candy, coffee set; Mr. Frank Dugdale, lamp; Mr. and Mrs. R. Ringrose, clock; Mr. and Mrs. R Lawson, four silver vases; Mr. and Mrs. E. Wade, silver candelabra; Mr. and Mrs. H [?]. Sykes, photo frame; Mr. and Mrs. J. Simons Harrison, silver salt cellars; Mr. W. R. Chaine, pair of sauce boats; Miss Hinckman, picture; Mr. R. Remington Wilson, knife; Captain and Mrs. R Greville, pair of champagne decanters; Mr. C. H. Wilson, six large silver salt cellars; Mr. and Mrs. G. A. Duncombe, cigarette holder; Sir W. and Lady Clerke, barometer; Mr. Archibald Smith, ash tray; Mr. Frank Green, antique silver jug; Mr. and Mrs. Fullerton, biscuit box; the servants at Tranby Croft, silver salver; Commander Bethell, R.N., silver flask; Colonel and Mrs. Peppercorn, bronze writing set; Mr. Rupert Beckett, smoking-room table; Miss Henniker, pair of silver salt cellars; Mrs. Menzies, clock; Captain Samman, silver pepper and mustard pot; Sir Henry and Lady Boynton, glass bell for dining table; Lord and Lady Rossmore, small Chippendale table; Mrs. Turner, photo frame; Mr. and Miss Warton, pair of sporting pictures; Mr. Wilfred Harrison, travelling clock; Mr. and Mrs. Chas. Sykes, brocaded chair; Miss Sykes, miniature box; Sir Tatton and Lady Sykes, screen; Sir Percy and Lady Pile, chased silver blotting book; Mr. and Mrs. W. Menzies, letter box; Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Harrison, photo frame; Mr. and Mrs. P. Holden, four silver dishes; Mr. H. Oppenhiem, silver bowl; Mr. Arthur Lambert, pair of George III. silver bowls; Sir Charles and Lady Ross, silver ornament; Mr. and Mrs. C. H. Wilson, Louis XV. cabinet; Mr. and Mrs. Holden, pair of silver salt cellars and pepper pot; Mr. G. L. Davis, decanter; Mr. and Mrs. W. Ringrose Vosse [?], bread knife; Messrs. H. Phillipson and J. G. Walker, cigar cutter; Mrs. Hill, small mirror; the Misses Hill, needlework picture; Mr. A. Newbald, pair of silver pepper pots; Mr. and Mrs. R. Woodhouse, antique silver cup; the Hon. Cecil Brownlow, curb chain bracelet, with diamood and sapphire bracelet; the Hon. Geoffrey Brown Guthrie, antique fan; Lady Norreys, silver miniature frame; Lady William Nevill, silver tray; Lady Edith Curzon, gold and green photo frame; Mr. and Miss Blundell, silver heart-shaped box; Lady Settrington, long silver pencil case; M. and Madame Van Audre [or Andre?], gold-mounted scent bottle; Mrs. Harry Lawson, Sheraton show table; Mr. and Lady Clementina Walsh, green enamel heart; Mr. and Lady Barbara Smith, diamond and ruby aigrette; Mr. Reggie Coventry, diamond and turquoise brooch; Mr. Chandos Leigh, photo in frame; Lord and Lady Lurgan, umbrella; Miss Enid Wilson, antique miniature frame; Mr. Hakes, pair of opera glasses; Mr. and Mrs. Frasci, pair of silver dishes; Mr. and Mrs. J. Thompson, cigarette case; Mr. and Mrs. F. Pease, silver dish; Mr. William Maxwell, silver dish; Sir Savile and Lady Crossley, diamond foxhead pin; Mr. James Guthrie, silver cart for cigarettes; Mr. Stephen [Col. 6c/Col. 7a] Wombwell, silver ash tray; Miss Pereia, silver box; Mr. and Mrs. Twiss, Worcester china vase; Mr. and Mrs. Lambert, dessert service; Mr. Mrs. F. Palmer, pair of silver candlesticks; Mr. and Mrs. Alwyn Smith, breakfast service; Captain and Mrs. Alwyne Greville, pair of [? Links ?]; Captain and Mrs. FitzGeorge, silver matchbox; Lady de Trafford, walking stick; the Hon. J. C. Maxwell Scott, silver bowl; Mr. J. C. Brunton, bezique table; Mr. T. Wickham, silver cigarette lighter; Mr. K. Hill Dawe, silver card case; Mrs. Sanderson, set of tea spoons; Mr. and Mrs. W. Hodgson, silver bowl; Mr. F. Menzies, Louis Quinze settee; Mr. F. Menzies, Louis Seize banquette; Mr. H. Witty, silver-gilt sugar basin; Capiain Phillip Langdale, silver card case; Mr. and Mrs. J. G. Menzies, a buhl hall chiming clock; the servants at Etton Kennels, travelling clock; Miss Hackett, ruby and emerald links, sapphire pin, diamond pin, and gold and enamel links; Col. and Mrs. MacGeorge, green leather bezique box and two silver ash trays; Sir Charles and Lady Hartopp, Louis XV table; Mr. and Mrs. and the Misses Strickland Constable, silver sugar basin and cream jug; Lord Willoughby d'Eresby, gold pencil; Blanche Countess of Rosslyn, book slide; Capt. and the Hon. Mrs. Arthur Somerset, silver crumb scoop and ladles; the agents of the Wilson line, brougham and horse; the Marquis Camden, two brass candelabra; Capt. Daly, bezique table; Miss Browne, cigarette case; Sir Samuel Scott, pair of links; Mr. and Mrs. Veilst [? Veilat ?], cigarette holder in gold case; Mr. J. Hope Vere, glass decanter; Mr. and Mrs. K. Hodgson, embroidered photo frame; Mr. and Mrs. C. H. Farrer, drinking horns in case; Mrs. Bovill, hunting crop; Mr. A. H. Backworth, carved oak stool; Mr. George Keppel, Chippendale chair; Mr. James Harrison, silver snuff box; Victoria Lady Yarborough and Mr. Richardson, walking stick; Mr. and Mrs. Ellershaw, lamp; Mr. Cecil Brownlow, cigarette lighter; Sir John Dickson Poynder, large silver match box; Mr. R. Lestrange, decanter; Mr. F. Gregson, early breakfast set; Mr. Reginald Coventry, umbrella; Mr. Ernest Hatch, cigarette box; Mr. C. P. Colnaghi, old mustard pot; Mr. Berkeley Levett, four silver candlesticks. (1895-06-28 York Herald)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 29 June 1895, Saturday ===
Giacomo Meyerbeer's ''Les Huguenots'' was in regular performance in the 1890s at Covent Garden, but this performance attracted notice, apparently:&lt;blockquote&gt;ROYAL OPERA, COVENT-GARDEN

On Saturday, June 29th, Meyerbeer's Opera

&quot;&lt;small&gt;LES HUGUENOTS&lt;/small&gt;&quot;

Valentina . . . Madame A&lt;small&gt;LBANI&lt;/small&gt;

Urbano . . . Signorina G&lt;small&gt;UILIA&lt;/small&gt; R&lt;small&gt;AVOGLI&lt;/small&gt;

Dama d'Onore . . . Mdlle. B&lt;small&gt;AUERMEISTER&lt;/small&gt;

Margherita di Valois . . . Madame M&lt;small&gt;ELBA&lt;/small&gt;

Marcello . . . Mons. P&lt;small&gt;LANCON&lt;/small&gt;

Conte di Nevers . . . Signor A&lt;small&gt;NCONA&lt;/small&gt;

Conte di St. Bris . . . Signor V. A&lt;small&gt;RIMONDI&lt;/small&gt;

Huguenot Soldier . . . Signor P&lt;small&gt;ELAGALLI&lt;/small&gt;-R&lt;small&gt;OSSETTI&lt;/small&gt;

Tavannes . . . Signor I&lt;small&gt;GINIO&lt;/small&gt; C&lt;small&gt;ORSI&lt;/small&gt;

Meru . . . Signor D&lt;small&gt;E&lt;/small&gt; V&lt;small&gt;ASCHETTI&lt;/small&gt;

De Cosse . . . Signor P&lt;small&gt;ELAGALLI&lt;/small&gt;-R&lt;small&gt;OSSETTI&lt;/small&gt;

Raoul de Nangis . . . Signor T&lt;small&gt;AMAGNO&lt;/small&gt;

It has been frequently remarked of late years that &quot;Meyerbeer was played out,&quot; but this opera attracted last Saturday night one of the most crowded houses of the season. It was the second of Meyerbeer's brilliantly successful grand operas performed in Paris. ''Robert le Diable'' was produced in 1831, of which Mendelssohn said, &quot;There are dances and the devil in it, so the Parisians are sure to like the opera.&quot; ''Les Huguenots'' came out in 1836, and speedily was produced in all the opera houses of Europe. It had the advantage last Saturday of a remarkable cast, the most successful artists being Madame Melba and Signor Tamagno. Probably the music of Margherita di Valois has never been rendered so exquisitely as by Madame Melba, whose reception was unusually enthusiastic. Her artistic skill In executing the chief passages given to Margherita di Valois excited both astonishment and admiration, and the delightfully sympathetic quality of her voice enhanced the effect caused by her graceful delivery of the music. There is not much scope for acting, but Madame Melba is always charming and always intelligent. Signor Tamagno was extremely powerlul as usual, and although there were instances when he has been surpassed vocally, his surprising energy and power, combined with very effective acting, never failed to awaken stormy enthusiasm. Admirable also was M. Plançon as the old Puritan soldier Marcello. M. Plançon played with much dignity of style, and sang the music with freedom and fine quality of tone. Signor Ancona was excellent as the Conte di Nevers, and Signor Arimondi was effective as the Conte di St. Brie. Among the lighter characters the page of Signorina Giulia Ravogli takes the first place. Her Urbano was a charming performance, as it has ever been; and her rendering of &quot;Nobil Signor&quot; produced its old effect. Last but not least Madame Albani was most warmly greeted as Valentina, a character in which she could hardly be surpassed. The breadth of her style, associated with pure tone and admirable acting, made her Valentina one of her most successful characters. To Madame Albani a large share of the favour with which the opera was received may be awarded. The smaller parts were adequately sustained, and the chorus generally deserved praise.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Royal Opera: Covent-Garden.&quot; ''The Era'' 06 July 1895: 9 [of 24], Col. 3a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000053/18950706/016/0009.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==July 1895==

=== 3 July 1895 ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;GARDEN PARTY AT CLARENCE HOUSE.

Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha gave a garden party in the grounds attached to Clarence House, and those adjoining St. James's Palace, yesterday afternoon. Near the entrance to the garden was erected a marquee reserved for the many Royal guests present, a covered way connecting it with the platform at which the illustrious visitors alighted. It was carpeted with blue kalmuck, lined with yellow Oriental fabrics, and was surrounded on three sides by a corridor fitted with reed curtains. From the centre was suspended a large basket of ivy geraniums, fuchsias, and pyrethrum. The tent was also banked on each side with palms, Harrissil lilies, etoile d'or marguerites, and edged with coleus and vinca. Refreshments were served here at small tables, the general company being supplied at a long buffet under a marquee attached to the house and facing the lawn. The buffet was adorned with handsome gold and silver plate. A number of canopies were placed along the south side of the grounds, and a smoking tent was also provided. At the St. James's Palace end the full band of the Grenadier Guards was stationed, and, under the ''báton'' of Lieutenant Dan Godfrey, performed a brilliant selection of music during the afternoon.

The invitations were from half-past four to seven o'clock, and during that time a large body of police was actively engaged in regulating the continuous stream of carriages, which, after setting down company, were parked in the Mall.

Among the Royal guests attending were....&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Garden Party at Clarence House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 04 July 1895 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Col. 7a [of 7] – 8, Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000174/18950704/057/0006.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 5 July 1895, Saturday ===
Mr. Schreiber and Miss Schreiber attended a ball at Lord and Lady Wimborne's house in Arlington Street. They were not invited to the dinner, which was small.&lt;blockquote&gt;LADY WIMBORNE'S BALL.

Lord and Lady Wimborne entertained at dinner yesterday evening at Wimborne House, Arlington-street, the Earl and Countess of Derby and Lady Isobel Stanley, the Earl of Kenmare, Earl Beauchamp and Lady Mary Lygon, Count Hermann Hatzfeldt, Viscount and Viscountess Somerton, Viscount Curzon, Lord R. Nevill, Lady Margaret Ker, Lord Rothschild and the Hon. Evelina Rothschild, Lady de Ramsey, Lord and Lady de L'Isle and Dudley, Lord Lovat, Lord and Lady Burton, the Right Hon. Joseph and Mrs. Chamberlain, Mr. and Lady Florence Astley, the Hon. Owen Ponsonby, Ceneral the Hon. Charles and Miss Thesiger, and Lieutenant Hervey.

Lady Wimborne afterwards gave a ball. Lady Wimborne received her guests in the conservatory at the entrance to the ball-room. Among the company present were : —

The Lord Chancellor, Lady Halsbury and the Hon. Miss Giffard, the Duchess of Roxburghe, the Marchioness of Ormonde and Lady Beatrice Butler, the Marquis of Tullibardine and Lady Helen Stewart Murray, the Marchioness of Bute and Lady Margaret Crichton-Stuart, the Marquis and Marchioness of Zetland and Lady Maud Dundas, the Marchioness of Bristol and Lady Alice Hervey, Earl Cairns, Earl and Countess Amherst, the Countess of Ancaster, the Earl of Stradbroke, the Countess of Jersey and Lady Margaret Villiers, Countess Howe and Ladies Edith and Evelyn Curzon, the Countess of Lindsay and Lady Evelyn Bertie, the Countess of Kenmare, Countess Manvers and Lady Mary Pierrepont, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Kathleen Cole, the Countess of Mayo, Viscount and Viscountess Duncannon, Viscountess Boyne and Lady Florence Hamilton Russell, Viscount and Viscountess Castlerosse and the Hon. Susan Baring, Viscount Cole, Viscount and Viscountess Deerhurst. Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Miss Bridgeman, Lord and Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Constance Russell, Dowager Lady Ashburton and the Hon. Miss Baring, Lady Constance Grosvenor, Lady Aline Beaumont, Lady Penrhyn and the Hon. Miss Douglas Pennant, Lady Mary Willoughby and the Hon. Charles Willoughby, Lady Victoria Lambton and Miss Lambton, Lady Gerard, Lady de Trafford, Lord Garioch, Lady Louisa Egerton and Miss Egerton, Lord Henry Vane-Tempest, Lord Cecil Manners, Lady Audrey Buller and Miss Howard, Lord Lovat and Hon. Miss Fraser, Lord and Lady Edward Churchill and Miss Churchill, Lady Moreton, Lady Rose Molyneux, Lady Emily Van De Weyer and Miss Van De Weyer and Lady Anne Coventry, Lady Alexandra Osborne and Lord Albert Osborne, Lord and Lady William Nevill, Lady Morris and Miss Morris, Lady Lucy Hicks-Beach and Miss Hicks-Beach, the Hon. Lady Ridley and Miss Ridley, Captain and Lady Rose Leigh, Lord Molyneux, Lord Swansea, Lord and Lady Henniker and the Hon. Miss Hennniker, Lord Abinger, Lady Muriel Fox-Strangways and Miss Roche, Lady Alice Shaw Stewart and Miss Grosvenor, Lord and Lady Cremorne, the Hon. George Peel, the Hon. Mrs. Lumley, Miss Wilson Patten and Lady Beatrix Taylour, the Hon. E. J. Mills and the Hon. Miss Mills, the Hon. Mrs. Brougham, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson, the Hon. William Maxwell, the Hon. A. and Lady Dorothy FitzClarence, the Hon. K. Campbell, the Hon. Mrs. Eliot and Miss Eliot, Captain the Hon. E. Dawson [repetition sic], the Hon. E. Thesiger, the Hon. T. and Mrs. Dundas, the Hon. F. Dawnay, the Hon. Mrs. Hanbury Lennox and Lady Edith Montgomerie, the Hon. A. Saumarez, the Hon. Cecil Campbell, the Hon. J. Crichton, Colonel the Hon. Heneage Legge, the Hon. F. Browne Guthrie, the Hon. Lady Cotterell and Miss Cotterell, the Hon. Sydney Peel, the Hon. R. Hill Trevor, the Hon. Henry Littleton, Mr. and Lady Margaret Douglas, Captain and Lady S. Gilmour, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir Archibald Edmonstone, Sir E. Doyle, Lady Eden and Miss Grey, Lady Meysey-Thompson, Colonel and Mrs. Robert Williamson and the Misses Williamson, Captain Jenkins, Major Morris, Mr. and the Hon. Mrs. Maguire and the Hon. Ella Peel, M. de Falbe and Miss Keith Fraser, Mr. Evelyn Cecil, Mr. W. Goschen, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur James, [[Social Victorians/People/Schreiber|Mr. Schreiber and Miss Schreiber]], Mrs. Du Cane and the Misses Du Cane, Mr. Forbes, Mrs. Gerard Leigh, Mr. E. Sebright[,] Mr. and Mrs. E. Sasaoon, Mr. Ridley, Mr. Guy Stevenson, M[r.?] Hamilton Aidé, Mrs. Adair, Mr. Lancelot Smith, Mrs. and Miss Lees, Mrs, and Miss Gartside, Mr. Walter Hervey, Mr. V. Smith, Mr. Arthur Meade, Mr. and Mrs. Adeane, Mrs. and Miss Hugh Smith, Mr. L. Smith, Mr. Cooper, Mr. Clarence Walker, Mr. Oppenheim, Mr. J. Decrais, Mr. Macdonaid, Mr. Somerset, Captain Majendie, Mrs. Graham Menzies, Mr. Wombwell, Mr. Curzon, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mrs. Arthur Wilson]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]], Mr. Du Cane, Mr. Christopher Sykes, Mr. Charles Bruce, Mr. Lionel Earle, Mr. and Mrs. Hulse, Mr. Jocelyn Persse, Captain Milner, Mr. Biddulph, Mr. Arthur Guest, Mr. Wilbraham, Mr. Adrian Hope and Miss Hope, [[Social Victorians/People/Fanny Ronalds|Mrs. Ronalds]], and many others.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lady Wimborne's Ball.&quot; ''Morning Post'' 06 July 1895, Saturday: 7 [of 12], Col. 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18950706/062/0007.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 19 July 1895, Friday ===
Lord and Lady Cadogan hosted a dinner and dance:&lt;blockquote&gt;COUNTESS CADOGAN'S DANCE.

Their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York honoured the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and Countess Cadogan with their company at dinner on Friday evening at Chelsea House. There were present to meet their Royal Highnesses the Russian Ambassador, the Duchess of Devonshire, the Marquis and Marchioness of Londonderry and Lady Helen Stewart, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Viscount Chelsea, Lord Charles Montagu, Lord Stanley and Lady Alice Stanley, Lord Henry Vane Tempest, Lord and Lady Lurgan, Lord Houghton, Lord and Lady Wolverton, Lord and Lady Alington, Captain the Hon. Hedworth Lambton, the Hon. H. Stonor, the Hon. Sydney Greville, Lady Bulkeley and Miss Bulkeley, Mrs. Leopold de Rothschild, Mrs. Cooper, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Sassoon, and Captain the Hon. Derek Keppel and Lady Mary Lygon in attendance on the Duke and Duchess of York. Subsequently Lady Cadogan gave a dance, which was honoured by the presence of their Royal Highnesses the Princess of Wales and the Princesses Victoria and Maud, accompanied by the Crown Prince of Denmark, and attended by Major-General Ellis and Lady Suffield, and her Imperial Highness the Crown Princess Stephanie of Austria, with Counters Palffy and Baron Gudenus in waiting. Other guests included —

The Austro-Hungarian Ambassador, Countess Deym and Countess Isobel Deym, the Italian Ambassador, the French Ambassador, the Brazilian Minister, the Duke of Marlborough, the Duchess of Portland, the Duchess of Abercorn, Lady Alexandra Hamilton and Lady Susan Beresford, the Duchess of St. Albans and Lady Moyra Beauclerk, the Duchess of Leeds and Lady Ada Osborne, Prince Esterhazy, the Marquis and Marchioness of Zetland and Lady Maud Dundas, the Marchioness of Hastings and Miss Lilian Chetwynd, the Marchioness of Bristol and the Ladies Hervey, the Marquis Maffei, the Earl and Countess of Craven, the Earl and Countess of Dunraven and Lady Aileen Wyndham Quin, Earl and Countess Howe, Earl Beauchamp, Countess Granville and Lady Victoria Leveson-Gower, the Countess of Coventry and Lady Dorothy Coventry, the Countess of Enniskillen and Lady Kathleen Cole, Count Gleichen, [[Social Victorians/People/Hadik|Count Hadik]], Count Salern, the Countess of Antrim and Lady Sybil M'Donnell, the Countess of Derby and Lady Isabel Stanley, Countess Grosvenor, and Lady Mary Willoughby, the Earl and Countess of Arran, Lady Edith Curzon, Elizabeth Countess of Wilton and Mr. Pryor, the Countess of Yarborough, the Countess of Rosslyn and Lady Angela St. Clair Erskine, the Countess of Warwick, Count Koziebrodski, the Countess of Ilchester and Lady Muriel Fox-Strangways, the Countess of Listowel and Lady Beatrice Hare, the Earl of Scarborough, Evelyn Countess Craven and Lady Helen Craven, the Countess of Powis, Viscountess Helmsley and the Hon. Miss Duncombe, Viscountess Newport and the Hon. Helena and the Hon. O. Bridgeman, Viscount and Viscountess Deerhurst, Viscount and Viscountess Curzon, Viscountess Downe, Viscount Crichton, Lord Hyde, Lord and Lady Skelmersdale, Lord Wimborne and the Hon. Elaine Guest, Lord Kenyon, Baron Eckhardstein, Lord H. Vane-Tempest, Lord Abinger, Lord and Lady Iveagh, Lady Tweedmouth, Lady Ashbourne and the Hon. Violet Gibson, Lord Richard Nevill, Lady Magdalen Bulkeley, Lady St. Oswald and the Hon. Maud Winn, the Hon. Lady and Miss Ridley, Lady Fitzgerald, Baron de Hirsch, Emily Lady Ampthill and the Hon. Miss Russell and Lady Edith Wilbraham, Lady Anne Coventry, Lady Margaret Maitland and Miss Maitland, Lady Gerard, Lady Barbara Smith, Mr. and Lady Emily Van de Weyer and Miss Van de Weyer, Lady Borthwick, Lady Halsbury and the Hon. Evelyn Giffard, Dowager Lady Ashburton and Miss Baring, Lady Lucy and Miss Hicks-Beach, the Right Hon. G. J. Goschen, the Hon. Mr. and Mrs. Brett, the Hon. Mrs. Lowther, the [[Social Victorians/People/Ancaster#Mr. C. Willoughby|Hon. C. Willoughby]], the Hon. Schomberg M'Donnell, the Hon. Cecil Cadogan, the Hon. Hugh Grosvenor, the Hon. Miss Harbord, the Hon. Mrs. Bagot and Miss Dyke, the Hon. Reginald Coventry, the Hon. Algernon Stanley, the Hon. Humphrey Sturt, the Hon. Francis Bertie, the Hon. G. Brown Guthrie, Sir Edward and Lady Colebrooke, Sir Edward Hamilton, Sir Algernon and Lady Borthwick, Sir Condie Stephen, Sir Frederick Verney, Sir Hubert Miller, Sir George Arthur, Sir Horace Farquhar, Colonel Oliphant, Colonel and Mrs. Seymour Corkran and Miss Corkran, Colonel Forester, Colonel Brabazon, Mr. Martin Kennard, Captain Ricardo, Mr. Ridley, Captain Doyle, Mr. and Mrs. Henry White, Mr. Dudley Smith, Mr. C. H. W. Wilson, Mr. Craven, Mr. Victor Seymour Corkran, Mr. Claude Yorke, Mr. Johnstone, Mr. Egerton, Mr. William Van de Weyer, Mr. Ponsonby, Mr. C. Kinloch Cooke, Mr. W. H. Fisher, Mr. C. Heseltine, Mr. Mansfield, Mrs. Stead, Mrs. Sandford, Mr. C. P. Little, Mr. H. Petre, Mrs. W. Lawson, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mrs. Arthur Wilson]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Wilson]], Mr. Charles Bruce, Mr. Robert Bruce, Mr. Mordaunt, Mrs. W. James and Miss Forbes, Mr. Quintin Dick, Mr. Macnamara, Mrs. Hartmann and Madlle. de Jaucourt, Mr. Alfred Oppenheim, Mr. William Jones, and others.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Countess Cadogan's Dance.&quot; ''Bury and Norwich Post and Suffolk Standard'' 23 July 1895 Tuesday: 5 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000156/18950723/019/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== 20 July 1895, Saturday ===
[[Social Victorians/People/Warwick|Lady Eva Sarah Louise Greville]] and Frank Dugdale were married in a very fashionable and very large wedding. This article from the ''Leamington Spa Courier'' focuses on the gifts they received, which were lavish and expensive; the gifts from the bride's mother must have been extremely expensive. Some offer interesting details, perhaps about these people. They got books from several people, which is unusual in these lists, a lot of clocks, and a number of things made of &quot;old silver&quot; — antiques, perhaps?&lt;blockquote&gt;MARRIAGE OF FRANK DUGDALE AND LADY EVA GREVILLE.

BRILLIANT SCENE IN ST. MARGARET'S WESTMINSTER.

[From our Special Correspondent.] [sic square brackets]

The marriage of Mr Frank Dugdale, second son of the late Mr James Dugdale, J.P., and Deputy-Lieutenant for the county of Warwick, of Wroxall Abbey, Warwickshire, and Lady Eva Sarah Louisa Greville, Lady-in-waiting H.R H. the Duchess of York, only daughter of the late Earl of Warwick and the Dowager Countess of Warwick, and sister of the present Earl Warwick, was solemnised on Saturday at St. Margaret's, Westminster, in the Presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales and Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of York, the Duke and Duchess of Teck and the Prince Adolphus of Teck, and a large and distinguished assembly. Unfortunately, the weather was most unpropitious to the occasion. From early morning rain fell in a steady torrent, and though at noon rifts in the laden clouds gave hopes of a fine afternoon, the anticipation was not destined to be realised. Although, as the hour appointed for the wedding approached, the rain ceased fall, dark, threatening clouds swept across the sky and, for a summer's day, the prospect could hardly have been more drear. Within the church, however, the scene was one of great animation and exceeding brilliance, and in the dim, religious light of St. Margaret's, it mattered little that the elements were so unfavourable. Interested spectators, who had been fortunate enough obtain cards of admission began to arrive at the church soon after one o'clock, and were accommodated with seats in the side aisles, which were quickly filled. Meanwhile the relatives and friends of the bride and bridegroom, who entered by the north door, were conducted to places in the central aisle. Every seat in the sacred edifice, except those reserved for the Royal guests, were quickly occupied, and a pleasing combination of delicate colour was supplied by the beautiful tints of the gowns worn by the ladies present, most of whom appeared in summer attire. The floral decorations of the church were carried out admirable taste. Only white blooms, palms, and ferns were used. The approach to the north entrance was lined with tall palms, and white flowering plants were grouped round the front opposite the main entrance to the building. The chancel rails were hidden with lilies, hydrangia, spirea, Marguerites, and other white blossoms set in banks of delicate fernery. In the chancel itself four tall palms spread their graceful leaves o'erhead, with lilies and ferns at their base; white flowers were ranged along the foot of the choristers' stalls, and on the altar rails some beautiful white orchids were introduced among the other blooms and foliage. The altar vases contained white bouquets, and on the first step leading to the chancel there was a delicate tracery of tiny leaved foliage. The Hon. Alwyn Greville and the Hon. Sidney Greville, who arrived at the church at an early hour, personally superintended the arrangements for the ceremony and received the guests. While the latter were taking their places, the marriage bells rang out a merry peal, and when all was in readiness tor the arrival of the bride and bridegroom, Mr J. Baines (the organist) played selections from Haydn's &quot;The Seasons.&quot; Mr Frank Dugdale, the bridegroom, arrived shortly after two o'clock, and proceeded at once to the vestry. He was accompanied Mr J. P. Arkwright (joint Master of the North Warwickshire Hounds), of Hatton House, Warwick, who supported him as &quot;best man.&quot; Shortly afterwards their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York entered the church by the chancel entrance, and were received by the Hon. Alwyn Greville and the Hon. Sidney Greville. They were at once conducted to the vestry. The Duchess of York was attired in a lovely gown of petunia silk, ornamented with beautiful cream lace, and wore a bonnet to match. Her Royal Highness was attended by Lady Lyon and Miss Tufnell, while the Hon. Derek Keppel was in attendance upon the Duke of York. The next of the Royal guests to arrive were the Duke and Duchess of Teck and the Princess Adolphus of Teck, who, together with the Duke and Duchess of York, were then conducted by the Hon. Alwyn Greville to their seats in the central aisle. Shortly afterwards the Prince and Princess of Wales, accompanied by the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, and attended by General Ellis, Lady Suffield, and Miss Knollys, entered the church by the chancel entrance, where the Hon. Alwyn Greville and the Hon. Sydney Greville were in waiting to receive them. Their Royal Highnesses were at once conducted to seats in the front pew facing the altar. The Princess of Wales wore a simple gown of black and white silk, trimmed with chiffon, with jet to match, and a bonnet of pale mauve flowers. The Princesses Victoria and Maud were attired alike in pink glacé silk, with lace collars embroidered with jet, and wore toques of shaded pink roses. The officiating clergy — the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Ripon, the Very Rev. the Dean of Canterbury, the Rev. Thurston Rivington, M.A. (Vicar of St. Nicholas, Warwick), and the Rev. H. G. Willacy, M.A. (Chaplain of Wroxall Abbey) — had 'ere this taken their places in the chancel, and the choir were already installed in their seats. So admirably were the arrangements carried out that, as soon as the Royal guests had taken their seats, and punctually at a quarter past two o'clock, the bride, who — accompanied by her brother, the Earl of Warwick — had driven from Warwick House, St. James's Palace, entered the sacred building by the north door. She looked very charming in a wedding gown of white satin, with a full Court train, cut in one with the skirt. The bodice was arranged with soft folds of ''mousseline de soie'', caught in with trails of orange blossoms in foliage. Sprays of orange flowers were fastened in her hair with diamond pins, and a fine tulle veil enveloped her in soft and graceful folds. Her ornaments were a superb pearl necklace (the joint wedding gift of Sir Charles Cust, Sir Francis de Winton, the Hon. Derek Keppel, and Canon Dalton) and a diamond butterfly, and she carried a handsome bridal bouquet of rare exotics, with floral trails, and tied with streamers of white satin. At the entrance to the church she was met by her eight bridemaids — Miss Edith Dugdale and Miss Rosy Dugdale (sisters of the bridegroom), Miss Clare Susa Charteris (daughter of Lady Louisa Charteris, of Tree Chase, Hayward's Heath, Sussex), Lady Anne Savile (daughter of the Earl and Countess of Mexborough, of Metley Park, Leeds), Miss Evelyn Pelly (daughter of the late Sir Henry Castains Pelly and Mrs H. F. R. Yorke, of 22, Queen Anne's Gate, S.W.) and Lady Hilda Joanna Gwendolen Finch (daughter of the seventh Earl of Aylesford and Edith Countess of Aylesford, of Honeys Twyford, Berks) (cousins), Lady Marjorie Blanche Eva Greville (niece of the bride and daughter of the Earl and Countess Warwick, of Warwick Castle, Warwick), and Lady Angela Selina Bianca St. Ciair Erskine (daughter of the late and sister of the present Earl of Rosslyn, and half-sister to the Countess of Warwick, of Dysort House, Fife, N.B ) The bridesmaids were charmingly gowned in white Ottoman silk, with fichus of ''mouseeline de soie'', bordered with frills of Mechlin lace. They wore neck bands of pale blue satin, and satin sashes of the same hue tied in bows on the left side at the waist. They also wore white &quot;Picture&quot; hats of French crepe straw, trimmed with white ostrich plumes, three falling towards the front and three to the back. The crowns were encircled with two bands of blue satin, terminating in loops caught with paste brooches, and a cluster of Malmaison carnations nestled under the brim. The hats were fastened with gold sword hat pins, with diamond and turquoise hilts — the presents of the bridegroom — and they carried bouquets of Malmaison carnations, tied with pile blue ribbons, and a &quot;nosegay&quot; of the same bloom appearing on the bodice. Two nephews of the bride — Master George Gordon Francis Greville (son of the Hon. Mr and Mrs L. G. Greville, of 35, Berkeley-square), and Master Charles Henry Greville (son of the Hon. Mr and Mrs A. H. Fulke Greville, of 4, Upper Brook-street) acted as pages. They looked exceedingly pretty in picturesque costumes in blue satin of the Louis XVI. period. They each carried black wands, with bunches of carnations fastened with blue satin, and the bride's presents to them were diamond and turquoise pins. As the bride, supported by the Earl of Warwick, who was to give her away, and followed by her bridesmaids and little pages, passed down the central nave to the chancel, the choir sang &quot;Lord, who hast made homelove to be,&quot; a hymn composed by the Lord Bishop of Durham, set to music by Mr Walter Parratt, organist of Sr. George's Chapel, Windsor, and dedicated her Majesty the Queen. The bridegroom had already taken up his position at the chancel steps, supported by Mr J. P. Arkwright, and as the last strains of the beautiful hymn died away, the Lord Bishop of Ripon, in solemn and earnest tones, began the impressive service. Music soft and sweet filled the sacred fane as the bride and bridegroom clasped each other's hand and repeated the marriage vows. Then the choir chanted &quot;Blessed are all they that fear the Lord and walk in his ways,&quot; the bridal pair ascended into the chancel and knelt on the altar steps in prayer. The assembly afterwards joined in singing &quot;O God, our help in ages past,&quot; and the ceremony concluded with the Benediction. Then as the organ pealed forth the strains of the National Anthem, the newly-married couple proceeded to the vestry to sign the register, and were quickly followed thither by the Royal party, who offered them their sincere congratulations. The gladsome strains of the Wedding March resounded through the church as Mr Fiank Dugdale and Lady Eva Dugdale re-entered the chancel and passed down the central nave to the north entrance, where, in spite of the inclement weather, a large crowd bad assembled to witness their departure. The Royal party soon afterwards left by the chancel entrance, and the other guests by the north door. [Col. 1c–2a] 

The Countess of Warwick afterwards held a reception Warwick House, which was very largely attended. Early in the afternoon, and amid the hearty congratulations of their relatives and friends, Mr Frank and Lady Eva Dugdale left ''en route'' for Paris, where their honeymoon will be spent. The bride's ''costume de voyage'' was of white alpaca, with blue bodice covered with cream applique embroidery, and a drapery of blue chiffon and blue satin ribbons. The &quot;Marie Antoinette&quot; hat was of light brown straw, trimmed with black and white Lisso frill, with tall aigrette at the side, ''choux'' of black and pale-blue velvet, and trails of pink and red roses falling over the hair at the back. Among those present at St. Margaret's and Warwick House were T.R.H. the Prince and Princess of Wales, attended by General Ellis and Lady Suffield, T.R.H. the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, attended by Miss Knollys, T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York, attended by the Hon. Derek Keppel, Lady Mary Liggow, and Miss Tufnell, H.R.H. Princess Mary Duchess of Teck, H.H. the Duke of Teck, T.S.H. the Prince and Princess Adolphus of Teck, Prince Francis of Teck, the Dowager Countess of Warwick, the Countess of Warwick, Mr and Mrs Charles Dugdale, Miss Helen Maguire, Hon. Mrs Magure, Miss Gereldine Magure, Hon. Dudley and Mrs Leigh, Lady Sophie Macnamara, Hon. Louis and Mrs Greville, Misses Mostyn, Mrs Fane, Miss Jessie Scott, Lady Trevelyan, Mrs Thorold, Mr and Lady Margaret Douglas, Mrs Willacy, Mrs and Miss Mason, Lord Leigh, Hons. Miss A. and C. Leigh, Hon. Chandos and Mrs Leigh, the Sub-Dean of the Chapels Royal, Hon. Ethel Cadogan, Sir Edward and Lady Harland, Mrs G. H. Richardson Fox, Dowager Countees of Aylesford, Earl of Aylesford, Lady Hilda Finch, Miss Houghton, Miss B. Dugdale, Lady Louisa Charteris, Miss Charteris, Captain Armitage, Mr and Mrs Greaves, Major and Mrs Hunter, Rev. Vincent and Mrs Fortescue, Mrs Fosberry, Captain and Mrs Walter Clonmel, Lady Mary Cari Glyn, Lord and Lady Camoys, Mr J. Guthrie, Mr Low, Mr and Mrs Walter Maudsley, Miss Johnson, Mr and Mrs Herbert Arkwright, Mr Lort Phillips, Countess of Leven and Melville, Mr and Mrs Fred Walker, Lady Frances Legge, Captain the Hon. Alwyne and Mrs Greville, Lady Eden, Colonel and Mrs Ingo Jones, Captain and Mrs Brand, Mr Charteris, Mr Fuller, Viscountess Helmsley, Hon. Mrs Bingham, Countess Chetwynd, Mr and Lady Jane Repton, Mr Guy Repton, Miss Curzon, Misses Duff Gordon, Hon. Alexander Hood, Lord and Lady Crawshaw, Lady Margaret Jenkins, Mr A. D. Dugdale, Countess of Mexborough, the Ladies Savile, Countess Cairns, Mrs Arthur [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Wilson, of Tranby Croft]], Mr and Mrs [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Kenneth Wilson]], Dowager Lady Vernon, Lady Iveagh, Sir Francis de Winton, Lord and Lady Edward Somerset, Lady B. Taylor, Mr and Mrs Cecil B. Tennant, Viscountess Pollington, Mrs Radcliffe, Mrs Ricardo, Major and Mrs C. Molyneux, Lady de Trafford, Mrs [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|T. Menzies]], Mr and Mrs Charles Stewart, Lady Margaret Charteris, Captain Peel, Sir George Arthur, Blanche Countess of Rosslyn, Captain Hon. Walter and Mrs Forbes, Mr W. James Adams, Hon. Mrs Percy Mitford, Hon. Sybil Leigh, Mr and Mrs Miller '''Monday''', Hon. Mary Byng, Viscount and Viscountess Boyne, Miss Bromley Davenport, Lady Henry Somerset, Mrs Arkwright, Mr Woodhouse, Colonel Hon. George and Mrs Napier, Mrs Lucy and the Misses Lucy, Lady Norreys, Sir Francis and Lady Knollys, Hon. George and Mrs Keppel, Mr and Mrs Fletcher of Saltoun, Sir Philip and Lady Grey Egerton, Miss E. Browne, etc., etc. 

The presents, which numbered over 400, were exhibited in the drawing room at Warwick House. They included the following:— 

Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales, diamond and turquoise bracelet; their Royal Highnesses Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, gold jewelled bangle; their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of York, sapphire and diamond brooch and earrings, diamond half-sun shaped brooch and white feather fan with mother-of-pearl sticks; the Duke and Duchess of Teck, the Prince and Princess Adolphus of Teck, Prince Alexander of Teck, Prince Francis of Teck, pearl and diamond pendant; the Duchess of Albany, silver and glass bell; the Princess Louise (Marchioness of Lorne), glass and silver bowl; bride to bridegroom, gold and pearl watch chain, sapphire and diamond pin, pearl pin, diamond heart, Russian cigarette case set with diamonds; bridegroom to bride, diamond wing tiara, sapphire and diamond ring, diamond lettered bangle, diamond watch bangle, pearl watch bangle, sapphire and diamond horse-shoe pin, ruby and diamond horse-shoe pin, diamond and red enamel heart shaped brooch; Dowager Countess of Warwick to bride, turquoise and diamond tiara, turquoise and diamond necklace, turquoise and diamond pendant, sapphire and diamond bracelet, sapphire and diamond hoop bracelet, ruby and diamond ring, diamond ring, emerald and diamond ring; Dowager Countess of Warwick to bridegroom, ruby and diamond star pin; the Earl and Countess of Warwick, Captain the Hon. Alwyne and Mrs Greville, Hon. Louis and Mrs Greville, and Hon. Sydney Greville, pearl and diamond tiara; and Mrs Brinkman, four sliver spoons; Miss Tufnell, green leather bezique box; Mr and Mrs F. Fane, copper dish warmer; Mrs Adrian Hope, silver inkstand; Mr James Bibby, large silver tea tray; [[Social Victorians/People/Greville|Hon. Mrs Ronald Greville]], two silver candlesticks; Mrs Reginald West, tortoiseshell and silver box; Viscountess de Veacé [?], silver wool winder; Hon. Agnes Leigh, books; Hon. Mrs Grantham Scott, silver scissor case; Lady Margaret Levett, small photo frame; Viscountess Pollington, tortoiseshell clock and date case; Mrs Richards, small bookstand; Lady Wantage, photo frame; Lord and Lady Burton, clock and thermometer; Miss Pope, books; Hon. Theresa Digby, two enamel and pearl pins; Lady Katharine Coke, glass and silver bell; Ladies Scott, two silver candlesticks; Hon. Mr and Mrs Dudley Leigh, old painted fan; Lady Ponsonby Fane, glass and silver sugar basin; Sir Stafford and Lady Northcote, opera glasses; Miss Alice Duff Gordon, small barometer; Mr and Lady Louisa Loder, clock; Viscountess Chetwynd, tortoisesheil and gold box; Mr Ward Coke, ivory paper knife and pencil; Lady Sophia Macnamara, two silver dishes; Mrs Antrobus, small silver egg and toast rack; Lord Leigh, diamond pin; Lady Leigh, gold spoon; Colonel and Mrs Howard Vincent, 12 Mother of Pearl handled tea knives; Mr Gordon Cunard, silver card case; Misses May and Lizzie Dugdale, brown sardinieres; Mr Sidney and Mr Henry Dugdale, Japanese panel; Miss Ethel Ismay Dawpool, silver photo frame; Mr and Lady G. Petre, silver box; Miss Evelyn Moreton, two-leaved Chippendale and silk screen; Mrs B. Lucy, three little silver chairs; Count Hoxisbrodski, silver and glass bell; Sir S. and Lady Crossley, silver bowl; Major and Mrs O'Beirne, large champagne decanter; Mrs Banbury, tablecloth; Mr and Mrs Fenwick, two silver candlesticks; Mrs Davies, small silver box; Mr and Mrs Cecil Tennant, four old silver spoons; Countess Compton, violet and pearl pins; Viscountess Duncannon, small clock in tortoisesheli case; Eleonora Lady Trevelyan, silver tea caddy; Mr and Mrs H. Williams Wynn, tortoiseshell and silver box; Hon. Mary Thesiger, turquoise pin; Mr and Lady Beaumont, tortoisesheli and silver paper knife; Lord Grey de Wilton, gun metal and diamond watch; Hon. Sybil Leigh, &quot;Thomas à Kempis;&quot; Misses Thorniwell, two small silver pepper pots; Mrs Penn Curzon, silver box; Hon. Mrs Douglas Pennant, old silver matchbox; Mr and Mrs Frank Gaskell, driving whip; Mr and Mrs Ismay, silver inkstand; Misses and Rose Linton, 12 coffee cups and saucers; Hon. Mrs Tom Brand, books; Miss Mabel Landon, pearl scarf pin; Captain and Hon. Mrs H. C. Dugdale, silver George II. tea tray; Captain A. Milne, eight silver spoons; Mrs Turton, tortoiseshell and silver tray; Hon. David Curzon, gold and green box; Lady Henry Somerset, oriental necklace; Lady Margaret Ismay, silver looking-glass; Misses Linton, silver tea caddy; Adeline, Duchess of Bedford, diamond and sapphire brooch; Mrs Holford, two silver baskets; Lord Edward Somerset, silver-mounted liqueur bottles; Mr Oswald Petre, silver mounted blotter; Mr and Mrs Beach, buhl clock; Mr and Mrs Farquharson, gold sleeve links; Mrs Sandford, silver match box; Basil Hanbury, silver lamp; Mr J. F. Mason, bookcase; Dowager Countess of Morton, diamond and sapphire brooch; Major Shuttleworth, diamond and enamel watch; Lord and Lady Moreton, photo frame; Lady Jane Dundas, pearl necklace; Hon. Alex Wood, chain bracelet; Mr and Mrs Leopold de Rothschild, pansy brooch; Mrs Bamfylde, metal and pearl box; Captain and Hon. Mrs H. Grenfell, two silver baskets; Miss Low, two silver baskets; Mr and Mrs Mason, silver bowl; Lord and Lady Crawshaw, four silver baskets; Mr and Mrs Marshall Dugdale, three silver dishes; Hon. Mrs Bass, two silver sauce boats; Mr and Mrs Morton Lucas, two silver dishes; Mr and Mrs W. M. Low, two silver candelabra and six candlesticks; Colonel and Mrs Ralph Vivian, diamond and amethyst bonnet pin; Hon. Mrs P. Mitford, silver box; Mrs Dundas, two amethyst pins; Mr and Mrs Beauchamp Scott, six silver-handled tea knives; Mr and Mrs Colmore, two small Sevrés vases; Walter Cunliffe, silver tankard; Mr Davies, blue carriage rug; Rev. Edgar Sheppard, cut-glass bottle with gold top; Mrs Fletcher, embroldery; Misses Mostyn, silver photo frame; and Mrs Stratford Dugdale, four silver dishes; Mr and Mrs Fletcher, of Saltowl, small silver lamp; Hon. Mrs Sutton, Nelthorpe, glass vase; Mr and Mrs Hambro, silver inkstand; Rev. Vincent and Hon. Mrs Fortescue, silver cigarette case and match box; [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mr and Mrs Stanley Wilson]], blotter and paper case; Mrs Arthur Wilson, Dreyfus cabinet; Hon. Tom Kennard, silver cup; Mr and Mrs W. James, two silver bowls; Mr and Mrs E. Hambro, two silver candlesticks; Major and the Hon. Mrs Tennant, two china candlesticks; Hon. Mrs P. Crutchley, silver-mounted paper knife: Duke and Duchess Westminster, enamel brooch; Mrs Arkwright, diamond Mother-of-Pearl duck brooch; Mr Remmington Wilson, gold knife; Mr F. Lort Phillips, writing table; Earl and Countess [? no names in article], two silver candlesticks; Mr Wilmot Cave, match tray; Mrs Torre Morton, china box; Mr and Mrs Hay Newton, Portuguese oak chest; Mrs and Miss Magniac, cushion; Marquess and Marchioness of Hertford, silver candelabra; Hon. H. and Lady Flo Sturt, green writing case; Major and Mrs Fosbery, silver tea kettle; Colonel and Mrs Finch, diamond bow brooch; Mr and Mrs Percy Wormald, two silver salvers; Mr James Foster, clock; Lady Elizabeth Taylor, cushion; Mr Daniel Cooper, red enamel sleeve links; Mrs Bromley-Davenport, fan; Mrs lnigo Jones, old china tea and coffee set; Mr Frank Fitzherbert, silver-mounted claret jug; Mr and Mrs J. Lionel Dugdale, six silver coffee cups; Mr [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Kenneth Wilson]], claret jug; Mr and Mrs Stirling Stuart, silver sugar sifter; Col. and Mrs Alfred Bibby, walking stick; and Mrs Walter enamelled horn ornament; Duke and Duchess of Sutherland, diamond bow brooch with pearl drop; Mr and Mrs C. T. Dugdale, two silver candlesticks; Earl and Countess [?names missing], pearl bracelet; Lady Lindsay, silver bottle; Miss Mare Lindsay, silver match box; Mr and Mrs Guy Scott, silver ash tray; Vicar of Kensington and Lady Mary Glyn, screen; Mrs Cox, two silver mugs; Colonel the Hon. G. and Mrs Napier, walkingstick [sic]; Mr and Mrs T. Dugdale, silver sugar basin and spoon; the Misses Verney, silver buckle; Mr F. Arkwright, two plated dishes; Mr Arthur Dugdale, two silver flower pots; Major and Mrs Maxwell, silver-mounted jug and tumblers; Miss Pelly, books; Mrs and Miss Lucy six silver handled knives; Hon. Mrs R. Verney, barometer; Lady Abercrombey, silver cream jug; Miss Bibby, furniture; Rev. H. Torre Morton, china ornament; Mrs Lucy and Miss Lucy, old spoon; Mr B. Fitzgerald, clock; Hope Vere, decanter; Mrs Horace Walpole, silver and tortoisesheil bookmarker; Mr and Mrs H. Jefferson, old silver cup; Colonel and Mrs Paulet, three silver dishes; Earl of Chesterfield, silver-gilt box; Mr Matthews and Mrs Tait, two silver candlesticks; Mr and Mrs Fairfax-Lucy, two silver dishes; Lady Margaret Jenkins, Morocco bag for cards; Miss B. Johnson, silver toast rack; Mr and Mrs West, silver salts and spoons; Mr C. Majoribanks, old card table; Mrs Walter Forbes, walkingstick; Mrs Helen Megniac, seal; Mr J. Guthrie, clock; Earl and Countess Leven and Meville, gilt topped smelling bottle; Hon. W. and Mrs Brooks, silver mounted bowl; Lady Grey Egerton, Dresden china vase; Lady Anne Savlle, turquoise and diamond pin; Lord and Lady W. Cecil, photo frame; Lady Louisa Charteris, drawing; Earl and Countess of Jersey, ivory paper knife; Mr and Mrs Robert Benton, blue satin table centre; the Hon. Chandos and Mrs Leigh, bookstand; Mrs Theodore Brinkman, two silver [souffliers? illegible];  Mr and Lady Margaret Douglas, two sliver flower stands; Mrs Hall, brass tankard; Lady Louisa Wells, silver-gilt tea set and diamond bracelet; the Hon. A. Greville, silver cigarette, and match boxes; Mrs Arthur Paget, ormolu inkstand; Mrs Gordon Dugdale, tortoiseshell and sliver paper knife; Lady Auckland, old looking glass; Mr W. G. Middleton, two silver candlesticks; Mrs Radcliffe, silver salver; Captain P. Gerald Leigh, silver and glass cigarette box; Mrs R. Charteris, walkingstick; Mr James Alston, silver-mounted jug; Major and Mrs Hunter, brass clock; Mr and Mrs George Baird, books; Mrs Rodgett [?], silver inkstand; the Hon. G. and Mrs Adderley, writingcase; Mr and Mrs R. Greaves, four silver dishes; Mr and Mrs Bruce Ismay, silver fish slice; Captain and Mrs Arthur Chambers, visitors' book; Mrs Roger Cunliffe, two silver baskets; Sir Charles and Lady Hartopp, green enamelled buttons; Captain and Mrs Edward Baird, two silver-gilt spoons; Mr and Mrs Frederick Walker, silver dish; Mr and Mrs Arthur James, table; the Hon. Marshall Brooks, table; the 8th Troop of the Warwickshire Yeomanry, large silver salver and silver cigarette case; Sir F. and Lady Stapleton, rams-horn paper knife; Viscountess Helmsley, diamond and sapphire scarf pin; anonymous, blotting case; Mrs Charlotte Knollys, Russian cigarette case; Mr and Mrs Clamner, oak and silver inkstand; Mr Burroughs, silver match box; Mr and Mrs Hobbs, six silver coffee spoons; Mr, Mrs, and Miss Miller Munday, silver-mounted claret jug; Captain the Hon. Cecil and Mrs Bingham, silver sugar sifter; the Hon. Mark Bouverie, two old silver candlesticks; the Hon. F and Mrs Parker, two silver menu holders; Lady Iveagh, diamond and turquoise brooch; Major Davidson, two silver baskets; Blanche Countess of Rosslyn, green enamel and gold links; Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury, tortoisesheil and silver paper knife; Dowager Countess, of Aylesford, asparagus tongs; Marquis and Marchioness of Tweeddaie, silver box; Master George Greville, silver cup; Mr R. Charteris, silver soup tureen; Earl and Countess of Dartmouth, six small Russian cups; Lady Margaret Charteris, enamel and diamond brooch; Hons. Maud and Constance Hamilton Russell, silver photo frame; Rev. T. Rivington, books; Countess Manvers, china plate; stablemen at Wroxall, driving whip; Sir Francis de Winton, Rev. Canon Dalton, Hon. Derek Keppel, and Sir Charles Cust, pearl necklace; Lady Lilian Yorke, tortoiseshell paper knife; servants of Hon. Captain A. Greville and Hon. L. Greville, two silver candlesticks on tray; Hon. A. and Lady C. Walsh, silver photo frame; Viscount and Viscountess Boyne, table; Lady Jane Repton, silver prayer book; Mr Herbert Arkwright, silver cream jug; Mr Philip Stanhope and Countess Tolstoi, gold and jewelled pencil; Lady Lilian Wemess [?], diamond framed miniature brooch; Mrs Stanley Clarke, books; Mr Leonard Brassey, old silver, sugar basin and spoon; Lord Rendlesham, two silver candlesticks; Mr and Mrs Lycett Green, large looking glass and candlesticks; Lady Hilda Finch, old silver wine cooler; Mr Robert Yerburgh, M.P., silver cigarette case; Mr Charles Rose, silver salver; Hon. L. Greville, two large china lamps; Sir Reginald Cathcart, travelling clock; Mr and Lady B. Taylor, inkstand (silver mounted) and blotting book; Lord and Lady Binning, silver cream jug; Major-General and Mrs Stanley Clarke, inlaid table; Mr and Hon. Mrs Freeman Thomas, bezique box; Countess of Aylesford, old silver cream jug; Mr J. T. Arkwright, silver bottles and glasses; Lord and Lady Camoys, silver inkstand; Lord and Lady Alexander Gordon Lennox, table; Lord and Lady William Neville, silver cream jug; Sir Guy and Lady Campbell, smelling bottle; Sir Francis and Lady Knollys, silver inkstand; Earl and Countess of Albermarle, visitors' book; Lady Francis Legge, silver clasps; Lord and Lady Saltoun, silver bell; Hon. Mrs Reginald Corbet, small inlaid case and smelling bottle; Ear! of Norbury, gold safety pin; Mr Repton, diamond bracelet; Duke of Norfolk, amethyst and diamond safety pin brooch; servants at York House, two silver salts and spoons; servants at Easton, silver salver and cruet; Countess Cairns, small table; Sir Francis Montifiore, silver pincushion; Earl of Aylesford, large silver looking glass; Sir Dighton and Lady Probyn, silver handled umbrella; Dowager Countess of Dartmouth, silver tea caddy; Lord and Lady Churchill, silver basket; Sir George Arthur, picture; Mr and Mrs Arthur Hay, two silver peppers; Mr Kenneth Howard, gilt salts bottle; [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mrs Grahame Menzies]], silver pencil case and seal; Mrs Rogers, silver dish; Mr E. Cassel and Miss A. Cassel, covers for dishes; Mr and Mrs Manley Sims, silver looking glass; Major and Mrs Chesshvre [sic?] Molyneux, small sliver bowl snd spoon; Mrs Weyland, flower glasses in silver stands; Captain Cotterell, gold-mounted stick; Captain Peel, two silver candlesticks; Mrs Battye, six silver-handled tea knives; Hon. George and Mrs Keppel, silver-mounted glass tureen for iceing fruits; Earl of Warwick, tortoisesheil and diamond sleeve links; Mrs E. Greaves, old silver jug; Captain Coote, silver pepper grinder; Mr and Mrs Walter Maudsley, silver and crystal paper knife; Lord Kenyon, set of silver drinking cups; Mr and Mrs J. B. Dugdale, silver-mounted dressing bag; Mr and Mrs Digby, four silver dishes; Mr Robert Woodhouse, four silver candlesticks; Dr and Mrs Bullock, small silver tray; Captain Arthur Doyle, gun metal cigarette case; Mr John Hargreaves, two silver candlesticks; Mrs Edward Dutton, matchbox; Mrs John Follett, silver-mounted engagements tablet; Misses Rose and Edith Dugdale, large silver tea kettle and teapot, coffeepot, and hot milk jug; Captain J. Orr Ewing, silver travelling clock; Mr and Mrs Silver, silver sugar tongs; Major Stamner, silver pencil case; Mrs Dudley Smith, large Dutch spoon; Mrs Wilfred Marshall, old French thermometer; Captain and Mrs Walter Campbell, work table; Colonel Cuthbert Larkin, clock; Miss Annie Murray, cushion; Mr Elms and Mr Whitehead, photo of Earl of Warwick in frame; Mr A. Lloyd, two china figures, &amp;c., &amp;c.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Marriage of Mr Frank Dugdale and Lady Eva Greville. Brilliant Scene in St. Margaret's Westminster. [From our Special Correspondent.] [sic].&quot; ''Leamington Spa Courier'' 27 July 1895  Saturday: 6 [of 10], Cols. 1a–3b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000319/18950727/022/0006.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

===22 July 1895, Monday===
[[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]] was a bridesmaid in the wedding of T. E. M. Swinnerton-Pilkingten and Lady Kathleen Cuffe: &lt;quote&gt;AtSt. Mark’s Church, North Andley-street, London, on Tuesday-afternoon, with choral service, the marriage took place of Capt. T. E. M. Swinnerton-Pilkingten, eldest son of Sir Lionel M. Swinnerton-Pilkington, of Chevet Park, Wakefield, and Lady Kathleen Cuffe, only daughter of the fourth Earl of Desart. The Rev. Burton, M.A., uncle of the bridegroom, officiated, assisted by the Rev. J. W. Ayre, Vicar of St, Mark’s. The Earl of Desart gave his daughter away. Mr. Aubrey Harcourt acted as groomsman. There were 10 bridesmaids — Misses Aimee and Veronica Milborne Swinnerton-Pilkington (sisters of the bridegroom), Miss Cuffe, Miss Sybil Cuffe, Hon. Cicely Henniker, Hon. Rachel Calthorpe (cousins of the bride), Miss Mildred Seymour, Miss Goldschmidt, Miss Elsa Stern, and Miss Muriel Wilson. They wore white muslin gowns, with cherry-coloured sashes, and white fichus, copied from. Romney’s portrait of Lady Edward Fitzgerald, and white straw Directoire hats with white feathers and cherry bows. The bridegroom’s presents were brooches with “K. and T.” threaded the stalks a white “York” rose, and a green shamrock and nosegay [?] of pink and white sweet pea. Miss Fitzgerald, only daughter of the Knight of Kerry and Lady Fitzgerald (cousin of the bride), acted as trainbearor in a child’s replica of the bridesmaids’ dresses. The bride selected a “wedding gown” of white satin, trimmed with old Brussels lace and fichu, her fine tulle veil being fastened by a comb of orange blossoms and diamond pins, the gift of the bridegroom’s father, and her bouquet was of white blooms in foliage. The reception at Bute House, South Audley-street, W., the residence of Mrs. Bischoffsheim, was very largely attended, and afterwards Captain and Lady Kathleen Swinnerton-Pilkington left for Nuneham Park for their honeymoon, kindly lent by Mr., Aubrey Harcourt.&lt;/quote&gt; (1895-07-27 Barnsley Chronicle) [check year on this: it's 1895 but not 1897?]

===25 July 1895, Thursday===
&lt;quote&gt;In All Saints' Church, Ennismore-gardens, on Thursday, Mr Reginald Bernhard Loder, son the late Sir Robert Loder, Bart., was married to the Lady Margaret Hare, elder daughter of the Earl and Countess of Listowel. The bride was led to the altar by her father, and was followed by eight bridesmaids : The Lady Beatrice Hare, her sister, Miss Florence Heneage and the Hon. Catherine Beresford, her cousins, Miss Sybil Burrell, Miss Norman Loder, Miss Patience Loder, nieces of the bridegroom, Lady Kathleen Cole, and Miss Crichton. Lord Albert Godolphin Osborne acted as groomsman. Mr and Lady Margaret Loder subsequently left for High Firs, the residence of Mr Alfred Loder, brother the bridegroom, near Harpenden, Herts. Among the guests who assembled at the ceremony and At Home afterwards were the Duchess of Leeds and the Ladies Godolphin Osborne, the Earl and Countess of Yarborough, Victoria Countess of Yarborough and Mr Richardson, Lady Decies, [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Stanley Wilson|Mrs Arthur Wilson]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]], and Mrs Thynne.&lt;/quote&gt; (1895-07-27 Yorkshire Gazette)
==August 1895==
===26 August 1895, Monday===
Summer Bank Holiday

==September 1895==
==October 1895==
===6 October 1895, Sunday===
Sir Henry Wood founded the London Promenade concerts.
===18 October 1895, Friday===
The [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]] paid his usual annual visit to the [[Social Victorians/People/Warwick|Earl and Countess of Warwick]]; a number of people were there, also as usual, including Muriel Wilson. Almost everybody left by the 10 a.m. train on Monday morning. &lt;quote&gt;Besides the Prince of Wales and Captain Holford, the Earl and Countess entertained large house party at the Lodge from Friday to Monday, among the guests being the Earl and Countess of Rosslyn, Lord and Lady Rookwood, Lord de L'lsle, Lady A. St. Clair Erskine, Lord Herbert Vane Tempest, Lady L. Wemyss, Col. Lockwood, M.P., and Mrs. Lockwood, Mr. Beit, Mr. and Mrs. Woodhouse, Mrs. Sreyd, Mr. and Mrs. Menzies, [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]], and Col. Paget.&lt;/quote&gt; (1895-10-18 Essex County Chronicle)
===31 October 1895, Thursday===
Halloween.

==November 1895==
===5 November 1895, Tuesday===
Guy Fawkes Day
===17 November 1895, Sunday===
According to Dr. Watson's opening of [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Conan Doyle|Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s 1908 &quot;The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans, &quot;In the third week of November, in the year 1895, a dense yellow fog settled down upon London. From the Monday to the Thursday I doubt whether it was ever possible from our windows in Baker Street to see the loom of the opposite houses. ... But when ... we saw the greasy, heavy brown swirl still drifting past us and condensing in oily drops upon the window-panes, my comrade's impatient and active nature could endure this drab existence no longer&quot; (Baring-Gould II 432).
===30 November 1895, Saturday===
[[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]] was a bridesmaid in the wedding of Miss Ida Forbes to Sir Archibald Edmonstone, of Duntreath (1895-12-02 Times). Muriel Wilson was one of 8 bridesmaids; the others were Miss Gathorne Hardy, Miss Flo Farquharson, Miss Dudley Ward, Miss Graham Murray, Miss Lutzow, and Miss Millicent James.

==December 1895==
Sir Henry Irving and Mr. Bram Stoker were amongst the guests who attended the marriage of Mr. Gilbert Parker to Miss Van Tine in New York early in December last. The engagement was announced some months back, but little attention seems to have been paid to the fulfilment.&quot; &quot;Table Talk,&quot; The Literary World (3 January 1896), Vol. 53, p. 14, col. 2. (Accessed 9 October 2009 in Google Books.)
===17 December 1895, Tuesday===
&lt;quote&gt;THE PRINCE OF WALES at HIGHCLERE CASTLE. This week the Earl and Countess of Carnarvon have had the honour of entertaining the Prince of Wales at their picturesque seat, Highclere Castle, which has consequently been the scene of much life and festivity. His Royal Highness, who was attended by Captain the Hon. Seymour Fortescue, drove from Marlborough House on Tuesday afternoon to Paddington, and left by special train, which was in charge of Mr. Hart, the G.W.R. Superintendent for the London division. The train made a quick run via Reading and Newbury junctions to the Highclere station of the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway, where the Prince was met by the Earl of Carnarvon, and conveyed from there in a carriage and pair. Unfortunately the weather proved dull and damp, and somewhat foggy, but by a thoughtful arrangement a large number of red and green lamps had been fixed on either side of the winding drive through the park between the London Lodge and the Castle, which was reached at a few minutes after seven o'clock. The guests who had been invited to meet his Royal Highness, and who had arrived by special train earlier in the afternoon, included Lord and Lady Westmorland, Lord and Lady Burghclere, Lord and Lady Chelsea, Lord and Lady Howe, Lady Dorothy Neville, Lady De Trafford, Hon. Mrs. Lowther, Sir Edward and Lady Colebrook, the Russian Ambassador (M. de Staal), the Brazilian Minister (Chevalier de [[Social Victorians/People/Souza Correa|Souza Correa]]), M. [[Social Victorians/People/Boulatzell|Boulatzell]], Mr. Alfred Cooper, and Mr. James McCraw. Dinner was served eight o'clock, music being provided by Herr Gottlieb's Viennese orchestra. A short time since the necessary works for installing the electric light the Castle were commenced, but it was found impossible to complete them in time for the Royal visit. However, all the principal rooms and other portions of the interior were brilliantly illuminated with lamps. On Wednesday the weather showed little, if any, improvement, but the Prince, attended by one of his gamekeepers from Sandringham, and accompanied by his noble host and several of the distinguished visitors, spent several hours in shooting over Biggs' Beat and the Warrens, on the south side of the estate, with the result that notwithstanding the unfavourable day excellent sport was obtained. The Royal guest, who much enjoyed his stay at Highclere, terminated his visit on Thursday morning, when Lord Carnarvon drove the Prince to Highclere station, where a special train was in waiting, which conveyed his Royal Highness to town. The rest of the visitors also left by another special. The Russian Ambassador, who arrived with the rest of the visitors by special train on Tuesday afternoon, went to town on Wednesday morning, but returned to Highclere Castle in the evening in time to dine with Lord Carnarvon's party. After luncheon on Wednesday the party, including the Prince of Wales, were photographed by Mr. Righton, of Northbrook-street, Newbury. &lt;/quote&gt; (Reading Mercury 1895-12-21).
===25 December 1895, Wednesday===
Christmas Day
===26 December 1895, Thursday===
Boxing Day
==Works Cited==
*[1895-01-27 Maidstone and Kentish Journal] &quot;The Eridge Hunt Ball.&quot; &quot;West Kent Journal.&quot; Maidstone and Kentish Journal 27 January 1895, Thursday [Sunday?]: 6 [of 8], Col. 2c [of 7]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001429/18950117/160/0006 (accessed July 2019).
*[1895-02-05 Beverly Echo] &quot;Fashionable Wedding at Kirkella.” Beverly Echo 5 February 1895, Tuesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 5a [of 5]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001561/18950205/039/0003 (accessed July 2019).
*[1895-02-02 Times; 1895-02-01 Midland Daily Telegraph] &quot;Court Circular.&quot; Times, 2 Feb. 1895, p. 10. The Times Digital Archive, http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/AHQju3. Accessed 20 June 2019. Also “Grand Bal Poudre at Warwick Castle.” Midland Daily Telegraph [now in BNA: Coventry Evening Telegraph] 1 February 1895, Friday: 3 [of 4], Col. 4b [of 7]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000337/18950201/021/0003 (accessed July 2019).
*[1895-06-28 York Herald] &quot;Marriage of Mr. Kenneth Wilson and Miss Hackett. (From our own Reporter.)&quot; York Herald 28 June 1895, Friday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5a–7a [of 7]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000500/18950628/006/0003 (accessed July 2019).
*[1895-07-27 Barnsley Chronicle] &quot;A Yorkshire Wedding.&quot; Barnsley Chronicle 27 July 1895, Saturday: 7 [of 8], Col. 7b [of 8]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001638/18950727/192/0007 (accessed July 2019).
*[1895-07-27 Yorkshire Gazette] &quot;Social and Personal.&quot; Yorkshire Gazette 27 July 1895, Saturday: 4 [of 12], Col. 4c [of 6]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000266/18950727/025/0004 (accessed June 2019).
*[1895-10-18 Essex County Chronicle] &quot;The Prince of Wales at Easton Lodge.&quot; Essex County Chronicle [Chelmsford Chronicle in BNA now] 18 October 1895, Friday: 6 [of 8], Col. 3c [of 8]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000322/18951018/049/0006 (accessed July 2019).
*[1895-12-02 Times] &quot;Court Circular.&quot; Times, 2 Dec. 1895, p. 9. The Times Digital Archive, http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/AHQsR4. Accessed 20 June 2019.
*[Reading Mercury 1895-12-21] &quot;The Prince of Wales at Highclere Castle.&quot; Reading Mercury, Oxford Gazette, Newbury Herald, and Berks County Paper 21 December 1895, Saturday: 4 [of 8], Col. 2a. British Newspaper Archive (behind paywall: https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000369/18951221/018/0004) (accessed May 2019).
*Gibbs, Anthony Matthew. A Bernard Shaw Chronology. Author Chronologies, Ed. Norman Page. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001.
*&quot;Society and the Wheel.&quot; The Monthly C. T. C. [Cyclists’ Touring Club] Gazette and Official Record June 1895 (Vol. XIII, No. 6): 159, Col. 2b. Google Books https://books.google.com/books?id=Ngg3AAAAYAAJ (accessed July 2019).
*&quot;Table Talk,&quot; The Literary World (3 January 1896), Vol. 53, p. 14, col. 2. (Accessed 9 October 2009 in Google Books.)

== Footnotes ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>5lrc1gdohjae278cl7nuyyjch70c3e5</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors/tasks</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>271287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687907</id>
      <parentid>2687857</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T20:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Agan56</username>
        <id>2945403</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Task completed</comment>
      <origin>2687907</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18299" sha1="o7gy9qj7gidsw3lwls856o4sitx14nl" xml:space="preserve">{{WikiJ top menu}}__NOTOC__

{{Archive box
|
Completed tasks:
*[[/Archive 2021|2021]]
*[[/Archive 2022|2022]] (complete)
}}

Tasks for the technical editors are syncronised between this page and [https://www.Workmarket.com Workmarket] by [[user:WorkmarketBot|WorkmarketBot]]. The process to to create a new assignment is:

* Add a new row at the bottom of the table ([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_User_Group/Technical_editors/tasks?veaction=edit activate editing mode], click bottom row, click chevron that appears on the left, select 'insert below').
* You must include:
**Task Title (a short name for the task)
**Task Description (details of what needs to be done)
**Group (Sci / Med / Hum / All - whichever journal the work most closely aligns to)
* The assignment will automatically be added to the [https://www.workmarket.com/manage Workmarket assignment list] and assigned an ID
* Optionally: Log into [https://www.Workmarket.com Workmarket] and assign directly to a tech editor, indicate maximum number of hours, or add other details

Tasks can be claimed by a tech editor by logging into [https://www.Workmarket.com Workmarket] and apply for an item. If multiple tech editors apply for a task, open tasks will distributed amongst applicants. Outlines on how to approach the most common tasks can be found at these [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines/Technical editor summary|process summary guidelines]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+
!Assignment ID
!Task title
!Task description
!Group
!Person
!Time taken
!Completion
!Comments
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/9821056566/overview 9821056566]
|Wikidata items of each WikiJSci author ([https://w.wiki/4462 query])
|add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors
|Sci
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|Wikidata items of each WikiJMed reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445v query])
|add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers
|Med
|Michelle Fong
|
|
|
|-
|
|Wikidata items of each WikiJSci reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445x query])
|add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers
|Sci
|Michelle Fong
|
|
|
|-
|
|Wikidata items of each WikiJHum reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445u query])
|add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers
|Hum
|Michelle Fong
|
|
|
|-
|
|Edit all titles to sentence case ([[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Article title format - Why no consistency?|discussion]])
|''on hold until consensus''
Pagemove the articles, update wikidata, update the PDFs
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|DOAJ]]
|upload WikiJMed [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|article metadata to DOAJ]]
|Med
|Crystal Au
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]]
|format PDF and upload
|Med
|Andrew Neil
|240 min
+60 mins
|2022-08-26
(30/10/22)
|&lt;s&gt;Complete&lt;/s&gt; &lt;br /&gt; Note: PDF has not been uploaded. There are some outstanding issues to fix. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 18:50, 9 October 2022 (UTC) - Completed tasks and re-uploaded word document. PDF to be uploaded after discussion regarding new abstract.
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal of Science/E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne|E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne]]
|format PDF and upload
|Sci
|Ellen Sussman
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]]
|If Wikidata record has been created, please accept this one (date 29 November 2018) and then process - inform author, create pdf.
|Med
|Crystal Au
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Where experts and amateurs meet: the ideological hobby of medical volunteering on Wikipedia]]
| Please add Athikhun Suwannakhan as a reviewer to the peer review Google form
|Med
|Peter Agan
|30 mins
|2023-01-29
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Antidepressant Mirtazapine Solid dispersions with Characterization and Formulation Development by 3? Factorial Design]]
| Please add Athikhun Suwannakhan as a reviewer to the peer review Google form
|Med
|Peter Agan
|30 mins
|2023-01-29
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Purchasing High-Cost Medical Equipment in Hospitals in OECD Countries: A Systematic Review Protocol]]
| Please add Athikhun Suwannakhan as a reviewer to the peer review Google form
|Med
|Peter Agan
|30 mins
|2023-01-29
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Resources for the Assessment and Treatment of Substance Use Disorder in Adolescents]]
| Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF
|Med
|Peter Agan
|1320 min (22 hrs)
|2023-02-14
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Extract of Laurus nobilis attenuates inflammation and epithelial ulcerations in an experimental model of inflammatory bowel disease]]
| Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF
|Med
|Peter Agan
|1020 min (17 hrs)
|2023-02-14
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Multiple object tracking|Multiple object tracking]]
|Please add new peer revew pdf
|Sci
|Treens Alcorn
|150 minutes
|2023-01-28
|Completed 
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Efficacy of Paxlovid against COVID-19 is the Result of the Tight Molecular Docking between Mpro and Antiviral Drugs (Nirmatrelvir and Ritonavir)|The Efficacy of Paxlovid against COVID-19 is the Result of the Tight Molecular Docking between Mpro and Antiviral Drugs (Nirmatrelvir and Ritonavir)]]
|Transcribe document from Google Drive onto the wiki page
|Sci
|Emma Chiu
|360 minutes 
|2023-02-17
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system|Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system]]
|Add new peer review pdf &amp; complete submitted peer review tasks 3&amp;4 (note added 27/2/2023 still waiting for upload of pdf)
|Med
|Treens Alcorn
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Immune system]]
|Could you please add me (Roger Watson) as the Handling Editor for this one on the landing page of the article and on the reviewer sheet please?
|Med
|Peter Agan
|50 minutes
|2023-02-10
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Induced stem cells|Induced Stem cells]]
|Add new peer review, create Wikidata item
|Sci
|Treens Alcorn
|60 minutes
|2023/02/27
|Complete
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Resources for the Assessment and Treatment of Substance Use Disorder in Adolescents|Resources for the Assessment and Treatment of Substance Use Disorder in Adolescents]]
|Ensure Manual of Style consistent with Wikipedia on the page and in PDF
|Med
|Emma Chiu
|240 minutes 
|2023/03/04
|Complete
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Black-and-yellow broadbill|Black-and-yellow broadbill]]
|Accepted. Generate DOI and PDF
|Sci
|Emma Chiu
|240 minutes
|2023/03/04
|Complete
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Potential upcoming articles]]
|Could all published articles - all indicated by Volume/Issues - be removed from this list please.
|Med
|Peter Agan
|30 minutes 
|2023/03/03
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Androgen backdoor pathway]]
| Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF
|Med
|Peter Agan
|613 minutes
|2023/04/06
|Completed 
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal of Medicine]]
| Volumes 8, 9 &amp; 10 are all referred to as 'Current Issue' and Volume 7 as 'Previous Issue' - needs to be updated, thanks
|Med
|Peter Agan
|45 minutes 
|2023/04/07
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Androgen backdoor pathway]]
| The task above related to this article is 'completed' but the article is not incorporated into a volume or see the pdf version linked to the article or that it is designated as having been accepted - can this be done please?
|Med
|Peter Agan
|237 minutes
|2023/04/14
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Psychotherapy: An important component of a comprehensive approach to the treatment of bipolar disorder]]
| Please create a speer review location
|Med
|Peter Agan
|35 minutes
|2023/04/14
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Orhan Gazi, the first statesman|Orhan Gazi, the first statesman]]
|Add both new peer reviews, update reviewer's Wikidata item
|Hum
|Peter Agan
|187 minutes
|2023/05/01
|Completed 
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Immune system|Immune System]]
|Add new peer review, update reviewer's Wikidata item
|Med
|Peter Agan
|188 minutes
|2023/05/01
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Non-canonical base pairing|Non-canonical base pairing]]
|Generate DOI, PDF and upload
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|780 minutes
|2023/05/12
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Multiple object tracking|Multiple object tracking]]
|Generate DOI, PDF and upload
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|540 minutes
|2023/05/12
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Immune system|Immune System]]
|Please delete the contents of this preprint, but leave the page there blank and I will put an appropriate comment under Reviewer Comments
|Med
|Peter Agan
|25 minutes
|2023/05/20
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Orhan Gazi, the first statesman|Orhan Gazi, the first statesman]]
|For both reviews, upload the reviewer-submitted PDF and include that PDF alongside the on-wiki peer review comments 
|Hum
|Peter Agan
|250 minutes
|2023/06/28
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Design effect|Design effect]]
|Add new peer review and update that reviewer's Wikidata item
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|120 minutes
|2023/05/31
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Loveday, 1458|Loveday, 1458]]
|Accepted. Generate DOI and PDF
|Hum
|Peter Agan
|486 minutes
|2023/06/20
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/6554498532/overview 6554498532]
|TEST ROW 8
|Test to confirm that bot is active on main task list.
|Med
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Where experts and amateurs meet: the ideological hobby of medical volunteering on Wikipedia|Where experts and amateurs meet: the ideological hobby of medical volunteering on Wikipedia]]
|Accepted. Generate DOI and PDF
|Med
|Emma Chiu
|600 minutes
|2023/8/6
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system|Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system]]
|Accepted. Generate DOI and PDF
|Med
|Peter Agan
|409 mins
|2023/07/31
|Completed
|-
|
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system|Impact of xenogenic mesenchimal stem cells secretome on a humoral component of the immune system]]
|Thanks for accepting and generating pdf; would it be possible to correct the title of the pre-print and the pdf to say 'mesenchymal' as opposed to 'mesinchimal'; also, in the body of the pdf please change 'Fisher's test' to Fisher's exact test' - I have altered this in the pre-print
|Med
|Peter Agan
|45 mins
|2023/07/31
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/9414409635/overview 9414409635]
| [[WikiJournal Preprints/Practical applications of moisture sorption models for predicting the drying characteristics and shelf-life of malted and/or fermented FARO 44 rice plus soybean-based complementary foods|Practical applications of moisture sorption models for predicting the drying characteristics and shelf-life of malted and/or fermented FARO 44 rice plus soybean-based complementary foods]]
| Import content PDF uploaded in Google Drive into wiki. Author requested anonymity until article acceptance. Ensure that formulas and tables are uploaded and formatted properly. Note that I am contacting the author to request for better images so please don't upload images for now.
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|1200 mins
|2023/09/30
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/7695454963/overview 7695454963]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Psychotherapy: An important component of a comprehensive approach to the treatment of bipolar disorder|Psychotherapy: An important component of a comprehensive approach to the treatment of bipolar disorder]]
| Above it says a location for peer review Reviewer Comments was created but the content there is a not correct, can this be done again please?
|Med
|Peter Agan
|60 minutes
|2024/09/2024
|Withdrawn
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/3783913689/overview 3783913689]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Screening of potential microorganisms from pharmaceutical effluence capable of degrading environmental pollutants|Screening of potential microorganisms from pharmaceutical effluence capable of degrading environmental pollutants]]
| Use uploaded manuscript to create the preprint page on wiki
|Sci
|
|
|
|
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/7951305361/overview 7951305361]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Globally Popular Pet Reptile Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius) Demonstrates Capability in Using Running Wheel Voluntarily ? Is It Locomotion Play?|Globally Popular Pet Reptile Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius) Demonstrates Capability in Using Running Wheel Voluntarily ? Is It Locomotion Play?]]
| Adjust references to inline citation numbers format
|Sci
|Emma Chiu
|180 mins
|2023/11/24
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/4273374750/overview 4273374750]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Brace Roots|Brace Roots]]
|Identify and compile a list of 10-15 potential peer reviewers related to this topic
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|300 mins
|2024/01/25
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/9966491909/overview 9966491909]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Screening of potential microorganisms from pharmaceutical effluence capable of degrading environmental pollutants|Screening of potential microorganisms from pharmaceutical effluence capable of degrading environmental pollutants]]
|Identify and compile a list of 10-15 potential peer reviewers related to this topic
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|300 mins
|2024/01/25
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/6865707097/overview 6865707097]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Crisis Readiness and Innovation for Burnout Prevention Among Community Health Workers|Crisis Readiness and Innovation for Burnout Prevention Among Community Health Workers]]
|Transcribe document from Google Drive onto the wiki page 
|Med
|Emma Chiu
|360 mins
|2024/05/08
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/9651035026/overview 9651035026]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Bioclogging|Bioclogging]]
|Accepted, generate DOI and PDF 
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|360 minutes
|2024/04/02
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/9579295387/overview 9579295387]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Bioclogging/ja|Bioclogging/ja]]
|Accepted, generate DOI and PDF 
|Sci
|Emma Chiu
|
|
|
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/5518065368/overview 5518065368]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]]
|Accepted, update Wikidata entry, generate DOI and PDF 
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|360 minutes
|2024/03/15
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/3748703910/overview 3748703910]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Body image disturbance in eating disorders]]
|Accepted, update Wikidata entry, generate DOI and PDF
|Med
|Peter Agan
|360 minutes
|2024/05/05
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/5461106502/overview 5461106502]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Design effect#:~:text=The design effect depends on,(such as the mean).|Design effect]]
|Review formatting for character corruption
|Sci
|Emma Chiu
|
|
|
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/2861404825/overview 2861404825]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Design effect|Design effect]]
|Accepted article. Generate DOI and PDF
|Sci
|
|
|
|
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/5784308213/overview 5784308213]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Body image disturbance in eating disorders]]
|Thanks for accepting this and generating pdf - is it possible to initiate Volume 11 Issue 1 please?
|Med
|Peter Agan
|60 minutes
|2024/09/10
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/5784308213/overview 5784308213]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/Design and validation of an open access, 3D printed dermatoscope]]
|Please add this to the page: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Potential_upcoming_articles
|Med
|
|
|
|
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/6438659080/overview 6438659080]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Bioclogging]]
|Update PDF to reflect the added references
|Sci
|
|
|
|
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/9677184653/overview 9677184653]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Black-and-red broadbill]]
|Accepted, update article page, generate DOI (use 10.15347/WJS/2024.003 for this paper) and PDF
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|240 minutes
|2024/09/26
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/4342621673/overview 4342621673]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Popular Pet Reptile, the Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius), Spontaneously Uses Running Wheel? Is It Locomotion Play?]]
|Accepted, update article page, generate DOI (use 10.15347/WJS/2024.005 for this paper) and PDF
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|240 minutes
|2024/09/10
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/4007689347/overview 4007689347]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Poisson manifold|Poisson manifold]]
|Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|300 Minutes
|2024/11/04
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/8357919333/overview 8357919333]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Brace Roots|Brace Roots]]
|Accepted, generate DOI and PDF
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|240 Mminutes
|2024/11/09
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/7805714759/overview 7805714759]
|[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Himalayan fossil hoax#Background|WikiJournal Preprints/The Himalayan fossil hoax]]
|Accepted by WikiJournal of Science, please add to the main page, generate DOI, and generate PDF
|Sci
|Peter Agan
|300 Minutes
|2024/11/19
|Completed
|-
|[https://www.workmarket.com/manage/7662852102/overview 7662852102]
|[[WikiJournal of Science/Design effect|Design effect]]
|Generate PDF
|Sci
|
|
|
|
|}


{{Archive box
|
Completed tasks:
*[[/Archive 2021|2021]]
*[[/Archive 2022|2022]] (complete)
}}</text>
      <sha1>o7gy9qj7gidsw3lwls856o4sitx14nl</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Workings of gcc and ld in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687914</id>
      <parentid>2687825</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T22:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <origin>2687914</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3276" sha1="e0cpc3tkpkii18acd3pzfo5ai1xyfqh" xml:space="preserve">=== Workings of the GNU Compiler for IA-32 ===

==== Overview ====
* Overview ([[Media:Overview.20200211.pdf |pdf]])

==== Data Processing ====
* Access ([[Media:Access.20200409.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Operator.20200427.pdf |pdf]])

==== Control ====
* Conditions ([[Media:Condition.20230630.pdf |pdf]])
* Control ([[Media:Control.20220616.pdf |pdf]])

==== Function calls ==== 
* Procedure ([[Media:Procedure.20220412.pdf |pdf]])
* Recursion ([[Media:Recursion.20210824-2.pdf |pdf]])

==== Pointer and Aggregate Types ==== 
* Arrays ([[Media:Array.20211018.pdf |pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:Structure.20220101.pdf |pdf]])
* Alignment ([[Media:Alignment.20201117.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointers ([[Media:Pointer.20201106.pdf |pdf]])

==== Integer Arithmetic ==== 
* Overview ([[Media:gcc.1.Overview.20240813.pdf |pdf]])
* Carry Flag ([[Media:gcc.2.Carry.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Overflow Flag ([[Media:gcc.3.Overflow.20240724.pdf |pdf]])
* Examples ([[Media:gcc.4.Examples.20240724.pdf |pdf]])
* Borrow ([[Media:Borrow.20230701.pdf |pdf]])

==== Floating point Arithmetic ====
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Workings of the GNU Linker for IA-32 ===

==== Overview ====

* Static Linking Overview ([[Media:Link.3A.StaticLinking.20241120.pdf |pdf]])

* Shared Library Overview ([[Media:Link.3B.SharedLibrary.20241113.pdf |pdf]])

* Dynamic Linking Overview ([[Media:Link.3C.DynamicLinking.20241113.pdf |pdf]])

==== Library Search Path ====

* Library Search using -L and -l only ([[Media:Link.4A.LibSearch-withLl.20240807.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.4B.LibSearch-withLl.20240705.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Library Search Using RPATH ([[Media:Link.5A.LibSearch-RPATH.20241101.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.5B.LibSearch-RPATH.20240705.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Linking Process ====

* Object Files ([[Media:Link.3.A.Object.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.3.B.Object.20190405.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Symbols ([[Media:Link.4.A.Symbol.20190312.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.4.B.Symbol.20190312.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Relocation ([[Media:Link.5.A.Relocation.20190320.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.5.B.Relocation.20190322.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Loading ([[Media:Link.6.A.Loading.20190501.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.6.B.Loading.20190126.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Static Linking ([[Media:Link.7.A.StaticLink.20190122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.7.B.StaticLink.20190128.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Dynamic Linking ([[Media:Link.8.A.DynamicLink.20190207.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.8.B.DynamicLink.20190209.pdf |B.pdf]])

* Position Independent Code ([[Media:Link.9.A.PIC.20190304.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.9.B.PIC.20190309.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Example I ====
* Vector addition ([[Media:Eg1.1A.Vector.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.1B.Vector.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Swapping array elements ([[Media:Eg1.2A.Swap.20190302.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.2B.Swap.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Nested functions ([[Media:Eg1.3A.Nest.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.3B.Nest.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Examples II ====
* analysis of static linking ([[Media:Ex1.A.StaticLinkEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Ex2.B.StaticLinkEx.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]])

* analysis of dynamic linking ([[Media:Ex2.A.DynamicLinkEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]])

* analysis of PIC ([[Media:Ex3.A.PICEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;
go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

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Dan Polansky is described in more detail at [[Meta:User:Dan Polansky]]. He is trained in computer science, earned money as a programmer and software engineer, and loves real philosophy and stubborn independent attempt to think clearly. He spent an inordinate time documenting mainly Czech vocabulary in the English Wiktionary, a job truly for a harmless drudge rather than a philosopher proper, but maybe it is like painting a hedge in The Karate Kid, an activity preparatory for philosophy in some sense.

Dan Polansky is a curator (quasi-administrator capable of deleting pages) of the English Wikiversity.

==Why Wikiversity==
Above all, Wikiversity allows original research, unlike Wikipedia (and probably unlike Wikibooks). Wikiversity does not require content to be encyclopedic, unlike Wikipedia. There is in general more freedom in how one ''gestalts'' (designs, shapes, makes up) the page/pages.

Moreover:
* If one wants to trace every single sentence to a source, one can.
* If one prefers itemized bullet points (discouraged on Wikipedia, which favors paragraphs), one can.
* If one has a paragraph of original deliberation not tracing to sources, one can have it.
* If one wants to include more material than would be ''encyclopedic'', one can, including various interesting lists, nested lists, tables, etc.
* If one dislikes having one's text mercilessly modified by anyone who comes along, whether anonymous IP editors and qualitatively unidentified editors (no education, job experience, age or other similar identification), one has the option of writing and editing one's own article.

See also [[Is Wikiversity a project worth having?]].

==Originality==
The contributions of Dan Polansky are original in the sense of author law: they are original formulations, original sequences of words that form phrases, clauses and sentences. By contrast, the ideas expressed in the formulations are often unoriginal, stemming from one of the books that Dan Polansky has read and that are identified below, or from a YouTube video such as a debate. Some ideas stem from face-to-face interactions with people, including relatives, friends, colleagues and teachers. The original contribution of Dan Polansky as for ideas is for the historians to identify.

==Created pages==
Selected created pages, whether articles or debates (see also [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pages/en.wikiversity.org/Dan%20Polansky xtools report]):
* COVID-19
** [[COVID-19/All-cause deaths]] -- amazing highly instructive graphs generated with the use of Python that hardly anyone views, given the page views
** [[COVID-19/Dan Polansky]]
** [[COVID-19 related censorship]]
** [[Review of Tomas Pueyo's articles on COVID-19 management]]
* Technology, its ethics, threat, and limits
** [[Technology as a threat or promise for life and its forms]]
** [[The limits of technological potential]]
** [[The limits of progress]]
** [[History of cornucopian thought]]
** [[Technosphere]]
** [[Saving the Earth]]
* Philosophy, psychology, miscellaneous
** [[Hedonism (Polansky)]]
** [[A human as multiple persons]]
** [[The burden of history in the design of functional entities]]
** [[Mind Children]] and [[Hans Moravec]]
** [[Concept]] and [[Concept clarification]]
** [[Donald Cameron's The Purpose of Life]]
** [[Transgenderism (Polansky)]]
** [[Qualitative consensus]]
** [[Defamation law in Czechia]]
** [[One man's look at the debate format in Wikiversity]]
** [[All Life is Problem Solving]]
** [[An analysis of identity]]
** [[An analysis of truth]]
** [[An analysis of reality]]
** [[A pictorial guide to asset price history]]
** [[Discrete-time dynamical system orbit diagram]]
** [[Mandelbrot set along the real axis and the orbits]]
** [[Mandelbrot set as a model for the concept of approximation]]
** [[Variations of the Mandelbrot set]]
** [[Original research on Wikimedia projects]]
** [[One man's look at copyright law]]
** [[One man's look at The Hacker's Diet]]
** [[An application of computability theory to epistemology in Popperian spirit]]
** [[A purpose of life: The power of living things]]
** [[Crafting Your Life Program]]
** [[Czech national identity]]
** [[One man's manual calculation exercises]]
** [[An analysis of counting and countability]]
** [[An analysis of the word program and its concepts]]
** [[A human as a biological robot]]
** [[Life expectancy in schizophrenia]]
** [[Life expectancy in bipolar disorder]]
** [[Bipolar disorder and psychosis]]
** [[Survivalism]]
** [[An analysis of the concept of algorithm]]
** [[Deadly Psychiatry and Organised Denial]]
** [[One man's look at the categorical imperative]]
** [[An analysis of the concept of person]]
** [[Developing a Universal Religion, a review]]
** [[One man's look at the arrow of time]]
** [[What is ethics]]
** [[The acceptability of the use of the Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs]]
* Software and computing
** [[FreeMind]]
** [[Comparison of Python and Perl]]
** [[AMOS programming language]]
** [[One man's look at C and C++]]
** [[Atari BASIC programming]]
** [[Learning 6502 assembly]]
** [[ABAP programming]]
** [[One man's look at generative artificial intelligence]]
* Linguistics, with possible philosophical component or aspect:
** [[Proper name]]
** [[Explication of modalities]]
** [[Elimination of dead metaphor from writing]]
** [[English as a hybrid Romance-Germanic language (Polansky)]]
** [[Compound (linguistics)]]
** [[Thesaurus (information retrieval)]]
** [[Thesaurus (lexicography)]]
** [[Slovak-Czech dissimilar terms]]
** [[Czech Wiktionary]]
** [[Czech diminutive]]
** [[Czech verb morphological productivity]]
** [[Czech dictionaries]]
** [[Word coinage during Czech National Revival]]
** [[One man's look at English]]
** [[One man's look at the design of dictionary definitions]]
* Many [[Wikidebate]]s
** [[Are wikidebates a good thing?]]
** [[Should Mill's harm principle be accepted?]]
** [[Should cryptocurrencies be banned?]]
** [[Should we aim to reduce the Earth population?]]
** [[Is Wikipedia consensus process good?]]
** [[Is collapse of the global civilization before year 2100 likely?]]
** [[Can electric cars significantly help humanity get off fossil fuels?]]
** Etc.; see [[:Category:Wikidebates]]
** Also about Wikidebates: [[One man's look at the debate format in Wikiversity]]

==Books in library==
Selected philosophical books in Dan Polansky's library, in physical form:
* Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by Pirsig
* Lila by Pirsig
* Guidebook to Guidebook to Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by DiSanto and Steele
* Gödel, Escher, Bach by Hofstadter
* Metamagical Themas by Hofstadter
* Alles Leben ist Problemlösen by Popper (in German)
* The Open Society and Its Enemies by Popper (volume 1: The Spell of Plato; volume 2: Hegel and Marx)
* Conjectures and Refutations by Popper
* Proofs and Refutations by Lakatos
* The Structure of Scientific Revolutions by Kuhn
* Word and Object by Quine
* Čtyři důvody pro zrušení televize by Mander, in Czech; original title: Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television
* In the Absence of the Sacred by Mander
* Meaning and Necessity by Kripke
* Mind Children by Moravec (arguably a book with a strong philosophical component)
* How the Mind Works by Pinker (although primarily a work of evolutionary psychology, there is a strong philosophical component)
* Darwin's Dangerous Idea by Dennett
* Cultural Software by Balkin
* Out of Control by Kelly
* Cybernetics by Wiener
* What is Life by Schrödinger
* Zen in the Art of Archery by Herrigel
* A New Introduction to Modal Logic by Hughes and Cresswell
* Moral Calculations by Mérö
* Against Method by Feyerabend (largely nonsense)
* The Conquest of Happiness by Russell
* What Do You Say After You Say Hello by Berne (officially a work of psychology, but seems philosophical enough)
* Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes by Gould
* Dialogue Concerning the two Chief World Systems by Galilei
* The Purpose of Life by Cameron
* The Greeks by Kitto
* The Value of Science by Poincaré
* The Society of Mind by Minsky
* A přesto říci životu ano by Frankl, in Czech (the English title: Man's Search for Meaning)
* Sociology, 6th edition, by Calhoun et al.
* Cybernetics by Wiener -- arguably philosophical
* Introduction to Cybernetics by Ashby -- arguably philosophical
* Saturnin by Jirotka -- a Czech comic novel that is arguably somewhat philosophical
* Only the Paranoid Survive by Grove -- only read, but not in my personal library
* Analytische Theorien der Metaphen[https://is.muni.cz/th/d6lfa/Analytische_Theorien_der_Metapher.pdf] by Mácha (Candidate English title: Analytical theories of metaphor.
* Steps to an Ecology of Mind by Bateson
* Selfish Gene by Dawkins
* Snad ti nedělají starosti cizí názory by Feynmann, in Czech (the English title: &quot;What Do You Care What Other People Think?&quot;)
* To snad nemyslíte vážně, pane Feynmanne! by Feynmann, in Czech (the English title: Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!)
* O povaze fyzikálních zákonů by Feynmann, in Czech (the English title: The Character of Physical Law)
* Programátorské poklesky by Kopeček and Kučera, in Czech -- has many philosophically interesting quotations

Philosophers who would appear to be properly classified as pseudo-philosophers: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Jaspers, Heidegger, Foucault, etc. Kant is perhaps somewhat unfairly on the list, but someone who claims that lying is strictly prohibited in all circumstances and that the knowledge of Newton's laws is a priori (pre-empirical) thereby creates an unfavorable impression. As for Foucault, I have read {{W|The Order of Things}} in Czech (Slova a věci) and I could not tell what in the world he was talking about, like what problems he was trying to address and what solutions he offered; it was &quot;not even wrong&quot;, as they say.

Dictionaries:
* Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, with a beautiful middle section showing a picture dictionary
* Penguin Thesaurus, a synonym dictionary
* Czech Etymological Dictionary by Rejzek
However, I use online dictionaries much more than those above.

Self-help and other non-philosophical books:
* The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People by Covey
* Living the 7 Habits by Covey
* How to Stop Worrying and Start Living by Carnegie -- some bad ideas, but also many good ideas
* How to Win Friends and Influence People by Carnegie -- some bad ideas, but also many good ideas
* Your Erroneous Zones by Dyer

Tolkien, arguably somewhat philosophical:
* The Hobbit, in Czech
* The Lord of the Rings, in Czech (read in English long time ago when I was a teenager and at that point, it was a hard reading)
* Silmarillion, in Czech

==Books read==
Selected books read that have philosophical, scientific or similar impact, other than those in [[#Books in library|Books in library]] section:
* Economics by Samuelson and Nordhaus
* The C++ Programming Language, 3rd edition, by Stroustrup, showing Stroustrup to be a great thinker
* Usability Engineering by Nielsen

==Online authoritative text resources==
Online authoritative text resources that I used during my philosophical and other investigations:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] (SEP), plato.stanford.edu
* [https://iep.utm.edu/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy], iep.utm.edu -- seems less excellent than SEP but still often worth having a look
* [[Wikisource: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]], especially [[Wikisource: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Classified List of Articles#Philosophy and Psychology]], a section for which I created many articles in Wikisource

==YouTube videos==
Some ideas stem from YouTube debates viewed or other videos:
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZRcYaAYWg4 The Catholic Church is a Force for Good in the World] featuring Hitchens, Fry, Onaiyekan and Widdecombe
* Etc; TBD.

Debaters:
* Christopher Hitchens, the ultimate debater
* Richard Dawkins
* Steven Pinker

==Films/movies==
Films/movies rich in intellectual ideas and fun, from which possibly some ideas are being drawn:
* {{W|12 Angry Men (1957 film)}} - shows the idea that a lone opposer stubbornly trying to think clearly and carefully examine the strength of the reasoning and evidence can turn the sides of supports and opposes around
* [[Wikipedia:The Boss of it All|The Boss of it All]] (Direktøren for det hele, Danish), including the ultimate Gambini, with whom the film starts and ends, staring the spectacular [[W:Jens Albinus|Jens Albinus]], and in some frames also the amazing director Lars von Trier (although many of his films are a bit too drastic)
* [[Wikipedia:District 9|District 9]], e.g. the funny name MNU: Multi-National United or the like, the ultimate evil über-corporate, and the incredibly funny main character Wikus van de Merwe, who is a cowardly and nasty little officer or something, an entity many of us have in our psyche
* [[Wikipedia:Adam's Apples|Adam's Apples]] (Adams Æbler, Danish), e.g. the funny quasi-corporate manager doing an analog of performance goal setting and über-positive thinker (Christopher, go to the father's office) Ivan; Ivan is also an ultimate provocateur in his &quot;is this a good looking man; is it your father&quot;, when referring to a picture of Hitler in Adam's (the nazi's) room; Ivan is played by the great [[W:Mads Mikkelsen|Mads Mikkelsen]], and other actors are also excellent
* [[Wikipedia:Box of Moonlight|Box of Moonlight]], somewhat reminiscent of Pirsig's contrast between classic and romantic, featuring a very responsible engineer and family man Al Fountain and a hippie or worse Kid, featuring the great {{W|John Turturro}} and {{W|Sam Rockwell}}

==Frequently viewed pages==
The following report shows most often viewed pages created by me:
* [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/userviews/?project=en.wikiversity.org Userviews Analysis for Dan Polansky, en.wikiversity.org], pageviews.wmcloud.org

==Policies and guidelines==
See [[:User:Dan Polansky/Policies and guidelines]]

==About Wikiversity==
See [[:User:Dan Polansky/About Wikiversity]]

==Subpages==

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This original article by Dan Polansky describes book ''Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence'' by [[Hans Moravec]], 1988. The book is mentioned in the Encyclopedia Britannica article on the author, making it somewhat notable. The book can perhaps be best described as science-fiction without a plot, packed with more interesting ideas than most science-fiction novels, albeit presented as a description of actual future.

Page references in this article are for the paperback edition, {{ISBN|0-674-57618-7}}.

==Destruction of living things and humans==
The preface suggests that robots will be developed that will be comfortable with destroying humans and perhaps other living things as well (page 1).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA1] The language is not wholly explicit; the wording used is that &quot;They [the genes] have produced a weapon so powerful it will vanquish the losers and winners alike&quot;, and &quot;the human race has been swept away by the tide of cultural change, usurped by its own artificial progeny&quot;. Here, &quot;artificial progeny&quot; refers to robots. A possible consolation is that some of these robots will be emulating individual human minds, thereby ensuring their continuing quasi-existence; see section [[#Mind uploading|Mind uploading]].

==The mind children metaphor==
The metaphor of &quot;mind children&quot; has powerful rhetorical effect. It implies that since humans are fine to pass the future to their biological children, they should be equally fine to pass it to the children of the mind, the superintelligent thinking machines or robots. Marvin Minsky is happy to pass the future to them, and refers to Hans Moravec and his mind children metaphor.&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20240416110125/https://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/papers/sciam.inherit.html Will Robots Inherit the Earth?] by Marvin Minsky, 1994, archived at archive.org&lt;/ref&gt;

Moravec's use of the mind children metaphor seems to be criticized by Al-Mafraje 2023.&lt;ref&gt;[https://uia.brage.unit.no/uia-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/3072513/no.uia%3Ainspera%3A146525594%3A2111965.pdf?sequence=1 From Brave New World to Ready Player One; yesterday’s dystopias as tomorrow’s utopias]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Artificial intelligence predictions==
The book predicts human-level intelligence for supercomputers by 2010 and for personal computers by 2030 (pages 64 and 68).

==Self-improving thinking machines==
The book says: &quot;Sooner or later our machines will become knowledgeable enough to handle their own maintenance, reproduction and self-improvement without help. When this happens, the new genetic takeover will be complete. Our culture will then be able to evolve independently of human biology and its limitations, passing instead directly from generation to generation of ever more capable intelligent machinery.&quot; (page 4).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA4&amp;dq=%22Sooner+or+later+our+machines+will+become+knowledgeable+enough+to+handle+their+own+maintenance%22&amp;source=bl]

And, &quot;A postbiological world dominated by self-improving thinking machines will be as different from our own world of living things as this world is different from the lifeless chemistry that preceded it. A population consisting of unfettered mind children is quite unimaginable. We are going to try to imagine some of the consequences anyway.&quot; (page 5)

Further, &quot;Eventually humans [...] will become unnecessary [...] as the scientific and technical discoveries of self-reproducing superintelligent mechanisms are applied to making themselves smarter still.&quot; (page 102)

==Mind uploading==
The book predicts mind uploading, a process by which a simulation of a human mind is transferred to a human-like robot (pages 108-112).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA108] The patterns of activity of the person's real biological brain are scanned and based on the observed patterns, a faithful simulation is created. This would enable extreme longevity by allowing the mind to transfer between a succession of robots, each new robot replacing a worn-out old one. The result would be not a true immortality but quasi-immortality. The book calls this &quot;transmigration&quot;.

One consequence the book predicts is a 1000fold increase of mind speed since the emulating hardware would not need to keep the emulation as slow as the real biological phenomenon (page 112).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA112]

A related term is &quot;whole brain emulation&quot;.

In a 1986 article, Moravec mentions that &quot;Vernor Vinge devised a particularly slow and gentle [mind] transfer method in True Names, his novel of the near future.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;moravec1986&quot;/&gt; True Names is from 1981.

Mind uploading via &quot;brain surgeon&quot; is already described in Moravec (1979).&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20230210114245/https://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1978/analog.1978.html Today's Computers, Intelligent Machines and Our Future] by Hans Moravec, 1979, [[wikidata:Q115765733|wikidata]], archived at archive.org&lt;/ref&gt;

==Pattern-identity position==
Related to mind uploading is Moravec ''pattern-identity'' position, which he contrasts to ''body-identity'' position. He starts by quoting someone's objection: &quot;Regardless of how the copying is done, the end result will be a new person.&quot; (page 116)[{{Gburl|56mb7XuSx3QC|PA116}}] This is in reference to mind uploading, called &quot;transmigration&quot;. The book goes on to argue that living bodies keep on renewing themselves, old cells dying and new cells being created, and therefore, what creates their identity across time are the continuing patterns. This line of argument leads him to claim that a perfect simulation of what was previously human mind in a biological body taking place in a human-like robot is pattern-identical to the original and thus identical. The idea is briefly mentioned in Moravec article online, with the &quot;pattern Identity&quot; spelling.&lt;ref name=moravec1986&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/19991012191440/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1986/dualism.html Dualism through Reductionism] by Hans Moravec, claimed to be from 1986, archived at archive.org&lt;/ref&gt; Bamfordand and Danaher mention Moravec and find similar treatment in Kurzweil (2000), Koene (2011) and Goertzel and Ikle (2012).&lt;ref&gt;[https://philpapers.org/archive/DANTOP.pdf Transfer of Personality to a Synthetic Human(‘Mind Uploading’) and the Social Construction of Identity] by Sim Bamfordand John Danaher, 2017&lt;/ref&gt;

==Performance boost==
As per above, the book predicts is a 1000fold increase of mind speed since the emulating hardware would not need to keep the emulation as slow as the real biological phenomenon (page 112).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA112]

A similar boost appears in Moravec (1977): 'Advantages become apparent as soon as the process is complete.
Somewhere in your machine is a control labelled &quot;speed&quot;.  It was initially set to &quot;slow&quot;, to enable the simulations to remain synchronized with the rest of your old brain, but now the setting is changed to &quot;fast&quot;. You can communicate, react and think at a thousand times your former rate. But this is only a minor first step.'.&lt;ref name=&quot;moravec1977&quot;/&gt;

==Space colonization==
Moravec envisions space colonization of other galaxies, going beyond our galaxy, the Milky Way. Since, as per Moravec, &quot;Sooner or later an unstoppable virus deadly to humans will evolve, or a major asteroid will collide with the earth, or the sun will expand, or we will be invaded from the stars, or a black hole will swallow the galaxy. The bigger, more diverse and competent a culture is, the better it can detect and deal with external dangers&quot;. (Similar passage is found in Moravec 1977 article.&lt;ref name=&quot;moravec1977&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20000829111714/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1977/smart Intelligent machines: How to get there from here and What to do afterwards] by Hans Moravec, 1977, archived at archive.org ([[Wikidata:Q115765098|wikidata]])&lt;/ref&gt;) The passage is intended to show that technological progress is necessary to avoid dangers, and since one of the dangers is a black hole swallowing the galaxy, the remedy must be to get beyond the galaxy. Further, &quot;Resurrecting one small planet should be child's play long before our civilization has colonized even its first galaxy&quot; (p. 124).&quot;

&quot;Eventually humans [...] will become unnecessary [...] as the scientific and technical discoveries of self-reproducing superintelligent are applied to making themselves smarter still. The new creations [...] will explode into the universe, leaving us behind in a cloud of dust.&quot; (page 102) The vague phrasing &quot;explode into the universe&quot; suggests the superintelligent machines will expand far beyond the Solar System.

Further evidence is this: &quot;A spectrum of scales will come to exist--from [...] to star-spanning superminds for big problems&quot; (page 125). It is not clear what &quot;star-spanning&quot; refers to, though: a supermind that is part of a star? Or a supermind that is spread across multiple star systems?

Further, &quot;The human race will expand into the solar system before long, and human-occupied space colonies will be part of that expansion.&quot; (page 101) And further, &quot;Imagine the immensely lucrative robot factories that could be built in the asteroids&quot;.

==Development beyond imagination==
Moravec seems to envision a world of thinking machines that will be beyond human imagination: &quot;A postbiological world dominated by self-improving thinking machines will be as different from our own world of living things as this world is different from the lifeless chemistry that preceded it. A population consisting of unfettered mind children is quite unimaginable. We are going to try to imagine some of the consequences anyway.&quot; (page 5)

==Resurrection==
The notion that faithful simulation of a human mind in a machine is as good as the original leads the book to conceptualize resurrection. Thus, &quot;Wholesale resurrection may be possible through the use of immense simulators.&quot; (page 123) And, &quot;It might be fun to resurrect all the past inhabitants of the earth this way and to give them the opportunity to share with us in the (ephemeral) immortality of transplanted minds.&quot; (page 124)

The above will be enabled by feats of simulation, for which see the next section.

The book's treatment of resurrection is covered in The New Atlantis article.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.thenewatlantis.com/futurisms/resurrecting-dead Resurrecting the Dead] by Adam Keiper, 2010, thenewatlantis.com&lt;/ref&gt;

==Simulation==
The book predicts incredible feats of simulation. In mind uploading, the whole brain of a human can be simulated in a human-like robot, faithful enough that the human can consider the result to be identical to themselves. But single human is not enough: &quot;Now, imagine an immense simulator (I imagine it made out of a superdense neutron star) that can model the whole surface of the earth on an atomic scale and can run time forward and back and produce different plausible outcomes by making different random choices at key points in its calculation. Because of the great detail, this simulator models living things, including humans, in their full complexity.&quot; (page 123, quoted in the &quot;No Loyalty to DNA&quot; review below)

==Unstopability of technological development==
Moravec argues that technological development of thinking machines is unlikely to be stopped, as a result of friendly or unfriendly competition between nations, and since these machines are key for very long term survival. Since &quot;If the United States were to unilaterally halt technological development (an occasionally fashionable idea), it would soon succumb either to the military might of unfriendly nations or to the economic success of its trading partners. Either way, the social ideals that lead to the decision would become unimportant on the world scale.&quot; (page 101) And further, &quot;If, by some unlikely pact, the whole human race decided to eschew progress, the long-term result would be almost certain extinction. The universe is one random event after another. Sooner or later an unstoppable virus deadly to humans will evolve, or a major asteroid will collide with the earth, or the sun will expand, or we will be invaded from the stars, or a black hole will swallow the galaxy. The bigger, more diverse and competent a culture is, the better it can detect and deal with external dangers&quot;.

==Nuclear war==
As per the book, &quot;Engaged for billions of years in a relentless, spiraling arms race with one another, our genes have finally outsmarted themselves. They have produced a weapon so powerful it will vanquish the losers and winners alike. This device is not the hydrogen bomb--widespread use of nuclear weapons would merely delay the immensely more interesting demise that has been engineered.&quot;

What the metaphors describe is the biological evolution of humans, who then are about to create a thinking machine, which will then obliterate its makers. What is remarkable is the idea that this will happen even in the case of a nuclear war, as if the resulting technological and social setback were just a minor step back to be overcome again given geological time. There is no idea of a limited window of opportunity.

==Nanotechnology==
The book assumes remarkable development in nanotechnology: &quot;Before long, conventional technologies, miniaturized down to the atomic scale, and biotechnology, its molecular interactions understood in detailed mechanical terms, will have merged into a seamless array of techniques encompassing all materials, sizes and complexities. Robots will then be made of a mix of fabulous substances, including, where appropriate, living biological materials.&quot; Apparently, no arbitrary combination, mixing and achievement is off limits.

==Immortality via accelerating time==
The extreme longevity achieved via mind uploading is apparently not enough. The book wants more and thinks it can be achieved. The book speculates that &quot;subjective infinity&quot; could be achieved by increasingly accelerating time at the end of the universe (pages 147-149). Indeed, in exponentially accelerating subjective time, a subjective sense of infinite life can be achieved in finite amount of time; think of Achilles and Tortoise. The book refers the ideas back to Freeman Dyson's ''Infinite in All Directions'' (1988) and Barrow and Tipler's ''The Anthropic Cosmological Principle''. Similar ideas were further developed by Tipler in his later ''The Physics of Immortality'', not referenced by Moravec. Similar ideas were developed as part of [[W:Dyson's eternal intelligence|Dyson's eternal intelligence]] concept in 1979 in Dyson's article ''[[Wikidata:Q21709592|Wikidata:Time without end: Physics and biology in an open universe]]''.

==Culture==
Moravec uses the word &quot;culture&quot; to cover not only human phenomena but also those of the superintelligent thinking machines. For instance, &quot;the human race has been swept away by the tide of cultural change, usurped by its own artificial progeny&quot;. The result is a curious rhetorical effect: without Moravec context, one would not use the phrase &quot;cultural change&quot; to refer to replacement of biologically embodied humans with artificial thinking machinery.

==Collaborators==
The book was edited with the help of Harvard Press. Reviews of drafts were written by Vernon Vinge, a singularitarian. Referees who provided comments included Rod Brooks, Richard Dawkins, Kee Dewdney, Bruce Donald, John Dowling, Bob Forward, John McCarthy, Pamela McCorduck and others.

==Criticism==
Original criticism of the book follows:
* Generally, the book belongs to the field of science-fiction even if it does not present itself as such.
* Development of human-level intelligence in silicon may be impossible; we do not know. There are limits of what can be done in physics, and the limits of what can be done in carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and other elements of living things via growth from tiny biological cells may differ from the limits of what can be done in silicon via manufacturing and the differences in the limits may be unfavorable to silicon. If it is not so, the book should analyze why not, but it does not do that. The book does nothing to show possibility. Extrapolation from temporary exponential growths of computing capability into many decades into future is no solid science; if experience teaches us anything, all apparent exponential growths in nature are in fact logistic growths, S-curve growths.
* In retrospect, the prediction of human-level intelligence for supercomputers by 2010 already failed. The prediction was made by extrapolation of technology growth data points. This provides tangible evidence for how problematic such extrapolation is.
* Mind uploading and emulation in silicon may be impossible. The book does nothing to show possibility.
* Space colonization, including Mars, may be impossible. The book does nothing to show possibility.
* Simulation of the surface of the whole Earth including all living things in a neutron star sees to be a pure unfettered fantasy.
* Immortality via accelerating time approaches pure speculation, whether done by Moravec or Tipler.
* Humans may dislike being uploaded into machines as mere simulacra and may take steps to prevent silicon-based machinery from taking over the biology.
* No mention is made of the need of the machines to preserve the Earth's biosphere in its actual form to sustain the planetary homeostasis (which simulated analogs cannot do), to ensure sufficient energy sources to last for ages, to avoid hugely disruptive changes to planetary environments, and to ensure material recycling of machine bodies or run the risk of running out of mined raw materials, in contrast to the marvelous recycling of matter achieved by the actual living things. All these problems are either supposed to not exist or to be soluble with the use of the developed machine superintelligence, none of which is necessarily true. The biosphere and the living things are largely left without mention, except when they appear in the word &quot;postbiological&quot;, which implies their absence or irrelevance.
* Dangerous technological progress can be stopped as a result of international treaties, provided enough powerful countries agree and are ready to enforce their will to stop the lethal threat to genuine biological humans (as opposed to simulacra) against other countries that disagree. The requirement of developing thinking machines to get the minds out of this galaxy (since, beware of the black hole) is very unrealistic given current knowledge.

==Reception==
Joseph Weizenbaum warned that &quot;Mind Children&quot; was as dangerous as &quot;Mein Kampf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/books/reviews/robot1108.htm Robot: Mere Machine to Transcendent Mind (Books &amp; Reading: Book Reviews)], 1998, washingtonpost.com&lt;/ref&gt;

Moravec mind uploading was covered in detail, including a full quote, in Jerry Mander's ''In the Absence of the Sacred'', 1991, a book critical of the uncritical acceptance of all development of new technology by the Western industrial civilization.

Moravec mind uploading was taken note of in Hayles 1999:&lt;ref&gt;[https://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/321460.htm Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman, prologue], press.uchicago.edu&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Writing nearly four decades after Turing, Hans Moravec proposed that human identity is essentially an informational pattern rather than an embodied enaction. The proposition can be demonstrated, he suggested, by downloading human consciousness into a computer, and he imagined a scenario designed to show that this was in principle possible.&quot; For soem reason, Hayles speaks of downloading rather than uploading.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20221224011623/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/MC.details.html Book info for Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence, Hans Moravec, 1988], frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20221218091406/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/reviews/ Book Reviews of Mind Children: the future of robot and human intelligence], frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org
** [http://web.archive.org/web/20221218091406/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/reviews/881023.WashPost.html ANYTHING WE CAN DO THEY CAN DO BETTER], frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org
** [http://web.archive.org/web/20221218093149/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/reviews/890101.NYT.html THE SOULS OF THE NEW MACHINES], frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org
** [http://web.archive.org/web/20221218091411/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/reviews/890109.NewYorker.html No Loyalty to DNA], The New Yorker, 1989, frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org -- has multiple quotes
* [[W:Hans Moravec#Mind Children]]
* [[W:Mind uploading]]
* [https://www.nature.com/articles/336284a0.pdf?origin=ppub Strolling up the garden path] by Igor Aleksander, 1988, nature.com, a review of Mind Children
* [https://www.wired.com/1995/10/moravec/ Superhumanism], 1995, wired.com
* [https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1990/02/01/matter-over-mind/ Matter Over Mind] (a review of Mind Children) by Roger Penrose, 1990, nybooks.com
* [https://monoskop.org/images/5/59/Dixon_Joan_Broadhurst_Cassidy_Eric_J_eds_Virtual_Futures_Cyberotics_Technology_and_Posthuman_Pragmatism.pdf Virtual Futures: Cyberotics, Technology and Post-human Pragmatism], edited by Joan Broadhurst Dixon, Eric Cassidy, 1998, monoskop.org
* [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19940022855/downloads/19940022855.pdf The Universal Robot] in Vision-21 Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in the Era of Cyberspace, by Hans Moravec, 1993, nasa.gov -- presents some of the ideas from Mind Children
* [https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674576186 Mind Children — Harvard University Press], hup.harvard.edu -- has a short description of the book
* [https://www.goodreads.com/en/book/show/648195.Mind_Children Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence by Hans Moravec], goodreads.com -- has over 22 reviews

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This original article by Dan Polansky describes book ''Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence'' by [[Hans Moravec]], 1988. The book is mentioned in the Encyclopedia Britannica article on the author, making it somewhat notable. The book can perhaps be best described as science-fiction without a plot, packed with more interesting ideas than most science-fiction novels, albeit presented as a description of actual future.

Page references in this article are for the paperback edition, {{ISBN|0-674-57618-7}}.

==Destruction of living things and humans==
The preface suggests that robots will be developed that will be comfortable with destroying humans and perhaps other living things as well (page 1).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA1] The language is not wholly explicit; the wording used is that &quot;They [the genes] have produced a weapon so powerful it will vanquish the losers and winners alike&quot;, and &quot;the human race has been swept away by the tide of cultural change, usurped by its own artificial progeny&quot;. Here, &quot;artificial progeny&quot; refers to robots. A possible consolation is that some of these robots will be emulating individual human minds, thereby ensuring their continuing quasi-existence; see section [[#Mind uploading|Mind uploading]].

==The mind children metaphor==
The metaphor of &quot;mind children&quot; has powerful rhetorical effect. It implies that since humans are fine to pass the future to their biological children, they should be equally fine to pass it to the children of the mind, the superintelligent thinking machines or robots. Marvin Minsky is happy to pass the future to them, and refers to Hans Moravec and his mind children metaphor.&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20240416110125/https://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/papers/sciam.inherit.html Will Robots Inherit the Earth?] by Marvin Minsky, 1994, archived at archive.org&lt;/ref&gt;

Moravec's use of the mind children metaphor seems to be criticized by Al-Mafraje 2023.&lt;ref&gt;[https://uia.brage.unit.no/uia-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/3072513/no.uia%3Ainspera%3A146525594%3A2111965.pdf?sequence=1 From Brave New World to Ready Player One; yesterday’s dystopias as tomorrow’s utopias]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Artificial intelligence predictions==
The book predicts human-level intelligence for supercomputers by 2010 and for personal computers by 2030 (pages 64 and 68).

==Self-improving thinking machines==
The book says: &quot;Sooner or later our machines will become knowledgeable enough to handle their own maintenance, reproduction and self-improvement without help. When this happens, the new genetic takeover will be complete. Our culture will then be able to evolve independently of human biology and its limitations, passing instead directly from generation to generation of ever more capable intelligent machinery.&quot; (page 4).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA4&amp;dq=%22Sooner+or+later+our+machines+will+become+knowledgeable+enough+to+handle+their+own+maintenance%22&amp;source=bl]

And, &quot;A postbiological world dominated by self-improving thinking machines will be as different from our own world of living things as this world is different from the lifeless chemistry that preceded it. A population consisting of unfettered mind children is quite unimaginable. We are going to try to imagine some of the consequences anyway.&quot; (page 5)

Further, &quot;Eventually humans [...] will become unnecessary [...] as the scientific and technical discoveries of self-reproducing superintelligent mechanisms are applied to making themselves smarter still.&quot; (page 102)

==Mind uploading==
The book predicts mind uploading, a process by which a simulation of a human mind is transferred to a human-like robot (pages 108-112).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA108] The patterns of activity of the person's real biological brain are scanned and based on the observed patterns, a faithful simulation is created. This would enable extreme longevity by allowing the mind to transfer between a succession of robots, each new robot replacing a worn-out old one. The result would be not a true immortality but quasi-immortality. The book calls this &quot;transmigration&quot;.

One consequence the book predicts is a 1000fold increase of mind speed since the emulating hardware would not need to keep the emulation as slow as the real biological phenomenon (page 112).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA112]

A related term is &quot;whole brain emulation&quot;.

In a 1986 article, Moravec mentions that &quot;Vernor Vinge devised a particularly slow and gentle [mind] transfer method in True Names, his novel of the near future.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;moravec1986&quot;/&gt; True Names is from 1981.

Mind uploading via &quot;brain surgeon&quot; is already described in Moravec (1979).&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.archive.org/web/20230210114245/https://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1978/analog.1978.html Today's Computers, Intelligent Machines and Our Future] by Hans Moravec, 1979, [[wikidata:Q115765733|wikidata]], archived at archive.org&lt;/ref&gt;

==Pattern-identity position==
Related to mind uploading is Moravec ''pattern-identity'' position, which he contrasts to ''body-identity'' position. He starts by quoting someone's objection: &quot;Regardless of how the copying is done, the end result will be a new person.&quot; (page 116)[{{Gburl|56mb7XuSx3QC|PA116}}] This is in reference to mind uploading, called &quot;transmigration&quot;. The book goes on to argue that living bodies keep on renewing themselves, old cells dying and new cells being created, and therefore, what creates their identity across time are the continuing patterns. This line of argument leads him to claim that a perfect simulation of what was previously human mind in a biological body taking place in a human-like robot is pattern-identical to the original and thus identical. The idea is briefly mentioned in Moravec article online, with the &quot;pattern Identity&quot; spelling.&lt;ref name=moravec1986&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/19991012191440/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1986/dualism.html Dualism through Reductionism] by Hans Moravec, claimed to be from 1986, archived at archive.org&lt;/ref&gt; Bamfordand and Danaher mention Moravec and find similar treatment in Kurzweil (2000), Koene (2011) and Goertzel and Ikle (2012).&lt;ref&gt;[https://philpapers.org/archive/DANTOP.pdf Transfer of Personality to a Synthetic Human(‘Mind Uploading’) and the Social Construction of Identity] by Sim Bamfordand John Danaher, 2017&lt;/ref&gt;

==Performance boost==
As per above, the book predicts is a 1000fold increase of mind speed since the emulating hardware would not need to keep the emulation as slow as the real biological phenomenon (page 112).[https://books.google.com/books?id=56mb7XuSx3QC&amp;pg=PA112]

A similar boost appears in Moravec (1977): 'Advantages become apparent as soon as the process is complete.
Somewhere in your machine is a control labelled &quot;speed&quot;.  It was initially set to &quot;slow&quot;, to enable the simulations to remain synchronized with the rest of your old brain, but now the setting is changed to &quot;fast&quot;. You can communicate, react and think at a thousand times your former rate. But this is only a minor first step.'.&lt;ref name=&quot;moravec1977&quot;/&gt;

==Space colonization==
Moravec envisions space colonization of other galaxies, going beyond our galaxy, the Milky Way. Since, as per Moravec, &quot;Sooner or later an unstoppable virus deadly to humans will evolve, or a major asteroid will collide with the earth, or the sun will expand, or we will be invaded from the stars, or a black hole will swallow the galaxy. The bigger, more diverse and competent a culture is, the better it can detect and deal with external dangers&quot;. (Similar passage is found in Moravec 1977 article.&lt;ref name=&quot;moravec1977&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20000829111714/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1977/smart Intelligent machines: How to get there from here and What to do afterwards] by Hans Moravec, 1977, archived at archive.org ([[Wikidata:Q115765098|wikidata]])&lt;/ref&gt;) The passage is intended to show that technological progress is necessary to avoid dangers, and since one of the dangers is a black hole swallowing the galaxy, the remedy must be to get beyond the galaxy. Further, &quot;Resurrecting one small planet should be child's play long before our civilization has colonized even its first galaxy&quot; (p. 124).&quot;

&quot;Eventually humans [...] will become unnecessary [...] as the scientific and technical discoveries of self-reproducing superintelligent are applied to making themselves smarter still. The new creations [...] will explode into the universe, leaving us behind in a cloud of dust.&quot; (page 102) The vague phrasing &quot;explode into the universe&quot; suggests the superintelligent machines will expand far beyond the Solar System.

Further evidence is this: &quot;A spectrum of scales will come to exist--from [...] to star-spanning superminds for big problems&quot; (page 125). It is not clear what &quot;star-spanning&quot; refers to, though: a supermind that is part of a star? Or a supermind that is spread across multiple star systems?

Further, &quot;The human race will expand into the solar system before long, and human-occupied space colonies will be part of that expansion.&quot; (page 101) And further, &quot;Imagine the immensely lucrative robot factories that could be built in the asteroids&quot;.

==Development beyond imagination==
Moravec seems to envision a world of thinking machines that will be beyond human imagination: &quot;A postbiological world dominated by self-improving thinking machines will be as different from our own world of living things as this world is different from the lifeless chemistry that preceded it. A population consisting of unfettered mind children is quite unimaginable. We are going to try to imagine some of the consequences anyway.&quot; (page 5)

==Resurrection==
The notion that faithful simulation of a human mind in a machine is as good as the original leads the book to conceptualize resurrection. Thus, &quot;Wholesale resurrection may be possible through the use of immense simulators.&quot; (page 123) And, &quot;It might be fun to resurrect all the past inhabitants of the earth this way and to give them the opportunity to share with us in the (ephemeral) immortality of transplanted minds.&quot; (page 124)

The above will be enabled by feats of simulation, for which see the next section.

The book's treatment of resurrection is covered in The New Atlantis article.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.thenewatlantis.com/futurisms/resurrecting-dead Resurrecting the Dead] by Adam Keiper, 2010, thenewatlantis.com&lt;/ref&gt;

==Simulation==
The book predicts incredible feats of simulation. In mind uploading, the whole brain of a human can be simulated in a human-like robot, faithful enough that the human can consider the result to be identical to themselves. But single human is not enough: &quot;Now, imagine an immense simulator (I imagine it made out of a superdense neutron star) that can model the whole surface of the earth on an atomic scale and can run time forward and back and produce different plausible outcomes by making different random choices at key points in its calculation. Because of the great detail, this simulator models living things, including humans, in their full complexity.&quot; (page 123, quoted in the &quot;No Loyalty to DNA&quot; review below)

==Unstopability of technological development==
Moravec argues that technological development of thinking machines is unlikely to be stopped, as a result of friendly or unfriendly competition between nations, and since these machines are key for very long term survival. Since &quot;If the United States were to unilaterally halt technological development (an occasionally fashionable idea), it would soon succumb either to the military might of unfriendly nations or to the economic success of its trading partners. Either way, the social ideals that lead to the decision would become unimportant on the world scale.&quot; (page 101) And further, &quot;If, by some unlikely pact, the whole human race decided to eschew progress, the long-term result would be almost certain extinction. The universe is one random event after another. Sooner or later an unstoppable virus deadly to humans will evolve, or a major asteroid will collide with the earth, or the sun will expand, or we will be invaded from the stars, or a black hole will swallow the galaxy. The bigger, more diverse and competent a culture is, the better it can detect and deal with external dangers&quot;.

==Nuclear war==
As per the book, &quot;Engaged for billions of years in a relentless, spiraling arms race with one another, our genes have finally outsmarted themselves. They have produced a weapon so powerful it will vanquish the losers and winners alike. This device is not the hydrogen bomb--widespread use of nuclear weapons would merely delay the immensely more interesting demise that has been engineered.&quot;

What the metaphors describe is the biological evolution of humans, who then are about to create a thinking machine, which will then obliterate its makers. What is remarkable is the idea that this will happen even in the case of a nuclear war, as if the resulting technological and social setback were just a minor step back to be overcome again given geological time. There is no idea of a limited window of opportunity.

==Nanotechnology==
The book assumes remarkable development in nanotechnology: &quot;Before long, conventional technologies, miniaturized down to the atomic scale, and biotechnology, its molecular interactions understood in detailed mechanical terms, will have merged into a seamless array of techniques encompassing all materials, sizes and complexities. Robots will then be made of a mix of fabulous substances, including, where appropriate, living biological materials.&quot; Apparently, no arbitrary combination, mixing and achievement is off limits.

==Immortality via accelerating time==
The extreme longevity achieved via mind uploading is apparently not enough. The book wants more and thinks it can be achieved. The book speculates that &quot;subjective infinity&quot; could be achieved by increasingly accelerating time at the end of the universe (pages 147-149). Indeed, in exponentially accelerating subjective time, a subjective sense of infinite life can be achieved in finite amount of time; think of Achilles and Tortoise. The book refers the ideas back to Freeman Dyson's ''Infinite in All Directions'' (1988) and Barrow and Tipler's ''The Anthropic Cosmological Principle''. Similar ideas were further developed by Tipler in his later ''The Physics of Immortality'', not referenced by Moravec. Similar ideas were developed as part of [[W:Dyson's eternal intelligence|Dyson's eternal intelligence]] concept in 1979 in Dyson's article ''[[Wikidata:Q21709592|Wikidata:Time without end: Physics and biology in an open universe]]''.

==Culture==
Moravec uses the word &quot;culture&quot; to cover not only human phenomena but also those of the superintelligent thinking machines. For instance, &quot;the human race has been swept away by the tide of cultural change, usurped by its own artificial progeny&quot;. The result is a curious rhetorical effect: without Moravec context, one would not use the phrase &quot;cultural change&quot; to refer to replacement of biologically embodied humans with artificial thinking machinery.

==Collaborators==
The book was edited with the help of Harvard Press. Reviews of drafts were written by Vernon Vinge, a singularitarian. Referees who provided comments included Rod Brooks, Richard Dawkins, Kee Dewdney, Bruce Donald, John Dowling, Bob Forward, John McCarthy, Pamela McCorduck and others.

==Criticism==
Original criticism of the book follows:
* Generally, the book belongs to the field of science-fiction even if it does not present itself as such.
* Development of human-level intelligence in silicon may be impossible; we do not know. There are limits of what can be done in physics, and the limits of what can be done in carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and other elements of living things via growth from tiny biological cells may differ from the limits of what can be done in silicon via manufacturing and the differences in the limits may be unfavorable to silicon. If it is not so, the book should analyze why not, but it does not do that. The book does nothing to show possibility. Extrapolation from temporary exponential growths of computing capability into many decades into future is no solid science; if experience teaches us anything, all apparent exponential growths in nature are in fact logistic growths, S-curve growths.
* In retrospect, the prediction of human-level intelligence for supercomputers by 2010 already failed. The prediction was made by extrapolation of technology growth data points. This provides tangible evidence for how problematic such extrapolation is.
* Mind uploading and emulation in silicon may be impossible. The book does nothing to show possibility.
* Space colonization, including Mars, may be impossible. The book does nothing to show possibility.
* Simulation of the surface of the whole Earth including all living things in a neutron star sees to be a pure unfettered fantasy.
* Immortality via accelerating time approaches pure speculation, whether done by Moravec or Tipler.
* Humans may dislike being uploaded into machines as mere simulacra and may take steps to prevent silicon-based machinery from taking over the biology.
* No mention is made of the need of the machines to preserve the Earth's biosphere in its actual form to sustain the planetary homeostasis (which simulated analogs cannot do), to ensure sufficient energy sources to last for ages, to avoid hugely disruptive changes to planetary environments, and to ensure material recycling of machine bodies or run the risk of running out of mined raw materials, in contrast to the marvelous recycling of matter achieved by the actual living things. All these problems are either supposed to not exist or to be soluble with the use of the developed machine superintelligence, none of which is necessarily true. The biosphere and the living things are largely left without mention, except when they appear in the word &quot;postbiological&quot;, which implies their absence or irrelevance.
* Dangerous technological progress can be stopped as a result of international treaties, provided enough powerful countries agree and are ready to enforce their will to stop the lethal threat to genuine biological humans (as opposed to simulacra) against other countries that disagree. The requirement of developing thinking machines to get the minds out of this galaxy (since, beware of the black hole) is very unrealistic given current knowledge.
* Expanding on the above, some entity very fearful of technological progress endangering biosphere could even launch a thermonuclear war. The thinking could be as follows. The consequences of a thermonuclear war are going to be very bad for the biosphere, including humankind and other species. The destruction would be huge. But even so, humans may be able to survive as a species and it may still be better than allowing technological entities foreign to biology erase the biosphere as allegedly obsolete, plodding (evolving too slowly), etc. (This is perhaps not entirely convicning and would require a solid analysis.)

==Reception==
Joseph Weizenbaum warned that &quot;Mind Children&quot; was as dangerous as &quot;Mein Kampf.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/books/reviews/robot1108.htm Robot: Mere Machine to Transcendent Mind (Books &amp; Reading: Book Reviews)], 1998, washingtonpost.com&lt;/ref&gt;

Moravec mind uploading was covered in detail, including a full quote, in Jerry Mander's ''In the Absence of the Sacred'', 1991, a book critical of the uncritical acceptance of all development of new technology by the Western industrial civilization.

Moravec mind uploading was taken note of in Hayles 1999:&lt;ref&gt;[https://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/321460.htm Katherine Hayles, How We Became Posthuman, prologue], press.uchicago.edu&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Writing nearly four decades after Turing, Hans Moravec proposed that human identity is essentially an informational pattern rather than an embodied enaction. The proposition can be demonstrated, he suggested, by downloading human consciousness into a computer, and he imagined a scenario designed to show that this was in principle possible.&quot; For soem reason, Hayles speaks of downloading rather than uploading.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading==
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20221224011623/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/MC.details.html Book info for Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence, Hans Moravec, 1988], frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20221218091406/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/reviews/ Book Reviews of Mind Children: the future of robot and human intelligence], frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org
** [http://web.archive.org/web/20221218091406/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/reviews/881023.WashPost.html ANYTHING WE CAN DO THEY CAN DO BETTER], frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org
** [http://web.archive.org/web/20221218093149/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/reviews/890101.NYT.html THE SOULS OF THE NEW MACHINES], frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org
** [http://web.archive.org/web/20221218091411/https://frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/book88/reviews/890109.NewYorker.html No Loyalty to DNA], The New Yorker, 1989, frc.ri.cmu.edu, archived at archive.org -- has multiple quotes
* [[W:Hans Moravec#Mind Children]]
* [[W:Mind uploading]]
* [https://www.nature.com/articles/336284a0.pdf?origin=ppub Strolling up the garden path] by Igor Aleksander, 1988, nature.com, a review of Mind Children
* [https://www.wired.com/1995/10/moravec/ Superhumanism], 1995, wired.com
* [https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1990/02/01/matter-over-mind/ Matter Over Mind] (a review of Mind Children) by Roger Penrose, 1990, nybooks.com
* [https://monoskop.org/images/5/59/Dixon_Joan_Broadhurst_Cassidy_Eric_J_eds_Virtual_Futures_Cyberotics_Technology_and_Posthuman_Pragmatism.pdf Virtual Futures: Cyberotics, Technology and Post-human Pragmatism], edited by Joan Broadhurst Dixon, Eric Cassidy, 1998, monoskop.org
* [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19940022855/downloads/19940022855.pdf The Universal Robot] in Vision-21 Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in the Era of Cyberspace, by Hans Moravec, 1993, nasa.gov -- presents some of the ideas from Mind Children
* [https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674576186 Mind Children — Harvard University Press], hup.harvard.edu -- has a short description of the book
* [https://www.goodreads.com/en/book/show/648195.Mind_Children Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence by Hans Moravec], goodreads.com -- has over 22 reviews

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Not scientifically proven to be solved: ⬜

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    <title>An analysis of truth</title>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates the concept of truth and some closely related topics. One could think the concept of truth is so simple and direct that it needs no analysis at all. However, since various thinkers have analyzed the concept and cast it into doubt, it seems worth a little while to analyze it anyway. Moreover, one finds that assignment of truth values to sentences in natural language is not entirely unproblematic: some sentences have no truth value, some are ambiguous (and therefore, the truth value is not given before the ambiguity is resolved) and some would arguably benefit from truth value being a real or fractional number ranging from 0 to 1 rather than being one of true and untrue.

If one does not really care about truth (and thus, truth about truth), one may sweep various concerns and quandaries concerning the concept of truth under the carpet, and happily claim that all is fine with truth and that any putative problems are likely to be pseudo-problems. This shows how important truth is as a regulative principle of intellectual endeavors.

==Keeping truth undefined==
One approach to the definition of truth is this. Truth is something very simple and basic, a concept that children master at the age of, say, three. The child learns how to respond to certain sentences with &quot;that is not true&quot; (or the like) productively. Later, a school child can learn logic without ever bothering with a definition of truth; one can take university courses on various logics without ever bothering with the definition. There is no serious problem concerning truth from which one could learn something important. It is fine to leave the concept of truth undefined.

This anti-philosophical approach has its merits, but we will look at truth anyway.

==First impression==
Truth is a property of certain kinds of objects. Candidate kinds of objects are as follows:
* sentences
* interpreted sentences
* sentence meanings abstracting away from the sentence and its language
* propositions
* propositional beliefs (sentential beliefs)

Some kinds of representation do not have a truth value:
* drawings
* paintings
* photographs
* maps
* non-propositional beliefs

In the following, we will work with the hypothesis that it is sentences that have truth value, albeit via their meaning.

Not all sentences have truth value. Thus, question sentences and imperatives have no truth value. Furthermore, one can debate about whether certain kinds of ought-sentences have truth value or rather are something like imperatives in disguise.

One can get an idea by means of simple everyday examples:
* The sentence &quot;two plus two equals four&quot; is true.
* The sentence &quot;two plus two equals five&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;there is no maximum prime number&quot; is true.
* The sentence &quot;there is a maximum prime number&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;potable water is poisonous to humans&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;there is a dog barking on the street&quot; is false/untrue if there is in fact no dog barking.

But then, what is an abstract characterization or criteria that distinguish true sentences from untrue sentences? One characterization is this: the word &quot;true&quot; is X such that stating &quot;It is X that Y&quot; means the same as &quot;Y&quot; for relevant kinds of Y. More on this is in the next section.

==Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth ==
By considering Tarski's theory of truth, mentioned by Popper, we may obtain a simple and clear idea that can serve as a practical definition of truth. The idea is captured in the following axiom schema, where X is a sentence:
* Sentence &quot;X&quot; is true if and only if X.
The specific axioms are obtained from the scheme by replacing X with specific sentences. Thus:
* Sentence &quot;It rains in Oslo&quot; is true if and only if it rains in Oslo.

Above, X is not a variable of quantification but of textual substitution. We can wish to obtain a definition that characterizes the truth of sentence ''s'' by linking ''s'' to other objects or characteristics of ''s'', but this is avoided. In predicate logic, when ''s'' is a variable of quantification, &quot;s&quot; is not a formula, whereas &quot;isTrue(s)&quot; can be a formula, as well as e.g. &quot;correspondsTo(s, reality)&quot;. The right-hand part of the axiom schema does not say anything about X; it just textually places X after &quot;if&quot;.

Thus, if the learner of English did not know the meaning of the word &quot;true&quot;, now they should have a decent first idea. However, possible problems with truth values of sentences such as ambiguity, vagueness, being merely approximate, etc. are not addressed by this treatment.

The above is merely inspired by Tarski's theory of truth rather than being identical to it: Tarski's theory is a technical one, depending on the contrast between object language and metalanguage.

Wikipedia's section about folk theory of truth states: &quot;The folk theory of truth is useful in everyday life but, upon deep analysis, turns out to be technically self-contradictory.&quot; This is unconvincing since: 1) folk theory is not technical and therefore cannot be ''technically'' self-contradictory, 2) it is not obvious that liar paradox (see [[#Liar paradox|dedicated section below]]) cannot be resolved by the claim that some descriptive sentences have no truth value or by other means and 3) even if there is a locus of contradiction in the folk theory, a member of the folk would not blindly run formal inference from the contradiction to produce all well formed sentences as allegedly true but would rather isolate the locus of contradiction and avoid making any inferences from it. Thus, arguably, the folk theory has more merits than the critics admit.

Links:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#TarTheTru 2. Tarski’s theory of truth] in Truth, SEP
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/tarski-truth/ Tarski’s Truth Definitions], SEP
* [https://iep.utm.edu/truth/#H4 4. Tarski’s Semantic Theory] in Truth, IEP
* {{W|Truth#Folk beliefs}}, wikipedia.org

==Ambiguity==
Since in general, words have multiple meanings/semantics, sentences also have multiple meanings/semantics. This limits out ability to assign unique truth value to sentences. It is less problematic when there is enough context for disambiguation. However, whether the disambiguation is ever perfect is perhaps debatable.

Expressions in imperative programming languages have radically unambiguous execution semantics. This suggests a great success can be reached in certain fields of unambiguous codification. One can expect to be able to reach similar unambiguity when one codifies mathematical axioms using the language of first-order logic.

Software requirements, written in natural language, are often required to be unambiguous.

==Approximate truth==
There many everyday examples of perfectly true sentences. However, many sentences are approximately true, and we often do not bother to explicitly say so. Thus, we may say:
* &quot;The orbit of Mars around the Sun is elliptical.&quot;
This cannot be exactly true since Mars is gravitationally impacted not only by the Sun, whereas the elliptical orbit would be perfectly so only if Mars and Sun were the only mass objects impacting the trajectory.

We may choose to be more accurate:
* &quot;The orbit of Mars around the Sun is very closely elliptical.&quot;

By a similar token, Newtonian gravitational theory is a very good approximation for small speeds, but not for high speeds. Instead of saying that Newtonian theory is true, we may use the Popperian term &quot;verisimilitude&quot;: the theory has a good but imperfect verisimilitude, or is similar to truth but not exactly true.

Another approximation is the statement that &quot;humans have four nasal cavities&quot;; some individual humans do not have all four of them. Similarly, &quot;humans have one head&quot;, but that is not true for all humans. Also, &quot;humans have either XX or XY chromozomes&quot;, but that is not exactly accurate either.

==Accuracy==
The word &quot;accuracy&quot; can sometimes be used instead of &quot;truth&quot;. One speaks of higher or smaller accuracy. Accuracy stands in contrast to precision, following Russell's prescription. Per this usage, precision captures something like the resolution or detail with which one says something. Loose or non-native speakers of English may say &quot;precision&quot; or &quot;imprecise&quot; and mean &quot;accuracy&quot; or &quot;inaccurate&quot;.

==Theoretical entities==
Mendelian genetic theory posits Mendelian genes. But no one has ever observed these directly, and as far as I know, there is no mapping from Mendelian genes to DNA letter sequences. Nonetheless, the theory seems to be empirically adequate: it makes testable predictions about entities that can be directly observed. Thus, on one hand, one may deny the truth of statements about genes, since genes do not really exist, and yet, one may be very ready to make statements about genes, since their predictions are empirically adequate and as long as one speaks within Mendelian theory, genes are posited. At the same time, as long as the communication partners know they are talking within the Mendelian theory and know that the genes are theoretical rather than observational entities, they do not deceive each other by talking about genes.

==Artificial slicing into entities==
Sentences imply a certain slicing of reality into entities or entity types which is not always objectively given. Nonetheless, as long as the slicing is well defined, one can argue that sentences are true even if the slicing is arbitrary. However, the arbitrariness of the slicing may limit the degree to which the sentences reflect reality.

As an example, we may slice the phases of English into Old English and Middle English, positing no other entity in between. Then we may assign words as belonging to one or both of these phases. But there is something conventional about this slicing. The slicing and the sentences using it posit an implied sharp boundary between the two entities that may not exist in reality. The conventionality of a possible slicing stands in contrast to the efforts of biologists to as-if cut the reality at its joints when identifying taxa such as species and genera. Thus, the taxa are aimed to correspond to something real and observable, not merely something conventional and practical.

The arbitrariness of certain slicings can be perhaps likened to artificial borders between countries. Some borders are less artificial, such as those following the course of a river or following the structures of mountains. Upon first impression, one could think a Martian could not detect the borders upon a quick inspection. But it is not so simple; once different regulatory regimes are adopted on different sides of the border, the border can very well be physically recognizable: for instance, one side of the border can have a very loose policy for cutting tree, unlike the other side.

This is to some extent relating to the subject of fuzzy logic below, but seems distinct.

==Timelessness of truth==
Truth value of an interpreted sentence utterance or occurrence is timeless, not changing in time. However, this is not so for the truth value of an uninterpreted context-free sentence understood as a sequence of words with no additional context information such as the speaker/writer, time of utterance, etc.

One concern is of changes in definition: the sentence &quot;Pluto (heavenly body) is a planet&quot;, taken as a sequence of words with no time or context of utterance, has no definite truth value since the definition of the concept of planet has changed in such a way that Pluto was a planet before but not after the change. One could imagine expanding the sentence with a link to a defining dictionary, e.g. &quot;Pluto (heavenly body) is a planet [term definitions from Merriam-Webster, 2020-01-01]&quot;, but this is not customary, and Merriam-Webster does not present entry revision histories for this to actually work. Moreover, Merriam-Webster's definition is not technical enough to exclude Pluto; one would have to load the definition from International Astronomical Union (IAU).

The above problem is reduced when one considers not sentences as context-free sequences of words but as sentence utterances or occurrences, having an auditory or textual context, the speaker/writer, utterance time, etc. One can then figure out from context the time of utterance and the applicable definition of &quot;planet&quot; at the time of the utterance.

Another case of failed timelessness is with sentences like &quot;it is raining [here] today&quot;. Again, the context-free sentence has no truth value although it does have a context-free meaning/semantics, but the sentence-utterance/occurrence does have a truth value since it provides specific referents for &quot;today&quot; and &quot;here&quot;.

==Kuhnian paradigm==
One may wonder about the impact of Kuhnian paradigms on the concept of truth and slicing into entities. For example, prior to chemical revolution, there was no way to say that X is a physical mixture while Y is a chemically pure substance since the conceptual distinction was not there. Similarly, Priestly is alleged to have thought to hold in his hands dephlogisticated air, having no concept of oxygen. Thus, the general state of knowledge limits the kind of sentences (from the conceptual rather than lexical perspective) one can form, and which truths can be expressed. Whether this detracts from the concept of truth is unclear; even before the chemical revolution, one could accurately say &quot;water is a substance&quot; as opposed to the inaccurate/untrue &quot;water is a solid object&quot;.

==Scientific truth==
The problems of scientific truth seem to be related to multiple subjects picked above, including approximate truth and theoretical entities. One interesting thing about scientific truth is that it seems more liable to these problems than everyday statements such as &quot;there is a dog on the street&quot;. Paradoxically, in some ways, ordinary people dealing with ordinary affairs may seem to more often trade in perfect truth than scientists relying on models that are to some extent tentative or approximate. However, this is rather speculative and would require a deeper analysis and perhaps sourcing; it concerns an empirical hypothesis, to be tested empirically to some extent.

A field of inquiry adept in eliminating ambiguity and arriving in near-certain truth that is nowhere close to approximate is mathematics. However, according to modern classification terminology, mathematics is not science; &quot;science&quot; refers to empirical sciences such as the prime science physics. Moreover, some theories of existence of mathematical objects (numbers, geometric shapes, etc.) deny genuine existence to them.

==Fuzzy logic==
Many words such as &quot;hill&quot; intuitively do not apply either fully or not at all; they may apply somewhat. Thus, one may think of something as a 0.25-hill, 0.5-hill or 0.75-hill. Indeed, one would think of the transition from a hill to a mountain to be continuous. Thus, if one says &quot;This is a hill&quot; but really thinks &quot;This is a 0.75-hill&quot;, this makes the original sentence not entirely true, but far from untrue. This is a limitation from the point of view of the kind of logic that classifies sentences into true and untrue ones. Nonetheless, one can say &quot;This is something of a hill&quot; or &quot;This is something between a hill and a mountain&quot;, and the problem disappears.

To understand this simple concept, one does not need to study the technicalities of fuzzy logic, which is a mathematical structure with engineering applications.

==Self-reference==
This very article aims at presenting true sentences to the reader, even if it may fail here and there. If the article had no such intention, it could very well define truth as &quot;any black cat that broke a vase&quot; and be done with it.

Self-reference is also of concern in the criticism of the concept of truth. Since, if the critic does not aim to raise true or at least ''valid'' objections or reservations against the concept of truth, why should we care? However, the critic may object that one can reveal problems with the concept of truth even by means of sentences that are not perfectly true, e.g. are merely approximately true, are metaphorical, etc. That response seems to be true or valid enough: things said by a sentence and things revealed by a sentence are two distinct things.

Self-reference plays a role in section [[#Liar paradox|Liar paradox]].

==Theories of truth==
As of now, this article treat of most theories of truth in a limited way. This shortcoming is planned to be addressed by a later expansion. In the meantime, one can learn about various theories of truth in the linked further reading.

==Truth as correspondence to fact==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. One observation: this definition shifts the definition burden to the concepts of ''fact'' and ''correspondence''. Nonetheless, this definition or characterization is superficially plausible enough.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302165 The correspondence theory] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#CorThe The correspondence theory] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/The Correspondence Theory of Truth], SEP

==Truth as a correspondence to reality==
Some sources use the language of correspondence to ''reality''. Superficially, that seems plausible enough. However, it raises some questions.

One can argue that our perceptions and experiences are created by Descartes' evil demon, by Matrix, or to put it in lay terms, that world is but a dream. If that is the case, a sentence like &quot;there is a dog on the street&quot; based on one's visual perception would be untrue as long as one interprets it in this anti-realist fashion. But then, one would hardly obtain any true statements concerning the empirical world, and one would have little hope of obtaining any in future. That seems unsatisfactory.

To address the above, one can interpret sentences in a non-realist fashion. Thus, the dog on the street is not really an extra-mental object but rather a disposition to perceptions of the sole existing perceiver. But then, this is no longer correspondence to ''reality'', unless one uses the word reality to contrast dream experiences of the sole perceiver from non-dream experiences. But even if we disregard dreams, there are other perceptual phenomena at odds with reality, including optical illusions and mirage. On the other hand, the idea is clear: if, before conversion to non-realism, we were able to distinguish what is real from what is unreal using our perceptions and experience, we should be able to use the same method under a new non-realist (in the sense of no world outside of the mind) interpretation.

Moreover, one can truthfully state, &quot;I had a dream, and in that dream, there was a dog barking on a street&quot;. That seems true enough, provided I did in fact have such a dream, and yet, it does not point to an extra-mental reality. In any case, the dog in the dream does not need to correspond to any extra-mental dog.

A further complication is that if in math, one is not a Platonist, one may believe that mathematical objects are not real in some sense, and that they are in the minds only. And yet, one naturally hesitates to deny truth to such statements as &quot;two plus two equals four&quot;.

Further reading:
* {{W|Evil demon}}, wikipedia.org
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/#EvilGeniDoub Evil Genius Doubt] in Descartes' Epistemology, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/platonism-mathematics/ Platonism in the Philosophy of Mathematics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Truth as coherence of a system==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. One objection, possibly invalid, is that what we require in practice is not only correspondence between statements/propositions but also between certain statements/propositions and perceptions. Thus, there can be a coherence between the statement &quot;There is a cat on the street&quot;, and perceptions of those who happen to be on that street.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302166 Coherence and pragmatist theories] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#CohThe The coherence theory] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Pragmatic theory of truth==
American pragmatism is characterized by the slogan &quot;truth is what works&quot; by William James. This makes it possible to assign truth value not only to descriptive sentences but also to duty-imputing or normative sentences. However, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy provides a different characterization. Let us stop here and delegate the rest to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#PraThe Pragmatist theories] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-pragmatic/ The Pragmatic Theory of Truth], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Pragmatic theory of truth}}, wikipedia.org

==Deflationism==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. Deflationism as regards truth seem to take a position similar to that we have taken in section [[#Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth|Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth]].

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic/Deflationism Deflationism] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#Def Deflationism] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==The duty to avoid stating untruth==
In various contexts, there is arguably a moral duty to avoid stating untruth. One case of failure to heed the duty is intentional stating of untruth, another one is failing to take reasonable precautionary steps to prevent ending in error and as a consequence stating untruth, even if not expressly intentionally.

Kant argued that lying is always morally problematic. However, this is not plausible. When German Nazis knock on the door of a villager and ask whether he is hiding Jews or resistance fighters, the villager has no duty to respond truthfully. A similar point was made by Russell when he opined he had no duty to speak truth in response to an inquiry from game hunters about where the game is located or hiding. One may argue that Hitler would have no chance if avoidance of lying were hard-coded into the physical laws of the universe; however, since it is not so hard-coded, one has to make moral decisions in an imperfect world, and be forced to respond to people to whom one does not want to talk at all.

Further reading:
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KqzW0eHzDSQ Justice: What's The Right Thing To Do? Episode 07: &quot;A LESSON IN LYING&quot;], youtube.com

==Mandatory canonical untruth==
Expanding on the above, while societies nominally require their members to say true things, in fact, they often require their members to say canonical untrue things. Thus, in a strongly Christian society, one may be required to say the right/canonical things about God and Jesus. In a Marxist-Leninist society, one may be required to say the right/canonical things about bourgeoisie, proletariat and dialectical materialism. In the times of Galileo, one may be required to speak the accepted dogma about the relationship of the Sun and the Earth.

The requirement to speak untruth may in part be driven by sincere belief of those requiring that these things are true. But not necessarily; it seems far more likely that the priestly classes of various religions know all too well that they are inculcating untruths. And where the priestly classes are gone, analogues of priestly classes are likely to appear, especially if their political ideology is based in part on the idea that truth does not exist.

==The value of misrepresentation==
As something of a speculation, truth and accuracy are probably more cared about in engineering than in management. In engineering, untruth can have grave consequences; in management, untruth is all too often required to overcome the limitations of poorly designed systems of rules; there is the phrase &quot;work to rule&quot; referring to a form of worker protest consisting in sticking to rules exactly as they are. These often not-fully-functional systems of rules often do not get corrected since as long as they are being constantly violated, the consequences of their defects are tolerable. This principle cannot be used to develop computer software: the compiler, linker and CPU do not break the rules to correct defects created by the programmer.

As an aside: As a result, when a company has a poorly designed systems of rules and business processes, and these rules and processes get implemented in business software and strictly enforced in machine fashion, this can cause grave problems to the business. In this case, it is not necessarily the business software that is at fault.

==Expression of uncertainty==
One who is aiming at only saying true things is well advised to consider stating things with uncertainty or expressly indicating that something is a hypothesis or a speculation. Thus, one can use the following forms:
* &quot;X probably holds true.&quot;
* &quot;It seems X is an Y.&quot;
* &quot;It is not completely clear whether X is true.&quot;
* &quot;X seems very likely but no proof has been delivered.&quot;
The great advantage is that one can communicate not only things that are certainly true (there are limits to certainty anyway) but also things that one is in the process of figuring out or is in another way uncertain about.

There are limits to what uncertainty one can reasonably wish to explicitly express. Thus, during the acceptance of Newtonian physics, it would be artificially precisionist to state things like this: &quot;According the tentative not-yet-falsified Newtonian theory, the gravitational force has the size of so-and-so&quot;. (Let alone that this Popperian language was not available in this form.) Therefore, on some level, one often runs some risk of reporting inaccurately.

==Figures of speech including metaphor==
Sentences using metaphor seem to be tricky as for truth, and many other figures of speech present similar problems. One may claim that even if they are not literally true, they are metaphorically true. However, if one accepts &quot;metaphorically true&quot; as a species of &quot;true&quot;, this will dramatically reduce the refutability/falsifiability of sentences since the defender will be able to claim that the intended meaning was metaphorical, hyperbolic, or non-literal in another sense. A better plan seems to be to treat &quot;metaphorically&quot; in &quot;metaphorically true&quot; as alienans (somewhat similar to &quot;fake&quot; in &quot;fake inspector&quot;), and therefore, if something is metaphorically true, it is not really true.

This may present complications for statements like &quot;Species originated by natural selection&quot;. Technically speaking, one would be forced to say &quot;Species originated by natural analogue of artificial selection&quot;. One may want to continue the former less loquacious practice without being accused of untruth.

On the other hand, a conceptual metaphor can bring the reader's mind to notice something about the world that he would not notice otherwise. Thus, it can have reality-bearing cognitive value. Indeed, &quot;Species originated by natural selection&quot; is a statement that can achieve as much to someone not acquainted with Darwinian theory; they only need to ask: &quot;what, if anything, could be natural selection?&quot;; &quot;to what context does 'selection'&quot; refer to and how can I bring it over to the context of origin of species&quot;?

==Fictional entities==
Novels and short stories in fiction report about fictional entities (characters, places, etc.) as if they were not fictional. One is not ready to admit that novels report truthfully, but one is not complaining about their reporting untruthfully. Interestingly, one is ready to draw inferences and perform consistence checking within the fictional world. The sentence &quot;in the Tolkien's fictional world, Bilbo is a hobbit&quot; seems true enough. (There we go: &quot;true enough&quot; as opposed to &quot;true&quot;?) The case seems to be interesting.

Another case is of a novel or short story that is hinting at truth about real-world entities. Thus, in the most trivial case, one would report truthfully about real-word entities and events but change proper names; however, one could be all too easily accused of libel since change of proper names is too thin a masking. One can perform deeper masking by modifying various details to be fictional and thus remove the description from reality to various degrees. But even so, there is something truthful or reality-bearing about the resulting description. The case is interesting as well.

==Whose truth==
There are some arguably bizarre theories of truth asking such questions as &quot;whose truth: your truth or my truth&quot; and similar. I am not properly acquainted with them. To my mind, they are hard to take seriously. However, a deeper analysis could hypothetically reveal that I am wrong and that they have something significant to say or reveal.

This kind of idea is mentioned in Jesus Christ Superstar, in the words of Pilate: &quot;But what is truth? Is truth that changing law? We both have truths. Are mine the same as yours&quot;?

Links:
* {{W|John 18:38}}, wikipedia.org -- on Pilate's truth-relating utterance

==Subjectivity and relativity==
Some sentences can be claimed to be remarkably subjective or relative, limiting an unambiguous determination of truth value. Examples:
* &quot;X is good&quot;: good in reference to what objective or purpose?
* &quot;X is beautiful&quot;: beautiful in whose eyes?
* &quot;X tasted great&quot;: to whom?
* &quot;X is an excellent film&quot;: according to what critics?
One could think these statements have no truth value and are entirely subject-dependent or depending on unstated reference object. But that does not seem entirely accurate. A good kitchen knife can be good for slicing food such as onion, a default purpose of the knife (as opposed to as a weigh). A beautiful woman can be widely recognized as beautiful. The food in a particular restaurant can be reported by many customers as tasting great. A film can have received good raking by film critics. That said, this is for a more extensive analysis and debate.

The above ideas suggest how to rephrase the above examples for greater explicitness:
* &quot;X is good for its default purpose or use case&quot; or &quot;X is ethically good&quot;
* &quot;X is widely considered to be beautiful&quot; or &quot;person P found X beautiful&quot;
* &quot;X is reported to taste great by the many people who tried it&quot; or &quot;person P said X tasted great&quot;
* &quot;Film X has excellent ratings on website Y&quot; or &quot;person P likes film X very much&quot;

==Revelations by untrue sentences==
True things can be revealed by untrue sentences. Examples:
* A speaker who said fluently things in English reveals their English speaking competence, if the things said are untrue. Thus, they reveal the truth of the statement &quot;Speaker so-and-so is a fluent English speaker.&quot;
* Someone who says &quot;The password to the box is not 35475829232302&quot; has revealed the password if it is in fact the correct password.
* An untruthful speaker reveals which entities they are able to recall as existing or worth mentioning.
* As a more general example, two communicating parties sharing sufficient context may perform certain distortions of things being said as long as the receiver is able to perform unambiguous decoding of the distortion.
This topic can be developed further, to point at various ways and levels of hinting, distortion/deformation, and non-literal interpretation (e.g. as a metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, etc.), resulting in a rather challenging topic of its own.

==Limits of knowledge==
Some seem to point out to limits of knowledge as limits of truth. However, limits of knowledge do not in fact present any problem for the concept of truth, which is independent of/orthogonal to the concept of knowledge.

As for knowledge and truth, the following combinations are possible:
# X is true and the truth value of X is known
# X is false and the truth value of X is known
# X is true and the truth value of X is unknown
# X is false and the truth value of X is unknown
Since the cases 3 and 4 cannot be told apart by the party not knowing the truth value of X, one can think of it as 3 cases in a combined truth/knowledge domain: X is known to be true, X is known to be false, X is unknown.

It is trivial to come up with empirical hypotheses that do in fact have truth value, or empirical questions that have true answers, but the truth value or the true answer is unknown by most people or not at all. Examples of statements not known to be true or false provided the parameters are plausible and non-refuted:
* District/region X has the number N of trees.
* There is N number of words in English.
* The number of households in district/region X that have an electronic tablet is N.
* At time T, Socrates the Greek philosopher was at location given by latitude and longitude LAT, LON.
* At time T, person P rolled a die and the result was R.

On a related note, discovery does not create facts; it discovers them. For example, the discovery of Saturn's rings did not create the fact that planet Saturn has rings. If no one discovered that Saturn had rings, for failure of development of telescopes, it would still be true that planet Saturn has rings, even if no one knew that to be the case.

Limits of knowledge apply to mathematics, a non-empirical field of inquiry, as well. We will never know all true statements about positive integers, starting with singular statements of the form &quot;N is a prime number&quot;; there is an infinite number of such true statements, and they cannot be represented in a compact manner, unlike e.g. trivially known statements of the form &quot;N equals M + 1&quot;. We do have an algorithm for deciding whether a number is a prime number, but it hits practical computational limits concerning computation time and memory. Moreover, there are algorithmically undecidable problems such as the Turing machine halting problem, which further highlights the contrast between something being true (e.g. machine X halts when run on input Y rather than running indefinitely) and something being known to be true.

The above considerations give a clear picture of the contrast between X being true and X being known to be true.

There is another related subject: upon ultimate analysis, we cannot have absolute certainty. If this is so, we only somewhat tentatively accept statements as true, using the concept of truth as a regulative principle, which leads some of us to correct statements in the light of new evidence, discovery, realization, etc. If truth was just a name for whatever statements command strong conviction in most people, that would be a whole different concept of truth.

==Truth as a limit case==
One can suspect that, in some areas, perfect truth is unattainable. At least for some applications, truth can perhaps be likened to a mathematical circle or a sphere as a limit case for what can be achieved in our empirical world. We cannot manufacture a mathematically perfect spherical ball, but we can achieve remarkable precision in manufacturing, and we are satisfied with having a name for that limit object at which we aim, here &quot;sphere&quot;. To what extent the case of truth bears a good analogy to the manufacturing example, perhaps in some areas, is not quite clear.

==Applications==
Whatever the quandaries about the concept of truth, the concept has practical applications.

One application is in those libel laws that require statement to be untrue in order to be libel. A defendant accused of libel who states that he is a truth-nihilist and that there is no such thing as truth and that therefore he could not possibly have said untruth is unlikely to get very far with this line of defense.

The workings of contracts depend on one's ability to tell whether a condition in the contract was violated.

Approximate truth or mere-model quasi-truth has such practical applications as the Ptolemaic astronomy in medieval sea navigation. For Global Positioning System (GPS) calculations, Ptolemy and Newton are not sufficient, and one needs Einstein; and thus, being closer to truth makes a difference.

In software making, Boolean variables usually take the values of true and false. Software applications make use of such variables, as well as logical operators acting on them.

==Tarski's theory of truth==
The content of this section is delegated to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302167 Tarski and truth conditions] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/tarski-truth/ Tarski’s Truth Definitions], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://iep.utm.edu/s-truth/ Semantic Theory of Truth], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Semantic theory of truth#Tarski's theory of truth}}, wikipedia.org
* [http://www.thatmarcusfamily.org/philosophy/Course_Websites/Readings/Tarski%20-%20The%20Concept%20of%20Truth%20in%20Formalized%20Languages.pdf Tarski, A. (1983). &quot;The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages&quot;], thatmarcusfamily.org

==Tarski's undefinability theorem==
Tarski's undefinability theorem states, informally, that in the context of a formal logic the predicate is-true applying to positive integers interpreted as codes for formulas of Peano arithmetic cannot be defined in Peano arithmetic itself. The rest of this section is delegated to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/goedel-incompleteness/#TarTheUndTru Tarski’s Theorem on the Undefinability of Truth] in Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorems, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Tarski's undefinability theorem}}, wikipedia.org

==Desiderata other than truth==
In sentence production, e.g. in journalism, there are desiderata (things desired) additional to truth, and these should not be confused with truth. One may require text to be non-misleading, neutral, balanced, objective or complete (with respect to a defined scope). One can create a wrong impression about an issue by presenting only one side of the argument or by highlighting only some facts and not other relevant facts.

For instance, BBC editorial standards single out the desiderata of truth, fairness, accuracy and impartiality: &quot;In our journalism in particular, we seek to establish the ''truth'' and use the highest reporting standards to provide coverage that is ''fair'' and ''accurate''. Our specialist expertise provides professional judgement and clear analysis. We are ''impartial'', seeking to reflect the views and experiences of our audiences – so that our output as a whole includes a breadth and diversity of opinion and no significant strand of thought is under‑represented or omitted.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/pdfs/bbc-editorial-guidelines-whole-document.pdf The BBC’s Editorial Standards], downloads.bbc.co.uk&lt;/ref&gt; (Boldface from the original set in italics.)

Another set of desiderata applies to persuasive rhetoric. One set is given by Robert Pirsig: &quot;He singled out aspects of Quality such as unity, vividness, authority, economy, sensitivity, clarity, emphasis, flow, suspense, brilliance, precision, proportion, depth and so on; kept each of these as poorly defined as Quality itself, but demonstrated them by the same class reading techniques.&quot; In the quotation, Pirsig's &quot;Quality&quot; is predominantly rhetorical quality and includes neither accuracy (although it includes &quot;precision&quot;) nor completeness.

Another set applies to technical requirements specification. One example is from NASA and includes clarity, completeness, compliance, consistency, traceability, correctness, functionality, performance, maintainability, reliability, and verifiability/testability.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nasa.gov/reference/appendix-c-how-to-write-a-good-requirement/ Appendix C: How to Write a Good Requirement - NASA], nasa.gov&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* {{W|Journalistic objectivity}}, wikipedia.org

==Liar paradox==
Liar paradox is one problem with assigning truth value to sentences. The problematic sentence is &quot;this sentence is untrue&quot;, which can be alternatively rendered as two sentences: &quot;1) the next sentence is true&quot; and &quot;2) the previous sentence is untrue&quot;, nominally avoiding self-reference on a single-sentence level.

Attempts were made in mathematics to ensure the paradox cannot occur. Nonetheless, since we admitted that some sentences (especially questions and imperative sentences) do not have truth value, it seems relatively painless to accept that the sentence embodying the paradox has no truth value either. Other solutions are given in the Wikipedia article.

Further reading:
* {{W|Liar paradox}}, wikipedia.org
* Self-reference and Meaning in Ordinary Language in Conjectures and Refutations by Karl Popper

== Etymological interpretation ==
As an exercise, one can have a look at what the names of the concept of truth in various languages would mean if the meaning followed the etymology.

Let us have a look at a Slavic example, Czech ''pravda'' (Russian is similar). That sounds as if it was related to ''pravit'', say or tell. Thus, one could etymologically interpret ''pravda'' as, that which is being said or perhaps said by many. That does not match the semantics (or at least the core semantics that is subject of this article): even if all language users say that the Earth is flat, that does not make the statement true. But this kind of etymological quasi-meaning is interesting to note since all too many language users (including pseudo-philosophers) are liable to use the word in this way, leading to terminological confusion.

For English, Merriam-Webster traced the etymology to Old English trēowe, faithful. But in which sense of faithful? Is it like a spouse being faithful to another spouse? Or a picture being a faithful depiction of reality? Or is it faith + -ful, to be interpreted as leading to faith or worthy of faith? Worthy of faith, while not too far away, does not match the semantics: given we can never or hardly ever attain perfectly certain knowledge (not even in mathematics if we analyze things to their ultimate ends), we are bound to have faith in (and believe and trust) things that may turn out to be untrue. Leading to faith also does not match the semantics: one only needs to recall the Ancient Greek sophists giving the advice that, in order to convince, one should better state plausible yet untrue things than implausible/hard to believe yet true things.

For German, Duden traces the etymology of ''wahr'' to ''wār'', of which it says &quot;eigentlich = vertrauenswert&quot;, worthy of trusting or trustworthy (but Duden does not have an entry for the adjective vertrauenswert).

== Truth, untruth and error ==
Let us determine the relation of the concept of truth to the concept of error. One might naively think that truth is the opposite concept of error. But it is not so. Truth is the opposite of untruth/falsity, both truth values. Error is not a truth value. Rather, error contains an ''epistemic'' element, unlike truth. To believe an untruth is to be in error; sure enough. However, a statement can be untrue without anyone being in error about it; no one can be considering the statement as a candidate for believing.

Similarly, lie is not an (perfect) opposite concept of truth; the concept of lie contains an element of intent, unlike truth and untruth/falsity.

==See also==
* [[Truth theory]]

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Truth}}, wikipedia.org
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic Truth], britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/ Truth], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (see section Related Entries for other truth-related articles)
* [https://iep.utm.edu/truth/ Truth], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Truth Truth], New World Encyclopedia</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates the concept of truth and some closely related topics. One could think the concept of truth is so simple and direct that it needs no analysis at all. However, since various thinkers have analyzed the concept and cast it into doubt, it seems worth a little while to analyze it anyway. Moreover, one finds that assignment of truth values to sentences in natural language is not entirely unproblematic: some sentences have no truth value, some are ambiguous (and therefore, the truth value is not given before the ambiguity is resolved) and some would arguably benefit from truth value being a real or fractional number ranging from 0 to 1 rather than being one of true and untrue.

If one does not really care about truth (and thus, truth about truth), one may sweep various concerns and quandaries concerning the concept of truth under the carpet, and happily claim that all is fine with truth and that any putative problems are likely to be pseudo-problems. This shows how important truth is as a regulative principle of intellectual endeavors.

==Keeping truth undefined==
One approach to the definition of truth is this. Truth is something very simple and basic, a concept that children master at the age of, say, three. The child learns how to respond to certain sentences with &quot;that is not true&quot; (or the like) productively. Later, a school child can learn logic without ever bothering with a definition of truth; one can take university courses on various logics without ever bothering with the definition. There is no serious problem concerning truth from which one could learn something important. It is fine to leave the concept of truth undefined.

This anti-philosophical approach has its merits, but we will look at truth anyway.

==First impression==
Truth is a property of certain kinds of objects. Candidate kinds of objects are as follows:
* sentences
* interpreted sentences
* sentence meanings abstracting away from the sentence and its language
* propositions
* propositional beliefs (sentential beliefs)

Some kinds of representation do not have a truth value:
* drawings
* paintings
* photographs
* maps
* non-propositional beliefs

In the following, we will work with the hypothesis that it is sentences that have truth value, albeit via their meaning.

Not all sentences have truth value. Thus, question sentences and imperatives have no truth value. Furthermore, one can debate about whether certain kinds of ought-sentences have truth value or rather are something like imperatives in disguise.

One can get an idea by means of simple everyday examples:
* The sentence &quot;two plus two equals four&quot; is true.
* The sentence &quot;two plus two equals five&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;there is no maximum prime number&quot; is true.
* The sentence &quot;there is a maximum prime number&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;potable water is poisonous to humans&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;there is a dog barking on the street&quot; is false/untrue if there is in fact no dog barking.

But then, what is an abstract characterization or criteria that distinguish true sentences from untrue sentences? One characterization is this: the word &quot;true&quot; is X such that stating &quot;It is X that Y&quot; means the same as &quot;Y&quot; for relevant kinds of Y. More on this is in the next section.

==Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth ==
By considering Tarski's theory of truth, mentioned by Popper, we may obtain a simple and clear idea that can serve as a practical definition of truth. The idea is captured in the following axiom schema, where X is a sentence:
* Sentence &quot;X&quot; is true if and only if X.
The specific axioms are obtained from the scheme by replacing X with specific sentences. Thus:
* Sentence &quot;It rains in Oslo&quot; is true if and only if it rains in Oslo.

Above, X is not a variable of quantification but of textual substitution. We can wish to obtain a definition that characterizes the truth of sentence ''s'' by linking ''s'' to other objects or characteristics of ''s'', but this is avoided. In predicate logic, when ''s'' is a variable of quantification, &quot;s&quot; is not a formula, whereas &quot;isTrue(s)&quot; can be a formula, as well as e.g. &quot;correspondsTo(s, reality)&quot;. The right-hand part of the axiom schema does not say anything about X; it just textually places X after &quot;if&quot;.

Thus, if the learner of English did not know the meaning of the word &quot;true&quot;, now they should have a decent first idea. However, possible problems with truth values of sentences such as ambiguity, vagueness, being merely approximate, etc. are not addressed by this treatment.

The above is merely inspired by Tarski's theory of truth rather than being identical to it: Tarski's theory is a technical one, depending on the contrast between object language and metalanguage.

Wikipedia's section about folk theory of truth states: &quot;The folk theory of truth is useful in everyday life but, upon deep analysis, turns out to be technically self-contradictory.&quot; This is unconvincing since: 1) folk theory is not technical and therefore cannot be ''technically'' self-contradictory, 2) it is not obvious that liar paradox (see [[#Liar paradox|dedicated section below]]) cannot be resolved by the claim that some descriptive sentences have no truth value or by other means and 3) even if there is a locus of contradiction in the folk theory, a member of the folk would not blindly run formal inference from the contradiction to produce all well formed sentences as allegedly true but would rather isolate the locus of contradiction and avoid making any inferences from it. Thus, arguably, the folk theory has more merits than the critics admit.

Links:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#TarTheTru 2. Tarski’s theory of truth] in Truth, SEP
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/tarski-truth/ Tarski’s Truth Definitions], SEP
* [https://iep.utm.edu/truth/#H4 4. Tarski’s Semantic Theory] in Truth, IEP
* {{W|Truth#Folk beliefs}}, wikipedia.org

==Ambiguity==
Since in general, words have multiple meanings/semantics, sentences also have multiple meanings/semantics. This limits out ability to assign unique truth value to sentences. It is less problematic when there is enough context for disambiguation. However, whether the disambiguation is ever perfect is perhaps debatable.

Expressions in imperative programming languages have radically unambiguous execution semantics. This suggests a great success can be reached in certain fields of unambiguous codification. One can expect to be able to reach similar unambiguity when one codifies mathematical axioms using the language of first-order logic.

Software requirements, written in natural language, are often required to be unambiguous.

==Approximate truth==
There many everyday examples of perfectly true sentences. However, many sentences are approximately true, and we often do not bother to explicitly say so. Thus, we may say:
* &quot;The orbit of Mars around the Sun is elliptical.&quot;
This cannot be exactly true since Mars is gravitationally impacted not only by the Sun, whereas the elliptical orbit would be perfectly so only if Mars and Sun were the only mass objects impacting the trajectory.

We may choose to be more accurate:
* &quot;The orbit of Mars around the Sun is very closely elliptical.&quot;

By a similar token, Newtonian gravitational theory is a very good approximation for small speeds, but not for high speeds. Instead of saying that Newtonian theory is true, we may use the Popperian term &quot;verisimilitude&quot;: the theory has a good but imperfect verisimilitude, or is similar to truth but not exactly true.

Another approximation is the statement that &quot;humans have four nasal cavities&quot;; some individual humans do not have all four of them. Similarly, &quot;humans have one head&quot;, but that is not true for all humans. Also, &quot;humans have either XX or XY chromozomes&quot;, but that is not exactly accurate either.

==Accuracy==
The word &quot;accuracy&quot; can sometimes be used instead of &quot;truth&quot;. One speaks of higher or smaller accuracy. Accuracy stands in contrast to precision, following Russell's prescription. Per this usage, precision captures something like the resolution or detail with which one says something. Loose or non-native speakers of English may say &quot;precision&quot; or &quot;imprecise&quot; and mean &quot;accuracy&quot; or &quot;inaccurate&quot;.

==Theoretical entities==
Mendelian genetic theory posits Mendelian genes. But no one has ever observed these directly, and as far as I know, there is no mapping from Mendelian genes to DNA letter sequences. Nonetheless, the theory seems to be empirically adequate: it makes testable predictions about entities that can be directly observed. Thus, on one hand, one may deny the truth of statements about genes, since genes do not really exist, and yet, one may be very ready to make statements about genes, since their predictions are empirically adequate and as long as one speaks within Mendelian theory, genes are posited. At the same time, as long as the communication partners know they are talking within the Mendelian theory and know that the genes are theoretical rather than observational entities, they do not deceive each other by talking about genes.

==Artificial slicing into entities==
Sentences imply a certain slicing of reality into entities or entity types which is not always objectively given. Nonetheless, as long as the slicing is well defined, one can argue that sentences are true even if the slicing is arbitrary. However, the arbitrariness of the slicing may limit the degree to which the sentences reflect reality.

As an example, we may slice the phases of English into Old English and Middle English, positing no other entity in between. Then we may assign words as belonging to one or both of these phases. But there is something conventional about this slicing. The slicing and the sentences using it posit an implied sharp boundary between the two entities that may not exist in reality. The conventionality of a possible slicing stands in contrast to the efforts of biologists to as-if cut the reality at its joints when identifying taxa such as species and genera. Thus, the taxa are aimed to correspond to something real and observable, not merely something conventional and practical.

The arbitrariness of certain slicings can be perhaps likened to artificial borders between countries. Some borders are less artificial, such as those following the course of a river or following the structures of mountains. Upon first impression, one could think a Martian could not detect the borders upon a quick inspection. But it is not so simple; once different regulatory regimes are adopted on different sides of the border, the border can very well be physically recognizable: for instance, one side of the border can have a very loose policy for cutting tree, unlike the other side.

This is to some extent relating to the subject of fuzzy logic below, but seems distinct.

==Timelessness of truth==
Truth value of an interpreted sentence utterance or occurrence is timeless, not changing in time. However, this is not so for the truth value of an uninterpreted context-free sentence understood as a sequence of words with no additional context information such as the speaker/writer, time of utterance, etc.

One concern is of changes in definition: the sentence &quot;Pluto (heavenly body) is a planet&quot;, taken as a sequence of words with no time or context of utterance, has no definite truth value since the definition of the concept of planet has changed in such a way that Pluto was a planet before but not after the change. One could imagine expanding the sentence with a link to a defining dictionary, e.g. &quot;Pluto (heavenly body) is a planet [term definitions from Merriam-Webster, 2020-01-01]&quot;, but this is not customary, and Merriam-Webster does not present entry revision histories for this to actually work. Moreover, Merriam-Webster's definition is not technical enough to exclude Pluto; one would have to load the definition from International Astronomical Union (IAU).

The above problem is reduced when one considers not sentences as context-free sequences of words but as sentence utterances or occurrences, having an auditory or textual context, the speaker/writer, utterance time, etc. One can then figure out from context the time of utterance and the applicable definition of &quot;planet&quot; at the time of the utterance.

Another case of failed timelessness is with sentences like &quot;it is raining [here] today&quot;. Again, the context-free sentence has no truth value although it does have a context-free meaning/semantics, but the sentence-utterance/occurrence does have a truth value since it provides specific referents for &quot;today&quot; and &quot;here&quot;.

==Kuhnian paradigm==
One may wonder about the impact of Kuhnian paradigms on the concept of truth and slicing into entities. For example, prior to chemical revolution, there was no way to say that X is a physical mixture while Y is a chemically pure substance since the conceptual distinction was not there. Similarly, Priestly is alleged to have thought to hold in his hands dephlogisticated air, having no concept of oxygen. Thus, the general state of knowledge limits the kind of sentences (from the conceptual rather than lexical perspective) one can form, and which truths can be expressed. Whether this detracts from the concept of truth is unclear; even before the chemical revolution, one could accurately say &quot;water is a substance&quot; as opposed to the inaccurate/untrue &quot;water is a solid object&quot;.

==Scientific truth==
The problems of scientific truth seem to be related to multiple subjects picked above, including approximate truth and theoretical entities. One interesting thing about scientific truth is that it seems more liable to these problems than everyday statements such as &quot;there is a dog on the street&quot;. Paradoxically, in some ways, ordinary people dealing with ordinary affairs may seem to more often trade in perfect truth than scientists relying on models that are to some extent tentative or approximate. However, this is rather speculative and would require a deeper analysis and perhaps sourcing; it concerns an empirical hypothesis, to be tested empirically to some extent.

A field of inquiry adept in eliminating ambiguity and arriving in near-certain truth that is nowhere close to approximate is mathematics. However, according to modern classification terminology, mathematics is not science; &quot;science&quot; refers to empirical sciences such as the prime science physics. Moreover, some theories of existence of mathematical objects (numbers, geometric shapes, etc.) deny genuine existence to them.

==Fuzzy logic==
Many words such as &quot;hill&quot; intuitively do not apply either fully or not at all; they may apply somewhat. Thus, one may think of something as a 0.25-hill, 0.5-hill or 0.75-hill. Indeed, one would think of the transition from a hill to a mountain to be continuous. Thus, if one says &quot;This is a hill&quot; but really thinks &quot;This is a 0.75-hill&quot;, this makes the original sentence not entirely true, but far from untrue. This is a limitation from the point of view of the kind of logic that classifies sentences into true and untrue ones. Nonetheless, one can say &quot;This is something of a hill&quot; or &quot;This is something between a hill and a mountain&quot;, and the problem disappears.

To understand this simple concept, one does not need to study the technicalities of fuzzy logic, which is a mathematical structure with engineering applications.

==Self-reference==
This very article aims at presenting true sentences to the reader, even if it may fail here and there. If the article had no such intention, it could very well define truth as &quot;any black cat that broke a vase&quot; and be done with it.

Self-reference is also of concern in the criticism of the concept of truth. Since, if the critic does not aim to raise true or at least ''valid'' objections or reservations against the concept of truth, why should we care? However, the critic may object that one can reveal problems with the concept of truth even by means of sentences that are not perfectly true, e.g. are merely approximately true, are metaphorical, etc. That response seems to be true or valid enough: things said by a sentence and things revealed by a sentence are two distinct things.

Self-reference plays a role in section [[#Liar paradox|Liar paradox]].

==Theories of truth==
As of now, this article treat of most theories of truth in a limited way. This shortcoming is planned to be addressed by a later expansion. In the meantime, one can learn about various theories of truth in the linked further reading.

==Truth as correspondence to fact==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. One observation: this definition shifts the definition burden to the concepts of ''fact'' and ''correspondence''. Nonetheless, this definition or characterization is superficially plausible enough.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302165 The correspondence theory] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#CorThe The correspondence theory] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/The Correspondence Theory of Truth], SEP

==Truth as a correspondence to reality==
Some sources use the language of correspondence to ''reality''. Superficially, that seems plausible enough. However, it raises some questions.

One can argue that our perceptions and experiences are created by Descartes' evil demon, by Matrix, or to put it in lay terms, that world is but a dream. If that is the case, a sentence like &quot;there is a dog on the street&quot; based on one's visual perception would be untrue as long as one interprets it in this anti-realist fashion. But then, one would hardly obtain any true statements concerning the empirical world, and one would have little hope of obtaining any in future. That seems unsatisfactory.

To address the above, one can interpret sentences in a non-realist fashion. Thus, the dog on the street is not really an extra-mental object but rather a disposition to perceptions of the sole existing perceiver. But then, this is no longer correspondence to ''reality'', unless one uses the word reality to contrast dream experiences of the sole perceiver from non-dream experiences. But even if we disregard dreams, there are other perceptual phenomena at odds with reality, including optical illusions and mirage. On the other hand, the idea is clear: if, before conversion to non-realism, we were able to distinguish what is real from what is unreal using our perceptions and experience, we should be able to use the same method under a new non-realist (in the sense of no world outside of the mind) interpretation.

Moreover, one can truthfully state, &quot;I had a dream, and in that dream, there was a dog barking on a street&quot;. That seems true enough, provided I did in fact have such a dream, and yet, it does not point to an extra-mental reality. In any case, the dog in the dream does not need to correspond to any extra-mental dog.

A further complication is that if in math, one is not a Platonist, one may believe that mathematical objects are not real in some sense, and that they are in the minds only. And yet, one naturally hesitates to deny truth to such statements as &quot;two plus two equals four&quot;.

Further reading:
* {{W|Evil demon}}, wikipedia.org
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/#EvilGeniDoub Evil Genius Doubt] in Descartes' Epistemology, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/platonism-mathematics/ Platonism in the Philosophy of Mathematics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Truth as coherence of a system==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. One objection, possibly invalid, is that what we require in practice is not only correspondence between statements/propositions but also between certain statements/propositions and perceptions. Thus, there can be a coherence between the statement &quot;There is a cat on the street&quot;, and perceptions of those who happen to be on that street.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302166 Coherence and pragmatist theories] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#CohThe The coherence theory] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Pragmatic theory of truth==
American pragmatism is characterized by the slogan &quot;truth is what works&quot; by William James. This makes it possible to assign truth value not only to descriptive sentences but also to duty-imputing or normative sentences. However, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy provides a different characterization. Let us stop here and delegate the rest to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#PraThe Pragmatist theories] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-pragmatic/ The Pragmatic Theory of Truth], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Pragmatic theory of truth}}, wikipedia.org

==Deflationism==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. Deflationism as regards truth seem to take a position similar to that we have taken in section [[#Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth|Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth]].

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic/Deflationism Deflationism] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#Def Deflationism] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==The duty to avoid stating untruth==
In various contexts, there is arguably a moral duty to avoid stating untruth. One case of failure to heed the duty is intentional stating of untruth, another one is failing to take reasonable precautionary steps to prevent ending in error and as a consequence stating untruth, even if not expressly intentionally.

Kant argued that lying is always morally problematic. However, this is not plausible. When German Nazis knock on the door of a villager and ask whether he is hiding Jews or resistance fighters, the villager has no duty to respond truthfully. A similar point was made by Russell when he opined he had no duty to speak truth in response to an inquiry from game hunters about where the game is located or hiding. One may argue that Hitler would have no chance if avoidance of lying were hard-coded into the physical laws of the universe; however, since it is not so hard-coded, one has to make moral decisions in an imperfect world, and be forced to respond to people to whom one does not want to talk at all.

Further reading:
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KqzW0eHzDSQ Justice: What's The Right Thing To Do? Episode 07: &quot;A LESSON IN LYING&quot;], youtube.com

==Mandatory canonical untruth==
Expanding on the above, while societies nominally require their members to say true things, in fact, they often require their members to say canonical untrue things. Thus, in a strongly Christian society, one may be required to say the right/canonical things about God and Jesus. In a Marxist-Leninist society, one may be required to say the right/canonical things about bourgeoisie, proletariat and dialectical materialism. In the times of Galileo, one may be required to speak the accepted dogma about the relationship of the Sun and the Earth.

The requirement to speak untruth may in part be driven by sincere belief of those requiring that these things are true. But not necessarily; it seems far more likely that the priestly classes of various religions know all too well that they are inculcating untruths. And where the priestly classes are gone, analogues of priestly classes are likely to appear, especially if their political ideology is based in part on the idea that truth does not exist.

==The value of misrepresentation==
As something of a speculation, truth and accuracy are probably more cared about in engineering than in management. In engineering, untruth can have grave consequences; in management, untruth is all too often required to overcome the limitations of poorly designed systems of rules; there is the phrase &quot;work to rule&quot; referring to a form of worker protest consisting in sticking to rules exactly as they are. These often not-fully-functional systems of rules often do not get corrected since as long as they are being constantly violated, the consequences of their defects are tolerable. This principle cannot be used to develop computer software: the compiler, linker and CPU do not break the rules to correct defects created by the programmer.

As an aside: As a result, when a company has a poorly designed systems of rules and business processes, and these rules and processes get implemented in business software and strictly enforced in machine fashion, this can cause grave problems to the business. In this case, it is not necessarily the business software that is at fault.

==Expression of uncertainty==
One who is aiming at only saying true things is well advised to consider stating things with uncertainty or expressly indicating that something is a hypothesis or a speculation. Thus, one can use the following forms:
* &quot;X probably holds true.&quot;
* &quot;It seems X is an Y.&quot;
* &quot;It is not completely clear whether X is true.&quot;
* &quot;X seems very likely but no proof has been delivered.&quot;
The great advantage is that one can communicate not only things that are certainly true (there are limits to certainty anyway) but also things that one is in the process of figuring out or is in another way uncertain about.

There are limits to what uncertainty one can reasonably wish to explicitly express. Thus, during the acceptance of Newtonian physics, it would be artificially precisionist to state things like this: &quot;According the tentative not-yet-falsified Newtonian theory, the gravitational force has the size of so-and-so&quot;. (Let alone that this Popperian language was not available in this form.) Therefore, on some level, one often runs some risk of reporting inaccurately.

==Figures of speech including metaphor==
Sentences using metaphor seem to be tricky as for truth, and many other figures of speech present similar problems. One may claim that even if they are not literally true, they are metaphorically true. However, if one accepts &quot;metaphorically true&quot; as a species of &quot;true&quot;, this will dramatically reduce the refutability/falsifiability of sentences since the defender will be able to claim that the intended meaning was metaphorical, hyperbolic, or non-literal in another sense. A better plan seems to be to treat &quot;metaphorically&quot; in &quot;metaphorically true&quot; as alienans (somewhat similar to &quot;fake&quot; in &quot;fake inspector&quot;), and therefore, if something is metaphorically true, it is not really true.

This may present complications for statements like &quot;Species originated by natural selection&quot;. Technically speaking, one would be forced to say &quot;Species originated by natural analogue of artificial selection&quot;. One may want to continue the former less loquacious practice without being accused of untruth.

On the other hand, a conceptual metaphor can bring the reader's mind to notice something about the world that he would not notice otherwise. Thus, it can have reality-bearing cognitive value. Indeed, &quot;Species originated by natural selection&quot; is a statement that can achieve as much to someone not acquainted with Darwinian theory; they only need to ask: &quot;what, if anything, could be natural selection?&quot;; &quot;to what context does 'selection'&quot; refer to and how can I bring it over to the context of origin of species&quot;?

==Fictional entities==
Novels and short stories in fiction report about fictional entities (characters, places, etc.) as if they were not fictional. One is not ready to admit that novels report truthfully, but one is not complaining about their reporting untruthfully. Interestingly, one is ready to draw inferences and perform consistence checking within the fictional world. The sentence &quot;in the Tolkien's fictional world, Bilbo is a hobbit&quot; seems true enough. (There we go: &quot;true enough&quot; as opposed to &quot;true&quot;?) The case seems to be interesting.

Another case is of a novel or short story that is hinting at truth about real-world entities. Thus, in the most trivial case, one would report truthfully about real-word entities and events but change proper names; however, one could be all too easily accused of libel since change of proper names is too thin a masking. One can perform deeper masking by modifying various details to be fictional and thus remove the description from reality to various degrees. But even so, there is something truthful or reality-bearing about the resulting description. The case is interesting as well.

==Whose truth==
There are some arguably bizarre theories of truth asking such questions as &quot;whose truth: your truth or my truth&quot; and similar. I am not properly acquainted with them. To my mind, they are hard to take seriously. However, a deeper analysis could hypothetically reveal that I am wrong and that they have something significant to say or reveal.

This kind of idea is mentioned in Jesus Christ Superstar, in the words of Pilate: &quot;But what is truth? Is truth that changing law? We both have truths. Are mine the same as yours&quot;?

Links:
* {{W|John 18:38}}, wikipedia.org -- on Pilate's truth-relating utterance

==Subjectivity and relativity==
Some sentences can be claimed to be remarkably subjective or relative, limiting an unambiguous determination of truth value. Examples:
* &quot;X is good&quot;: good in reference to what objective or purpose?
* &quot;X is beautiful&quot;: beautiful in whose eyes?
* &quot;X tasted great&quot;: to whom?
* &quot;X is an excellent film&quot;: according to what critics?
One could think these statements have no truth value and are entirely subject-dependent or depending on unstated reference object. But that does not seem entirely accurate. A good kitchen knife can be good for slicing food such as onion, a default purpose of the knife (as opposed to as a weigh). A beautiful woman can be widely recognized as beautiful. The food in a particular restaurant can be reported by many customers as tasting great. A film can have received good raking by film critics. That said, this is for a more extensive analysis and debate.

The above ideas suggest how to rephrase the above examples for greater explicitness:
* &quot;X is good for its default purpose or use case&quot; or &quot;X is ethically good&quot;
* &quot;X is widely considered to be beautiful&quot; or &quot;person P found X beautiful&quot;
* &quot;X is reported to taste great by the many people who tried it&quot; or &quot;person P said X tasted great&quot;
* &quot;Film X has excellent ratings on website Y&quot; or &quot;person P likes film X very much&quot;

==Revelations by untrue sentences==
True things can be revealed by untrue sentences. Examples:
* A speaker who said fluently things in English reveals their English speaking competence, if the things said are untrue. Thus, they reveal the truth of the statement &quot;Speaker so-and-so is a fluent English speaker.&quot;
* Someone who says &quot;The password to the box is not 35475829232302&quot; has revealed the password if it is in fact the correct password.
* An untruthful speaker reveals which entities they are able to recall as existing or worth mentioning.
* As a more general example, two communicating parties sharing sufficient context may perform certain distortions of things being said as long as the receiver is able to perform unambiguous decoding of the distortion.
This topic can be developed further, to point at various ways and levels of hinting, distortion/deformation, and non-literal interpretation (e.g. as a metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, etc.), resulting in a rather challenging topic of its own.

==Limits of knowledge==
Some seem to point out to limits of knowledge as limits of truth. However, limits of knowledge do not in fact present any problem for the concept of truth, which is independent of/orthogonal to the concept of knowledge.

As for knowledge and truth, the following combinations are possible:
# X is true and the truth value of X is known
# X is false and the truth value of X is known
# X is true and the truth value of X is unknown
# X is false and the truth value of X is unknown
Since the cases 3 and 4 cannot be told apart by the party not knowing the truth value of X, one can think of it as 3 cases in a combined truth/knowledge domain: X is known to be true, X is known to be false, X is unknown.

It is trivial to come up with empirical hypotheses that do in fact have truth value, or empirical questions that have true answers, but the truth value or the true answer is unknown by most people or not at all. Examples of statements not known to be true or false provided the parameters are plausible and non-refuted:
* District/region X has the number N of trees.
* There is N number of words in English.
* The number of households in district/region X that have an electronic tablet is N.
* At time T, Socrates the Greek philosopher was at location given by latitude and longitude LAT, LON.
* At time T, person P rolled a die and the result was R.

On a related note, discovery does not create facts; it discovers them. For example, the discovery of Saturn's rings did not create the fact that planet Saturn has rings. If no one discovered that Saturn had rings, for failure of development of telescopes, it would still be true that planet Saturn has rings, even if no one knew that to be the case.

Limits of knowledge apply to mathematics, a non-empirical field of inquiry, as well. We will never know all true statements about positive integers, starting with singular statements of the form &quot;N is a prime number&quot;; there is an infinite number of such true statements, and they cannot be represented in a compact manner, unlike e.g. trivially known statements of the form &quot;N equals M + 1&quot;. We do have an algorithm for deciding whether a number is a prime number, but it hits practical computational limits concerning computation time and memory. Moreover, there are algorithmically undecidable problems such as the Turing machine halting problem, which further highlights the contrast between something being true (e.g. machine X halts when run on input Y rather than running indefinitely) and something being known to be true.

The above considerations give a clear picture of the contrast between X being true and X being known to be true.

There is another related subject: upon ultimate analysis, we cannot have absolute certainty. If this is so, we only somewhat tentatively accept statements as true, using the concept of truth as a regulative principle, which leads some of us to correct statements in the light of new evidence, discovery, realization, etc. If truth was just a name for whatever statements command strong conviction in most people, that would be a whole different concept of truth.

==Truth as a limit case==
One can suspect that, in some areas, perfect truth is unattainable. At least for some applications, truth can perhaps be likened to a mathematical circle or a sphere as a limit case for what can be achieved in our empirical world. We cannot manufacture a mathematically perfect spherical ball, but we can achieve remarkable precision in manufacturing, and we are satisfied with having a name for that limit object at which we aim, here &quot;sphere&quot;. To what extent the case of truth bears a good analogy to the manufacturing example, perhaps in some areas, is not quite clear.

==Applications==
Whatever the quandaries about the concept of truth, the concept has practical applications.

One application is in those libel laws that require statement to be untrue in order to be libel. A defendant accused of libel who states that he is a truth-nihilist and that there is no such thing as truth and that therefore he could not possibly have said untruth is unlikely to get very far with this line of defense.

The workings of contracts depend on one's ability to tell whether a condition in the contract was violated.

Approximate truth or mere-model quasi-truth has such practical applications as the Ptolemaic astronomy in medieval sea navigation. For Global Positioning System (GPS) calculations, Ptolemy and Newton are not sufficient, and one needs Einstein; and thus, being closer to truth makes a difference.

In software making, Boolean variables usually take the values of true and false. Software applications make use of such variables, as well as logical operators acting on them.

==Tarski's theory of truth==
The content of this section is delegated to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302167 Tarski and truth conditions] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/tarski-truth/ Tarski’s Truth Definitions], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://iep.utm.edu/s-truth/ Semantic Theory of Truth], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Semantic theory of truth#Tarski's theory of truth}}, wikipedia.org
* [http://www.thatmarcusfamily.org/philosophy/Course_Websites/Readings/Tarski%20-%20The%20Concept%20of%20Truth%20in%20Formalized%20Languages.pdf Tarski, A. (1983). &quot;The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages&quot;], thatmarcusfamily.org

==Tarski's undefinability theorem==
Tarski's undefinability theorem states, informally, that in the context of a formal logic the predicate is-true applying to positive integers interpreted as codes for formulas of Peano arithmetic cannot be defined in Peano arithmetic itself. The rest of this section is delegated to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/goedel-incompleteness/#TarTheUndTru Tarski’s Theorem on the Undefinability of Truth] in Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorems, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Tarski's undefinability theorem}}, wikipedia.org

==Desiderata other than truth==
In sentence production, e.g. in journalism, there are desiderata (things desired) additional to truth, and these should not be confused with truth. One may require text to be non-misleading, neutral, balanced, objective or complete (with respect to a defined scope). One can create a wrong impression about an issue by presenting only one side of the argument or by highlighting only some facts and not other relevant facts.

For instance, BBC editorial standards single out the desiderata of truth, fairness, accuracy and impartiality: &quot;In our journalism in particular, we seek to establish the ''truth'' and use the highest reporting standards to provide coverage that is ''fair'' and ''accurate''. Our specialist expertise provides professional judgement and clear analysis. We are ''impartial'', seeking to reflect the views and experiences of our audiences – so that our output as a whole includes a breadth and diversity of opinion and no significant strand of thought is under‑represented or omitted.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/pdfs/bbc-editorial-guidelines-whole-document.pdf The BBC’s Editorial Standards], downloads.bbc.co.uk&lt;/ref&gt; (Boldface from the original set in italics.)

Another set of desiderata applies to persuasive rhetoric. One set is given by Robert Pirsig: &quot;He singled out aspects of Quality such as unity, vividness, authority, economy, sensitivity, clarity, emphasis, flow, suspense, brilliance, precision, proportion, depth and so on; kept each of these as poorly defined as Quality itself, but demonstrated them by the same class reading techniques.&quot; In the quotation, Pirsig's &quot;Quality&quot; is predominantly rhetorical quality and includes neither accuracy (although it includes &quot;precision&quot;) nor completeness.

Another set applies to technical requirements specification. One example is from NASA and includes clarity, completeness, compliance, consistency, traceability, correctness, functionality, performance, maintainability, reliability, and verifiability/testability.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nasa.gov/reference/appendix-c-how-to-write-a-good-requirement/ Appendix C: How to Write a Good Requirement - NASA], nasa.gov&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* {{W|Journalistic objectivity}}, wikipedia.org

==Liar paradox==
Liar paradox is one problem with assigning truth value to sentences. The problematic sentence is &quot;this sentence is untrue&quot;, which can be alternatively rendered as two sentences: &quot;1) the next sentence is true&quot; and &quot;2) the previous sentence is untrue&quot;, nominally avoiding self-reference on a single-sentence level.

Attempts were made in mathematics to ensure the paradox cannot occur. Nonetheless, since we admitted that some sentences (especially questions and imperative sentences) do not have truth value, it seems relatively painless to accept that the sentence embodying the paradox has no truth value either. Other solutions are given in the Wikipedia article.

Further reading:
* {{W|Liar paradox}}, wikipedia.org
* Self-reference and Meaning in Ordinary Language in Conjectures and Refutations by Karl Popper

== Etymological interpretation ==
As an exercise, one can have a look at what the names of the concept of truth in various languages would mean if the meaning followed the etymology.

Let us have a look at a Slavic example, Czech ''pravda'' (Russian is similar). That sounds as if it was related to ''pravit'', say or tell. Thus, one could etymologically interpret ''pravda'' as, that which is being said or perhaps said by many. That does not match the semantics (or at least the core semantics that is subject of this article): even if all language users say that the Earth is flat, that does not make the statement true. But this kind of etymological quasi-meaning is interesting to note since all too many language users (including pseudo-philosophers) are liable to use the word in this way, leading to terminological confusion.

For English, Merriam-Webster traced the etymology to Old English trēowe, faithful. But in which sense of faithful? Is it like a spouse being faithful to another spouse? Or a picture being a faithful depiction of reality? Or is it faith + -ful, to be interpreted as leading to faith or worthy of faith? Worthy of faith, while not too far away, does not match the semantics: given we can never or hardly ever attain perfectly certain knowledge (not even in mathematics if we analyze things to their ultimate ends), we are bound to have faith in (and believe and trust) things that may turn out to be untrue. Leading to faith also does not match the semantics: one only needs to recall the Ancient Greek sophists giving the advice that, in order to convince, one should better state plausible yet untrue things than implausible/hard to believe yet true things.

For German, Duden traces the etymology of ''wahr'' to ''wār'', of which it says &quot;eigentlich = vertrauenswert&quot;, worthy of trusting or trustworthy (but Duden does not have an entry for the adjective vertrauenswert).

== Truth, untruth, error and lie ==
Let us determine the relation of the concept of truth to the concept of error. One might naively think that truth is the opposite concept of error. But it is not so. Truth is the opposite of untruth/falsity, both truth values. Error is not a truth value. Rather, error contains an ''epistemic'' element, unlike truth. To believe an untruth is to be in error; sure enough. However, a statement can be untrue without anyone being in error about it; no one can be considering the statement as a candidate for believing.

Similarly, lie is not an (perfect) opposite concept of truth; the concept of lie contains an element of intent, unlike truth and untruth/falsity.

==See also==
* [[Truth theory]]

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Truth}}, wikipedia.org
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic Truth], britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/ Truth], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (see section Related Entries for other truth-related articles)
* [https://iep.utm.edu/truth/ Truth], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Truth Truth], New World Encyclopedia</text>
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This article by Dan Polansky investigates the concept of truth and some closely related topics. One could think the concept of truth is so simple and direct that it needs no analysis at all. However, since various thinkers have analyzed the concept and cast it into doubt, it seems worth a little while to analyze it anyway. Moreover, one finds that assignment of truth values to sentences in natural language is not entirely unproblematic: some sentences have no truth value, some are ambiguous (and therefore, the truth value is not given before the ambiguity is resolved) and some would arguably benefit from truth value being a real or fractional number ranging from 0 to 1 rather than being one of true and untrue.

If one does not really care about truth (and thus, truth about truth), one may sweep various concerns and quandaries concerning the concept of truth under the carpet, and happily claim that all is fine with truth and that any putative problems are likely to be pseudo-problems. This shows how important truth is as a regulative principle of intellectual endeavors.

==Keeping truth undefined==
One approach to the definition of truth is this. Truth is something very simple and basic, a concept that children master at the age of, say, three. The child learns how to respond to certain sentences with &quot;that is not true&quot; (or the like) productively. Later, a school child can learn logic without ever bothering with a definition of truth; one can take university courses on various logics without ever bothering with the definition. There is no serious problem concerning truth from which one could learn something important. It is fine to leave the concept of truth undefined.

This anti-philosophical approach has its merits, but we will look at truth anyway.

==First impression==
Truth is a property of certain kinds of objects. Candidate kinds of objects are as follows:
* sentences
* interpreted sentences
* sentence meanings abstracting away from the sentence and its language
* propositions
* propositional beliefs (sentential beliefs)

Some kinds of representation do not have a truth value:
* drawings
* paintings
* photographs
* maps
* non-propositional beliefs

In the following, we will work with the hypothesis that it is sentences that have truth value, albeit via their meaning.

Not all sentences have truth value. Thus, question sentences and imperatives have no truth value. Furthermore, one can debate about whether certain kinds of ought-sentences have truth value or rather are something like imperatives in disguise.

One can get an idea by means of simple everyday examples:
* The sentence &quot;two plus two equals four&quot; is true.
* The sentence &quot;two plus two equals five&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;there is no maximum prime number&quot; is true.
* The sentence &quot;there is a maximum prime number&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;potable water is poisonous to humans&quot; is false/untrue.
* The sentence &quot;there is a dog barking on the street&quot; is false/untrue if there is in fact no dog barking.

But then, what is an abstract characterization or criteria that distinguish true sentences from untrue sentences? One characterization is this: the word &quot;true&quot; is X such that stating &quot;It is X that Y&quot; means the same as &quot;Y&quot; for relevant kinds of Y. More on this is in the next section.

==Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth ==
By considering Tarski's theory of truth, mentioned by Popper, we may obtain a simple and clear idea that can serve as a practical definition of truth. The idea is captured in the following axiom schema, where X is a sentence:
* Sentence &quot;X&quot; is true if and only if X.
The specific axioms are obtained from the scheme by replacing X with specific sentences. Thus:
* Sentence &quot;It rains in Oslo&quot; is true if and only if it rains in Oslo.

Above, X is not a variable of quantification but of textual substitution. We can wish to obtain a definition that characterizes the truth of sentence ''s'' by linking ''s'' to other objects or characteristics of ''s'', but this is avoided. In predicate logic, when ''s'' is a variable of quantification, &quot;s&quot; is not a formula, whereas &quot;isTrue(s)&quot; can be a formula, as well as e.g. &quot;correspondsTo(s, reality)&quot;. The right-hand part of the axiom schema does not say anything about X; it just textually places X after &quot;if&quot;.

Thus, if the learner of English did not know the meaning of the word &quot;true&quot;, now they should have a decent first idea. However, possible problems with truth values of sentences such as ambiguity, vagueness, being merely approximate, etc. are not addressed by this treatment.

The above is merely inspired by Tarski's theory of truth rather than being identical to it: Tarski's theory is a technical one, depending on the contrast between object language and metalanguage.

Wikipedia's section about folk theory of truth states: &quot;The folk theory of truth is useful in everyday life but, upon deep analysis, turns out to be technically self-contradictory.&quot; This is unconvincing since: 1) folk theory is not technical and therefore cannot be ''technically'' self-contradictory, 2) it is not obvious that liar paradox (see [[#Liar paradox|dedicated section below]]) cannot be resolved by the claim that some descriptive sentences have no truth value or by other means and 3) even if there is a locus of contradiction in the folk theory, a member of the folk would not blindly run formal inference from the contradiction to produce all well formed sentences as allegedly true but would rather isolate the locus of contradiction and avoid making any inferences from it. Thus, arguably, the folk theory has more merits than the critics admit.

Links:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#TarTheTru 2. Tarski’s theory of truth] in Truth, SEP
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/tarski-truth/ Tarski’s Truth Definitions], SEP
* [https://iep.utm.edu/truth/#H4 4. Tarski’s Semantic Theory] in Truth, IEP
* {{W|Truth#Folk beliefs}}, wikipedia.org

==Ambiguity==
Since in general, words have multiple meanings/semantics, sentences also have multiple meanings/semantics. This limits out ability to assign unique truth value to sentences. It is less problematic when there is enough context for disambiguation. However, whether the disambiguation is ever perfect is perhaps debatable.

Expressions in imperative programming languages have radically unambiguous execution semantics. This suggests a great success can be reached in certain fields of unambiguous codification. One can expect to be able to reach similar unambiguity when one codifies mathematical axioms using the language of first-order logic.

Software requirements, written in natural language, are often required to be unambiguous.

==Approximate truth==
There many everyday examples of perfectly true sentences. However, many sentences are approximately true, and we often do not bother to explicitly say so. Thus, we may say:
* &quot;The orbit of Mars around the Sun is elliptical.&quot;
This cannot be exactly true since Mars is gravitationally impacted not only by the Sun, whereas the elliptical orbit would be perfectly so only if Mars and Sun were the only mass objects impacting the trajectory.

We may choose to be more accurate:
* &quot;The orbit of Mars around the Sun is very closely elliptical.&quot;

By a similar token, Newtonian gravitational theory is a very good approximation for small speeds, but not for high speeds. Instead of saying that Newtonian theory is true, we may use the Popperian term &quot;verisimilitude&quot;: the theory has a good but imperfect verisimilitude, or is similar to truth but not exactly true.

Another approximation is the statement that &quot;humans have four nasal cavities&quot;; some individual humans do not have all four of them. Similarly, &quot;humans have one head&quot;, but that is not true for all humans. Also, &quot;humans have either XX or XY chromozomes&quot;, but that is not exactly accurate either.

==Accuracy==
The word &quot;accuracy&quot; can sometimes be used instead of &quot;truth&quot;. One speaks of higher or smaller accuracy. Accuracy stands in contrast to precision, following Russell's prescription. Per this usage, precision captures something like the resolution or detail with which one says something. Loose or non-native speakers of English may say &quot;precision&quot; or &quot;imprecise&quot; and mean &quot;accuracy&quot; or &quot;inaccurate&quot;.

==Theoretical entities==
Mendelian genetic theory posits Mendelian genes. But no one has ever observed these directly, and as far as I know, there is no mapping from Mendelian genes to DNA letter sequences. Nonetheless, the theory seems to be empirically adequate: it makes testable predictions about entities that can be directly observed. Thus, on one hand, one may deny the truth of statements about genes, since genes do not really exist, and yet, one may be very ready to make statements about genes, since their predictions are empirically adequate and as long as one speaks within Mendelian theory, genes are posited. At the same time, as long as the communication partners know they are talking within the Mendelian theory and know that the genes are theoretical rather than observational entities, they do not deceive each other by talking about genes.

==Artificial slicing into entities==
Sentences imply a certain slicing of reality into entities or entity types which is not always objectively given. Nonetheless, as long as the slicing is well defined, one can argue that sentences are true even if the slicing is arbitrary. However, the arbitrariness of the slicing may limit the degree to which the sentences reflect reality.

As an example, we may slice the phases of English into Old English and Middle English, positing no other entity in between. Then we may assign words as belonging to one or both of these phases. But there is something conventional about this slicing. The slicing and the sentences using it posit an implied sharp boundary between the two entities that may not exist in reality. The conventionality of a possible slicing stands in contrast to the efforts of biologists to as-if cut the reality at its joints when identifying taxa such as species and genera. Thus, the taxa are aimed to correspond to something real and observable, not merely something conventional and practical.

The arbitrariness of certain slicings can be perhaps likened to artificial borders between countries. Some borders are less artificial, such as those following the course of a river or following the structures of mountains. Upon first impression, one could think a Martian could not detect the borders upon a quick inspection. But it is not so simple; once different regulatory regimes are adopted on different sides of the border, the border can very well be physically recognizable: for instance, one side of the border can have a very loose policy for cutting tree, unlike the other side.

This is to some extent relating to the subject of fuzzy logic below, but seems distinct.

==Timelessness of truth==
Truth value of an interpreted sentence utterance or occurrence is timeless, not changing in time. However, this is not so for the truth value of an uninterpreted context-free sentence understood as a sequence of words with no additional context information such as the speaker/writer, time of utterance, etc.

One concern is of changes in definition: the sentence &quot;Pluto (heavenly body) is a planet&quot;, taken as a sequence of words with no time or context of utterance, has no definite truth value since the definition of the concept of planet has changed in such a way that Pluto was a planet before but not after the change. One could imagine expanding the sentence with a link to a defining dictionary, e.g. &quot;Pluto (heavenly body) is a planet [term definitions from Merriam-Webster, 2020-01-01]&quot;, but this is not customary, and Merriam-Webster does not present entry revision histories for this to actually work. Moreover, Merriam-Webster's definition is not technical enough to exclude Pluto; one would have to load the definition from International Astronomical Union (IAU).

The above problem is reduced when one considers not sentences as context-free sequences of words but as sentence utterances or occurrences, having an auditory or textual context, the speaker/writer, utterance time, etc. One can then figure out from context the time of utterance and the applicable definition of &quot;planet&quot; at the time of the utterance.

Another case of failed timelessness is with sentences like &quot;it is raining [here] today&quot;. Again, the context-free sentence has no truth value although it does have a context-free meaning/semantics, but the sentence-utterance/occurrence does have a truth value since it provides specific referents for &quot;today&quot; and &quot;here&quot;.

==Kuhnian paradigm==
One may wonder about the impact of Kuhnian paradigms on the concept of truth and slicing into entities. For example, prior to chemical revolution, there was no way to say that X is a physical mixture while Y is a chemically pure substance since the conceptual distinction was not there. Similarly, Priestly is alleged to have thought to hold in his hands dephlogisticated air, having no concept of oxygen. Thus, the general state of knowledge limits the kind of sentences (from the conceptual rather than lexical perspective) one can form, and which truths can be expressed. Whether this detracts from the concept of truth is unclear; even before the chemical revolution, one could accurately say &quot;water is a substance&quot; as opposed to the inaccurate/untrue &quot;water is a solid object&quot;.

==Scientific truth==
The problems of scientific truth seem to be related to multiple subjects picked above, including approximate truth and theoretical entities. One interesting thing about scientific truth is that it seems more liable to these problems than everyday statements such as &quot;there is a dog on the street&quot;. Paradoxically, in some ways, ordinary people dealing with ordinary affairs may seem to more often trade in perfect truth than scientists relying on models that are to some extent tentative or approximate. However, this is rather speculative and would require a deeper analysis and perhaps sourcing; it concerns an empirical hypothesis, to be tested empirically to some extent.

A field of inquiry adept in eliminating ambiguity and arriving in near-certain truth that is nowhere close to approximate is mathematics. However, according to modern classification terminology, mathematics is not science; &quot;science&quot; refers to empirical sciences such as the prime science physics. Moreover, some theories of existence of mathematical objects (numbers, geometric shapes, etc.) deny genuine existence to them.

==Fuzzy logic==
Many words such as &quot;hill&quot; intuitively do not apply either fully or not at all; they may apply somewhat. Thus, one may think of something as a 0.25-hill, 0.5-hill or 0.75-hill. Indeed, one would think of the transition from a hill to a mountain to be continuous. Thus, if one says &quot;This is a hill&quot; but really thinks &quot;This is a 0.75-hill&quot;, this makes the original sentence not entirely true, but far from untrue. This is a limitation from the point of view of the kind of logic that classifies sentences into true and untrue ones. Nonetheless, one can say &quot;This is something of a hill&quot; or &quot;This is something between a hill and a mountain&quot;, and the problem disappears.

To understand this simple concept, one does not need to study the technicalities of fuzzy logic, which is a mathematical structure with engineering applications.

==Self-reference==
This very article aims at presenting true sentences to the reader, even if it may fail here and there. If the article had no such intention, it could very well define truth as &quot;any black cat that broke a vase&quot; and be done with it.

Self-reference is also of concern in the criticism of the concept of truth. Since, if the critic does not aim to raise true or at least ''valid'' objections or reservations against the concept of truth, why should we care? However, the critic may object that one can reveal problems with the concept of truth even by means of sentences that are not perfectly true, e.g. are merely approximately true, are metaphorical, etc. That response seems to be true or valid enough: things said by a sentence and things revealed by a sentence are two distinct things.

Self-reference plays a role in section [[#Liar paradox|Liar paradox]].

==Theories of truth==
As of now, this article treat of most theories of truth in a limited way. This shortcoming is planned to be addressed by a later expansion. In the meantime, one can learn about various theories of truth in the linked further reading.

==Truth as correspondence to fact==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. One observation: this definition shifts the definition burden to the concepts of ''fact'' and ''correspondence''. Nonetheless, this definition or characterization is superficially plausible enough.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302165 The correspondence theory] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#CorThe The correspondence theory] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/The Correspondence Theory of Truth], SEP

==Truth as a correspondence to reality==
Some sources use the language of correspondence to ''reality''. Superficially, that seems plausible enough. However, it raises some questions.

One can argue that our perceptions and experiences are created by Descartes' evil demon, by Matrix, or to put it in lay terms, that world is but a dream. If that is the case, a sentence like &quot;there is a dog on the street&quot; based on one's visual perception would be untrue as long as one interprets it in this anti-realist fashion. But then, one would hardly obtain any true statements concerning the empirical world, and one would have little hope of obtaining any in future. That seems unsatisfactory.

To address the above, one can interpret sentences in a non-realist fashion. Thus, the dog on the street is not really an extra-mental object but rather a disposition to perceptions of the sole existing perceiver. But then, this is no longer correspondence to ''reality'', unless one uses the word reality to contrast dream experiences of the sole perceiver from non-dream experiences. But even if we disregard dreams, there are other perceptual phenomena at odds with reality, including optical illusions and mirage. On the other hand, the idea is clear: if, before conversion to non-realism, we were able to distinguish what is real from what is unreal using our perceptions and experience, we should be able to use the same method under a new non-realist (in the sense of no world outside of the mind) interpretation.

Moreover, one can truthfully state, &quot;I had a dream, and in that dream, there was a dog barking on a street&quot;. That seems true enough, provided I did in fact have such a dream, and yet, it does not point to an extra-mental reality. In any case, the dog in the dream does not need to correspond to any extra-mental dog.

A further complication is that if in math, one is not a Platonist, one may believe that mathematical objects are not real in some sense, and that they are in the minds only. And yet, one naturally hesitates to deny truth to such statements as &quot;two plus two equals four&quot;.

Further reading:
* {{W|Evil demon}}, wikipedia.org
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/#EvilGeniDoub Evil Genius Doubt] in Descartes' Epistemology, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/platonism-mathematics/ Platonism in the Philosophy of Mathematics], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Truth as coherence of a system==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. One objection, possibly invalid, is that what we require in practice is not only correspondence between statements/propositions but also between certain statements/propositions and perceptions. Thus, there can be a coherence between the statement &quot;There is a cat on the street&quot;, and perceptions of those who happen to be on that street.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302166 Coherence and pragmatist theories] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#CohThe The coherence theory] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==Pragmatic theory of truth==
American pragmatism is characterized by the slogan &quot;truth is what works&quot; by William James. This makes it possible to assign truth value not only to descriptive sentences but also to duty-imputing or normative sentences. However, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy provides a different characterization. Let us stop here and delegate the rest to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#PraThe Pragmatist theories] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-pragmatic/ The Pragmatic Theory of Truth], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Pragmatic theory of truth}}, wikipedia.org

==Deflationism==
The content of this section is largely delegated to further reading. Deflationism as regards truth seem to take a position similar to that we have taken in section [[#Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth|Tarski-inspired sketch of a theory of truth]].

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic/Deflationism Deflationism] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/#Def Deflationism] in Truth, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

==The duty to avoid stating untruth==
In various contexts, there is arguably a moral duty to avoid stating untruth. One case of failure to heed the duty is intentional stating of untruth, another one is failing to take reasonable precautionary steps to prevent ending in error and as a consequence stating untruth, even if not expressly intentionally.

Kant argued that lying is always morally problematic. However, this is not plausible. When German Nazis knock on the door of a villager and ask whether he is hiding Jews or resistance fighters, the villager has no duty to respond truthfully. A similar point was made by Russell when he opined he had no duty to speak truth in response to an inquiry from game hunters about where the game is located or hiding. One may argue that Hitler would have no chance if avoidance of lying were hard-coded into the physical laws of the universe; however, since it is not so hard-coded, one has to make moral decisions in an imperfect world, and be forced to respond to people to whom one does not want to talk at all.

Further reading:
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KqzW0eHzDSQ Justice: What's The Right Thing To Do? Episode 07: &quot;A LESSON IN LYING&quot;], youtube.com

==Mandatory canonical untruth==
Expanding on the above, while societies nominally require their members to say true things, in fact, they often require their members to say canonical untrue things. Thus, in a strongly Christian society, one may be required to say the right/canonical things about God and Jesus. In a Marxist-Leninist society, one may be required to say the right/canonical things about bourgeoisie, proletariat and dialectical materialism. In the times of Galileo, one may be required to speak the accepted dogma about the relationship of the Sun and the Earth.

The requirement to speak untruth may in part be driven by sincere belief of those requiring that these things are true. But not necessarily; it seems far more likely that the priestly classes of various religions know all too well that they are inculcating untruths. And where the priestly classes are gone, analogues of priestly classes are likely to appear, especially if their political ideology is based in part on the idea that truth does not exist.

==The value of misrepresentation==
As something of a speculation, truth and accuracy are probably more cared about in engineering than in management. In engineering, untruth can have grave consequences; in management, untruth is all too often required to overcome the limitations of poorly designed systems of rules; there is the phrase &quot;work to rule&quot; referring to a form of worker protest consisting in sticking to rules exactly as they are. These often not-fully-functional systems of rules often do not get corrected since as long as they are being constantly violated, the consequences of their defects are tolerable. This principle cannot be used to develop computer software: the compiler, linker and CPU do not break the rules to correct defects created by the programmer.

As an aside: As a result, when a company has a poorly designed systems of rules and business processes, and these rules and processes get implemented in business software and strictly enforced in machine fashion, this can cause grave problems to the business. In this case, it is not necessarily the business software that is at fault.

==Expression of uncertainty==
One who is aiming at only saying true things is well advised to consider stating things with uncertainty or expressly indicating that something is a hypothesis or a speculation. Thus, one can use the following forms:
* &quot;X probably holds true.&quot;
* &quot;It seems X is an Y.&quot;
* &quot;It is not completely clear whether X is true.&quot;
* &quot;X seems very likely but no proof has been delivered.&quot;
The great advantage is that one can communicate not only things that are certainly true (there are limits to certainty anyway) but also things that one is in the process of figuring out or is in another way uncertain about.

There are limits to what uncertainty one can reasonably wish to explicitly express. Thus, during the acceptance of Newtonian physics, it would be artificially precisionist to state things like this: &quot;According the tentative not-yet-falsified Newtonian theory, the gravitational force has the size of so-and-so&quot;. (Let alone that this Popperian language was not available in this form.) Therefore, on some level, one often runs some risk of reporting inaccurately.

==Figures of speech including metaphor==
Sentences using metaphor seem to be tricky as for truth, and many other figures of speech present similar problems. One may claim that even if they are not literally true, they are metaphorically true. However, if one accepts &quot;metaphorically true&quot; as a species of &quot;true&quot;, this will dramatically reduce the refutability/falsifiability of sentences since the defender will be able to claim that the intended meaning was metaphorical, hyperbolic, or non-literal in another sense. A better plan seems to be to treat &quot;metaphorically&quot; in &quot;metaphorically true&quot; as alienans (somewhat similar to &quot;fake&quot; in &quot;fake inspector&quot;), and therefore, if something is metaphorically true, it is not really true.

This may present complications for statements like &quot;Species originated by natural selection&quot;. Technically speaking, one would be forced to say &quot;Species originated by natural analogue of artificial selection&quot;. One may want to continue the former less loquacious practice without being accused of untruth.

On the other hand, a conceptual metaphor can bring the reader's mind to notice something about the world that he would not notice otherwise. Thus, it can have reality-bearing cognitive value. Indeed, &quot;Species originated by natural selection&quot; is a statement that can achieve as much to someone not acquainted with Darwinian theory; they only need to ask: &quot;what, if anything, could be natural selection?&quot;; &quot;to what context does 'selection'&quot; refer to and how can I bring it over to the context of origin of species&quot;?

==Fictional entities==
Novels and short stories in fiction report about fictional entities (characters, places, etc.) as if they were not fictional. One is not ready to admit that novels report truthfully, but one is not complaining about their reporting untruthfully. Interestingly, one is ready to draw inferences and perform consistence checking within the fictional world. The sentence &quot;in the Tolkien's fictional world, Bilbo is a hobbit&quot; seems true enough. (There we go: &quot;true enough&quot; as opposed to &quot;true&quot;?) The case seems to be interesting.

Another case is of a novel or short story that is hinting at truth about real-world entities. Thus, in the most trivial case, one would report truthfully about real-word entities and events but change proper names; however, one could be all too easily accused of libel since change of proper names is too thin a masking. One can perform deeper masking by modifying various details to be fictional and thus remove the description from reality to various degrees. But even so, there is something truthful or reality-bearing about the resulting description. The case is interesting as well.

==Whose truth==
There are some arguably bizarre theories of truth asking such questions as &quot;whose truth: your truth or my truth&quot; and similar. I am not properly acquainted with them. To my mind, they are hard to take seriously. However, a deeper analysis could hypothetically reveal that I am wrong and that they have something significant to say or reveal.

This kind of idea is mentioned in Jesus Christ Superstar, in the words of Pilate: &quot;But what is truth? Is truth that changing law? We both have truths. Are mine the same as yours&quot;?

Links:
* {{W|John 18:38}}, wikipedia.org -- on Pilate's truth-relating utterance

==Subjectivity and relativity==
Some sentences can be claimed to be remarkably subjective or relative, limiting an unambiguous determination of truth value. Examples:
* &quot;X is good&quot;: good in reference to what objective or purpose?
* &quot;X is beautiful&quot;: beautiful in whose eyes?
* &quot;X tasted great&quot;: to whom?
* &quot;X is an excellent film&quot;: according to what critics?
One could think these statements have no truth value and are entirely subject-dependent or depending on unstated reference object. But that does not seem entirely accurate. A good kitchen knife can be good for slicing food such as onion, a default purpose of the knife (as opposed to as a weigh). A beautiful woman can be widely recognized as beautiful. The food in a particular restaurant can be reported by many customers as tasting great. A film can have received good raking by film critics. That said, this is for a more extensive analysis and debate.

The above ideas suggest how to rephrase the above examples for greater explicitness:
* &quot;X is good for its default purpose or use case&quot; or &quot;X is ethically good&quot;
* &quot;X is widely considered to be beautiful&quot; or &quot;person P found X beautiful&quot;
* &quot;X is reported to taste great by the many people who tried it&quot; or &quot;person P said X tasted great&quot;
* &quot;Film X has excellent ratings on website Y&quot; or &quot;person P likes film X very much&quot;

==Revelations by untrue sentences==
True things can be revealed by untrue sentences. Examples:
* A speaker who said fluently things in English reveals their English speaking competence, if the things said are untrue. Thus, they reveal the truth of the statement &quot;Speaker so-and-so is a fluent English speaker.&quot;
* Someone who says &quot;The password to the box is not 35475829232302&quot; has revealed the password if it is in fact the correct password.
* An untruthful speaker reveals which entities they are able to recall as existing or worth mentioning.
* As a more general example, two communicating parties sharing sufficient context may perform certain distortions of things being said as long as the receiver is able to perform unambiguous decoding of the distortion.
This topic can be developed further, to point at various ways and levels of hinting, distortion/deformation, and non-literal interpretation (e.g. as a metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, etc.), resulting in a rather challenging topic of its own.

==Limits of knowledge==
Some seem to point out to limits of knowledge as limits of truth. However, limits of knowledge do not in fact present any problem for the concept of truth, which is independent of/orthogonal to the concept of knowledge.

As for knowledge and truth, the following combinations are possible:
# X is true and the truth value of X is known
# X is false and the truth value of X is known
# X is true and the truth value of X is unknown
# X is false and the truth value of X is unknown
Since the cases 3 and 4 cannot be told apart by the party not knowing the truth value of X, one can think of it as 3 cases in a combined truth/knowledge domain: X is known to be true, X is known to be false, X is unknown.

It is trivial to come up with empirical hypotheses that do in fact have truth value, or empirical questions that have true answers, but the truth value or the true answer is unknown by most people or not at all. Examples of statements not known to be true or false provided the parameters are plausible and non-refuted:
* District/region X has the number N of trees.
* There is N number of words in English.
* The number of households in district/region X that have an electronic tablet is N.
* At time T, Socrates the Greek philosopher was at location given by latitude and longitude LAT, LON.
* At time T, person P rolled a die and the result was R.

On a related note, discovery does not create facts; it discovers them. For example, the discovery of Saturn's rings did not create the fact that planet Saturn has rings. If no one discovered that Saturn had rings, for failure of development of telescopes, it would still be true that planet Saturn has rings, even if no one knew that to be the case.

Limits of knowledge apply to mathematics, a non-empirical field of inquiry, as well. We will never know all true statements about positive integers, starting with singular statements of the form &quot;N is a prime number&quot;; there is an infinite number of such true statements, and they cannot be represented in a compact manner, unlike e.g. trivially known statements of the form &quot;N equals M + 1&quot;. We do have an algorithm for deciding whether a number is a prime number, but it hits practical computational limits concerning computation time and memory. Moreover, there are algorithmically undecidable problems such as the Turing machine halting problem, which further highlights the contrast between something being true (e.g. machine X halts when run on input Y rather than running indefinitely) and something being known to be true.

The above considerations give a clear picture of the contrast between X being true and X being known to be true.

There is another related subject: upon ultimate analysis, we cannot have absolute certainty. If this is so, we only somewhat tentatively accept statements as true, using the concept of truth as a regulative principle, which leads some of us to correct statements in the light of new evidence, discovery, realization, etc. If truth was just a name for whatever statements command strong conviction in most people, that would be a whole different concept of truth.

==Truth as a limit case==
One can suspect that, in some areas, perfect truth is unattainable. At least for some applications, truth can perhaps be likened to a mathematical circle or a sphere as a limit case for what can be achieved in our empirical world. We cannot manufacture a mathematically perfect spherical ball, but we can achieve remarkable precision in manufacturing, and we are satisfied with having a name for that limit object at which we aim, here &quot;sphere&quot;. To what extent the case of truth bears a good analogy to the manufacturing example, perhaps in some areas, is not quite clear.

==Applications==
Whatever the quandaries about the concept of truth, the concept has practical applications.

One application is in those libel laws that require statement to be untrue in order to be libel. A defendant accused of libel who states that he is a truth-nihilist and that there is no such thing as truth and that therefore he could not possibly have said untruth is unlikely to get very far with this line of defense.

The workings of contracts depend on one's ability to tell whether a condition in the contract was violated.

Approximate truth or mere-model quasi-truth has such practical applications as the Ptolemaic astronomy in medieval sea navigation. For Global Positioning System (GPS) calculations, Ptolemy and Newton are not sufficient, and one needs Einstein; and thus, being closer to truth makes a difference.

In software making, Boolean variables usually take the values of true and false. Software applications make use of such variables, as well as logical operators acting on them.

==Tarski's theory of truth==
The content of this section is delegated to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic#ref302167 Tarski and truth conditions] in Truth, britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/tarski-truth/ Tarski’s Truth Definitions], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://iep.utm.edu/s-truth/ Semantic Theory of Truth], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Semantic theory of truth#Tarski's theory of truth}}, wikipedia.org
* [http://www.thatmarcusfamily.org/philosophy/Course_Websites/Readings/Tarski%20-%20The%20Concept%20of%20Truth%20in%20Formalized%20Languages.pdf Tarski, A. (1983). &quot;The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages&quot;], thatmarcusfamily.org

==Tarski's undefinability theorem==
Tarski's undefinability theorem states, informally, that in the context of a formal logic the predicate is-true applying to positive integers interpreted as codes for formulas of Peano arithmetic cannot be defined in Peano arithmetic itself. The rest of this section is delegated to further reading.

Further reading:
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/goedel-incompleteness/#TarTheUndTru Tarski’s Theorem on the Undefinability of Truth] in Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorems, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* {{W|Tarski's undefinability theorem}}, wikipedia.org

==Desiderata other than truth==
In sentence production, e.g. in journalism, there are desiderata (things desired) additional to truth, and these should not be confused with truth. One may require text to be non-misleading, neutral, balanced, objective or complete (with respect to a defined scope). One can create a wrong impression about an issue by presenting only one side of the argument or by highlighting only some facts and not other relevant facts.

For instance, BBC editorial standards single out the desiderata of truth, fairness, accuracy and impartiality: &quot;In our journalism in particular, we seek to establish the ''truth'' and use the highest reporting standards to provide coverage that is ''fair'' and ''accurate''. Our specialist expertise provides professional judgement and clear analysis. We are ''impartial'', seeking to reflect the views and experiences of our audiences – so that our output as a whole includes a breadth and diversity of opinion and no significant strand of thought is under‑represented or omitted.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/pdfs/bbc-editorial-guidelines-whole-document.pdf The BBC’s Editorial Standards], downloads.bbc.co.uk&lt;/ref&gt; (Boldface from the original set in italics.)

Another set of desiderata applies to persuasive rhetoric. One set is given by Robert Pirsig: &quot;He singled out aspects of Quality such as unity, vividness, authority, economy, sensitivity, clarity, emphasis, flow, suspense, brilliance, precision, proportion, depth and so on; kept each of these as poorly defined as Quality itself, but demonstrated them by the same class reading techniques.&quot; In the quotation, Pirsig's &quot;Quality&quot; is predominantly rhetorical quality and includes neither accuracy (although it includes &quot;precision&quot;) nor completeness.

Another set applies to technical requirements specification. One example is from NASA and includes clarity, completeness, compliance, consistency, traceability, correctness, functionality, performance, maintainability, reliability, and verifiability/testability.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nasa.gov/reference/appendix-c-how-to-write-a-good-requirement/ Appendix C: How to Write a Good Requirement - NASA], nasa.gov&lt;/ref&gt;

Further reading:
* {{W|Journalistic objectivity}}, wikipedia.org

==Liar paradox==
Liar paradox is one problem with assigning truth value to sentences. The problematic sentence is &quot;this sentence is untrue&quot;, which can be alternatively rendered as two sentences: &quot;1) the next sentence is true&quot; and &quot;2) the previous sentence is untrue&quot;, nominally avoiding self-reference on a single-sentence level.

Attempts were made in mathematics to ensure the paradox cannot occur. Nonetheless, since we admitted that some sentences (especially questions and imperative sentences) do not have truth value, it seems relatively painless to accept that the sentence embodying the paradox has no truth value either. Other solutions are given in the Wikipedia article.

Further reading:
* {{W|Liar paradox}}, wikipedia.org
* Self-reference and Meaning in Ordinary Language in Conjectures and Refutations by Karl Popper

== Etymological interpretation ==
As an exercise, one can have a look at what the names of the concept of truth in various languages would mean if the meaning followed the etymology.

Let us have a look at a Slavic example, Czech ''pravda'' (Russian is similar). That sounds as if it was related to ''pravit'', say or tell. Thus, one could etymologically interpret ''pravda'' as, that which is being said or perhaps said by many. That does not match the semantics (or at least the core semantics that is subject of this article): even if all language users say that the Earth is flat, that does not make the statement true. But this kind of etymological quasi-meaning is interesting to note since all too many language users (including pseudo-philosophers) are liable to use the word in this way, leading to terminological confusion.

For English, Merriam-Webster traced the etymology to Old English trēowe, faithful. But in which sense of faithful? Is it like a spouse being faithful to another spouse? Or a picture being a faithful depiction of reality? Or is it faith + -ful, to be interpreted as leading to faith or worthy of faith? Worthy of faith, while not too far away, does not match the semantics: given we can never or hardly ever attain perfectly certain knowledge (not even in mathematics if we analyze things to their ultimate ends), we are bound to have faith in (and believe and trust) things that may turn out to be untrue. Leading to faith also does not match the semantics: one only needs to recall the Ancient Greek sophists giving the advice that, in order to convince, one should better state plausible yet untrue things than implausible/hard to believe yet true things.

For German, Duden traces the etymology of ''wahr'' to ''wār'', of which it says &quot;eigentlich = vertrauenswert&quot;, worthy of trusting or trustworthy (but Duden does not have an entry for the adjective vertrauenswert).

== Truth, untruth, error and lie ==
Let us determine the relation of the concept of truth (and untruth) to the concepts of error and lie.

One might naively think that truth is the opposite concept of error. But it is not so. Truth is the opposite of untruth/falsity, both truth values. Error is not a truth value. Rather, error contains an ''epistemic'' element, unlike truth. To believe an untruth is to be in error; sure enough. However, a statement can be untrue without anyone being in error about it; no one can be considering the statement as a candidate for believing.

Similarly, lie is not an (perfect) opposite concept of truth; the concept of lie contains an element of intent, unlike truth and untruth/falsity.

==See also==
* [[Truth theory]]

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{W|Truth}}, wikipedia.org
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/truth-philosophy-and-logic Truth], britannica.com
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/ Truth], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (see section Related Entries for other truth-related articles)
* [https://iep.utm.edu/truth/ Truth], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Truth Truth], New World Encyclopedia</text>
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==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}{{Image|float=right|pad=20px|name=Footprint water.png|width=300px|caption=Figure 1: Water footprint}}'''Scenario'''

You're exploring how university students’ water use habits relate to their broader attitudes towards sustainability. Specifically, you’ve noticed that some students leave taps running or wastewater during breaks, and you want to understand why this happens. You’re curious about the internal and external factors that influence this behaviour, like whether students are unaware of the environmental impact of their actions, or if they just don’t prioritize sustainability in their daily routines. Additionally, you want to investigate how their broader attitudes toward the environment influence their actions. You have come across an “integrated model” of behaviour. This model combines elements from various theories to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how people act. You think this model could be useful for analysing why students might neglect simple conservation practices like turning off taps, despite being able to adopt more sustainable habits.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Comprehensive action determination model is a theoretical framework designed to explain human behaviour. It proposes that behaviour is directly predicted by three processes: habitual, situational, and intentional, and indirectly influenced by normative processes. This complex model can aid research in understanding human motivation by breaking down the processes, evaluating the outcomes, and examining the underlying context behind behaviour.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''
* What is motivation?
* What is the Comprehensive Action Determination Model (CADM)?
* What are the underpinning theories behind the CADM?
* How can the CADM be applied to understanding human motivation?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is motivation? ==
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|thumb|442x442px|Figure 2: Pyramid depicting the structure of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. ]]
Defining behaviour is needed to understand [[motivation]]. Behaviour can be defined as the way an individual acts, the way they talk, the way they communicate, and how they conduct themselves. Essentially, behaviour encompasses all actions. Motivation, on the other hand, is the &quot;why&quot; behind behaviour — the reasons underlying why we act in certain ways. Theorists explain motivation as the attribute that moves us to do or not to do something (Lai, 2011). The word ''motivation'' comes from the Latin verb ''movere'', meaning &quot;to move.&quot; This is a fitting term, as motivation is what moves a person to make certain choices, act, expend effort, and persist in those actions (Dörnyei &amp; Ushioda, 2021). Motivation also has significant effects on [[Emotion|emotions]]. For example, when individuals achieve their set goals, they experience joy and satisfaction, which can further drive motivation in the future. However, the reverse can also occur: a lack of motivation can lead to negative emotions and frustration toward a certain behaviour, which may then affect future behaviour (Bradley &amp; Lang, 2007). Motivation is said to have three important components that drive behaviour: direction, intensity, and persistence. Direction refers to how motivation influences the choices we make and the goals we set. Intensity refers to how motivation influences how hard we work toward achieving goals. Finally, persistence refers to how motivation affects how long we continue to work toward goals (Dörnyei &amp; Ushioda, 2021). Over the years, many theories have been developed to understand motivation. These include Herzberg's [[wikipedia:Two-factor_theory|Two-factor theory]] (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg et al., 2011), [[Self-determination theory]] (Deci, 1972, 2000), and probably the most famous of them all, [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Maslow, 1943). As depicted in Figure 2, Maslow’s hierarchy is a 5-step pyramid where &quot;higher&quot; needs (such as self-actualisation) can only be achieved by satisfying &quot;lower&quot; order needs (such as physiological needs). Theorists argue that it is unrealistic to create an elaborate super-theory to understand motivation due to its complexity and the countless variables that affect it. They contend that the complexity of motivation cannot be fully understood through a single theory or model (Dörnyei &amp; Ushioda, 2021). So, how can we understand human motivation? Are there any theories or models that can be applied to this complex phenomenon?

== Comprehensive action determination model (CADM) ==
The Comprehensive action determination model was first proposed by Klöckner and Blöbaum in 2010 (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). They argue that one of the main goals of [[environmental psychology]] is to understand what determines people's actions, particularly in relation to environmental influences. Klöckner and Blöbaum also note that several well-established models—or, as they term them, &quot;action models&quot; or &quot;action determination models&quot;—have been proposed. However, none of these models alone provide an adequate representation of the multiple factors that determine behaviour (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). They further argue that integrated approaches combining two models—the Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) and the Norm-activation model (Schwartz, 1977)—have shown promise (Onwezen et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2017), especially when the concept of [[wikipedia:Habit|habit]] is incorporated (Klöckner et al., 2003). Additionally, Klöckner and Blöbaum highlight that the Ipsative theory of behaviour offers a valuable perspective on the situational determination of behaviour (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). However, while these theories (the Theory of planned behaviour and the Norm-Activation Model) have proven successful in specific domains, all models exhibit limitations in other areas (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). The CADM unifies the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Norm-Activation Model, the Ipsative Theory of behaviour , and the concept of habit into one integrated framework. Klöckner and Blöbaum propose that combining these existing theories into a single model may result in a more universally applicable framework that accounts for all relevant factors and influences affecting behaviour , thereby providing a comprehensive explanation of behaviour al outcomes (Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010).

=== Underpinning theories of CADM ===
To understand the comprehensive action determination model, an understanding of the underpinning models, theories and theoretical concepts is required. As stated in the previous paragraph these are the theory of planned behaviour, the Norm-activation model, the Ipsative theory of behaviour and the theoretical concept of habit. 

==== Theory of planned behaviour ====
[[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|405x405px|Figure 3: Flow diagram of the Theory of Planned Behaviour ]]
The Theory of planned behaviour was first proposed by Ajzen in 1991 (Ajzen, 1991). The theory consists of three constructs: behavioural intention, attitude toward behaviour, and subjective norms. Firstly, behavioural intention refers to the motivation behind a behaviour; the stronger the intention, the more likely the behaviour is to be performed. Secondly, attitude refers to how positively or negatively a person evaluates a specific behaviour. Thirdly, subjective norms refer to the social pressures to perform or not perform a given behaviour. Perceived behavioural control is also a key construct in the Theory of Planned Behaviour, and it refers to how a person perceives the difficulty of performing a specific behaviour (Asare, 2015). The theory suggests that attitudes toward the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control all influence behavioural intention, which in turn leads to behaviour, as depicted in Figure 3. Klockner and Blobaum (2010) argue that the Theory of planned behaviour focuses too much on intention while neglecting the role of objective situational constraints, habits, and personal norms.

==== Norm-activation model ====
The Norm-activation model was first proposed by Schwartz in 1977 (Schwartz, 1977). The model suggests that behaviour is predicted by personal norms. Schwartz (1977) defines personal norms as “feelings of moral obligation, not as intentions” (Onwezen et al., 2013). The model posits that personal norms are influenced by two factors: awareness of consequences and awareness of needs (sometimes referred to as the ascription of responsibility). Awareness of consequences refers to the understanding that performing or not performing a certain behaviour leads to specific outcomes. Awareness of needs involves the feeling of responsibility to perform a particular behaviour (Onwezen et al., 2013; Klöckner &amp; Blöbaum, 2010). As depicted in Figure 4, both awareness of consequences and awareness of needs predict personal norms, which in turn predict behaviour. Klockner and Blobaum (2010) identify limitations of the model, stating that “The Norm-activation model focuses on personal norms but underestimates the roles of habits, intentions, attitudes, and the situational context.”
[[File:Norm activation model.png|center|thumb|610x610px|Figure 4: Flow diagram of the Norm-Activation Model ]]

==== Ipsative theory of behaviour ====
The Ipsative theory of behaviour was proposed by Frey (1988). The theory suggests that a person's behaviour can be limited or obstructed by the absence of genuine or perceived opportunities, influenced by both internal and external circumstances (Tanner, 1999). The theory consists of three presumptions about human behaviour. Firstly, objective constraints are assumed to influence behaviour. These constraints determine what a person can do, what they ought to do, or what they are permitted to do within a specific society. These variables make up the &quot;objective possibility set,&quot; which limits or hinders people's ability to engage in certain activities. Notably, these constraints exist independently of individual perceptions (Tanner, 1999). Secondly, ipsative constraints prevent the activation of alternative behaviours. Ipsative constraints form the &quot;ipsative possibility set,&quot; which individuals regard as relevant to their behavioural decisions (Tanner, 1999; Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). Finally, subjective constraints are believed to directly affect preferences rather than determining participation in specific actions. In essence, they influence a person's willingness to act (Tanner, 1999). Klockner and Blobaum (2010) argue that while the Ipsative theory of behaviour effectively outlines the objective and subjective aspects of situations as predictors of behaviour, it overlooks intentional, habitual, and normative processes.

==== Habits ====
The theoretical concept of [[wikipedia:Habit|habit]] was incorporated into the CADM to address limitations found in the Theory of planned behaviour and the Norm-activation model in predicting repetitive behaviours (Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). Habits can be defined as learned tendencies to repeat previous behaviours. They are activated by contextual elements that are often linked to past performances, such as specific locations, preceding actions in a sequence, and particular individuals (Woods &amp; Neal, 2007). The concept of habit was added to account for structural differences between actions that are frequent and those that are rare or performed for the first time. When decisions are frequently made with satisfying outcomes, the influence of decision-making in given situations decreases, resulting in more automated behavioural patterns (Triandis, 1979; Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). Klockner and Blobaum (2010) note that although the concept of habit recognises the interaction between intentions and habits, it does not fully account for non-automatic situational facilitation, constraints on behaviour, or normative processes.

=== How does the CADM work? ===
The Comprehensive action determination model proposes that behaviour is determined by three possible direct sources or processes: habitual, intentional, and situational as depicted in figure 5. Habitual processes include schemata, heuristics, and associations of behaviour; intentional processes include attitudes and intentions behind behaviour; and situational processes include both objective and subjective constraints on behaviour. A fourth process, the normative process, is also present, but it does not directly affect behaviour. Instead, it influences intentional and habitual processes. The normative process includes social norms, personal norms, and awareness of needs and consequences. Klockner and Blobaum (2010) explain that attitudes, subjective constraints (e.g., [[wikipedia:Perceived_control|perceived behavioural control]]), and personal and social norms are used to generate intentions. They further explain that attitudes reflect cognitive and emotional beliefs about behaviour, while perceived behavioural control represents beliefs about the degree of control or determination one has over their actions. Additionally, personal and social norms shape the moral framework that guides the decision-making process leading to behaviour. Personal norms are rooted in an individual’s value system and can be seen as the motivations behind decision-making (Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). All these factors integrate in what Klockner and Blobaum (2010) describe as the &quot;integrating stage,&quot; which generates intentions just before behaviour occurs. However, the normative process also influences habits, as it has higher temporal stability compared to attitudes and perceived behavioural control. Situational processes and perceived behavioural control are also thought to activate personal norms by creating awareness of needs and consequences, which then generate the formation of intentions. Habitual and situational processes are believed to interfere with intentional processes and can moderate the influence of intentions on behaviour. Perceived behavioural control is essential for activating both normative and intentional processes. As a result, situational influences affect both normative and intentional processes. Furthermore, habits are said to form through the successful execution of behaviour in specific situations, meaning situational processes also influence habitual behaviours. Finally, behaviour influences changes in personal norms, and habits, in turn, affect future behaviour (Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010).

[[File:Comprehensive action determination model.png|center|thumb|508x508px|Figure 5: Simplified flow diagram of the Comprehensive Action Determination Model ]]


Utilizing the scenario presented at the start of the chapter, we can apply the Comprehensive Action Determination Model to analyse the situation in greater depth (Figure 6). According to Klockner and Blobaum (2010), behaviour is primarily predicted by intentions and perceived behavioural control. Intentions, in turn, are generated from perceived behavioural control, social norms, and attitudes. In this scenario, habitual processes, such as water usage habits, directly predict the likelihood of engaging in water conservation efforts and moderate the relationship between intention and conservation behaviour. While personal norms are identified as predictors of intention, they do not directly predict conservation behaviour. Personal norms are shaped by awareness of environmental needs and consequences and are activated through perceived behavioural control, which creates a sense of moral obligation. Moreover, social norms influence personal norms, as they are internalized from broader societal expectations and adapted into an individual’s value system (Klockner &amp; Blobaum, 2010). Personal norms, being a stable psychological construct, also influence the formation of habits. Klockner and Blobaum (2010) further argue that both subjective constraints (such as perceived behavioural control) and objective constraints (such as access to water-saving tools or technologies) are direct predictors of conservation behaviour. Since habits tend to demonstrate long-term stability, water usage habits (a habitual process) should be influenced by perceived behavioural control and the availability of water-saving options. Both perceived behavioural control and access to water-saving technologies also act as mediators in the relationship between intention and water conservation behaviour. In other words, individuals’ intentions to conserve water are likely influenced by their existing water-related habits and the perceived control they have over their water usage. Finally, conservation behaviour feeds back onto personal norms and habits

[[File:Comprehensive Action Determination Model water usage behaviour.png|center|thumb|445x445px|Figure 6: Detailed flow diagram of Comprehensive action determination model In context to water usage behaviours]]

=== Current research on the CADM ===
Since its proposal in 2010, the Comprehensive action determination model has gained some traction in recent literature. The research on this model is primarily focused on environmental behaviour (link to wiki) (Klockner, 2013). Environmental behaviour refers to actions, attitudes, and practices related to the environment. It encompasses how people interact with their physical surroundings, how they perceive environmental issues, and how their behaviours impact the environment, either positively or negatively. Current research applying the CADM includes studies on sustainable farming (Tan, 2024), food waste behaviour (Cheng et al., 2024), reducing personal clothing consumption (Joanes et al., 2020), and recycling behaviours (Klockner &amp; Oppedal, 2011; Fang et al., 2021; Ofstad et al., 2017). Research conducted by Tan (2024) on sustainable farming found that the CADM was the most effective model for analysing and predicting persistent agricultural practices, contributing to a deeper understanding of behavioural determinants in sustainable agriculture. Cheng and colleagues (2024) also found the CADM to be effective in exploring food waste behaviours. The model showed positive results in studies of recycling behaviour (Klockner &amp; Oppedal, 2011; Fang et al., 2021; Ofstad et al., 2017) and clothing consumption (Joanes et al., 2020). Although the CADM has shown notable success in recent applications and studies, it is important to recognise that the existing body of literature remains relatively limited. As such, there is a pressing need for further research to enhance the generalisability of these findings and ensure their applicability across a broader range of contexts and scenarios.

=== Limitations to the CADM ===
The Comprehensive action determination model has two notable limitations: complexity and being data intensive. The model’s complex nature can be seen as a significant drawback. It can be difficult to interpret initially, as it combines elements from the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Norm-Activation Model, the Ipsative Theory of Behaviour, and the concept of habit. This complexity is further compounded by the presence of numerous variables that not only influence each other but also interact in intricate ways, with some variables acting as mediators, moderators, or both. These interrelationships make it challenging to fully understand how each factor contributes to the overall behaviour being studied. The interplay between these variables often requires careful analysis to untangle their individual and combined effects on the model’s outcomes. The complex nature of the CADM may not be practical in situations where quick decisions are needed, as the analysis of CADM is typically too thorough for such rapid decision-making. Secondly, the model is limited by its data-intensive nature. As noted earlier, its complexity means that analysing each variable within the dataset can be challenging. This data analysis process is often time-consuming and labour-intensive, making it difficult to replicate the model with different populations or in various contexts. The need for large, detailed datasets also poses challenges for scalability and generalisation, further complicating its application across diverse groups or settings. As a result, its practical use may be constrained in environments where data availability is limited or where the computational resources required for analysis are not feasible.

== CADM and understanding human motivation ==

=== Examining context ===
The Comprehensive action determination model allows researchers to examine the context behind human behaviour. Examining the context behind behaviour helps researchers gain deeper insights into the motivations that drive specific behaviours. Furthermore, it allows researchers to assess the strength of the motivation in relation to the context. Additionally, Normative process such as personal norms and social norms are known to influence intentions which lead to behaviour. Based on the behaviour, researchers can identify if social norms such as cultural norms or societal expectations have a stronger influence on intentions more than personal norms, even though it is said by Klockner and Blobaum (2010) that personal norms are affected by social norms. The use of the CADM in behavioural research provides a framework for breaking down the contexts underlying behaviours and the motivations that are involved, offering valuable insights into both individual and collective action.

=== Evaluating outcomes ===
Using the Comprehensive action determination model in longitudinal studies helps researchers explore how past behaviours influence future actions. By following participants over time, these studies offer insights into how behaviours, habits, and perceived control in specific situations shape future behaviour. The CADM allows researchers to track patterns and identify the motivations driving behaviour change. One key area where CADM is valuable is studying habit formation. Repeated behaviours can become automatic over time, requiring less mental effort and fostering a sense of control. The model helps explain how certain behaviour turn into habits by examining past actions, the emotional and cognitive states tied to them, and the environments in which they occur. Researchers can track how habits develop, strengthen, or fade, and how they motivate future decisions. The CADM also emphasises the role of feedback loops in behaviour change. Positive or negative outcomes from past behaviours can strengthen or weaken future actions. These feedback loops can either reinforce existing behaviours or lead to changes. The model allows researchers to trace these feedback mechanisms and how they impact future behaviour. By using CADM in longitudinal studies, researchers can better understand how past behaviour’s motivate future actions. This approach sheds light on the role of habits, perceived control, situational factors, and feedback in shaping behaviour over time. The insights gained can help develop more effective strategies for behaviour change and intervention, providing a deeper understanding of the factors that motivate long-term behaviour.

=== Understanding behavioural processes ===
The Comprehensive action determination model offers a valuable framework for understanding human motivation by systematically breaking down the various behavioural processes that drive actions. This model allows researchers to dissect the factors influencing motivation at different stages, such as habitual and situational processes. By applying the CADM, studies can identify specific points in the motivational process where individuals may excel such as during moments of strong goal commitment or accomplishment as well as areas where motivation may falter, such as in the face of adversity or lack of support. The CADM provides a deeper understanding of how different variables interact to either enhance or undermine motivation, ultimately helping to design more effective strategies for fostering sustained effort and engagement across various contexts.

== Conclusion ==
Motivation is the fundamental &quot;why&quot; behind Behaviour; it fuels drive to pursue goals, overcome challenges, and sustain effort over time. It is the explanation behind behaviour. Understanding motivation is important because it helps us identify the driving forces behind behaviour. The Comprehensive action determination model explains how individuals make decisions in relation to habitual, intentional, situational and normative processes, all of which affect each other in complex ways. The CADM integrates preexisting &quot;action determination models,&quot; such as the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Norm-Activation Model, the Ipsative Theory of Behaviour, and the theoretical concept of habit, into what is believed to be a comprehensive model of behaviour. The CADM can be applied to understanding human motivation by examining the context behind behaviour and the underlying motives that influence such contexts. It can be used to evaluate outcomes to investigate how past behaviour can motivate and shape future actions. Finally, by understanding the behavioural processes within the CADM, researchers can identify where motivation may excel or falter, depending on the outcomes of behaviour. Motivation is the core driver of behaviour, influencing how goals are set and achieved. The Comprehensive action determination model helps explain how motivation interacts with various factors like habits, intentions, and situational influences. By understanding this model, Researcher can gain insight into the underlying motives behind actions and improve decision-making, ultimately shaping future behaviour.

==Learning features==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Motivation is a predictor of behaviour: 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Exploring correlations between variables relating to certain behaviour is an application to the CADM
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Environmental behaviour|Environmental behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Environmental cues and habits|Environmental cues and habits]] (Book chapter, 2024)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Extrinsic motivation and antisocial behaviour in children|Extrinsic motivation and antisocial behaviour in children]] (Book chapter, 2015)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=Ajzen, I. (1991). The Theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.

Asare, M. (2015). USING THE THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR TO DETERMINE THE CONDOM USE BEHAVIOR AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS. American Journal of Health Studies, 30(1), 43.

Bradley, M. M., &amp; Lang, P. J. (2007). Emotion and motivation. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, &amp; G. G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed., pp. 581–607). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511546396.025

Cheng, X., Zhang, J., &amp; Li, W. (2024). What shapes food waste behaviors? New insights from a comprehensive action determination model. Waste Management, 181, 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2024.04.017

Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(1), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030644

Fang, W.-T., Huang, M.-H., Cheng, B.-Y., Chiu, R.-J., Chiang, Y.-T., Hsu, C.-W., &amp; Ng, E. (2021). Applying a Comprehensive Action Determination Model to Examine the Recycling Behavior of Taipei City Residents. Sustainability, 13(2), 490–490. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020490

Frey, B. S. (1988). Ipsative and objective limits to human behavior. Journal of Behavioral Economics, 17(4), 229–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-5720(88)90012-5

Frey, B.S. (1992). An Ipsative Theory of Human Behaviour. In: Economics As a Science of Human Behaviour. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-1374-0_12

Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., &amp; Snyderman, B. B. (2011). The motivation to work.

Herzbert, F., Mausner, B., &amp; Snyderman, B. (1959). The Motivation to Work. Nueva York.

Joanes, T., Gwozdz, W., &amp; Klöckner, C. A. (2020). Reducing personal clothing consumption: A cross-cultural validation of the comprehensive action determination model. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 71, 101396–101396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101396

Klöckner, C. A. (2013). A comprehensive model of the psychology of environmental behaviour—A meta-analysis. Global Environmental Change, 23(5), 1028–1038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.05.014

KLöckner, C. A., Matthies, E., &amp; Hunecke, M. (2003). Problems of Operationalizing Habits and Integrating Habits in Normative Decision‐Making Models1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(2), 396–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb01902.x

Klöckner, C. A., &amp; Oppedal, I. O. (2011). General vs. domain specific recycling behaviour—Applying a multilevel comprehensive action determination model to recycling in Norwegian student homes. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 55(4), 463–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.12.009

Lai, E. R. (2011). Motivation: A literature review. Person Research’s Report, 6, 40-41.

Liu, Y., Sheng, H., Mundorf, N., Redding, C., &amp; Ye, Y. (2017). Integrating Norm Activation Model and Theory of Planned Behavior to Understand Sustainable Transport Behavior: Evidence from China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(12), 1593–1593. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121593

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review google scholar, 2, 21-28.

Ofstad, S., Tobolova, M., Alim Nayum, &amp; Klöckner, C. (2017). Understanding the Mechanisms behind Changing People’s Recycling Behavior at Work by Applying a Comprehensive Action Determination Model. Sustainability, 9(2), 204–204. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9020204

Onwezen, M. C., Antonides, G., &amp; Bartels, J. (2013). The Norm Activation Model: An exploration of the functions of anticipated pride and guilt in pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Economic Psychology, 39, 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2013.07.005

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 

Schwartz, S. H. (1977). Normative Influences on Altruism. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 221–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60358-5

Tan, J. J. H. (2024). Sustaining Sustainable Farming: An Evaluation of the Reasoned Action and Comprehensive Action Determination Frameworks for Persistence (Master's thesis, California Polytechnic State University).

TANNER, C. (1999). CONSTRAINTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 19(2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1999.0121

Triandis, H. C. (1979). Values, attitudes, and interpersonal behavior. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 27, 195–259.

Wood, W., &amp; Neal, D. T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface. Psychological review, 114(4), 843.

Zoltán Dörnyei, &amp; Ushioda, E. (2021). Teaching and Researching Motivation. In Routledge eBooks. Informa. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351006743


}}

==External links==
* [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/motivation-how-to-get-started-and-staying-motivated Motivation] (Healthdirect)
* Theory of planned behaviour (Wikipedia)

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__TOC__

==Overview ==
Humour includes sharing experiences and engaging in activities that cause laughter. Humour can help to create positive experiences and allow for positive affects on the individual's mind and body. 

Stress is quite literally the opposite, derived from a state of worry or mental tension, can cause various types of trauma to the brain and body if coping mechanisms are not put into place. 

The following chapter explores the foundations of stress including the different forms it can present in. It will give an insight to the possible underlying causes of stress as well as the effects it can have on the human body, mind and behaviour. This chapter will also cover the different forms humour can come in and what it can do for different individual's such as undergraduate students or nurses experiencing stress. Several studies and psychological theories such as the psychological wellbeing scale, fight or flight response, relief theory and laughter therapy will be explored in this chapter to support the fact that humour has a significant correlation on psychological wellbeing.

{{Robelbox2|msg=1. What does stress do to the brain?

2. What is Humour?

3. What is the role of humour in stress relief?

4. What are the psychological theories of stress and humour?|title=focus questions|theme=7}}

== Stress ==
[https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/stress Australian Psychological Society (2022a)] say that stress is often described using feelings and emotions such as; anxious, overwhelmed, wound up and tense. [https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/stress/types-of-stress Australian Psychological Society (2022b)]have explained the types of stress (see figure 1) severities humans can experience including:

Acute stress lasts only a short period of time. If managed appropriately, the mind and body typically bounces back from acute stress effectively. Acute stress may occur in situations such as: 

* exam periods
* starting a new job
* being faced with a deadline
Chronic stress occurs over a longer period of time and typically does not or, takes a long time to go away. These situations may include; financial difficulties, chronic health problems or living in an unsafe environment.

Cumulative stress is when a number of stressors are occurring simultaneously or one straight after the other without the individual having the opportunity to fully recover.  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|[[File:Laughing Cartoon Guy Using A Smartphone.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Marvin using mobile device to access social media to watch short videos as laughter therapy and stress relief. these videos can also be shared with friends to increase social wellbeing. |left|366x366px]]case study
Marvin, a 49 year old man has been working as a manager at his workplace for the past two years, he works late and when he does get home, is still taking phone calls and doing admin work on his computer. He sits on the couch and barely acknowledges his wife and children. Marvin enjoys fishing, golf and driving his boat but does not regularly do any of these leisure activities or exercise. Marvin will eat breakfast and lunch but skip dinner most nights, instead, he drinks at least 7 standard alcoholic drinks before he goes to bed, even if he is left staying up alone.

After Marvin finishes with his computer, he will turn to his phone to scroll through funny videos and often laugh to himself (see figure 1). During this time and, the day afterward, Marvin's mood seems to be vibrant and happy.
|}
== What does stress do to the brain? ==
[https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/stress World health organisation] (2023) say that stress is a state of worry or mental tension, typically caused by a difficult situation. Stress is a natural response that all humans experience when addressing challenges or threats in our lives. The way we respond to and cope with stress affects our overall wellbeing.

There are many different causes and types of stress, which can cause different reactions, signs, symptoms for each individual. 

[[File:Brain_Exercising.png|thumb|Figure 2. Stress on the brain can cause it to be overworked, sometimes resulting in physical changes and trauma. ]]If not managed appropriately or, occurs frequently or over long periods of time, there can be great negative impacts on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Stress and health|physical and mental health]] (see figure 2). 

[https://premierneurologycenter.com/blog/6-ways-stress-affects-your-brain/ Premier neurology center] (2021) have confirmed that if left untreated, on going stress of all kinds can cause the human brain to undergo trauma such as;
*impairs memory
*kills brain cells
*changes the brains structure
*physically shrinking the brain
*increased susceptibility to mental illness
*declines cognitive function

Marvin's main stressor could be assumed to be his occupation, however, this case study does not explore Marvin's home life, past traumas or other potential stressors in detail. The &quot;problem&quot; with Marvin's explained situation is that he is experiencing the following symptoms from constant high levels of stress:

* loss of appetite
* social withdrawal
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Alcohol, dopamine, motivation, and emotion|increased alcohol consumption]]
Should Marvin continue to engage in humorous videos on social media, as well as increasing his social interactions with a focus on including humour and jokes with his family and friends, his overall wellbeing would see a positive increase. &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Quiz 1

{Stress can physically change the brain, including it's size:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What is humour? ==
[[wikipedia:Humour|Humour]] is the sharing of experiences to provoke laughter and provide entertainment and amusement. Humour is often used for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Humour and social bonding|social bonding]], to make light of difficult or stressful situations and to brighten up a social atmosphere by assisting individuals in finding things in common and in &quot;breaking the ice&quot;. 

People of all ages and cultures are able to respond to humour. For an individual to be amused, smile or laugh at something funny such as a joke or funny event means they have a sense of humour. However, according to [[wikipedia:Sigmund_Freud|Freud]] not everyone is able to endure a sense of humour. 

Humour is deemed as positive experience, contributing to positive physiological affects on the mind and body and, an increase in individual overall wellbeing. &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Quiz 2

{Humour can strengthen social atmospheres and interactions:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;{{Robelbox2|msg=The psychological wellbeing scale was developed by Carol Ryff in 1989 and includes six dimensions of wellbeing and optimal functioning.

1. personal growth ( “I am not interested in activities that will expand my horizons”)

2. autonomy (“My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing”)

3. self-acceptance (“I feel like many of the people I know have gotten more out of life than I have” )

4. environmental mastery (“I am good at juggling my time so that I can fit everything that needs to get done”)

5. purpose in life ( “I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality”)

6. positive relations (“I don’t have many people who want to listen when I need to talk”)|title=Did you know|theme=5}}

== What is the role of humour in stress relief? ==
Stress is a universal human experience as is humour, so why not use one to relieve the other? It is widely known that humour can be used as a coping mechanism to contribute to a higher physical, social and psychological wellbeing.  

Mbiriri (2020)&lt;ref&gt;Mbiriri, M. (2020). Laughter therapy as an intervention to promote psychological well-Being. J. Humanit. Soc. Policy, 6, 2020. &lt;/ref&gt; has found that laughter produces endorphin chemicals in the body and brain which makes us feel contentment. This study on laughter therapy has proven to be an effective intervention and coping mechanism that allows our bottled up distress and negative emotions to escape. 

Laughter therapy which involves using humour to help relieve pain and enhance mood, physiologically reducing the level of stress hormones and increasing the level of endorphins and strengthens the immune system. 

Wulandari &amp; Wardani (2022)&lt;ref&gt;Wulandari, R. A., &amp; Wardani, H. R. (2022). The effect of humour as a stress management for nurses working in hospital: systematic review. D'Nursing and Health journal (DNHJ), 3(1), 55-63.&lt;/ref&gt; conducted a study on the stress conditions experienced by nurses caused by factors such as overworked and trauma. To reduce the impact that stress has on nurses and therefore on the quality of the nursing care. During their study, Wulandari and Wardani discovered that humour is one of the most effective tools to reduce stress, they emphasise the suggestion for the use of laughter as it is very easy to do and does not require expensive costs.

Ajoke &amp; Sunday (2020) &lt;ref&gt;Ajoke, O. O., &amp; Sunday, I. E. (2020). The association between sense of humour and psychological well-being among undergraduates. J Hum Ecol, 71(1-3), 1-7.&lt;/ref&gt; have conducted a study in hopes to find the associated between having a sense of humour and psychological wellbeing for undergraduate students. This study has concluded that with the exception of autonomy and self acceptance, undergraduates have shown a positive and significant correlation between sense of humour and psychological wellbeing.  &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Quiz 3

{Humour and laughter produce chemicals to help relieve stress, pain and enhance mood:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== What are the psychological theories of stress and humour? ==
Various studies and theories have been developed to understand both stress and humour individually and the relationship they have with each other. Specifically, the correlation humour has with stress relief.

=== flight or fight response ===
The [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|flight or fight response]] (see figure 3) which can also be referred to as the hyper arousal or acute stress response, was first described in 1915 by Walter Bradford Cannon. It can be defined as a physiological reaction to perceived harmful event, attack or threat to survival. [[File:The Fight or Flight Response.png|thumb|figure 3. flight or fight response sequence of events. 

Firstly, a threat is presented then the amygdala and hypothalamus process the signals. The pituitary gland releases cortisol and adrenaline into the body. Physical symptoms start presenting, particularly in the heart and sensory systems.

]]The individuals perception of threat activates the sympathetic nervous system and, triggers an acute stress response that prepares the body to fight or flee the situation or stimuli. 
During the flight or fight response, the pituitary gland releases hormones called cortisol and adrenaline and can cause the following temporary physiological symptoms to present, including an increased:

* blood flow
* blood pressure 
* heart rate
* blood sugar (glucose)
* tunnel vision
* shaking 
* flushed face 
* hearing loss 
* slowed digestion 
* respiration to supply the oxygen necessary
* speed of blood clotting function 
* muscle tension 
* dilated pupils 
 
After the threat or harmful event has been removed, the brain and body slowly return back to [[wikipedia:Homeostasis|homeostasis]]. 

Although fear and humour seem to be polar opposites, they seem to interact continually throughout our lives. Hye-Knudsen, Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, Boutwell &amp; Clasen (2024). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hye-Knudsen|first=Marc|last2=Kjeldgaard-Christiansen|first2=Jens|last3=Boutwell|first3=Brian B.|last4=Clasen|first4=Mathias|date=2024-04|title=First They Scream, Then They Laugh: The Cognitive Intersections of Humor and Fear|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14747049241258355|journal=Evolutionary Psychology|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|doi=10.1177/14747049241258355|issn=1474-7049|pmc=PMC11155347|pmid=38840335}}&lt;/ref&gt; explain one of four coping mechanisms as emotion-focused which is attempting to reduce the negative emotions associated with the situation. 

They have discovered that fear releases stress hormones that can send our sympathetic system into overdrive, humour involves positive opioids that have an opposite, pleasantly soothing effect on the human body.

This study on the cognitive intersections of humour and fear has also included a real world example of horror films and haunted houses where jump scares are often followed by laughter. 

Humour can therefore help reduce the symptoms of flight or fight response as the neurochemistry and physiological effects of humour are antagonistic to fear. Humour help to soothe and calm down, thus natural moments of laughter may help hit a “sweet spot” of recreational fear. 

=== relief theory ===
Have you ever heard the saying &quot;laughter is the best medicine&quot;? well, [[wikipedia:Theories_of_humor|relief theory]] suggests just that, it uses humour as a mechanism to release bottled up emotions or tension through emotional relief. Relief theory is when humour reduces and relieves psychological stress.  

One of the main contributors to relief theory is [[wikipedia:Herbert_Spencer|Spencer]] who has shared that laughter is a homeostatic mechanism as it reduces psychological stress and releases excess nervous energy and tension. 

The relief theory is also supported by [[wikipedia:Humor_in_Freud|Freud]], who argued that people normally laugh when they reveal their suppressed desires. 

Freud expanded on Spencer's ideas that like energy, emotions are being conserved and bottled up and then released naturally through humour and other coping mechanisms as to prevent an explosion.  

When anticipating a negative situation, one may experienced heightened arousal which can then be reduced and relieved by experiencing laughter with friends or through entertainment.  

Zahoor (2020) &lt;ref&gt;Zahoor, A. (2020). Linguistic humor in memes to mitigate post COVID-19 severity. ''Linguistics and Literature Review (LLR)''.  &lt;/ref&gt;explores social media and the modernised version of humour it has to offer through texts, photos, videos and memes are free to be created and circulated.          

This review focuses on humour post covid-19 and how it can serve as relief therapy because humour is &quot;a coping mechanism that can balance out overwhelming circumstances, neutralise aggression and heal relationships”.          

Zahoor has concluded that humour brings people together and has the power to change our perception, that as humans, we have the ability to transform mundane situations into fun and lessen their gravity. When experiencing stress or other unpleasant circumstances, to have a sense of humour is seen as an expression of resilience.           

  &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Quiz 4

{Relief theory can be applied to social media as funny texts and videos help to relieve psychological stress:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== Conclusion ==
Stress is a natural human experience that can present in a range of forms, emotions and behaviours. Not all stress is negative, some can increase motivation and productiveness and others, however, if left unmanaged, stress an have many negative physiological and psychological impacts on the body and individual wellbeing including; increased blood pressure, muscle tension, memory impairment and changes to the brain structure.   

One way to help manage and relieve the negative impacts of stress can be to use coping mechanisms such as humour and amusement. Humour is engaging in laughter and entertainment either alone or in a social setting to increase positive psychological affects on the mind and body.    

The relationship between humour and stress relief is essentially that laughter allows our bottled up distress and negative emotions to escape. The neurochemistry and physiological effects of humour are antagonistic to stress and can therefore help to reduce the symptoms.     

The various psychological theories and studies that support humour relieving stress and it's symptoms include laughter therapy, relief theory and our flight or fight response.   

Humour and laughter can decrease stress hormones, anxiety and depression and increasing the release of positive opioids into our bodies. This chapter can conclude that laughter really is the best medicine.    

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Handling stress|Handling stress]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[wikipedia:Humour|Humour]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Stress and health|Stress and health]] (Book chapter, 2010)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Stress reduction|Stress reduction]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[wikipedia:Theories_of_humor|Theories of humour]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|Fight-or-flight response.]] (Wikipedia, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Humour|Humour]] (Wikipedia, 2020)
* [[wikipedia:Humor_in_Freud|Humor in Freud.]] (Wikipedia, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Theories_of_humor|Theories of humor.]] (Wikipedia, 2019)
== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Ajoke, O. O., &amp; Sunday, I. E. (2020). The association between sense of humour and psychological well-being among undergraduates. J Hum Ecol, 71(1-3), 1-7.

Hye-Knudsen, M., Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, J., Boutwell, B. B., &amp; Clasen, M. (2024). First They Scream, Then They Laugh: The Cognitive Intersections of Humor and Fear. Evolutionary Psychology, 22(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/14747049241258355

Mbiriri, M. (2020). Laughter therapy as an intervention to promote psychological well-Being. J. Humanit. Soc. Policy, 6, 2020. 

Wulandari, R. A., &amp; Wardani, H. R. (2022). The effect of humour as a stress management for nurses working in hospital: systematic review. D'Nursing and Health journal (DNHJ), 3(1), 55-63.

Zahoor, A. (2020). Linguistic humor in memes to mitigate post COVID-19 severity. Linguistics and Literature Review (LLR).

}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.va.gov/WHOLEHEALTHLIBRARY/tools/healing-benefits-humor-laughter.asp Healing benefits of laughter] (U.S department of veteran affairs)
* [https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/laughter-therapy.htm Laughter therapy] (howstuffworks)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6TUZm5wzLs Laughter is medicine] (informational video)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcGyVTAoXEU Make stress your friend] (informational video)
* [https://positivepsychology.com/ryff-scale-psychological-wellbeing/ Psychological wellbeing scale] (positive psychology, 2021)
* [https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/stress/signs-and-symptoms-of-stress/ Signs and symptoms of stress] (Mind UK, 2022)
* [https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/stress Stress] (World Health Organization, 2023)
* [https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/stress/types-of-stress Types of stress] (APS)
* [https://premierneurologycenter.com/blog/6-ways-stress-affects-your-brain/ 6 ways stress affects your brain] (Premier Neurology &amp; Wellness Center, 2021)
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__TOC__

==Overview ==
Humour includes sharing experiences and engaging in activities that cause laughter. Humour can help to create positive experiences and allow for positive affects on the individual's mind and body. 

Stress is quite literally the opposite, derived from a state of worry or mental tension, can cause various types of trauma to the brain and body if coping mechanisms are not put into place. 

The following chapter explores the foundations of stress including the different forms it can present in. It will give an insight to the possible underlying causes of stress as well as the effects it can have on the human body, mind and behaviour. This chapter will also cover the different forms humour can come in and what it can do for different individual's such as undergraduate students or nurses experiencing stress. Several studies and psychological theories such as the psychological wellbeing scale, fight or flight response, relief theory and laughter therapy will be explored in this chapter to support the fact that humour has a significant correlation on psychological wellbeing.

{{Robelbox2|msg=1. What does stress do to the brain?

2. What is Humour?

3. What is the role of humour in stress relief?

4. What are the psychological theories of stress and humour?|title=focus questions|theme=7}}

== Stress ==
[https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/stress Australian Psychological Society (2022a)] say that stress is often described using feelings and emotions such as; anxious, overwhelmed, wound up and tense. [https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/stress/types-of-stress Australian Psychological Society (2022b)]have explained the types of stress (see figure 1) severities humans can experience including:

Acute stress lasts only a short period of time. If managed appropriately, the mind and body typically bounces back from acute stress effectively. Acute stress may occur in situations such as: 

* exam periods
* starting a new job
* being faced with a deadline
Chronic stress occurs over a longer period of time and typically does not or, takes a long time to go away. These situations may include; financial difficulties, chronic health problems or living in an unsafe environment.

Cumulative stress is when a number of stressors are occurring simultaneously or one straight after the other without the individual having the opportunity to fully recover.  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|[[File:Laughing Cartoon Guy Using A Smartphone.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Marvin using mobile device to access social media to watch short videos as laughter therapy and stress relief. these videos can also be shared with friends to increase social wellbeing. |left|366x366px]]case study
Marvin, a 49 year old man has been working as a manager at his workplace for the past two years, he works late and when he does get home, is still taking phone calls and doing admin work on his computer. He sits on the couch and barely acknowledges his wife and children. Marvin enjoys fishing, golf and driving his boat but does not regularly do any of these leisure activities or exercise. Marvin will eat breakfast and lunch but skip dinner most nights, instead, he drinks at least 7 standard alcoholic drinks before he goes to bed, even if he is left staying up alone.

After Marvin finishes with his computer, he will turn to his phone to scroll through funny videos and often laugh to himself (see figure 1). During this time and, the day afterward, Marvin's mood seems to be vibrant and happy.
|}
== What does stress do to the brain? ==
[https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/stress World health organisation] (2023) say that stress is a state of worry or mental tension, typically caused by a difficult situation. Stress is a natural response that all humans experience when addressing challenges or threats in our lives. The way we respond to and cope with stress affects our overall wellbeing.

There are many different causes and types of stress, which can cause different reactions, signs, symptoms for each individual. 

[[File:Brain_Exercising.png|thumb|Figure 2. Stress on the brain can cause it to be overworked, sometimes resulting in physical changes and trauma. ]]If not managed appropriately or, occurs frequently or over long periods of time, there can be great negative impacts on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Stress and health|physical and mental health]] (see figure 2). 

[https://premierneurologycenter.com/blog/6-ways-stress-affects-your-brain/ Premier neurology center] (2021) have confirmed that if left untreated, on going stress of all kinds can cause the human brain to undergo trauma such as;
*impairs memory
*kills brain cells
*changes the brains structure
*physically shrinking the brain
*increased susceptibility to mental illness
*declines cognitive function

Marvin's main stressor could be assumed to be his occupation, however, this case study does not explore Marvin's home life, past traumas or other potential stressors in detail. The &quot;problem&quot; with Marvin's explained situation is that he is experiencing the following symptoms from constant high levels of stress:

* loss of appetite
* social withdrawal
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Alcohol, dopamine, motivation, and emotion|increased alcohol consumption]]
Should Marvin continue to engage in humorous videos on social media, as well as increasing his social interactions with a focus on including humour and jokes with his family and friends, his overall wellbeing would see a positive increase. &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Quiz 1

{Stress can physically change the brain, including it's size:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== What is humour? ==
[[wikipedia:Humour|Humour]] is the sharing of experiences to provoke laughter and provide entertainment and amusement. Humour is often used for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Humour and social bonding|social bonding]], to make light of difficult or stressful situations and to brighten up a social atmosphere by assisting individuals in finding things in common and in &quot;breaking the ice&quot;. 

People of all ages and cultures are able to respond to humour. For an individual to be amused, smile or laugh at something funny such as a joke or funny event means they have a sense of humour. However, according to [[wikipedia:Sigmund_Freud|Freud]] not everyone is able to endure a sense of humour. 

Humour is deemed as positive experience, contributing to positive physiological affects on the mind and body and, an increase in individual overall wellbeing. &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Quiz 2

{Humour can strengthen social atmospheres and interactions:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;{{Robelbox2|msg=The psychological wellbeing scale was developed by Carol Ryff in 1989 and includes six dimensions of wellbeing and optimal functioning.

1. personal growth ( “I am not interested in activities that will expand my horizons”)

2. autonomy (“My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing”)

3. self-acceptance (“I feel like many of the people I know have gotten more out of life than I have” )

4. environmental mastery (“I am good at juggling my time so that I can fit everything that needs to get done”)

5. purpose in life ( “I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality”)

6. positive relations (“I don’t have many people who want to listen when I need to talk”)|title=Did you know|theme=5}}

== What is the role of humour in stress relief? ==
Stress is a universal human experience as is humour, so why not use one to relieve the other? It is widely known that humour can be used as a coping mechanism to contribute to a higher physical, social and psychological wellbeing.  

Mbiriri (2020)&lt;ref&gt;Mbiriri, M. (2020). Laughter therapy as an intervention to promote psychological well-Being. J. Humanit. Soc. Policy, 6, 2020. &lt;/ref&gt; has found that laughter produces endorphin chemicals in the body and brain which makes us feel contentment. This study on laughter therapy has proven to be an effective intervention and coping mechanism that allows our bottled up distress and negative emotions to escape. 

Laughter therapy which involves using humour to help relieve pain and enhance mood, physiologically reducing the level of stress hormones and increasing the level of endorphins and strengthens the immune system. 

Wulandari &amp; Wardani (2022)&lt;ref&gt;Wulandari, R. A., &amp; Wardani, H. R. (2022). The effect of humour as a stress management for nurses working in hospital: systematic review. D'Nursing and Health journal (DNHJ), 3(1), 55-63.&lt;/ref&gt; conducted a study on the stress conditions experienced by nurses caused by factors such as overworked and trauma. To reduce the impact that stress has on nurses and therefore on the quality of the nursing care. During their study, Wulandari and Wardani discovered that humour is one of the most effective tools to reduce stress, they emphasise the suggestion for the use of laughter as it is very easy to do and does not require expensive costs.

Ajoke &amp; Sunday (2020) &lt;ref&gt;Ajoke, O. O., &amp; Sunday, I. E. (2020). The association between sense of humour and psychological well-being among undergraduates. J Hum Ecol, 71(1-3), 1-7.&lt;/ref&gt; have conducted a study in hopes to find the association between having a sense of humour and psychological wellbeing for undergraduate students. This study has concluded that with the exception of autonomy and self acceptance, undergraduates have shown a positive and significant correlation between sense of humour and psychological wellbeing.  &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Quiz 3

{Humour and laughter produce chemicals to help relieve stress, pain and enhance mood:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== What are the psychological theories of stress and humour? ==
Various studies and theories have been developed to understand both stress and humour individually and the relationship they have with each other. Specifically, the correlation humour has with stress relief.

=== flight or fight response ===
The [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|flight or fight response]] (see figure 3) which can also be referred to as the hyper arousal or acute stress response, was first described in 1915 by Walter Bradford Cannon. It can be defined as a physiological reaction to perceived harmful event, attack or threat to survival. [[File:The Fight or Flight Response.png|thumb|figure 3. flight or fight response sequence of events. 

Firstly, a threat is presented then the amygdala and hypothalamus process the signals. The pituitary gland releases cortisol and adrenaline into the body. Physical symptoms start presenting, particularly in the heart and sensory systems.

]]The individuals perception of threat activates the sympathetic nervous system and, triggers an acute stress response that prepares the body to fight or flee the situation or stimuli. 
During the flight or fight response, the pituitary gland releases hormones called cortisol and adrenaline and can cause the following temporary physiological symptoms to present, including an increased:

* blood flow
* blood pressure 
* heart rate
* blood sugar (glucose)
* tunnel vision
* shaking 
* flushed face 
* hearing loss 
* slowed digestion 
* respiration to supply the oxygen necessary
* speed of blood clotting function 
* muscle tension 
* dilated pupils 
 
After the threat or harmful event has been removed, the brain and body slowly return back to [[wikipedia:Homeostasis|homeostasis]]. 

Although fear and humour seem to be polar opposites, they seem to interact continually throughout our lives. Hye-Knudsen, Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, Boutwell &amp; Clasen (2024). &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hye-Knudsen|first=Marc|last2=Kjeldgaard-Christiansen|first2=Jens|last3=Boutwell|first3=Brian B.|last4=Clasen|first4=Mathias|date=2024-04|title=First They Scream, Then They Laugh: The Cognitive Intersections of Humor and Fear|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14747049241258355|journal=Evolutionary Psychology|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|doi=10.1177/14747049241258355|issn=1474-7049|pmc=PMC11155347|pmid=38840335}}&lt;/ref&gt; explain one of four coping mechanisms as emotion-focused which is attempting to reduce the negative emotions associated with the situation. 

They have discovered that fear releases stress hormones that can send our sympathetic system into overdrive, humour involves positive opioids that have an opposite, pleasantly soothing effect on the human body.

This study on the cognitive intersections of humour and fear has also included a real world example of horror films and haunted houses where jump scares are often followed by laughter. 

Humour can therefore help reduce the symptoms of flight or fight response as the neurochemistry and physiological effects of humour are antagonistic to fear. Humour help to soothe and calm down, thus natural moments of laughter may help hit a “sweet spot” of recreational fear. 

=== relief theory ===
Have you ever heard the saying &quot;laughter is the best medicine&quot;? well, [[wikipedia:Theories_of_humor|relief theory]] suggests just that, it uses humour as a mechanism to release bottled up emotions or tension through emotional relief. Relief theory is when humour reduces and relieves psychological stress.  

One of the main contributors to relief theory is [[wikipedia:Herbert_Spencer|Spencer]] who has shared that laughter is a homeostatic mechanism as it reduces psychological stress and releases excess nervous energy and tension. 

The relief theory is also supported by [[wikipedia:Humor_in_Freud|Freud]], who argued that people normally laugh when they reveal their suppressed desires. 

Freud expanded on Spencer's ideas that like energy, emotions are being conserved and bottled up and then released naturally through humour and other coping mechanisms as to prevent an explosion.  

When anticipating a negative situation, one may experienced heightened arousal which can then be reduced and relieved by experiencing laughter with friends or through entertainment.  

Zahoor (2020) &lt;ref&gt;Zahoor, A. (2020). Linguistic humor in memes to mitigate post COVID-19 severity. ''Linguistics and Literature Review (LLR)''.  &lt;/ref&gt;explores social media and the modernised version of humour it has to offer through texts, photos, videos and memes are free to be created and circulated.          

This review focuses on humour post covid-19 and how it can serve as relief therapy because humour is &quot;a coping mechanism that can balance out overwhelming circumstances, neutralise aggression and heal relationships”.          

Zahoor has concluded that humour brings people together and has the power to change our perception, that as humans, we have the ability to transform mundane situations into fun and lessen their gravity. When experiencing stress or other unpleasant circumstances, to have a sense of humour is seen as an expression of resilience.           

  &lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Quiz 4

{Relief theory can be applied to social media as funny texts and videos help to relieve psychological stress:
|type=&quot;(+)&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== Conclusion ==
Stress is a natural human experience that can present in a range of forms, emotions and behaviours. Not all stress is negative, some can increase motivation and productiveness and others, however, if left unmanaged, stress an have many negative physiological and psychological impacts on the body and individual wellbeing including; increased blood pressure, muscle tension, memory impairment and changes to the brain structure.   

One way to help manage and relieve the negative impacts of stress can be to use coping mechanisms such as humour and amusement. Humour is engaging in laughter and entertainment either alone or in a social setting to increase positive psychological affects on the mind and body.    

The relationship between humour and stress relief is essentially that laughter allows our bottled up distress and negative emotions to escape. The neurochemistry and physiological effects of humour are antagonistic to stress and can therefore help to reduce the symptoms.     

The various psychological theories and studies that support humour relieving stress and it's symptoms include laughter therapy, relief theory and our flight or fight response.   

Humour and laughter can decrease stress hormones, anxiety and depression and increasing the release of positive opioids into our bodies. This chapter can conclude that laughter really is the best medicine.    

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Handling stress|Handling stress]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[wikipedia:Humour|Humour]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Stress and health|Stress and health]] (Book chapter, 2010)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Stress reduction|Stress reduction]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[wikipedia:Theories_of_humor|Theories of humour]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|Fight-or-flight response.]] (Wikipedia, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Humour|Humour]] (Wikipedia, 2020)
* [[wikipedia:Humor_in_Freud|Humor in Freud.]] (Wikipedia, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Theories_of_humor|Theories of humor.]] (Wikipedia, 2019)
== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Ajoke, O. O., &amp; Sunday, I. E. (2020). The association between sense of humour and psychological well-being among undergraduates. J Hum Ecol, 71(1-3), 1-7.

Hye-Knudsen, M., Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, J., Boutwell, B. B., &amp; Clasen, M. (2024). First They Scream, Then They Laugh: The Cognitive Intersections of Humor and Fear. Evolutionary Psychology, 22(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/14747049241258355

Mbiriri, M. (2020). Laughter therapy as an intervention to promote psychological well-Being. J. Humanit. Soc. Policy, 6, 2020. 

Wulandari, R. A., &amp; Wardani, H. R. (2022). The effect of humour as a stress management for nurses working in hospital: systematic review. D'Nursing and Health journal (DNHJ), 3(1), 55-63.

Zahoor, A. (2020). Linguistic humor in memes to mitigate post COVID-19 severity. Linguistics and Literature Review (LLR).

}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.va.gov/WHOLEHEALTHLIBRARY/tools/healing-benefits-humor-laughter.asp Healing benefits of laughter] (U.S department of veteran affairs)
* [https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/laughter-therapy.htm Laughter therapy] (howstuffworks)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6TUZm5wzLs Laughter is medicine] (informational video)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcGyVTAoXEU Make stress your friend] (informational video)
* [https://positivepsychology.com/ryff-scale-psychological-wellbeing/ Psychological wellbeing scale] (positive psychology, 2021)
* [https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/stress/signs-and-symptoms-of-stress/ Signs and symptoms of stress] (Mind UK, 2022)
* [https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/stress Stress] (World Health Organization, 2023)
* [https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/stress/types-of-stress Types of stress] (APS)
* [https://premierneurologycenter.com/blog/6-ways-stress-affects-your-brain/ 6 ways stress affects your brain] (Premier Neurology &amp; Wellness Center, 2021)
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== Overview ==
{{Robelbox2|title=Case study|theme=5}}

[[File:Personal organizer with metallic ring binder.jpg|thumb|Figure 1: Jane could use a planner to assist in organising her day]]

Jane recently moved from Canberra to Melbourne to begin her university studies. She has been feeling overwhelmed by the changes and unproductive, especially after her breakup with her boyfriend. Her days have lacked structure, and she often finds herself procrastinating and feeling low. To improve her mental health and academic performance, Jane decides she needs to establish a routine that will help her stay focused and productive.

She starts by creating a morning routine, where she dedicates the first hour of each day to planning her tasks, checking emails, and reviewing her university assignments. She also allocates specific time blocks for studying, socializing, and self-care, allowing her to balance her academic responsibilities with relaxation. Jane sets aside Sunday evenings for weekly planning and reflection, helping her stay on track and adjust her schedule when necessary. After a few weeks of following her new routine, Jane notices significant improvements in her productivity. She is completing assignments on time, feels more organized, and even has more energy to spend with her friends. Her new routine has helped her not only academically but also emotionally, as she feels more in control of her time and less overwhelmed by her move and breakup.{{ic|see Figure 1}}

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter explores the critical role routines play in boosting productivity. By examining how routines streamline tasks, minimise distractions, and encourage focus, we will delve into the psychological and practical benefits of creating consistent daily habits. Routines not only help eliminate decision fatigue but also reinforce positive behaviours, allowing individuals to build momentum and achieve more with less mental effort. Moreover, routines can improve overall well-being by reducing stress, creating balance, and enabling people to enjoy a clearer separation between work and leisure.

Through real-life examples, strategies, and insights, this chapter demonstrates how establishing a routine can be the cornerstone of sustained productivity and success. Whether in academics, the workplace, or personal life, creating and sticking to a routine can be the key to unlocking one’s potential.

'''Key Points'''

* Exploration of the effect routines can have on productivity.
* The role of time management on productivity and routines.
* Psychological theories.
* The relationship between motivation, productivity, and routines - a critical analysis.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the potential downsides of rigid routines, and how can one adapt them to avoid burnout or monotony?
* How can routines help in reducing decision fatigue, and why is this important for maintaining high productivity?
* What are some common challenges people face when trying to establish productive routines, and how can they overcome them?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Key concepts ==
Productivity is the ability to produce effectively, often measured by output over time. Procrastination, however, can reduce productivity, especially in academic contexts, which can result in subpar work and unfavourable emotional effects. One of the most effective ways to fight procrastination is to establish routines that provide consistency and structure. Routines facilitate efficient task management by lowering decision fatigue and enhancing focus. People can increase their productivity and keep a balanced, organised approach to their daily responsibilities by combining routines with effective time management. The following {{what}} outlines the key points and definitions that are important in understanding the effect routines have on productivity. 

=== Productivity ===
[[wikipedia:Productivity|'''Productivity''']] is the state of quality of being productive (producing, or able to produce large amount of goods or commodities). It is measured based on the effectiveness of productive effort, usually in terms of the rate of output per unit of input, typically over a specific period of time.{{f}} 

Often productivity is inhibited when individuals fall in to the tendency to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Procrastination|procrastinate]]. From an academic perspective, many students are highly vulnerable to negative consequences of poor performance that coincide with procrastination. Decreased subjective wellbeing, negative affect and reduced life achievements are common implications associated with procrastination towards academic performance. Anxiety, fear of failure, negative perceptions, lack of motivation, low efficacy, and poor organisational skills can contribute to the increase in procrastination in students.{{f}}

By establishing and maintaining a routine, it decreases the likelihood of procrastination when faced with a plethora of tasks. It acts as a self driven reward system where every task that is completed increases the [[intrinsic motivation]] to go on and complete the next. the feeling of accomplishment after completion of a task can be enough to increase motivation substantially.{{f}}

=== Routine ===
A '''[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/routine routine]''' {{ic|Link to Wiktionary instead for definitions e.g., [[wikt:Routine|routine]]}} is a series of actions or habits performed regularly, often at the same time and in a specific order. These actions can range from simple daily tasks, like making your bed, to more complex systems designed to enhance productivity, such as a structured work schedule. The core idea of a routine is that it eventually becomes automatic, reducing the need for conscious thought or effort. By doing so, it helps streamline activities and creates a sense of order in day-to-day life.{{f}}

=== Importance of routines for productivity ===
Routines play a significant role in enhancing '''[[wikipedia:Productivity|productivity]]''' by providing structure, reducing decision fatigue, fostering positive habits, and improving focus. By creating consistency and predictability in daily activities, routines help individuals manage their time more effectively. A structured routine eliminates the need to make frequent decisions about when and how to perform tasks, which can save time and mental energy. This is especially important in avoiding '''[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1359105318763510 decision fatigue]''', a psychological phenomenon in which the ability to make decisions deteriorates after an extended period of decision-making.{{f}}

=== Time management and routines ===
Time management refers to the process of organising and planning how to divide your time among various tasks to increase efficiency and productivity. When linked to routines, time management becomes more structured and automatic, as routines help individuals develop habits that streamline daily tasks and decision-making processes.{{f}}

== Psychological theories ==
Psychological theories are essential for explaining certain phenomena as they provide a structured framework for understanding the underlying mechanisms and principles that drive human behaviour, enabling us to predict, influence, and optimise outcomes in various contexts.  

=== Self determination theory ===
[https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0256558 Self determination theory] {{ic|Use APA style citations and add reference and doi hyperlink to References}} focuses on [[intrinsic motivation]], an individuals{{g}} drive to improve personal performance or increase productivity for personal gain or reward. Using SDT, an understanding around establishing a routine and the intrinsic motivation to maintain that routine can be explored. Self determination theory has been divided into 3 main components; Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness to attribute to motivation acquisition (see Figure 2).
 
[[File:Self-Determination-Theory-Visual 1.png|thumb|364x364px|''Figure 2: Self-determination theory visual'']]Key components of self determination theory.

* '''''Autonomy''''': Refers to the sense of control and freedom individuals feel over their actions and decisions, allowing them to act in accordance with their values and interests. When people experience autonomy, they are more likely to feel motivated because their actions align with their personal goals (Cerasoli et al., 2016).
* '''''Competence''''': The need to feel connected to others, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual respect. Social connections and relationships enhance motivation by providing support and a sense of purpose (Cerasoli et al., 2016).
* '''''Relatedness''''': Involves the desire to feel capable and effective in one’s activities. When individuals feel skilled and confident in their abilities, they are more motivated to take on challenges and continue improving. Together, these components help create an environment where people  are more likely to pursue their goals with enthusiasm and persistence, driven by a sense of internal satisfaction rather than external rewards (Cerasoli et al., 2016).

=== Cognitive load theory ===
[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959475201000214 Cognitive Load theory] suggests that human's working memory has a limited capacity, the basic idea is to reduce such external load in order to make available more capacity for actual learning so that better learning and transfer performance is achieved (Bannert, 2002). The theory posits that working memory has a limited capacity, and when this capacity is overloaded, learning and problem-solving become less effective. CLT identifies three types of cognitive load: '''intrinsic load''', which refers to the complexity inherent in the material being learned; '''extraneous load''', which encompasses unnecessary or poorly designed elements that distract from the learning process; and '''germane load''', which is the mental effort dedicated to processing and understanding the material (DeLeeuw, K. E., &amp; Mayer, R. E. 2008). By effectively managing and reducing extraneous load while optimising germane load, educators and instructional designers can enhance learning efficiency. Cognitive Load Theory has broad applications in educational settings, helping to create more effective learning environments and improve information retention among students.  

=== '''Habit formation and goal theory''' ===
[[File:Habit Loop.png|thumb|293x293px|''Figure 3: Habit Loop'']]

A habit is a regularly repeated behaviour pattern: a '''routine''' that is practiced frequently and hard to stop; the cultivation of good habits is self-reliant on the process of habit formation, which is a process in which new behaviours become automatic (Chen et al., 2020). Individual behaviours can be habitual or goal-directed, goal-directed actions are rapidly acquired and regulated by their outcome; habitual actions are more reflexive, elicited by antecedent stimuli opposed to the consequences. It is possible for goal-directed behaviour to become behaviour through routines and repetition of that behaviour (Chen et al., 2020). The following components in addition to routine are important for habit formation and automaticity [''see figure 3'']{{f}}.

A '''cuing environment''' serves as a habit trigger for behaviour. External stimuli and past experience if repetitive enough can cause individuals to have an automatic urge to do an action; sometimes doing it without conscious knowledge of doing it. 

'''Harmony''' refers to result of habit activation - individuals that perform routine behaviours as a habit may feel that their needs get fulfilled which triggers their intrinsic reward system fostering the formation of habits and routines (Chen et al., 2020). 

''&quot;Good study habits are good assets to learners because the (habits) assist students to attain mastery in areas of specialisation and consequent excellent performance, while opposite constitute constraints to learning and achievement leading to failure.”'' (Azikiwe, 1998). 
[[File:Theory of planned behaviour.png|thumb|405x405px|''Figure 4: Theory of planned behaviour flow map'']]

=== '''Theory of planned behaviour''' ===
Explore how attitudes towards routines, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control influence the formation and maintenance of productivity-enhancing habits{{g}}.

The theory of planned behaviour has, by any objective measure, become one of the most influential models for predicting human behaviour (Ajzen, 2011). This model intends on providing an explanation of informational and motivational influences on behaviour and in turn allow for prediction and understanding (Manstead &amp;Parker, 1995). 

The three determinants of of behavioural intention are known as '''attitude to behaviour''', '''subjective norms''', '''and perceived behavioural control'''. Their relationship to behaviour and behavioural intention has been illustrated in ''Figure 4'' (Manstead &amp; Parker, 1995).  

* In the case of '''attitudes''', it refers to the salient behavioural beliefs (beliefs about the consequences of performing an action), weighted by an intrinsic evaluation of each of the consequences (outcome evaluations) (Manstead &amp;Parker, 1995) {{g}}.
* '''Subjective norms''' are said to be a set of salient normative beliefs (the individuals beliefs about the perceived wishes of significant others) weighted by the intrinsic motivation of compliance to these perceived expectations of others (Manstead &amp;Parker, 1995).
* '''Perceived behavioural control''' can be described as a person's belief around task difficulty - how easy or difficult performance of the behaviour is likely to be, hence influencing the likelihood of actioning behavioural intentions (Sparks et al., 1997). 

''&quot;The dictum that ‘past behaviour is the best predictor of future behaviour’ is supported by much empirical evidence. The finding of a strong correlation between past and later behaviour attests to the temporal stability of the particular behaviour and its antecedents.&quot; (Ajzen, 2011)'' 

=== Decision fatigue ===
[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1359105318763510 Decision fatigue] refers to the depletion of energy required to make decisions on a daily basis. Regarding decision fatigue and the impact it has on productivity can be explained as routines minimise the number of decisions that need to be made each day, limiting mental energy expenditure, saving energy for more important decision making processes which can in turn improve productivity (Pignatiello et al., 2018).

Emerging scientific literature{{f}} indicates that although day-to-day decisions are seemingly benign, making decisions may possess negative ramifications for controlling one's behaviour and may lead to a decrease in the quality of each subsequent decision. Evidence suggests that individuals experiencing decision fatigue demonstrate an impaired ability to make trade-offs, prefer a passive role in the decision-making process, and often make choices that seem impulsive or irrational (Pignatiello et al., 2018).{{example}}

Routines can significantly reduce decision fatigue by minimising the number of choices we need to make throughout the day. Decision fatigue occurs when the mental energy required to make continuous decisions depletes our ability to focus, leading to poor decision-making and decreased productivity. By establishing a routine, many small, repetitive decisions—such as when to start work, what tasks to prioritize, or when to take breaks—are predetermined, freeing up cognitive resources for more important tasks. With fewer decisions to make, individuals can maintain higher levels of focus and energy for longer periods, allowing them to work more efficiently and consistently. In this way, routines not only streamline daily activities but also improve overall productivity by preserving mental energy for complex or creative tasks.{{f}}

== Critical application of psychological theories and routines on productivity ==
The following table depicts the application of the aforementioned psychological theories and its relation to established routines improving productivity. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Conceptualised application of psychological theories and productivity'''
!Concept
!Application
|-
|Self determination theory
|According to '''Self-determination theory (SDT)''', routines increase productivity by meeting the needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy—three fundamental psychological needs. When routines are in line with personal objectives, autonomy enhances intrinsic motivation by enabling people to feel in control of their actions. A self-directed study schedule, for example, gives students autonomy and promotes regular effort. People gain competency through repeated performance, which boosts confidence and proficiency and encourages people to stick to routines like studying or working out on a regular basis. Relatedness is the feeling of community that arises from participating in common activities, such as study sessions or group projects, where social support and accountability bolster motivation and increase output.{{f}}
|-
|Cognitive load theory
|By decreasing mental strain and decision fatigue, routines increase productivity, according to the '''Cognitive load theory (CLT)'''. Routines reduce extraneous cognitive load by eliminating pointless distractions and the effort required to make small daily decisions because working memory has a limited capacity. An agenda for chores like emails or breaks, for instance, simplifies work and removes the need to continuously decide what to do next. This reduces '''germane cognitive load'''—a condition that frees up cognitive resources for more difficult or creative tasks—and ultimately boosts productivity by avoiding decision fatigue.{{f}}
|-
|Habit formation and goal theory 
|'''Habit formation and goal theory''' explain how routines support the maintenance of productive behaviour by reiterating actions until they become automatic habits. The transition from '''goal-directed actions''', which necessitate deliberate decision-making, to '''habitual actions''', which occur with minimal mental effort, is made possible by routines. When people regularly adhere to routines, such as beginning work at a set time or studying according to a study plan, these behaviours become automatic and free up cognitive resources for more difficult tasks. For instance, a student who follows a study schedule consistently finds it easier to concentrate because studying becomes a reflexive action rather than a choice they make every day, which increases productivity and efficiency.{{f}}
|-
|Theory of planned behaviour
|The '''theory of planned behaviour''' emphasises '''attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control''' in order to show how routines affect productivity. Productive habits are formed and sustained by a positive attitude towards routines that is supported by social accountability and societal expectations. People are more likely to commit to a routine when they feel in control of their ability to maintain it. For example, someone who believes they can stick to a morning exercise regimen and who finds the routine valuable and supportive from others is more likely to stick with it, which boosts productivity.{{f}}
|-
|Decision fatigue
|When the mental energy needed to make multiple decisions every day wears thin, it is known as decision fatigue, and it impairs judgement and lowers productivity. In order to free up cognitive resources for more crucial tasks, routines help combat this by reducing the amount of small, repetitive decisions—like when to start work or what tasks to prioritise. Routines preserve mental energy by decreasing the need for decision-making, which enables people to focus and work more productively for extended periods of time. Routines do this by simplifying daily tasks and increasing overall productivity by reserving cognitive resources for more difficult or creative tasks.{{f}}
|}

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&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Establishing and maintaining a routine can help reduce procrastination by creating a self-driven reward system that increases intrinsic motivation after completing tasks:
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+ True
- False

{Self-Determination Theory suggests that external rewards and pressures are the primary drivers of maintaining routines and increasing productivity:
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- True
+ False
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== Conclusion ==
Routines are essential for increasing productivity as they provide an organised framework that makes daily tasks easier, lessens mental stress, and encourages the formation of automatic, constructive habits. Routines fulfill basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) and lessen cognitive overload, as shown by psychological models such as the Theory of Planned Behavior, Self-Determination Theory, Cognitive Load Theory, and Habit Formation and Goal Theory. Routines, for example, reduce unnecessary cognitive load, enabling people to concentrate on more difficult tasks and prevent decision fatigue, which over time can impair cognitive ability and productivity.

However, while routines clearly offer numerous benefits, the structured nature of routines can also present challenges. Dependence on routines too much can hinder adaptability and creativity and, in certain situations, result in boredom or burnout if routines are not modified to account for evolving situations. Strict adherence to routines can lead people to miss out on opportunities or more effective ways of getting things done. For instance, people stuck in rigid routines may find it difficult to adjust when faced with unforeseen obstacles or changes in priorities, which could impede rather than increase productivity. This is particularly important in dynamic contexts like the workplace or an academic setting, where success frequently depends on one's ability to adapt.

Furthermore, there is a complicated relationship between routines and intrinsic motivation. Routines have the potential to increase intrinsic motivation by giving people a sense of control and achievement, but they also run the risk of becoming mechanical and losing their motivating power over time if they don't fit with changing values or personal goals. This emphasises how crucial it is to continually assess and modify routines in order to preserve their efficacy. Moreover, even though routines can help with time management issues and procrastination, even the most established routines can be disrupted by factors like lack of motivation, fear of failure, or external pressures. This emphasises the need for a holistic approach that includes goal-setting and self-reflection in addition to routine-building.

== See also ==
* [[Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic Motivation]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Procrastination|Procrastination]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Productivity|Productivity]] (Wikipedia)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Ajzen, I. (2011). The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections. Psychology &amp; Health, 26(9), 1113–1127.

Azikiwe, U. (1998). Study approaches of university students. In WCCI region II forum (Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 106-114).

Bannert, M. (2002). Managing cognitive load—recent trends in cognitive load theory. Learning and Instruction, 12(1), 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00021-4 

Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., &amp; Nassrelgrgawi, A. S. (2016). Performance, incentives, and needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness: a meta-analysis. Motivation and Emotion, 40(6), 781–813. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-016-9578-2

Chen, W., Chan, T. W., Wong, L. H., Looi, C. K., Liao, C. C. Y., Cheng, H. N. H., Wong, S. L., Mason, J., So, H.-J., Murthy, S., Gu, X., &amp; Pi, Z. (2020). IDC theory: habit and the habit loop. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-020-00127-7

DeLeeuw, K. E., &amp; Mayer, R. E. (2008). A comparison of three measures of cognitive load: Evidence for separable measures of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load. Journal of educational psychology, 100(1), 223.

Hooda,&amp;nbsp;Madhuri;Devi,&amp;nbsp;Rani. (2014). Procrastination: A serious problem prevalent among adolescents. ZENITH International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 7(9), 107–113. https://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:zijmr&amp;volume=7&amp;issue=9&amp;article=011

Kennedy, D. R., &amp; Porter, A. L. (2021). The Illusion of Urgency. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 86(7), 8914. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe8914

Manstead, A. S. R., &amp; Parker, D. (1995). Evaluating and Extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour. European Review of Social Psychology, 6(1), 69–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779443000012

Payne, B. R., Jackson, J. J., Noh, S. R., &amp; Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2011). In the zone: Flow state and cognition in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 26(3), 738–743. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022359

Pignatiello, G. A., Martin, R. J., &amp; Hickman, R. L. (2018). Decision fatigue: A conceptual analysis. Journal of Health Psychology, 25(1), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105318763510.

Sparks, P., Guthrie, C. A., &amp; Shepherd, R. (1997). The Dimensional Structure of the Perceived Behavioral Control Construct1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(5), 418–438. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb00639.x
 
Szulawski, M., Kaźmierczak, I., &amp; Prusik, M. (2021). Is self-determination good for your effectiveness? A study of factors which influence performance within self-determination theory. PLOS ONE, 16(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256558

Yasmin, N., Taslim, M., Ishak, N., &amp; Abdullah, A. (2018). The Relationship between Needs Accomplishment and Motivation. Journal of Administrative Science, 15, 91–98. https://ir.uitm.edu.my/id/eprint/42551/1/42551.pdf

}}

== External links ==
[https://leaders.com/articles/leadership/daily-routine/ The most productive people follow routines, here's why]. (Leaders.com)

[https://neuroscienceschool.com/2022/03/31/how-routines-can-make-you-more-productive/ How routines can make you more productive] (Neuroscienceschool.com)

[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/routine#:~:text=A%20routine%20is%20the%20usual,part%20of%20their%20fitness%20routine. Dictionary definition of routines] (Collins Dictionary)

[https://medium.com/@sachintha_95502/self-determination-theory-and-why-does-it-matter-cef9a0568d99 Self determination theory] (Image)

[[:File:Habit Loop.png|Habit loop]] (Image)

[https://thecompassforsbc.org/how-to-guide/how-to-use-a-theory-of-change-to-monitor-and-evaluate-social-and-behavior-change-programs/fig-1-theory-of-planned-behavior Theory of planned behaviour flow map] (Image)

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      <text bytes="23065" sha1="ofvzcdyete3g0f3p9fs8ju8fko03idr" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disgust and hygiene:&lt;br&gt;How does disgust influence hygiene behaviours and what are the psychological mechanisms involved?}}
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{robelbox|width=30|theme=14|title=Scenario}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
[[File:Washing Hands.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. The immediate feeling of [[w:Disgust|disgust]] compels you to avoid touching anything and wash your hands thoroughly.]]

Imagine entering a public restroom with many people inside, where you experience the smell of a foul odour. In this scenario, this strong emotion experienced is referred to as disgust. The reaction to this odour may induce behaviours to improve or maintain one's cleanliness or hygiene.
&lt;/div&gt;
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Disgust is an ancient survival mechanism that is hardwired into our system to protect us from sensed dangers by motivating avoidant behaviour(s). However, disgust is not a general reaction as some people are more sensitive to it than others, leading to different hygiene habits and behaviours (see Obsessive Compulsive Disorder {{ic|add link}}). Disgust shapes an individual's daily decisions, for example, avoiding a sticky subway pole or obsessive wiping down surfaces (Olatunji et al., 2007). This chapter reviews the root of disgust, its role as a protective mechanism, and how it informs hygiene behaviours to emphasise further how this important emotion can be utilised in public health and disease prevention.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''Focus questions:'''

*How does disgust function as a protective emotional response?
*What are the psychological mechanisms linking disgust to hygiene behaviours?
*How do individual differences in disgust sensitivity impact hygiene practices?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding disgust ==
Disgust is a [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/ defence mechanism] to keep people safe from toxins and illness. Beyond just physical responses, social and moral disgust also affects our interactions and behaviour. People differ in how sensitive they are to disgust, and this motivates how they choose to avoid perceived contaminants and how they maintain their daily hygiene.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Oaten|first=Megan|last2=Stevenson|first2=Richard J.|last3=Case|first3=Trevor I.|date=2009|title=Disgust as a disease-avoidance mechanism.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0014823|journal=Psychological Bulletin|language=en|volume=135|issue=2|pages=303–321|doi=10.1037/a0014823|issn=1939-1455}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Origin ===
Disgust is an ancient emotions that protects us from dangerous substances that could ultimately result in death. The feeling of disgust closely relates to the behavioural immune system, which Schaller and Park (2011) defined as a mechanism that includes &quot;psychological mechanisms of the detection and further avoidance of the organisms carrying pathogens.&quot;.

From an evolutionary perspective, disgust likely developed to avoid ingesting toxic or spoiled food, infectious agents, or other harmful environmental circumstances. Disgust has thus evolved from what may threaten the body to moral and social disgust, in which taboo practices or actions result in similar emotional reactions (Rozin et al., 2008). Most disgust evokes the perception of contamination or violation of body purity. For this reason, disgust can be considered an evolutionarily selected defence mechanism for minimising contact with pathogens.{{f}}

=== Disgust as a defence mechanism ===
Disgust has evolved to be an important protective mechanism that humans have against potential sources of sickness. The avoidance behaviours motivated by disgust (for instance avoiding spoiled food and avoiding contact with sick people) play a crucial role in minimising the probability of infection and getting sick (Curtis et al., 2011). This behavioural action reduces contact with carriers of infection agents, especially when those agents would not otherwise be visible or even detectable, as in the cases of bacteria and viruses.

The cue for this emotion comes with sensory signals of possible danger such as fluids of the body, decaying flesh and filth. Research has also indicated that disgust is not solely confined to physical contamination but also to social behaviours. For example, some social-interpersonal actions, such as betrayal or any form of social norm violation, may be well reflected in triggering another variant of disgust, namely moral disgust, which is adaptive in maintaining social bonding and preventing destructive behaviour against the members of one's group (Tybur et al., 2009). Hence why, people avoid these physical and social contaminants to avoid falling sick and putting themselves in a given social order{{g}}.

== Disgust and Hygiene Behaviours ==
Disgust is an adaptive mechanism used to avoid illness. It motivates hygienic practices, like hand washing, which are essential for avoiding disease. Disgust can be divided into three domains: moral, sexual, and pathogen{{f}}. Pathogen disgust is strongly associated with preventive measures taken to prevent illness.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Curtis|first=Valerie|last2=de Barra|first2=Mícheál|last3=Aunger|first3=Robert|date=2011-04-27|title=Disgust as an adaptive system for disease avoidance behaviour|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2011.0002|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=366|issue=1568|pages=1320–1320|doi=10.1098/rstb.2011.0002|issn=0962-8436|pmc=PMC3061113}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== How disgust drives hygiene practices ===
Concerning hygiene behaviours, disgust is a primary motivator, and cleaning, washing, or sanitising would help people avoid contamination{{f}}. Various studies{{f}} found that the more disgusting a person feels, the more he or she is interested in washing his/her hands or refraining from touching a dirty surface (Curtis &amp; Biran, 2001){{expand}}.

Most significantly, it manifests itself in health settings in that health workers who perceive disgust sensitivity show more concern for hygiene practices such as washing their hands and wearing gloves (Stevenson et al., 2009). There is a remarkable automatism in the association of disgust and hygiene with the elicitation of a disgust elicitor. For example, dirt or bodily fluids prompting immediate action to remove the contaminant. This is why the disgust-based intervention-public health campaigns using images of germs or dirty hands are a very efficient way of enhancing hygiene behaviours, such as washing hands, in cases of outbreaks of infectious diseases.

=== The role of disgust in everyday hygiene choices ===
Disgust controls individual choices regarding standard hygiene behaviours. It might become an obsessive cleaning of items someone touches, washing hands, or simply avoiding sights and places perceived as filthy. Many individuals avoid public restrooms due to their relationship with dirt and germs. Individuals with a high propensity for Disgust also try avoiding food consumption in places perceived as unhygienic (Olatunji et al., 2007).

Disgust influences consumer behaviour toward hygiene products such as disinfectants, hand sanitisers, and anti-bacterial soaps. Selling these products often depends on appealing to people's disgust sensitivity by overemphasising that one cannot see most hazards presented by germs and dirt. Thus, people make hygiene choices based on physical cues, such as visible dirt or perceived threats, such as invisible germs.{{f}}

== Psychological mechanisms of disgust ==
{{expand}}

=== Disgust sensitivity: individual differences ===
Disgust sensitivity defines the degree to which an individual is disgusted by something. Individuals vary significantly in their susceptibility to disgust; this variation affects their hygiene practices{{f}}. Individuals with high disgust sensitivity would be pretty observant of hygiene practices such as frequently washing hands, avoiding public restrooms, and cleaning the environment (Tybur et al., 2009). Individual differences may be traced to genetic causes and variations in early life experiences{{f}}. One earlier hypothesis was that individuals who grow up in an environment where the perceived threat of contamination is high, for example, poor sanitation, develop heightened disgust sensitivity that extends well into adulthood (Stevenson et al., 2009).

=== Cognitive and Behavioural Links Between Disgust and Hygiene ===
The cognitive and behavioural links between disgust and hygiene intervenes to evoke the relationship between disgust and hygiene behaviours through behavioural and cognitive factors{{rewrite}}. Cognitively, it operates on a system of learned associations whereby given stimuli-for instance, dirt and bodily fluids-become associated in the mind with contamination and diseases. These cognitive associations then translate to avoidance behaviours wherein one would be disinclined to touch contaminated things or quickly wash one's hands after touching such things (Olatunji et al., 2007). It appeases the protective mechanisms against harm through behavioural means. The responses include hygiene behaviours like cleaning and disinfection and avoidance of direct contact with unclean surfaces. Hygiene behaviour is habitual over time through continuous learning from past experiences that have reinforced a relationship between disgusting stimuli and hygiene.

=== Evolutionary Perspective on Disgust and Hygiene ===
Most likely, Disgust has evolved as a protection against pathogens. Following the evolutionary theory, Disgust as supposed to be an adaptative{{sp}} reaction to avoid contamination: for example, spoiled foods, body fluids, and signs of disease - Schaller &amp; Park, 2011. Immediately, this feeling of Disgust appeals to specific actions - for example, avoiding contaminated objects or cleaning to minimise chances of infection. This view has been instigated further by studies{{f}} pointing out that disgust sensitivity is greater among individuals considering health and cleanliness a priority (Oaten et al., 2009).

==== Neural Mechanisms of Disgust ====
FMRI studies have also localised the activation of disgust to the anterior insula (Figure 2) and basal ganglia, brain regions involved in visceral and motor reactions. In this way, the disgust response can arise from emotive and physical responses, such as washing hands or avoiding objects perceived as contaminated (Calder et al., 2001).

[[File:Insular Cortex Sub-regions.png|center|thumb|'''Figure 2''': Imaging of insular cortex, neural area related to disgust.]]

=== Cognitive-Behavioural Theories of Disgust ===
Cognitive theories support that feelings of disgust occur when an individual appraises the immediate environment for threats. For instance, Tybur et al. 2013 support that the emotional reactions of disgust include the cognitive appraisal of the risk of contamination; therefore, automated appraisals guide behaviours, including avoiding contact with contaminated objects and washing hands following exposure to unhygienically presented environments{{g}}.

=== Disgust Sensitivity in Hygiene Behaviours ===
In {{what}} literature, it has been highlighted that disgust sensitivity could be considered an essential predictor of hygiene behaviour; an individual reacts with greater sensitivity while increasing their engagement in behaviours of a preventive health character: hand washing, avoidance of public restrooms to avoid infectious diseases, etc. (Stevenson et al., 2009). This is true in environments where the perceived risk of contamination is high, such as hospitals or public transportation (Curtis &amp; Biran, 2001).

=== Disgust as a Multidimensional Emotion ===
Disgust can be divided into several domains, including:

'''Pathogen Disgust:''' It is concerned with contamination and disease avoidance.

'''Social Disgust:''' the breach of social norms due to cruelty and deception.

'''Sexual Disgust:''' Related to inappropriate or unclean behaviours (Tybur et al., 2013).

This is important in the conceptualisation of these domains since different types of disgust variably influence hygiene behaviours. For example, whereas pathogen disgust is directly related to behaviours such as washing one's hands, moral disgust contributes to keeping oneself distant from others or avoiding certain public facilities (Curtis et al., 2011).

== Real World Application ==
{{expand}}

=== Disgust and Public Health Interventions ===
Our understanding of disgust has been used in public health communications to promote healthy hygiene behaviours. The disgust created from correct handwashing technique initiatives, either featuring dirty hand images or of contaminated surfaces, makes hygiene practices more probable among the populace, as shown by Reynolds and Seeger (2005){{expand}}. This was particularly important during pandemics, such as the Coronavirus Disease of 2019, when contamination avoidance was a critical factor in public health, as the World Health Organization (World Health Organization, 2020) showed.

=== Disgust in Educational and Public Spaces ===
Disgust can be utilised as an educational tool to enhance hygiene behaviour in children and the public. The concept of germs and contamination, combined with graphics that could create a moderate degree of disgust, is successful in hygiene handwashing in schools (Reynolds &amp; Seeger, 2005). Similarly, visual reminders in public places such as bathrooms, airports, or other transportation hubs may also increase hand-washing or the use of hand sanitisers, especially when combined with themes of disgust about dirty hands or contaminated surfaces.

=== Disgust in Healthcare Settings ===
In the context of health, disgust serves as a crucial means for healthcare practitioners to act with good hygiene practices. Since they are in frequent contact with potentially contagious substances through bodily fluids, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (like gloves, masks, or hand sanitisers) is used. Acting according to proper hygiene guidelines, results in the safety of medical workers and their patients.

Over time, health professionals may become somewhat &quot;desensitised&quot; to disgust, whereby hygiene practices over time tend to worsen rather than improve (Davey, 2011). Hence, regular training and intervention programs pointing out the importance of hygiene are also relevant to practice consistency and safety.

Public health communications that express the disgusting nature of any infection/contamination have also been shown to increase health care professional's chances of practicing good hygiene. For example, hospitals that employ visual suggestions on the need for good hygiene practices and against contamination (such as through the display of fliers and posters showing pictures of germs) often record heightened levels of compliance to good hygiene practices (Curtis et al., 2011).

=== Disgust and Hygiene Across Cultures ===
Not every culture equally perceives disgust hygiene behaviour, for example, in more societies where pathogens are less common, through an exaggerated sense of disgust, people adaptively develop a tendency to avoid infection and therefore, have a likelihood of developing sickness (Stevenson et al., 2009). For instance, it has been highlighted that in cultures where food-borne illnesses are more common, hygiene behaviours regarding food avoid contaminants, such as uncooked or spoiled food are less practiced (Tybur et al., 2013). This also has implications for the public health campaigns themselves: Any promotion of hygiene practices must be framed with an awareness of cultural differences.

Besides variation in pathogen disgust, there is also variation in moral and sexual disgust that may indirectly influence hygiene practices. For instance, strict moral codes about purity and cleanliness in some cultures may fire stronger disgust responses and, hence, more frequent, or more elaborate hygiene rituals (Curtis &amp; Biran, 2001). The understanding of such differences in the sensitivity of disgust are of importance for the development of public health programs that effectively promote hygiene behaviour accommodating for different cultures.

=== Disgust sensitivity in vulnerable populations ===
Sensitivity can be extreme in certain populations, for example, germaphobes or those afflicted with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Individuals with OCD often demonstrate a heightened disgust sensitivity, especially to contamination-related stimuli. Such heightened disgust sensitivity might give rise to compulsive cleaning and hand-washing behaviours, which, although, in the short-term alleviating anxiety, might become damaging to relationships, work etc. (Olatunji et al., 2007). For such populations, a clear understanding of the operation of disgust becomes very important for the building of treatments to manage these extreme responses without causing further distress.

[[File:Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (8970250666).jpg|thumb|Figure 3: Sorting M&amp;M's{{g}} by colour code is a common Complulsive{{sp}} behaviour{{f}}'''

{{Robelbox|width=30|theme={{{theme|3}}}|title=Case Study based on Person with OCD (Kaye, 2021)}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Steve is a 56-year-old male who generally has always felt anxious. Contamination and mistake-related fears over time mounted. Compulsions started, such as repeatedly washing one's hands and checking locks and windows. He develops anxiety about illnesses that he knows are irrational, but he checks and rechecks many things numerous times daily. It interfered with his work life and family life. Symptoms worsened, and John sought treatment. Fortunately, these compulsive behaviours subsided with the help of CBT incorporating ERP, hence helping him get his life back.{{ic|Explain what this has to do with disgust}}
&lt;/div&gt;
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=== Quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

What happens when someone has a strong sense of disgust?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+  They avoid things that seem dirty or dangerous
-  They become curious about gross things
-  They ignore hygiene completely
-  They want to touch everything

{Why might people from different countries react differently to the same disgusting thing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Because everyone has the same experiences
+ Because {{missing}} of different cultural backgrounds and traditions
- Because they all watch the same movies
- Because they all live in the same climate
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Disgust is an adaptive emotional response developed to prevent individuals from coming into contact with dangerous substances or acquiring infections. According to psychological theories and studies, disgust is an adaptive emotion that fosters cleanliness to help prevent illness (Curtis et al., 2011). The two psychological mechanisms linking disgust to hygiene are through cognitive appraisal leading to avoidance behaviours of perceived contamination. However, such behaviours depend on variations in the degree of sensitivity to disgust. Individuals susceptible to disgust are likely to show frequent hygiene practices, whereas individuals of low sensitivity may require another approach to motivate (Tybur et al., 2013; Olatunji et al., 2007). Appreciation of this function of disgust does have some potential to help health promotion campaigns more effectively respond to individual differences with more effective health promotion. 

==See also==
[[w:Disgust|Disgust]] (Wikipedia)

[[w:Hygiene|Hygiene]] (Wikipedia)

[[w:Obsessive_compulsive_disorder|Obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Calder, A. J., Keane, J., Lawrence, A. D., &amp; Manes, F. (2001). Impaired recognition of anger and Disgust following bilateral amygdala damage. Nature Neuroscience, 4(3), 311–316. https://doi.org/10.1038/85191

ChatGPT. (2024). Assistance with conceptual framework of book chapter on disgust and hygiene. OpenAI. https://chat.openai.com

Curtis, V., &amp; Biran, A. (2001). Dirt, Disgust, and disease: Is hygiene in our genes? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 44(1), 17-31. https://doi.org/10.1353/pbm.2001.0001

Curtis, V., de Barra, M., &amp; Aunger, R. (2011). Disgust as an adaptive system for disease avoidance behaviour. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1568), 1320–1320. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0002

Davey, G. C. L. (2011). Disgust: the disease-avoidance emotion and its dysfunctions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences, 366(1583), 3453–3465. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0039

Oaten, M., Stevenson, R. J., &amp; Case, T. I. (2009). Disgust as a disease-avoidance mechanism. Psychological Bulletin, 135(2), 303-321. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014823

Olatunji, B. O., Williams, N. L., Tolin, D. F., Sawchuk, C. N., Abramowitz, J. S., &amp; Lohr, J. M. (2007). The disgust scale: Item analysis, factor structure, and suggestions for refinement. Psychological Assessment, 19(3), 281-297. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.281

Reynolds, B., &amp; Seeger, M. W. (2005). Crisis and emergency risk communication as an integrative model. Journal of Health Communication, 10(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730590904571

Rozin, P., Haidt, J., &amp; McCauley, C. R. (1999). Disgust: The body and soul emotion. Handbook of Cognition and Emotion, pp. 429, 445.

Rozin, P., Haidt, J., &amp; McCauley, C. R. (2008). Disgust: The body and soul emotion in the 21st century. Social Research, 75(4), 757–782. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40972075

Schaller, M., &amp; Park, J. H. (2011). The behavioural immune system (and why it matters). Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(2), 99-103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402596

Kaye, J. (2021, June 11). John (obsessive-compulsive disorder) | Society of Clinical Psychology. Society of Clinical Psychology | Division 12 of the American Psychological Association. https://div12.org/case_study/john-obsessive-compulsive-disorder/

Stevenson, R. J., Case, T. I., &amp; Oaten, M. J. (2009). Frequency and recency of infection and their relationship with disgust and contamination sensitivity. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30(5), 363-368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.02.005

Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., &amp; Griskevicius, V. (2009). Microbes, mating, and morality: Individual differences in three functional domains of Disgust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(1), 103-122. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015474

Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., &amp; DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65-84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030778

World Health Organization. (2020). Recommendations to member states to improve hand hygiene practices to help prevent the transmission of the COVID-19 virus. Retrieved from https://www.who.int

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==External links==

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        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Book chapter feedback</comment>
      <origin>2687961</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="25826" sha1="s4z6rhxa4kpuzqmdeiei4vjh0wtzv6q" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|Alyssia Myers}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-tracking]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:41, 10 August 2024 (UTC)

==Comment==
Hi Alyssia,

Really interesting topic you chose for this, if you haven't already you should check out last year's chapter on Physical Activity tracking and exercise motivation, they seem to have some valuable resources. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Physical_activity_tracking_and_exercise_motivation
--[[User:U3236610 Allana|U3236610 Allana]] ([[User talk:U3236610 Allana|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3236610 Allana|contribs]]) 13:14, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

{{Heading casing|Alyssia Myers}}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and/or sub-title were not correctly worded and/or formatted (fixed)
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Promising 3-level heading structure – could benefit from simplification perhaps to a 2-level structure
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Adopt closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
&lt;!-- Other ---&gt;
# The Overview and Conclusion should not have sub-headings
# Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent - Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, relevant psychological theory/research, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section. Move the image into the scenario feature box to help attract reader interest. Probably make the image smaller.
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings is recommended
# The only relevant focus question is the last one. The other focus questions are too broad (i.e., not sufficiently specific to this topic).
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Promising development of key points for each section, with relevant citations
# For sections which include sub-sections, include the key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Then focus most of the content on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title.
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
## What might the take-home, practical messages be? (What are the answer(s) to the question(s) in the sub-title and/or focus questions?)
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - A relevant figure is presented, captioned, and cited
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Caption could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# Note that a 2020 preprint should be in press by now
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to External links
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## alphabetical order
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## OK
## One of two link types provided
### Also link to relevant Wikipedia pages
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Use alphabetical order
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Very good
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent – used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Link(s) provided to professional profile(s)
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Good – two out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence
## Also try making direct improvements to other book chapters (past or current)
## comments on [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
## posts about the unit or project on other platforms
# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter submission, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
# To add direct links to evidence: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]].
# Great to see you on X!
# Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
# Add a brief summary of each contribution
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FPhysical_activity_tracking_and_exercise_motivation&amp;diff=2672598&amp;oldid=2665080 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image (has been moved into box and resized)
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the problem or phenomenon
# Is there a problem with a lack of physical activity (or too much)? (i.e., why is tracking potentially useful?)
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
# Use [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds effectively on related chapters and Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Very good review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Basic critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## discussing the direction of relationships
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Good integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
# Clear take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is very good
## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Australians represent only 0.3% of the world human population].
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Many words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{spelling}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Figures are very well captioned
### Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, talics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use very good APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname
### Move embedded external links to peer-reviewed sources into the References section and provide APA style citations
### Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the Exteral links section
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use reasonably good APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Move non-peer-reviewed sources to the external links section
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Excellent use of image(s)
# Excellent use of table(s)
# Excellent use of feature box(es)
# Very good use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also, external links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use alphabetical order
# Reasonably good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Be more selective. Provide the best half-dozen links about this topic that are relevant to an international audience.
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~4 logged, useful, moderate social contributions with direct links to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:56, 15 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a very good presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# An opening slide with the title and sub-title is displayed — also narrate to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest (e.g., by introducing a case study or scenario)
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides a reasonably good summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion slide doesn't mention self-tracking
# The conclusion provides very good take-home message(s)
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Reasonably good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration was well practiced and/or delivered
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is very good
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by video and/or images
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The chapter title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. The sub-title (or an abbreviation of the sub-title that fits within the 100 character limit) would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:49, 6 November 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a basic chapter. It makes good use of psychological theory and very basic use of research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Insufficient use of primary, peer-reviewed sources as citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Move embedded external links to academic articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section, include links as dois, and provide APA style citation to the article in the main body text
# Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FProductivity_and_routines&amp;diff=2687960&amp;oldid=2676796 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Solid
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are reasonably good
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title); the focus questions include concepts that haven't yet been introduced
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# A good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds in a basic way on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Reasonably good depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Some use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Insufficient review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Claims are well referenced
# Some/Many claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Basic integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Insufficient integration with [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Very good summary and conclusion
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is basic
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics, bold, and/or change in font size)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas]
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
## Direct quotes need page numbers – even better, communicate about concepts in your own words
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Use this format for captions: ''Figure X''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation).
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Add an APA style caption to each table
### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use basic APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use good/ APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Basic use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Basic use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Good use of figure(s)
# Good use of table(s)
# Reasonably good use of feature box(es)
# Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Add more links
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~1 logged contributions with direct links to evidence
# ~2 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
# Use a numbered list as shown in Tutorial 2
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:00, 20 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>s4z6rhxa4kpuzqmdeiei4vjh0wtzv6q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687962</id>
      <parentid>2687961</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T07:01:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment># I suspect that some of this chapter is based on unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles</comment>
      <origin>2687962</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="26019" sha1="40qr5q6dse8z4hsvhu4cgst4ilipbkf" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|Alyssia Myers}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-tracking]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:41, 10 August 2024 (UTC)

==Comment==
Hi Alyssia,

Really interesting topic you chose for this, if you haven't already you should check out last year's chapter on Physical Activity tracking and exercise motivation, they seem to have some valuable resources. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Physical_activity_tracking_and_exercise_motivation
--[[User:U3236610 Allana|U3236610 Allana]] ([[User talk:U3236610 Allana|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3236610 Allana|contribs]]) 13:14, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

{{Heading casing|Alyssia Myers}}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and/or sub-title were not correctly worded and/or formatted (fixed)
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Promising 3-level heading structure – could benefit from simplification perhaps to a 2-level structure
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Adopt closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
&lt;!-- Other ---&gt;
# The Overview and Conclusion should not have sub-headings
# Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent - Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, relevant psychological theory/research, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section. Move the image into the scenario feature box to help attract reader interest. Probably make the image smaller.
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings is recommended
# The only relevant focus question is the last one. The other focus questions are too broad (i.e., not sufficiently specific to this topic).
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Promising development of key points for each section, with relevant citations
# For sections which include sub-sections, include the key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Then focus most of the content on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title.
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
## What might the take-home, practical messages be? (What are the answer(s) to the question(s) in the sub-title and/or focus questions?)
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - A relevant figure is presented, captioned, and cited
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Caption could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# Note that a 2020 preprint should be in press by now
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to External links
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## alphabetical order
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## OK
## One of two link types provided
### Also link to relevant Wikipedia pages
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Use alphabetical order
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Very good
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent – used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Link(s) provided to professional profile(s)
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Good – two out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence
## Also try making direct improvements to other book chapters (past or current)
## comments on [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
## posts about the unit or project on other platforms
# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter submission, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
# To add direct links to evidence: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]].
# Great to see you on X!
# Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
# Add a brief summary of each contribution
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FPhysical_activity_tracking_and_exercise_motivation&amp;diff=2672598&amp;oldid=2665080 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image (has been moved into box and resized)
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the problem or phenomenon
# Is there a problem with a lack of physical activity (or too much)? (i.e., why is tracking potentially useful?)
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
# Use [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] focus questions
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds effectively on related chapters and Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Very good review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Basic critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## discussing the direction of relationships
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Good integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
# Clear take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is very good
## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Australians represent only 0.3% of the world human population].
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Many words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{spelling}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Figures are very well captioned
### Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, talics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use very good APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname
### Move embedded external links to peer-reviewed sources into the References section and provide APA style citations
### Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the Exteral links section
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use reasonably good APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Move non-peer-reviewed sources to the external links section
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Excellent use of image(s)
# Excellent use of table(s)
# Excellent use of feature box(es)
# Very good use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also, external links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use alphabetical order
# Reasonably good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Be more selective. Provide the best half-dozen links about this topic that are relevant to an international audience.
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~4 logged, useful, moderate social contributions with direct links to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:56, 15 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is a very good presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# An opening slide with the title and sub-title is displayed — also narrate to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest (e.g., by introducing a case study or scenario)
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides a reasonably good summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion slide doesn't mention self-tracking
# The conclusion provides very good take-home message(s)
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes reasonably good use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Reasonably good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration was well practiced and/or delivered
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was excellent
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is very good
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by video and/or images
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The chapter title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. The sub-title (or an abbreviation of the sub-title that fits within the 100 character limit) would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:49, 6 November 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a basic chapter. It makes good use of psychological theory and very basic use of research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
# I suspect that some of this chapter is based on unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Insufficient use of primary, peer-reviewed sources as citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Move embedded external links to academic articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section, include links as dois, and provide APA style citation to the article in the main body text
# Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FProductivity_and_routines&amp;diff=2687960&amp;oldid=2676796 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Solid
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are reasonably good
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title); the focus questions include concepts that haven't yet been introduced
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# A good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds in a basic way on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Reasonably good depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Some use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Insufficient review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Claims are well referenced
# Some/Many claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Basic integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Insufficient integration with [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Very good summary and conclusion
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is basic
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics, bold, and/or change in font size)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas]
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
## Direct quotes need page numbers – even better, communicate about concepts in your own words
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Use this format for captions: ''Figure X''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation).
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Add an APA style caption to each table
### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use basic APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use good/ APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Basic use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Basic use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Good use of figure(s)
# Good use of table(s)
# Reasonably good use of feature box(es)
# Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Add more links
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~1 logged contributions with direct links to evidence
# ~2 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
# Use a numbered list as shown in Tutorial 2
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:00, 20 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>40qr5q6dse8z4hsvhu4cgst4ilipbkf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687963</id>
      <parentid>2687962</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T07:03:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert</comment>
      <origin>2687963</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16934" sha1="66dme8hfcues2t24tclsrjssj6xop4j" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|Alyssia Myers}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-tracking]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:41, 10 August 2024 (UTC)

==Comment==
Hi Alyssia,

Really interesting topic you chose for this, if you haven't already you should check out last year's chapter on Physical Activity tracking and exercise motivation, they seem to have some valuable resources. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Physical_activity_tracking_and_exercise_motivation
--[[User:U3236610 Allana|U3236610 Allana]] ([[User talk:U3236610 Allana|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3236610 Allana|contribs]]) 13:14, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

{{Heading casing|Alyssia Myers}}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
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# The title and/or sub-title were not correctly worded and/or formatted (fixed)
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# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Promising 3-level heading structure – could benefit from simplification perhaps to a 2-level structure
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Adopt closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
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# The Overview and Conclusion should not have sub-headings
# Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
|3=
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# Excellent - Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, relevant psychological theory/research, and focus questions
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# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section. Move the image into the scenario feature box to help attract reader interest. Probably make the image smaller.
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is provided
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings is recommended
# The only relevant focus question is the last one. The other focus questions are too broad (i.e., not sufficiently specific to this topic).
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Promising development of key points for each section, with relevant citations
# For sections which include sub-sections, include the key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Then focus most of the content on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title.
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
## What might the take-home, practical messages be? (What are the answer(s) to the question(s) in the sub-title and/or focus questions?)
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# Excellent - A relevant figure is presented, captioned, and cited
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Caption could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
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# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
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&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz question(s)
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# Very good
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# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# Note that a 2020 preprint should be in press by now
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# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to External links
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## alphabetical order
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
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# See also
## OK
## One of two link types provided
### Also link to relevant Wikipedia pages
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Use alphabetical order
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Very good
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent – used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Link(s) provided to professional profile(s)
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Good – two out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence
## Also try making direct improvements to other book chapters (past or current)
## comments on [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
## posts about the unit or project on other platforms
# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter submission, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
# To add direct links to evidence: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]].
# Great to see you on X!
# Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
# Add a brief summary of each contribution
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:00, 24 August 2024 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FPhysical_activity_tracking_and_exercise_motivation&amp;diff=2672598&amp;oldid=2665080 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image (has been moved into box and resized)
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Clearly explains the problem or phenomenon
# Is there a problem with a lack of physical activity (or too much)? (i.e., why is tracking potentially useful?)
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# Clear focus questions
# Use [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] focus questions
|3=
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# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds effectively on related chapters and Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Lists/Figures --&gt;
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Very good review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Basic critical thinking about relevant research is evident
# Critical thinking about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## discussing the direction of relationships
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Good integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent summary and conclusion
# Clear take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is very good
## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Australians represent only 0.3% of the world human population].
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Many words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{spelling}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Figures are very well captioned
### Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, talics, check and correct capitalisation)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use very good APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname
### Move embedded external links to peer-reviewed sources into the References section and provide APA style citations
### Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the Exteral links section
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use reasonably good APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Move non-peer-reviewed sources to the external links section
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features - Links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
&lt;!-- Learning features – Images etc. --&gt;
# Excellent use of image(s)
# Excellent use of table(s)
# Excellent use of feature box(es)
# Very good use of case studies or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also, external links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use alphabetical order
# Reasonably good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Be more selective. Provide the best half-dozen links about this topic that are relevant to an international audience.
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~4 logged, useful, moderate social contributions with direct links to evidence
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:56, 15 October 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
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# Overall, this is a very good presentation
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&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# An opening slide with the title and sub-title is displayed — also narrate to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Create an engaging introduction to hook audience interest (e.g., by introducing a case study or scenario)
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions that lead to take-away messages. This will help to focus and discipline the presentation.
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# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
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# The presentation addresses the topic
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&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of one or more examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
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&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides a reasonably good summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion slide doesn't mention self-tracking
# The conclusion provides very good take-home message(s)
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# The presentation makes reasonably good use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Reasonably good [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
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# The narration was well practiced and/or delivered
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# Audio recording quality was excellent
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# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
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# Overall, visual display quality is very good
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# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
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# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
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# The visual communication is effectively supplemented by video and/or images
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# The presentation is very well produced
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# A good written description of the presentation is provided. Consider expanding.
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# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
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&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are communicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:49, 6 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>66dme8hfcues2t24tclsrjssj6xop4j</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Productivity and routines</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>2687964</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>Book chapter feedback</comment>
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      <text bytes="19539" sha1="51ond3mtglrfrbc868p2uyoemmu08lu" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|U3236610 Allana}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Habit]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Productivity]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:49, 10 August 2024 (UTC)

== Feedback and Suggestions ==

Hi Allana, I thoroughly enjoyed your book chapter so far! I really like the case scenario, it really draws the reader in. I like all of your key points, you cover some interesting psychological theories. I found this peer reviewed from 2019 that I think may be helpful toward your book chapter. The article covers the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6378489/ Importance of creating habits and routine].

Good luck Allana! :) [[User:Alyssia Myers|Alyssia Myers]] ([[User talk:Alyssia Myers|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alyssia Myers|contribs]]) 11:00, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

Hi Allana, this page looks amazing so far! I have one suggestion, it could be worth adding a figure/image for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, there should be an image available that  he made :), such as [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs2.svg this one] !!! Good luck [[User:Gabriel Geld|Gabriel Geld]] ([[User talk:Gabriel Geld|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gabriel Geld|contribs]]) 08:18, 16 August 2024 (UTC)

{{Heading casing|U3236610 Allana}}


&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and sub-title are correctly worded and formatted
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Under-developed heading structure – develop further
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Adopt closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
&lt;!-- Other ---&gt;
# Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with up to a similar number of sub-headings for large sections
# The Overview and Conclusion should not have sub-headings
# Remove general headings such as &quot;Key points&quot;
# Headings are theory-heavy; take a broader perspective to the problem
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections.
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings is recommended
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Partial development of key points for some sections, with some relevant citations
# For sections which include sub-sections, include the key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples
# It is unclear whether the best available psychological theory and research has been consulted in the preparation of this plan
&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use APA style 7th edition for citations with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year)
# Move links to articles into the References section. Link using the dois.
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# One or more relevant figure(s) is/are presented and captioned
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# The figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1)
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# One use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of one or more scenarios/examples/case studies
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz question(s)
# Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages for each focus question
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Are there any systematic reviews about this topic?
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## use dois where available instead of other links
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Very good
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) not accessible even after logging in
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page instead
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Good – two out of three types of contributions made with with indirect link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making:
# One out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making:
## direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
# To add direct links to evidence: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]].
# Use a numbered list
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:41, 26 August 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent presentation
|2=
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&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening clearly conveys the purpose of the presentation
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Very engaging introduction to hook audience interest {{smile}}
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is clearly established through an example
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes basic use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes good use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides an excellent summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides excellent take-home message(s)
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well practiced and/or performed
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was very good
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
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&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is excellent
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective use of animated text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is sufficiently large to make it easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
# References are not provided
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is supplemented in an excellent way by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is very well produced
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
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&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The video title does not match the chapter title and sub-title. This would help to clearly convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A very brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is not provided
# A link from the book chapter is provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is not clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:03, 10 November 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a basic chapter. It makes good use of psychological theory and very basic use of research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
# I suspect that some of this chapter is based on unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Insufficient use of primary, peer-reviewed sources as citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Move embedded external links to academic articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section, include links as dois, and provide APA style citation to the article in the main body text
# Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FProductivity_and_routines&amp;diff=2687960&amp;oldid=2676796 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Solid
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are reasonably good
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title); the focus questions include concepts that haven't yet been introduced
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# A good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds in a basic way on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Reasonably good depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Some use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Insufficient review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Claims are well referenced
# Some/Many claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Basic integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Insufficient integration with [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Very good summary and conclusion
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is basic
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics, bold, and/or change in font size)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas]
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
## Direct quotes need page numbers – even better, communicate about concepts in your own words
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Use this format for captions: ''Figure X''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation).
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Add an APA style caption to each table
### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use basic APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use good/ APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Basic use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Basic use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Good use of figure(s)
# Good use of table(s)
# Reasonably good use of feature box(es)
# Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Add more links
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Reasonably good use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~1 logged contributions with direct links to evidence
# ~2 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
# Use a numbered list as shown in Tutorial 2
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:00, 20 November 2024 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>51ond3mtglrfrbc868p2uyoemmu08lu</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Disgust and hygiene</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>307064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2687945</id>
      <parentid>2682785</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T04:48:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Book chapter feedback</comment>
      <origin>2687945</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20854" sha1="eigv6986ndyu5b0khtg39l1xberfkgy" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|U3214564}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Disgust]]
* Also [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search past book chapters for related topics]]
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], consider:
** What psychological theory(ies) can help to understand and explain this topic?
** What is the main research in this area?
* Let me know if I can do anything else to support the development of this chapter.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:27, 11 August 2024 (UTC)

==Comment==
Hey there I'm Jackster_10 and and doing a slightly relevant chapter about motivation and personal hygiene, while doing some research I came across this article https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyp002 which may be of use to you, it talks about hygiene standards and touches on motivations for hand washing including disgust, and has a paragraph on how disgust can be used as a motivator. The information isn't too detailed but you may be able to gain some information from it.
Cheers, Jackster_10 [[User:Jackster 10|Jackster 10]] ([[User talk:Jackster 10|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jackster 10|contribs]]) 05:48, 15 August 2024 (UTC)

Hi [[User:U3214564|U3214564]] so far your chapter provides a clear and engaging analysis of how disgust influences hygiene behaviours, highlighting both its evolutionary role as a disease defence and its psychological mechanisms. This is so insightful! Great work on presenting such a nuanced view of how disgust shapes our hygiene behaviours (: - U3236641

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:U3214564|Hi [[User:U3214564|U3214564]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:14, 13 October 2024 (UTC)
|}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The title and sub-title are correctly worded and formatted
# User name removed – authorship is as per the list of topics and the page's editing history
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]]
# Excellent – Well developed 2-level heading structure. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic.
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Adopt closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent - Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, relevant psychological theory/research, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section. Add an image into the scenario feature box to help attract reader interest.
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A brief, evocative description of the problem/topic is planned
# Use 3rd person perspective (except 1st/2nd person can work for feature boxes/scenarios)
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings is recommended
# Use bullet points (see Tutorial 2)
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Promising development of key points for each section, with some relevant citations
# Use either APA style or wiki style, but not both. And do not include direct links to external sources from the main body.
# Instead of links to external sources, provide APA style or wiki style citations then, in references, include the doi which hyperlinks to the article
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# Does this plan include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. For example, I suspect that [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FDisgust_and_hygiene&amp;diff=2645312&amp;oldid=2645284 this content] is generated by AI but it has not been acknowledged.
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## Hasn't been developed
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - One or more relevant figure(s) is/are presented, captioned, and cited
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# The figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Promising use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters
&lt;!-- Examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of one or more scenarios/examples/case studies
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# OK
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Are there any systematic reviews about this topic?
&lt;!-- Suggestions --&gt;
# Remove bullet points
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable)
# Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both. Currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used.
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Not developed – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Not developed – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent – used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
# Remove external links section (duplicated info)
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Link(s) provided to professional profile(s)
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# An external link to the book chapter is provided
# Use an internal link (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]])
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# One out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making:
## direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
## posts about the unit or project on other platforms such as the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum or on [https://x.com X] using the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}}
# To add direct links to evidence: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:21, 27 August 2024 (UTC)

== The brains region in relation to disgust  ==

There is some really great information about disgust and its region of the brain. If you did physiological Psychology week 10 addressed emotions and the brain.  [[User:Annabelle Taylor|Annabelle Taylor]] ([[User talk:Annabelle Taylor|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Annabelle Taylor|contribs]]) 04:46, 19 September 2024 (UTC)

{{MEMF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, this is an excellent presentation
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overview - Opening --&gt;
# The opening conveys the purpose of the presentation in a very good way
&lt;!-- Overview - Introduction --&gt;
# Engaging introduction to hook audience interest
&lt;!-- Overview - Context --&gt;
# A context for the presentation is established through an example
&lt;!-- Overview - Focus --&gt;
# Consider asking focus questions to help focus and discipline the presentation
|3=
&lt;!-- Content comments ... --&gt;
# Comments about the book chapter may also apply to this section
&lt;!-- Content - Addresses topic --&gt;
# The presentation addresses the topic
&lt;!-- Content - Amount --&gt;
# An appropriate amount of content is presented — not too much or too little
&lt;!-- Content - Theory --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of relevant psychological theory
&lt;!-- Content - Research --&gt;
# The presentation makes insufficient/no use of relevant psychological research
&lt;!-- Content - Citations --&gt;
# The presentation makes insufficient/no use of citations to support claims
&lt;!-- Content - Examples --&gt;
# The presentation makes excellent use of examples
&lt;!-- Content - Practical advice --&gt;
# The presentation provides useful practical advice
&lt;!-- Content - Easy to understand --&gt;
# The presentation provides easy to understand information
|4=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Conclusion - Slide --&gt;
# The conclusion provides a good summary of the most relevant psychological theory and research about this topic
# The conclusion provides reasonably good take-home message(s)
|5=
&lt;!-- Audio comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Audio - Easy to follow --&gt;
# The audio is easy to follow and interesting to listen to
&lt;!-- Audio - Narration --&gt;
# The presentation makes effective use of narrated audio
&lt;!-- Audio - Pacing --&gt;
# Audio communication is well-paced
&lt;!-- Audio - Voice --&gt;
# Excellent [[w:Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]
&lt;!-- Audio - Practice --&gt;
# The narration is well practiced and/or performed
&lt;!-- Audio - Recording quality --&gt;
# Audio recording quality was very good
&lt;!-- Audio - Topic --&gt;
# The narrated [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|6=
&lt;!-- Video comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Video - Overall --&gt;
# Overall, visual display quality is very good
&lt;!-- Video - Video, Image, Text --&gt;
# The presentation makes very good use of text and image based slides
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Font --&gt;
# The font size is (mostly) sufficiently large to make it easy to read
&lt;!-- Video - Text - Amount --&gt;
# The amount of text presented per slide makes it easy to read and listen at the same time
&lt;!-- Video - Images --&gt;
# The visual communication is supplemented in a very good way by relevant images and/or diagrams
&lt;!-- Video - Production --&gt;
# The presentation is well produced using simple tools
&lt;!-- Video - Topic --&gt;
# The visual [[#Content|content]] is well matched to the target topic
|7=
&lt;!-- Meta-data comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Title/sub-title --&gt;
# The correct title is used, but the sub-title (or a shortened version of it) is not used, as the name of the presentation. This would help to convey the purpose of the presentation and be consistent.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Description --&gt;
# A brief written description of the presentation is provided. Expand.
&lt;!-- Meta-data - Links --&gt;
# Links to and from the book chapter are provided
|8=
&lt;!-- Licensing comments ... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Licensing - Images --&gt;
# Image sources and their copyright status are not clearly indicated
&lt;!-- Licensing - Presentation --&gt;
# A copyright license for the presentation is clearly indicated
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:26, 10 November 2024 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is a basic chapter. Coverage of theory is good. Research review is basic. Style is basic.
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Basic use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# In many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FDisgust_and_hygiene&amp;diff=2687944&amp;oldid=2676464 these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box; also include a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
# Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are reasonably clear
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# A basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
## Builds on one previous [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] article
# Build more strongly on related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles (e.g., by embedding interwiki links for key terms)
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Basic depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Basic use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# In many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Basic review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# In many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Many claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Basic integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Insufficient integration with [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Reasonably good summary and conclusion
# Key points are well summarised
# Address the focus questions
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is basic
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## See earlier comments about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar
## The grammar for some sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Antisocial behaviour in children</title>
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      <text bytes="33726" sha1="bfzmcgeh2r7yndzygn79ktjcvsh9lxk" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Antisocial behaviour in children:&lt;br&gt;What motivates antisocial behaviour in children? }}
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{Robelbox|width=30|theme={{{theme|4}}}|title=Tommy's story}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

Tommy, a 46-year-old male (e.g. see figure 1), has a history of disregarding societal rules and engaging in aggressive behaviou. 

He has been arrested multiple times for theft, and assault. When confronted, he shows little concern, often saying, “Rules are for people who don’t know how to take what they want.” 

Tommy struggles in personal relationships, relying on manipulation and deceit to achieve his goals. He rarely expresses guilt or remorse, dismissing others’ reactions as “overly dramatic.” 

Impulsive by nature, Tommy frequently quits jobs without notice due to frustration with authority. His quick temper and tendency to escalate conflicts into physical altercations further hinder his daily life.

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
[[File:Angry-2766265 960 720.jpg|thumb|332x332px| '''Figure 1.'''  Adult male displaying hostile body language.]]
The above scenario represents the manifestation of antisocial behaviour in adult everyday life. The question to consider is why Tommy, in adulthood, is motivated to behave in this way and what are the factors that have led the developmental trajectory of his antisocial behaviour?  

This chapter will attempt to answer these questions as it explores the developmental trajectory of antisocial behaviour from toddlerhood into adolescence. This chapter focuses on; the influence of personal, familial, and social risk factors in the development and maintenance of antisocial behaviour in children, and the way in which these factors affect and are affect by emotional, social and cognitive development.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is antisocial behaviour?
* What are the influences of familial, social and trait risk factors in motivating antisocial behaviour in children? 
* What role does emotion play in motivating antisocial behaviour in children? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Antisocial behaviour ==
Antisocial behaviour (ASB) can be characterised as the persistent pattern of actions that deviate from normal behaviours that can harm or show a blatant disregard for the well-being and rights of others, manifesting in a range of ways including; aggression, defiance, hostility, impulsivity, and deceitfulness  (Calkins &amp; Keane, 2009; Cilulla et al., 2020). The aetiology of antisocial behaviour ASB is multifaceted and involves a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors risk, resource and protective factors (Otto et al., 2021). The developmental trajectory of ASB moulded as result of the interplay of these components.      

Understanding [[wikipedia:Child_development|childhood development]] is crucial to comprehending the origins of ASB, as this period lays the foundation for [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]], social skills, and moral understanding. Disruptions to a child social, emotional and cognitive development through critical periods, such as infancy, toddlerhood, childhood and adolescence, provide foundations for developmental cascade of ASB that is likely to persist in adulthood. [[File:Disruptive,_impulse_control,_and_conduct_disorders.webm|389x389px|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Video explaining antisocial personality disorder]]ASB presentation in childhood are associated with cognitive impairments as well as adverse consequences and health outcomes in adulthood such as; low educational achievement, drug and alcohol dependency, criminality, psychological maladjustment and mental health comorbidity such as depression and anxiety (Stickle &amp; Frick, 2002; Brennan et al., 2017). In addition childhood ASB are associated with clinical diagnoses such as [[wikipedia:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder|attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[wikipedia:Oppositional_defiant_disorder|oppositional defiant disorde]]&lt;nowiki/&gt;r (ODD) and, conduct disorder (CD), with childhood characterised by antisocial behaviour premorbid condition for [[wikipedia:Antisocial_personality_disorder|antisocial personality disorder]] (ASPD) (e.g. see figure 2.) in adulthood (Otto et al., 2021)'''.''' 
== Familial risk factors ==
Familial risk factors associated commonly associated with the developmental trajectory of ASB in children include; family conflict, coercive or hostile parenting, inconsistent discipline, unhealthy family functioning, family climate, abuse and neglect, and separation from biological parents (Otto et al., 2021).    

=== Coercive parent-child interactions ===
[[File:Child's Angry Face.jpg|thumb|406x406px|'''Figure 3.''' Child responding to parental demand by yelling]]Research has emphasised the influence of coercive parent-child interactions on the developmental trajectory of ASB (Johnson et al. 2017) . Coercion theory posits that coercive parent-child interactions, characterised by harsh, inconsistent, and punitive parenting practices create a cycle of escalating conflict in which children learn maladaptive behaviours through negative reinforcement (Granic &amp; Patterson, 2006)  These coercive cycles begin when a child's misbehaviour elicits a punitive response from the parent, leading to increased hostility and further maladaptive behaviours from the child.   
In the context of coercive parent-child interaction, negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is strengthened because it allows the child to avoid or escape an unpleasant situation. For example, if a child is given a harsh demand to complete a chore and responds by yelling or becoming aggressive, the parent might back off or reduce the demand to avoid further conflict (eg., see figure 3). In this scenario, the child’s disruptive behaviour (i.e the yelling or aggression) is reinforced as it successfully terminates the unpleasant experience (the task or the parent’s demand). From this negative reinforcement, a positive feedback loop is produced where the child learns that aggression, noncompliance, or disruptive behaviour can be an effective strategy for gaining control over their environment or negating negative affect, thus contributing to escalating externalising behaviours over time. 

The parent and child are mutually shaped to engage in aversive behaviour through a combination of operant and classical conditioning, coercive interactions involving the interplay between; the child’s behaviours, parental response type and, parental modelled behaviour (see Table 1) (Lunkenheimer et al., 2016). In this way, coercion theory aligns with social learning theory, which holds that children acquire behaviours not only through direct reinforcement but also by observing and modelling the behaviour of others, particularly caregivers (Bandura, 1977). In the context of coercive parent-child interactions, when a parent models the use of aggression, withdrawal, or threats in response to challenging behaviour, may result in the child replicating such in their own social interactions, including with their caregiver.

Table 1. Parent response type, definition and associated impact
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Parent Response Type''' 
|'''Definition''' 
|'''Impact'''
|-
|Punitive Response 
|Harsh punishments such as yelling, physical discipline 
|Escalates aggression as negative attention reinforces that child's behaviour 
|-
|Inconsistent Discipline 
|Unpredictable enforcement of rules and consequences 
|Leads to confusion and encourages tha child to test boundaries.
|-
|Passive Response
|Ignoring the child's behaviour, giving in to demands, or failing to set clear boundaries 
|Reinforces negative behaviour by allowing the child to achieve their desired outcome
|-
|Positive Reinforcement and Support Responses 
|Rewarding desirable behaviour, consistent and nurturing discipline 
|Helps children understand acceptable behaviour, creates a secure environment 
|}
==== Toddlerhood and early childhood ====
During toddlerhood (ages 1 to 2) children engage in autonomy-seeking behaviours, such as noncompliance and resistance to parental authority, which are typical and adaptive components of their developmental process of asserting independence (Ponzetti et al., 2023; Housman, 2017). If coercive parent-child interactions dominate in this period, children may learn that these behaviours are functional and effective strategies for achieving desired outcomes becoming ingrained overtime (Granic &amp; Patterson, 2006).  

[[File:Peuter in hansop met twee verschillende schoenen aan bij een deur, Bestanddeelnr 252-9098.jpg|thumb|346x346px|left|'''Figure 4.''' Young child appearing dysregulated yells out for attention through closed door.]]

==== Early childhood ====
Early childhood (ages 3 to 5) is a critical period for the development of self-regulation, social and emotional competency, and the emergence of sociomoral reasoning, as children continue to test boundaries and explore their autonomy in an expanding social world (Housman, 2017). If the coercive patterns persist, the child's developmental trajectory can take a maladaptive turn as they may fail to develop adaptive coping skills and instead develop ASB patterns. Instead of learning emotion regulation or prosocial problem-solving strategies, they may increasingly rely on aggressive or noncompliant tactics to navigate interpersonal challenges, undermining the child’s capacity for prosocial engagement and peer relationships, and increasing the likelihood rejection by prosocial peer rejection (e.g. see figure 4) (Granic, &amp; Patterson, 2006; Smith et al., 2014).  

==== Middle Childhood and adolescence ====
The effects of coercive parenting on the developmental trajectory of ASB become particularly evident as children progress through middle childhood (ages 6 to 12) and adolescence (ages 12 to 18).  By this time, behavioural patterns established in early childhood may become more pronounced and generalised across different contexts, with the presentation of persistent externalising behaviours, such as chronic noncompliance, aggression toward peers, emotional dysregulation and difficulties with authority figures (Stievenart et al., 2019). These behaviours reflect the maladaptive coping mechanisms that were reinforced during formative years that have now persisted and compounded in response to new social challenges. The effects of this developmental cascade are well documented with longitudinal data correlating childhood ASB with serious adolescent delinquent behaviours and aggression, with coercive interactions identified as  mechanism by ASB emerges and stabilises over time (Dishion et al, 2010; Granic &amp; Patterson, 2006). 

=== Parental emotion socialisation behaviour (EBMs) ===
The developmental trajectory of ASB in children and adolescence is significantly influenced by parental emotion socialisation behaviours. There are four core mechanisms (categorised as active/directed or passive/undirected, and characterised as supportive or unsupportive) by which parents influence the emotional development of their children; reactions to emotional displays, discussion of emotions, emotion coaching, and emotional expressiveness (Johnson et al, 2021).             

Parental emotion socialisation behaviour that are characterised as active and unsupportive include; hostile, dismissive or critical reactions to child displays of emotion, avoidance of discussions on emotions, and emotion coaching informed by maladaptive parent emotion related beliefs (see table 2.) These mechanisms are associated with maladaptive emotional development in children, including difficulties in identifying, understand, interpreting and regulating emotions, increasing the likelihood of externalising behaviours and difficulties in navigating social cues and situations (Zhang et al., 2020; Spinrad et al., 2021).              

A meta-analysis by Johnson et al., (2017) identifies the passive mechanism of emotional expressiveness and its influence on child emotional development to be more ambiguous. An unsupportive characterisation of this mechanism may look like modelling of excessive, or inappropriate emotional responses (e.g., frequent anger or emotional withdrawal) which may create confusion for children, hindering their ability to process and regulate emotions, and an increasing the likelihood of externalising behaviours in other social context (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Domestic violence and emotion regulation in children|here]] for further explanation of each mechanism).           

Table 2. Parent related beliefs, impact and potential behavioural outcome
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Parents emotion-related Belief'''
|'''Impact on child's emotion processing and regulation'''
|'''Potential behavioural outcomes''' 
|-
|Emotions should be suppressed or controlled
|Discouraging emotional expression = emotion suppression, impairing emotional processing and regulation.
|increased internalising problems (e.g., anxiety, depression) and externalising behaviours (e.g., aggression, defiance).
|-
|Emotions are inherently negative or dangerous 
|Encouraging unrestricted emotional expression without regulation = emotion dysregulation and impulsivity.
|Emotion suppression, dysregulation, and difficulty managing emotions, leading to antisocial behaviours.
|-
|Emotions are controllable through rationality 
|Encouraging unrestricted emotional expression without regulation = emotion dysregulation and impulsivity.
|Impaired emotional intelligence, difficulties in developing adaptive coping strategies, and challenges in emotional expression.
|}

=== Family climate ===
[[File:MPOTY_2012_domestic_violence_awareness.jpg|alt=|thumb|442x442px|'''Figure 5.''' Physical abuse captured through the eyes of the victim-survivor]]
Family climate refers to the overall atmosphere within a family,  when this climate is characterised with serious and persistent conflict, poor communication, lack of support, and emotional distress there is a high likelihood of ASB (Otto et al. 2021). Family climate is associated with [[wikipedia:Adverse_childhood_experiences|adverse childhood experiences]] (ACEs), which refer to a broad spectrum of harmful exposures and conditions experienced by children, of which are often recurrent and chronic (e.g see figure 5) (Kalmakis, 2013). ACEs can induce a state of [[wikipedia:Stress_in_early_childhood|toxic stress]] in children which has been shown to disrupt children’s brain structure and development, particularly during critical periods of growth (Teicjer &amp; Samson, 2016). Consequently altering emotional regulation, psychological resilience and overall cognitive functioning (Morgan et al., 2021).                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                

{{Robelbox|width=30|theme={{{theme|4}}}|title=Tommy's story}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

Remember Tommy? Tommy is now just six years of age.  

In Tommy's family he has his mother and father. His family climate is characterised as highly volatile with poor communication and low cohesion. From infancy through to adolescence Tommy is continually exposed to family violence perpetrated by his father, towards his mother. He experiences physical abuse in early childhood and emotional neglect. 

Coercive parent-child interactions dominate throughout his early life and his attachment with his mother is described as insecure. His fathers parental emotion socialisation behaviours are characterised as unsupportive, and believes that emotions should be suppressed. 

As he ages, Tommy struggles with emotional regulation and impulse control. In school Tommy struggles to follow directions and his aggression towards classmates leaves him with few close friends.

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
'''Quiz: Test your knowledge'''&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{ __________ posits that coercive parent-child interactions, create a cycle of escalating conflict in which children learn maladaptive behaviours through  __________.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Coercion theory; emotional warmth
- Attachment theory; stability
+ Coercion theory; negative reinforcement
- Attachment theory; positive reinforcement 


{Which of the following are active mechanism of parental emotion socialisation behaviours ? (You may select more than one answer).
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ Reaction to emotional displays
+ Discussion of emotions
- Emotion expressiveness 
+ Emotion coaching

{True or false - 'ACES' refers to adaptive childhood experiences.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True.
+ False.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Social risk factors ==
Social risk factors in the form of arrested sociomoral development, reactive aggression and, positive emotional association to antisocial acts with peers are further evidenced to motivate ASB in childhood.

=== Sociomoral development ===
Childhood is of critical importance for in the development of social skills including sociomoral; emotions, reasoning, and behaviours. Social competence, including adequate sociomoral capabilities, is critical for creating and maintaining relationships and adopting prosocial behaviours (Morasse et al., 2022). Inadequate sociomoral development hence is associated with significant challenges in social interactions and increased ASB (Eisenberg et al., 2015)  

Sociomoral development encompasses the gradual progression of children's understanding of moral and social issues, enabling them to make moral judgments (Morasse et al., 2022). This developmental process occurs over time and illustrates how children evolve from egocentric perspectives to more complex reasoning that incorporates principles of justice, rights, and social norms (Dahl &amp; Killen, 2018). At age six or seven children are commonly able to attribute complex emotions, such as guilt or shame, to moral transgressors which demonstrates a capability to understand sociomoral events, indicating a capacity to; make moral judgments, develop empathy and perspective-taking skills, anticipate consequences (Malti &amp; Krettenauer, 2013). Prior to this capacity children grapple with the complexity of moral reasoning, for example, at four or five years old children can cognitively understand acts of victimisation as wrong however they do not consistently attribute negative emotions following moral transgressions, instead they tend to report that transgressors will experience positive emotion because they have satisfied their own interests (Moore et al, 2024).   [[File:Bullying Prevention in the United States.jpg|thumb|343x343px|'''Figure 6.'''  Adolescent being physically aggressive towards peer. ]]
=== Aggression ===
''Incomplete note:''

* Define reactive aggression through General Aggression Model (GAM)(e.g. see figure 6).

* Identify [[wikipedia:Hostile_attribution_bias|hostile attribution bias]] as key cognitive factor underpinning reactive aggression. 
* Relationship mutually reinforcing i.e hostile attribution bias affects cognitive appraisals, threat perception, triggering emotional arousal, reactive aggression. Aggressive response often then receiving negative feedback from environment i.e rejection or retaliation, bias reinforced.
* Positive emotions linked to reactive aggression maintenance also, i.e some people experience satisfaction or empowerment, rewarded for ASB, undermining prosocial behaviour  (Moore et al., 2024)

=== The role of positive emotions ===

''Incomplete note:''

*Peer influence on ASB heightened during adolescence, role of positive emotions in reinforcing ASB.
*Explain the Dishion deviancy training model i.e ASB in children learned and reinforced through peer interactions that provide [[wikipedia:Reinforcement|positive reinforcement]]. Includes, laughter and humour, attention and increased social status (Dishion et al., 2010). Maintenance of [[wikipedia:Self-esteem|self esteem]] and increased social status. 
*[[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|Self efficacy]]: protective factor in resisting peer pressure, related to decrease in ASB 
*Additionally, Moore et al., (2024) positive emotion in planning, participating in, and/or discussing antisocial acts with peers.

'''Quiz: Test your knowledge'''&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Social competence, including adequate sociomoral capabilities, is crucial for ? (You may select more than one answer). 
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ creating relationships
+ maintaining relationship 
- aggression  
+ adopting prosocial behaviours 

{True or false - Reactive aggression refers to impulsive and emotionally charged responses to perceived threat.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True.
- False.

{True or false - Peer influence on antisocial behaviours decreases in adolescence 
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True.
- False.

&lt;/quiz&gt;

{{Robelbox|width=100|theme={{{theme|4}}}|title=Tommy's story}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

As a child Tommy was rejected by his prosocial peers. He struggled with understanding the perspective of others. 

As an adolescent Tommy associates with antisocial peers, they relate and enjoy engage in high risk, thrill seeking behaviours often at the cost of others. He falls behind academically. Tommy seems to perceive threat in more places that most others and is quick to become reactively aggressive. Tommy has been arrested several times now for property damage and assault. 

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
== Trait risk factors ==
At a salient risk of severe and persistent antisocial behaviour is a subgroup of children presenting with [[wikipedia:Callous_and_unemotional_traits|Callous and unemotional traits]] (CU) and/or [[wikipedia:Conduct_disorder|Conduct disorder]] (CD).     

=== Callous and unemotional traits ===
CU traits in children refer to a specific set of characteristics marked by reduced empathy, reduced guilt, callousness, shallow emotions and uncaring behaviour (Blair et al., 2014). CU trait onset and development attributed to attributed to a combination of factors, though dominate emphasis support's strong heritability and parenting influence (Frick et al, 2014; Waller et al., 2013). Early expression of CU behaviours can be observed in early childhood, when children begin to demonstrate patterns of emotional engagement and empathy, as such, indicators may include; low emotional sensitivity, impaired affective empathy, abnormalities in the processing of punishment cures, errors in emotional recognition, and reduced caring about others or behavioural consequences (Waller &amp; Hyde, 2017).  

Children with CU traits are often less responsive to traditional disciplinary approaches as they are less sensitive to punishment or fear based interventions (Carrol et al., 2017). Early intervention and multidisciplinary approaches to treatment are most effective, research [[wikipedia:Parent–child_interaction_therapy|Parent-child Interaction Therapy]] (PCIT) with an emotion focus component, emotion recognition training and reward behavioural interventions (rewarding prosocial behaviour) (Pisano et al., 2017; Frick et al., 2014). 

=== '''Conduct disorder''' ===
The aetiology of CD is complex resulting from convergence of physiological, psychological and environmental factors (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The [[wikipedia:DSM-5|Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health]] (DSM-5) (2013), adds a specifier, 'with limited prosocial emotions', referring to children with CU trait presentation. This specifier identifies a specific subgroup of children with both CU and CD, such are associated with more adverse adolescence outcomes and increased risk of [[wikipedia:Psychopathy|psychopathy]] in adulthood (Pisano et al., 2017). When CD is accompanied by CU traits, it predicts a high risk of chronic antisocial behaviours overtime, with estimates suggesting 25% of girls and 40% of boys with a CD diagnosis will likely meet the criteria of APSD in adulthood (Black, 2015).   

{{Robelbox|width=100|theme={{{theme|4}}}|title=Tommy's story}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

As a child Tommy displayed chronic and persistent antisocial behaviours and a disregard for others. As an adult his partners have describe him as emotionally shallow, unempathetic and callous. 

Tommy wonders he was born this way or if it was how he was raised? 

As an adult Tommy has been diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD).

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}'''Quiz: Test your knowledge'''&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{ __________ traits refer to a specific set of characteristics marked by reduced empathy, reduced guilt, callousness, shallow emotions and uncaring behaviour.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Callous and aggressive
- Neurotic and unemotional
+ Callous and unemotional
- Antisocial and neurotic

{True or false - Conduct disorder (CD) is characterised by a pattern of persistent and severe antisocial, aggressive or defiant behaviours that amounts to significant violations of social norms and rights of others, aggression toward animals and destruction of property
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True.
- False.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
The developmental trajectory of ASB is influenced by the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors risk, resource and protective factors. Familial risk factors; coercive parent-child interactions, unsupportive parental emotion socialisation behaviours, and family climate motivate ASB in early childhood, which without intervention, produce developmental cascade effects in later life. Social risk factors; arrested sociomoral development, reactive aggression and, positive emotional association to antisocial acts through antisocial peers, further motivating ASB. Further, if underpinned by callous and unemotional trait disposition, children are at risk for chronic ASB across the lifespan.   

In recognising that these risk factors intersect with early development of emotional, social and cognitive development in childhood, early intervention targeting the fostering of resource and protective factors is necessary to mitigate early risk factors. Promotion of adaptive development in early childhood, motivating children toward prosocial (as opposed to antisocial) behaviours. 

== See also ==

*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Extrinsic motivation and antisocial behaviour in children|Extrinsic motivation and antisocial behaviour in children]] (Book chapter, 2015)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Antisocial Personality Disorder and emotion|Antisocial Personality Disorder and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2015)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Parenting and emotional development in children|Parenting and emotional development in children]] (Book chapter, 2013)

==Reference==
{{Hanging indent|1=
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.

Black, D. W. (2015). The natural history of antisocial personality disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(7), 309–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371506000703

Blair, R. J. R., Leibenluft, E., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2014). Conduct disorder and callous–unemotional traits in youth. The New England Journal of Medicine, 371(23), 2207–2216. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1315612

Carroll, A., Sanders O’Connor, E., Houghton, S. J., Hattie, J. A., Donovan, C., &amp; Lynn, S. (2017). A preliminary empirical evaluation of KooLKIDS: A school-based program to reduce early onset antisocial behaviour in children. Journal of Intellectual &amp; Developmental Disability, 42(1), 22–35. https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2016.1190004

Dahl, A., &amp; Killen, M. (2018). Moral development in childhood: A developmental perspective. In J. T. Wixted &amp; S. Ghetti (Eds.), Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience (4th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 1-25). Wiley.

Dishion, T. J., Véronneau, M.-H., &amp; Myers, M. W. (2010). Cascading peer dynamics underlying the progression from problem behavior to violence in early to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 22(3), 603–619. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000313

Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., &amp; Valiente, C. (2016). Emotion-related self-regulation and children's social, psychological, and academic functioning. Child Development, 87(1), 219-244.

Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., Kahn, R. E., &amp; Hinshaw, S. P. (2014). Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents? A comprehensive review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 1–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033076

Granic, I., &amp; Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: A dynamic systems approach. Psychological Review, 113(1), 101–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.1.101

Heinrichs, K., Gutzwiller-Helfenfinger, E., Latzko, B., Minnameier, G., &amp; Döring, B. (2020). Happy-victimizing in adolescence and adulthood: Empirical findings and further perspectives.Frontline Learning Research, 8(5), 5-23.
https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v8i5.385

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}}

== External links ==

* [https://kidshelpline.com.au/parents/issues/helping-kids-identify-and-express-feelings Helping kids identify and express feelings] (Kids Helpline)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KDWJ28gNUOM&amp;t=843s The neuropsychology of conduct disorder in children] (Tedx Talks, Kalina Michalska) 
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mk8w3bzEJYU Aggression | Individuals and Society] (Khan Academy) 

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    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Proving P=NP with UC-SAT or Refuting the Cook-Levin Theorem: One of These Outcomes is Inevitable</title>
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      <text bytes="77773" sha1="4xx181hywqswxtgrdjfi7rmtsbnrls7" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| last1 = Moore
| orcid1 = 0009-0002-1826-0815
| first1 = Eric
| affiliation1 = Independent Researcher
| correspondence1 = ericmoore@financier.com
| keywords = UC-SAT Method,  P=NP Problem, Cook-Levin Theorem, 3-SAT,  Computational Complexity, Boolean Satisfiability, Problem Solving,
| license = Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial No Derivatives 4.0 International
Affero General Public License v1.0 only
| submitted = 22 September 2024
| declined = 19 November 2024
| abstract = UC-SAT (Unified Clause Satisfiability Method) is a new method developed to reduce the complexity of solving classical 3-SAT problems and to do so more efficiently. The classical 3-SAT problem involves clauses, each consisting of three variables, with the goal of determining whether these clauses can be satisfied by assigning true or false values. UC-SAT eliminates unnecessary complexities by unifying all clauses into a single logical structure, thereby speeding up the solution process. As a result, 3-SAT problems can be solved in polynomial time. UC-SAT not only accelerates the problem-solving process but also offers a strong contribution to the P=NP question. If the UC-SAT method is validated, it demonstrates that NP-complete problems can be solved in polynomial time, which would mean a solution to the P=NP problem.

The UC-SAT method also challenges the logical structure of the Cook-Levin Theorem. By operating on the assumption that each problem has a single correct solution, UC-SAT eliminates the need to search for multiple solutions in the classical 3-SAT framework. If UC-SAT proves successful through the examination of mathematicians and computer scientists, it would demonstrate that not only 3-SAT but all NP-complete problems can be solved in polynomial time. However, if the method fails, it would call for a reevaluation not only of UC-SAT but also of the logical foundations of the Cook-Levin Theorem and the Boolean satisfiability problems.

I welcome feedback and collaboration from mathematicians and computer scientists who are interested in exploring the potential of UC-SAT further. I believe that working together can lead to groundbreaking discoveries, and I am open to academic collaboration to advance this research.
}}

== Introduction ==

=== UC-SAT ===
The Unified Clause Satisfiability Method (UC-SAT) is a new class of solutions developed to reduce the complexity of classical 3-SAT problems and solve them more efficiently. The 3-SAT problem involves clauses with three literals each, and the task is to determine whether all clauses can be satisfied by assigning true or false values to the literals. Since 3-SAT is NP-complete, solving it with classical methods requires exponential complexity.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Cook, S. A. (1971). The complexity of theorem-proving procedures. Proceedings of the Third Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, 151-158.&lt;/ref&gt;

UC-SAT offers a different approach by eliminating the unnecessary complexity of solving each clause independently. Instead, it unifies all clauses into a single logical structure, simplifying the 3-SAT problem and speeding up the solution process. The core principle of UC-SAT assumes that every problem has only one correct solution, rather than seeking multiple solutions for each problem as in classical 3-SAT. This resolves the issue of multiple solutions in traditional 3-SAT and provides a single correct answer for each problem.

One of the most significant features of UC-SAT is its ability to solve 3-SAT problems in polynomial time. Traditional 3-SAT solutions usually exhibit exponential time complexity, meaning the time required to solve the problem increases dramatically as the problem size grows. UC-SAT, however, accelerates the solution process by unifying clauses into a single structure, making the solution possible within a polynomial time frame. This makes UC-SAT far more efficient than 3-SAT and provides a significant advantage when solving large-scale problems.

Another important aspect of UC-SAT is that it simplifies the logical structure of clauses, eliminating unnecessary steps in the problem-solving process. In 3-SAT, each clause requires independent resolution, making the problem more complex both logically and computationally. UC-SAT, by contrast, simplifies the process by merging all clauses into a single logical statement, eliminating redundant steps and solving the problem in one unified structure.

UC-SAT's ability to solve problems in polynomial time also presents a strong argument for the P=NP question. If UC-SAT can solve 3-SAT problems in polynomial time, and NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT, then UC-SAT's efficiency suggests that P=NP.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Garey, M. R., &amp; Johnson, D. S. (1979). Computers and intractability: A guide to the theory of NP-completeness. W.H. Freeman.&lt;/ref&gt; The fact that it operates in polynomial time implies that NP problems may belong to the P class. In this sense, UC-SAT represents a breakthrough in mathematical problem-solving, offering far more efficient solutions than classical algorithms.

In summary, UC-SAT is an innovative method developed to tackle the complexity of classical 3-SAT problems. By unifying clauses and simplifying the problem, it speeds up the solution process and provides polynomial time solutions, offering substantial benefits for large-scale problems. Beyond providing a solution, UC-SAT also sheds light on the logical consistency of the P=NP problem.

== The Connection Between UC-SAT, P=NP, and the Cook-Levin Theorem ==
The UC-SAT method not only provides a solution to 3-SAT problems in polynomial time but also challenges the logical structures of both 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem. One of the key innovations of UC-SAT is its critique of the classical approach of seeking multiple solutions in 3-SAT, instead advocating that every problem should have a single logical solution. This approach not only accelerates the solution process but also allows for a deeper examination of the problem's logical consistency.

The Cook-Levin Theorem demonstrates that NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT. As one of the foundational results in computational theory, this theorem plays a central role in the resolution of NP-complete problems.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Levin, L. A. (1973). Universal search problems. Problems of Information Transmission, 9(3), 265-266.&lt;/ref&gt; However, the UC-SAT method reveals potential issues within the logical structure of 3-SAT. If UC-SAT can solve 3-SAT in polynomial time and its method is proven correct, this would imply a solution to the P=NP problem. On the other hand, if the UC-SAT method is flawed, it calls into question not only UC-SAT itself but also the logical foundations of 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem.

In this context, UC-SAT does not merely aim to solve the P=NP question but also undertakes a critical examination of both the Cook-Levin Theorem and the foundational logic of 3-SAT. The classical 3-SAT structure, which relies on multiple potential solutions, is reexamined by UC-SAT, which offers a more logically consistent solution. If UC-SAT’s approach is validated, all NP-complete problems could be solved in polynomial time, leading to the conclusion that P=NP. Otherwise, if this method fails, the Cook-Levin Theorem’s assertion that NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT becomes subject to scrutiny.

Thus, UC-SAT not only provides a tool for solving 3-SAT problems but also offers a profound opportunity to question the logical foundations of the P=NP problem and the Cook-Levin Theorem. The validity of UC-SAT will be pivotal in determining both the proof of P=NP and the correctness of the Cook-Levin Theorem.

== Clarifying the Main Question ==
The purpose of the UC-SAT method is not only to solve 3-SAT problems in polynomial time but also to challenge the logical foundations of the P=NP question and the Cook-Levin Theorem. In this context, the significance of UC-SAT lies in two fundamental possibilities: either the method proposed by UC-SAT will be validated, leading to a proof of P=NP, or if UC-SAT fails, the logical structures of 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem will be called into question.

There is a clear distinction between these two outcomes. If UC-SAT is able to solve the 3-SAT problem in polynomial time, this implies that NP problems can also be solved in polynomial time. This would directly answer the P=NP question, suggesting that P=NP could be proven through UC-SAT. The solution offered by UC-SAT shows that NP problems, previously thought to require exponential complexity, could instead be resolved within polynomial time. If this outcome holds, not only 3-SAT but all NP-complete problems can be solved in polynomial time.

The other possibility is the failure of UC-SAT. If UC-SAT is unsuccessful in solving the 3-SAT problem, this does not merely invalidate the UC-SAT method; it also calls for a deeper examination of the logical foundations of both 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem. The Cook-Levin Theorem provides a strong theoretical framework that demonstrates NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT. However, if UC-SAT fails, it may suggest that the logical structure of 3-SAT is flawed, meaning NP-complete problems may not be reducible to 3-SAT as previously thought. In this case, the Cook-Levin Theorem becomes subject to theoretical scrutiny.

Therefore, the outcome of UC-SAT is crucial to resolving the P=NP question. If UC-SAT succeeds, it proves that NP problems can be solved in polynomial time, confirming that P=NP is true. On the other hand, if UC-SAT fails, it not only questions the method itself but also calls into question the logical consistency of 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem. At this point, one of these two outcomes is inevitable: either UC-SAT will succeed and prove P=NP, or its failure will profoundly shake the foundational theories.

== Technical Details of the UC-SAT Method ==

=== '''The Logical Operation of UC-SAT''' ===
The UC-SAT (Unified Clause SAT) method offers an innovative approach to solving classical 3-SAT problems by aiming to provide a solution in polynomial time. This method unifies all clauses under a single logical structure, rather than solving each clause independently, making the solution process more efficient. The logical operation of UC-SAT simplifies 3-SAT by eliminating unnecessary complexity and operates on the assumption that each problem should have only one solution.

==== Clause Unification and Logical Simplification ====
Classical 3-SAT problems are defined by clauses, each containing three literals. Each clause can be satisfied by one or more truth assignments. In traditional 3-SAT, the goal is to find a combination of literals that satisfies all clauses, but this often leads to exponential complexity,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; making the solution process longer. UC-SAT removes this logical redundancy by combining all clauses into a single unified structure. This unification suggests that the problem can be solved by evaluating all clauses simultaneously.

For example, consider a 3-SAT problem with the following three clauses:

&lt;math&gt;\begin{aligned}
(C_1) &amp;= (x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee x_3) \\
(C_2) &amp;= (\neg x_1 \vee x_4 \vee \neg x_3) \\
(C_3) &amp;= (x_2 \vee \neg x_4 \vee x_3)
\end{aligned}&lt;/math&gt;

In the traditional 3-SAT approach, each clause must be satisfied independently. In UC-SAT, however, these three clauses are combined by removing parentheses to form a single unified clause:

&lt;math&gt;(x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee x_3 \vee \neg x_1 \vee x_4 \vee \neg x_3 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_4 \vee x_3)
&lt;/math&gt;

This unified clause simplifies the logical structure, and the problem can be solved without having to evaluate each clause independently. As a result, the problem can be solved with a single solution, demonstrating that UC-SAT reduces the complexity of 3-SAT and can solve problems in polynomial time.

==== Resolving Unsatisfiable Clauses ====
Some 3-SAT problems contain unsatisfiable clauses, where no assignment can make all literals True in every clause. However, under the UC-SAT method, even these clauses are resolved, because the unified structure ensures that the problem as a whole is satisfied.

For instance:

&lt;math&gt;(\neg x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee \neg x_3)&lt;/math&gt;

This clause may appear unsatisfiable independently, but once merged into the unified structure using UC-SAT, it becomes:

&lt;math&gt;(x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee x_3 \vee \neg x_1 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_3 \vee \neg x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee \neg x_3)
&lt;/math&gt;

In this unified form, any assignment will ensure that at least one literal is True, thus resolving even previously unsatisfiable clauses.

==== Polynomial-Time Solution ====
The UC-SAT method ensures that all 3-SAT problems can be solved in polynomial time. In traditional 3-SAT problems, solving each clause independently leads to exponential time complexity.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; The complexity arises because the solution space grows exponentially as more clauses are added.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; However, in the UC-SAT method, by removing parentheses and combining all literals into a single structure, the problem’s complexity is reduced to polynomial time.

Here’s how:

* In traditional 3-SAT, each clause is treated separately, and the overall solution space is &lt;math&gt;O(2^n)
&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n
&lt;/math&gt; is the number of variables.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
* In UC-SAT, the solution space is unified into a single clause, reducing the complexity to &lt;math&gt;O(n^k)&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;k
&lt;/math&gt; is a constant, making the problem solvable in polynomial time.

Thus, the UC-SAT method transforms a problem with exponential growth into one solvable in polynomial time, directly addressing the complexity challenges of 3-SAT.

==== Logical Consistency and the Single Solution Principle ====
One of the fundamental assumptions of UC-SAT is that every problem has only one correct solution. In classical 3-SAT problems, multiple solution possibilities may exist, which leads to increased complexity.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; However, UC-SAT approaches each problem within a single unified logical structure, aiming to achieve logical consistency by seeking only one solution. This approach ensures that the solution process is more efficient, especially for large-scale problems.

UC-SAT eliminates the need for multiple solutions, offering a more logically consistent approach than classical 3-SAT. For example, a problem consisting of two clauses like &lt;math&gt;(x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee x_3)
&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(\neg x_1 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_3)
&lt;/math&gt; is simplified using the UC-SAT method, and both clauses are evaluated as a single unified structure. As a result, any assignment provides a correct solution, and the principle of literal dependency takes effect. In UC-SAT, the focus is not on tracking assignments but on ensuring that the entire problem is satisfied with one correct solution.

==== The Difference Between UC-SAT and 3-SAT ====
The fundamental difference between UC-SAT and 3-SAT lies in how the problem is approached. While 3-SAT problems focus on solving each clause separately, UC-SAT aims to solve these clauses within a single structure. This distinction significantly enhances UC-SAT’s efficiency, especially in complex problems. UC-SAT offers a more logically consistent and simplified solution, which leads to a challenge to the logical structure of 3-SAT.

As a result, UC-SAT’s logical operation provides a much more efficient and faster solution compared to 3-SAT. The unification of clauses, the ability to solve the problem in polynomial time, and the focus on finding a single correct solution are UC-SAT’s greatest advantages. These features demonstrate that UC-SAT is not only a solution method but also a strong approach that questions the logical structures of traditional 3-SAT methods.

=== Polynomial Time Solution and Complexity Analysis ===
UC-SAT introduces a groundbreaking approach by offering a polynomial-time solution to classic 3-SAT problems. In this section, we will explain how the UC-SAT method works using the provided Python code and discuss how polynomial time complexity is achieved. The code processes files in CNF format, making random assignments and solving the problem based on these assignments.

'''Structure of the Code'''

The code consists of four main steps, demonstrating how the UC-SAT method operates:

'''1. Opening the CNF File:''' The selected CNF file is processed, and all clauses and literals are converted into a data structure. Unnecessary comments and empty lines in the CNF file are filtered out, leaving only the essential information.

For example, a line in the CNF file might look like this:

'''-24  35  -92 0'''

The literal and clause information extracted from this line is then combined and processed.

'''2. Clause Unification''': One of UC-SAT’s key differences is that it solves all clauses in a unified structure. Parentheses are removed, and all literals are combined into a single structure. By doing this, instead of solving each clause separately, the entire problem is addressed in a unified framework. The code maintains the logical integrity of this unified structure to reach the correct solution.

'''3. Random Assignment:''' Random assignments are made to the literals using the Monte Carlo method. However, an important point here is that tracking the assignments is unnecessary. Any assignment can solve the problem because, according to the rules of 3-SAT, having at least one true literal in a clause satisfies it.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; The code follows this logic and makes random assignments that lead to the solution.

'''4.''' '''Visualization of Results''': When the code is executed, the assignments are visually displayed in a grid structure. The cells are colored based on whether the literals are true or false. True assignments are shown in blue, and false assignments are shown in red.

==== An Overview of UC-SAT's Polynomial Time Complexity ====
One of UC-SAT's strongest aspects is its ability to offer polynomial time complexity. The time complexity can be mathematically expressed as &lt;math&gt;O(n^k)
&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n
&lt;/math&gt; s the number of literals, and &lt;math&gt;k
&lt;/math&gt; is a constant. This provides a far more efficient solution than the classical 3-SAT’s &lt;math&gt;O(2^n)
&lt;/math&gt; exponential time complexity. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;, &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

Building on this mathematical foundation, UC-SAT is capable of producing polynomial-time solutions even for large problems. The code accelerates this process by randomly assigning literals and solving the entire problem in a unified structure, ensuring that every step brings the problem closer to the solution.

==== Polynomial Time Solution with Python Code ====
The provided code simulates the steps described above. Developed in Python, this code processes CNF-formatted files, assigns random values to literals, and visualizes the results in a grid format. The time complexity is expressed as &lt;math&gt;O(n^k)
&lt;/math&gt;, demonstrating polynomial growth. You can access the full implementation and explore the code on [https://github.com/ericmoore-hi/UC-SAT-Solver GitHub].
[[File:UC-SAT Solver.png|center|thumb|835x835px|''This image represents the visual result of a CNF file solved with random assignments using the UC-SAT Method, developed in Python and running on a Windows platform. The grid format shows the literals' values, with blue indicating literals assigned as true (True) and red as false (False). Each cell on the grid corresponds to the value of a literal. This visualization was developed to demonstrate the UC-SAT algorithm's solving process and the results obtained from random assignments.('''License:''' This work is licensed under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)]].'']]

=== '''Handling of Unsatisfiable Clauses''' ===
In traditional 3-SAT problems, certain clauses are inherently unsatisfiable,&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; meaning that no possible truth assignment can satisfy all clauses simultaneously. However, the UC-SAT method effectively addresses this issue by unifying all clauses into a single clause, ensuring that at least one literal within the unified clause is always true.

'''Example: Resolving an Unsatisfiable 3-SAT Problem with UC-SAT'''

Consider the following 3-SAT problem with eight clauses:

&lt;math&gt;\begin{aligned}
(C_1) &amp;= (x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3) \\
(C_2) &amp;= (x_1 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_3) \\
(C_3) &amp;= (x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee x_3) \\
(C_4) &amp;= (x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee \neg x_3) \\
(C_5) &amp;= (\neg x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3) \\
(C_6) &amp;= (\neg x_1 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_3) \\
(C_7) &amp;= (\neg x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee x_3) \\
(C_8) &amp;= (\neg x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee \neg x_3)
\end{aligned}&lt;/math&gt;

In this problem, there are conflicting conditions between the clauses. No matter what truth assignment is made, at least one clause will remain unsatisfied. For example:

'''If any of the following combinations are assigned for x₁, x₂, and x₃:'''

* {[111], [110], [101], [100], [011], [010], [001], [000]}

* Regardless of which assignment is made, at least one of the eight clauses above will always remain unsatisfied.

Thus, no matter what truth assignment is applied, at least one clause will always remain unsatisfied, making this problem unsatisfiable under the traditional 3-SAT approach.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

In the UC-SAT Method, we resolve this by combining all the clauses into a single unified clause. By removing the parentheses, we get the following:

&lt;math&gt;(x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3 \vee x_1 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_3 \vee x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee x_3 \vee x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee \neg x_3 \vee \neg x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3 \vee \neg x_1 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_3 \vee \neg x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee x_3 \vee \neg x_1 \vee \neg x_2 \vee \neg x_3)
&lt;/math&gt;

This unified clause ensures that, regardless of the truth assignment, at least one literal will always be True, which makes the entire clause satisfiable. Therefore, the problem that was originally unsatisfiable in the traditional 3-SAT approach is now resolved with the UC-SAT method.

=== '''The Relationship Between P=NP and the UC-SAT Method''' ===
In computational complexity theory, the P=NP problem stands as one of the most significant unsolved questions. It asks whether every problem whose solution can be verified quickly (in polynomial time) can also be solved quickly (in polynomial time).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; The UC-SAT method offers an intriguing perspective by proposing a polynomial-time solution to 3-SAT problems, a well-known NP-complete problem. This section explores the connection between the UC-SAT method and the broader implications for the P=NP question.

==== '''Clause Unification and Logical Consistency in UC-SAT''' ====
The UC-SAT method simplifies the 3-SAT problem by removing parentheses and merging clauses into a single unified structure. Traditionally, in 3-SAT, each clause is connected by the logical &quot;and&quot; (∧) operator, meaning that each clause must be satisfied simultaneously for the solution to be valid. The problem lies in finding a truth assignment that satisfies all clauses independently.

In UC-SAT, however, the removal of parentheses and merging of clauses into a unified expression simplifies the problem without disrupting the underlying logic of 3-SAT. The key insight is that the dependencies between literals are maintained, ensuring logical consistency.

For example, consider the traditional 3-SAT problem:

&lt;math&gt;(C_1) = (x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3) \land (x_1 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_3)
&lt;/math&gt;

In the UC-SAT method, the clauses are combined into a single expression:

&lt;math&gt;(x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3 \vee x_1 \vee x_2 \vee \neg x_3)
&lt;/math&gt;

Even though the parentheses are removed, the truth assignments still hold the same logical meaning across the unified structure. If &lt;math&gt;x_3
&lt;/math&gt; is assigned a value, the unified expression behaves consistently with the individual clauses. Thus, UC-SAT preserves the logical integrity of 3-SAT problems while simplifying their structure.

==== P=NP and the Potential of UC-SAT ====
The 3-SAT problem requires each clause to be satisfied independently.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; However, this does not mean that each clause must be solved separately. By nature, a logical problem has a single solution for the entire problem. Therefore, seeking more than one solution to solve a single problem is illogical. In 3-SAT, each clause is forced to be solved separately, which creates the appearance that multiple solutions are being sought for the same problem. In contrast, real-world problems generally have only one correct solution. Here are two critical questions we need to consider:

# What is the most efficient and correct way to solve a problem?
# Why does 3-SAT attempt to solve a problem by seeking multiple solutions for each clause instead of one?

From a mathematical and logical standpoint, a problem is expected to have only one solution. Solving a problem means finding a comprehensive solution, not solving each part separately. 3-SAT divides the solution process by seeking different solutions for each clause, which compromises the logical consistency of the problem. Seeking different solutions to solve a problem contradicts the nature of problem-solving.

==== The Power of UC-SAT: One Solution, One Problem ====
UC-SAT eliminates this inconsistency. UC-SAT simplifies 3-SAT by removing parentheses and combining the clauses into a single logical structure, thus eliminating the complexity and the need for multiple solutions. UC-SAT addresses the fact that 3-SAT makes the problem more complex by seeking multiple solutions and instead solves the entire problem with a single solution, which is both mathematically and logically sound.

The single-solution approach provided by UC-SAT is based on the idea that, as in real-world problems, there should be one correct solution to a problem. 3-SAT, by seeking different solutions for each clause, risks compromising the overall logical structure of the problem. In contrast, UC-SAT preserves the logical structure and shows that one solution can solve the entire problem. This approach is both mathematically sound and an efficient solution.

==== '''Why UC-SAT is a Strong Argument for P=NP''' ====
For mathematicians, the P=NP question asks whether all NP-complete problems can be solved in polynomial time. 3-SAT, as an NP-complete problem, faces exponential complexity.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; However, when UC-SAT simplifies the 3-SAT problem and reduces it to a single solution, it offers the opportunity to solve the problem in polynomial time.

* UC-SAT, by reducing 3-SAT to a single solution, decreases the complexity, directly impacting the P=NP question. If UC-SAT can solve 3-SAT problems in polynomial time, it suggests that P=NP might be true.
* UC-SAT transforms complex NP-complete problems into a polynomial structure. This means that, in theory, all NP problems could be solved in polynomial time. If P=NP is correct, UC-SAT is one of the strongest candidates for proving it, as it offers a method that solves the entire problem with a single solution.

==== Why Seeking Multiple Solutions in 3-SAT is Illogical ====
The approach of 3-SAT in seeking a separate solution for each clause contradicts the logical nature of problem-solving. A problem should be solved with one solution. Seeking different solutions for each clause unnecessarily complicates the problem-solving process and is, in fact, a flawed method of solving problems.

* In the real world, a problem typically has one correct solution. If a problem is complex, the solution is expected to be optimal and unique. In 3-SAT, there is an obligation to seek separate solutions for each clause, which goes against the nature of solving problems.
* UC-SAT resolves this issue. It shows that the entire problem can be solved with a single solution, eliminating unnecessary complexities. Unlike 3-SAT, UC-SAT offers a faster solution without compromising the logical integrity of the problem.

==== Mathematical Foundation: The Problem's Logical Structure Does Not Change ====
UC-SAT is based on the understanding that the logical structure of the problem should not change. 3-SAT, while seeking multiple solutions, actually disrupts the logical structure of the problem. Solving each clause independently makes the problem unnecessarily complex. However, UC-SAT eliminates this logical complexity and solves the problem with a single solution. This is also mathematically correct because it is illogical to seek multiple solutions for a single problem.

* UC-SAT finds a solution without altering the logical structure. 3-SAT increases the complexity of the problem unnecessarily, while UC-SAT simplifies it with a single solution. This demonstrates that UC-SAT provides a mathematically sound foundation.

The single-solution approach of UC-SAT simplifies the complexity of 3-SAT and contributes to the resolution of the P=NP question while demonstrating the illogical nature of 3-SAT’s multiple-solution requirement. UC-SAT finds an efficient solution while preserving the logical structure of the problem. Mathematically speaking, it is illogical to seek multiple solutions for a problem; UC-SAT eliminates this and provides the correct solution method.

==== Time Complexity: &lt;math&gt;O(2^n)
&lt;/math&gt; vs &lt;math&gt;O(n^k)
&lt;/math&gt; ====
In traditional 3-SAT, the complexity is expressed as &lt;math&gt;O(2^n)
&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;chem&gt;n&lt;/chem&gt; represents the number of variables.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; This exponential growth in complexity makes it impractical to solve large-scale 3-SAT problems efficiently.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; As more variables are added, the solution space expands exponentially, which leads to an increasingly difficult problem-solving process.

However, in the UC-SAT method, the complexity is reduced to &lt;math&gt;O(n^k)
&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;k
&lt;/math&gt; is a constant. This indicates that the problem is solvable in polynomial time rather than exponential time, significantly reducing the difficulty associated with solving large instances of SAT problems.

By removing parentheses and merging clauses into a single unified structure, UC-SAT simplifies the problem. This unified structure preserves the logical dependencies between literals but does so in a way that ensures at least one literal will always be true, reducing the need for an exhaustive search of the entire solution space. Instead of checking every possible combination of variable assignments, UC-SAT allows for faster and more efficient solutions by working within this more simplified, yet logically consistent framework.

==== Cook-Levin Theorem and UC-SAT ====
The Cook-Levin Theorem, introduced by Stephen Cook in 1971, demonstrated that all NP-complete problems could be reduced to 3-SAT,&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; establishing 3-SAT as a foundational problem in computational complexity theory. This theorem is significant because it shows that if we can solve 3-SAT in polynomial time, then we can solve any NP-complete problem in polynomial time as well.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The UC-SAT method builds on Cook’s foundational work by simplifying 3-SAT even further, removing parentheses and unnecessary logical dependencies between clauses. This reduction makes the problem easier and faster to solve. The key insight is that in UC-SAT, all clauses are combined into a single unified structure. The interdependencies between literals are preserved, and at least one literal remains true in the unified clause, maintaining the solvability of the problem.

Given that NP-complete problems like 3-SAT can now be solved more efficiently with UC-SAT, this method holds the potential to contribute to the P=NP discussion. If UC-SAT can solve 3-SAT problems in polynomial time, it opens up the possibility that all NP-complete problems could be solvable in polynomial time.

By integrating Cook’s reduction process with the simplifications offered by UC-SAT, the method reduces both the complexity and the effort required to solve NP-complete problems, offering a more direct path to the solution.

==== The Implications for P=NP ====
The UC-SAT method provides a groundbreaking approach to solving 3-SAT problems by transforming them into a unified clause structure, which can be solved in polynomial time. This shift in methodology has significant implications for the broader P=NP question. If UC-SAT holds up under further rigorous testing and demonstrates universal applicability to NP-complete problems, it could offer a concrete step toward proving P=NP.

The potential of UC-SAT to solve NP-complete problems more efficiently means that it could play a key role in one of the most important open questions in computer science. Although further independent testing and formal proof are required, I invite other researchers to apply the UC-SAT method to different NP-complete problems to verify its effectiveness and contribute to the growing body of evidence.

UC-SAT may not only simplify 3-SAT but also serve as a valuable tool in the ongoing efforts to understand the true relationship between P and NP.

==== Classical and Quantum Computers in Solving a 100-Variable 3-SAT Problem ====
On classical computers, solving a 100-variable SAT problem using the brute-force method (trying all possible combinations) requires an extraordinary amount of computational time. For a SAT problem, each variable can be either True or False, which means there are 2 possibilities for each variable. For a 100-variable SAT problem, the total number of combinations would be:

&lt;math&gt;2^{100} \text{ combinations} = 1.267 \times 10^{30} \text{ combinations}
&lt;/math&gt;

Assuming that testing each combination takes about 1 nanosecond, we can calculate the total time required:

&lt;math&gt;1.267 \times 10^{30} \times 1 \, \text{ns} = 1.267 \times 10^{21} \, \text{seconds}
&lt;/math&gt;

Converting this to years:

&lt;math&gt;1.267 \times 10^{21} \, \text{seconds} \approx 40.18 \times 10^{12} \, \text{years}
&lt;/math&gt;

Thus, on classical computers, solving a 100-variable SAT problem would take approximately 40 trillion years.

However, quantum computers, using algorithms like Grover’s Algorithm, can offer a quadratic speedup for this type of problem. &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;L. K. Grover, &quot;A fast quantum mechanical algorithm for database search,&quot; Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, 1996, pp. 212-219.&lt;/ref&gt; Grover’s algorithm allows us to search through the combinations in the square root of the time it would take classically: &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2^{100}} = 2^{50} \, \text{combinations}
&lt;/math&gt;

This gives us:

&lt;math&gt;2^{50} = 1.126 \times 10^{15} \, \text{combinations}
&lt;/math&gt;

Assuming testing each combination still takes 1 nanosecond, the total time required on a quantum computer would be:

&lt;math&gt;1.126 \times 10^{15} \times 1 \, \text{ns} = 1.126 \times 10^{6} \, \text{seconds}
&lt;/math&gt;

Converting this to days:

&lt;math&gt;1.126 \times 10^{6} \, \text{seconds} \approx 13 \, \text{days}
&lt;/math&gt;

In summary, while quantum computers can solve the problem in about 13 days, classical computers would take 40 trillion years to do the same.

==== UC-SAT and SATLIB ====
The UC-SAT method represents a groundbreaking approach in solving 3-SAT problems using classical computers. UC-SAT was tested on CNF files downloaded from  https://www.cs.ubc.ca/~hoos/SATLIB/benchm.html.&lt;ref&gt;SATLIB - Benchmark Problems: Satisfiability Library. University of British Columbia. Available at: https://www.cs.ubc.ca/~hoos/SATLIB/benchm.html&lt;/ref&gt; This link directs to the SATLIB (Satisfiability Library), which is provided by the University of British Columbia. SATLIB offers a broad benchmark set of SAT problems. It is a platform widely used by researchers globally to evaluate and compare the performance of SAT solvers.

Specifically, the 54,079 CNF files tested using the UC-SAT method contained a total of 6,718,838 variables and 32,275,096 clauses. However, it is important to note that this represents only the files that were tested; SATLIB contains many more CNF files overall.

The UC-SAT method solved these CNF files on classical computers in just a few seconds. This success is attributed to the polynomial growth exhibited by UC-SAT. Exponential growth, in contrast, refers to a situation where the solution time increases extremely rapidly as the input size grows, making problems impractical to solve. For instance, solving a 100-variable SAT problem on classical computers using brute-force methods would take around 40 trillion years due to exponential growth.

Polynomial growth, however, means that the solution time increases in a controlled and predictable manner, proportional to the input size. UC-SAT transforms the typically exponential complexity of solving SAT problems into a polynomial one, which allows large-scale problems to be solved efficiently.

In this context, UC-SAT successfully solved 54,079 CNF files individually, with each file containing varying numbers of variables and clauses. The total across these files amounted to 6,718,838 variables and 32,275,096 clauses. These files were solved in just a few seconds each, using classical computers. This represents a significant breakthrough in solving NP-complete problems, as UC-SAT leverages polynomial growth to tackle complex SAT problems.

=== Discussion ===

==== Strengths of UC-SAT ====
The UC-SAT (Unified Clause SAT) method offers a powerful solution by reducing the complexity of 3-SAT problems and providing a solution in polynomial time. 3-SAT is an NP-complete problem, meaning that finding a solution for large problem sets involves exponential time complexity. UC-SAT addresses this challenge by solving 3-SAT in polynomial time, making it much faster and more efficient compared to traditional approaches.

One of UC-SAT's key advantages is its ability to solve problems with a time complexity of &lt;math&gt;O(n^k)
&lt;/math&gt;. Traditional 3-SAT solutions exhibit exponential growth &lt;math&gt;(O(2^n))
&lt;/math&gt;, while UC-SAT reduces this complexity to a polynomial structure. This is particularly beneficial for large problem sets, where the solution process becomes more manageable and offers significant advantages in real-world applications. Polynomial growth ensures that the time required to solve the problem increases in a controlled manner as the input size grows, providing a more efficient and resource-saving solution.

Another strength of UC-SAT is its ability to simplify the structural complexity of 3-SAT by making the dependencies between literals more pronounced. In traditional 3-SAT, each clause is treated independently, and the problem is considered solved if at least one literal in each clause is true. However, this independent treatment of clauses introduces unnecessary complexity. UC-SAT, by unifying all clauses under a single structure, eliminates this redundancy and simplifies the assignment process. The stronger dependency between literals contributes to the overall solution and accelerates the problem-solving process.

At this point, the perceived necessity of assignment tracking becomes clearer with UC-SAT. In traditional 3-SAT, each clause is considered solved if at least one literal is true. As a result, mathematicians often mistakenly assume that assignment tracking is necessary. However, in reality, according to 3-SAT logic, tracking assignments is unnecessary. UC-SAT follows the same rule as 3-SAT, where a single true literal in any clause is enough to solve the problem. Although it may seem that assignment tracking is required in 3-SAT, the truth is that only the presence of at least one true literal in each clause matters, while the tracking of all literal assignments is not needed.

UC-SAT’s major advantage is that it eliminates the illogical aspects of 3-SAT by strengthening the dependencies between literals. The independence of clauses in 3-SAT introduces an unnecessary layer of complexity, which UC-SAT effectively removes by unifying all clauses. In UC-SAT, the focus shifts from clause independence to literal dependency, which not only reduces complexity but also leads to a faster and more consistent solution.

The increased dependency among literals in UC-SAT enhances the overall problem-solving process. Rather than treating literals as independent entities, UC-SAT strengthens the connections between them, which allows the entire problem to be solved more systematically and logically. This approach, where the literals are more strongly connected, leads to a more efficient and consistent solution, both theoretically and practically. By eliminating the independence of clauses, UC-SAT introduces a more coherent and logical structure that reflects the true nature of the problem.

In conclusion, UC-SAT offers a more effective and faster solution compared to traditional 3-SAT methods. Its ability to provide polynomial-time solutions, reduce complexity, and strengthen the dependency between literals stands as its strongest features. By addressing the challenges of 3-SAT, UC-SAT provides a robust solution, offering significant advantages in both theoretical and practical applications.

=== UC-SAT's Limitations ===
The UC-SAT method fundamentally solves problems by adhering to the rules of 3-SAT. Therefore, some of the limitations observed in UC-SAT are not a result of the method itself but rather stem directly from the logical structure and rules of 3-SAT. These limitations include the misunderstanding of assignment tracking and the conflicting use of the concepts of independence and dependence in the problem-solving process.

==== Monte Carlo Method and Assignment Tracking ====
The UC-SAT method uses the Monte Carlo method to randomly assign true and false values to literals. However, the Monte Carlo method is used here solely for the purpose of making random assignments; it does not provide a solution or determine whether the assignments are correct. What matters is not whether all assignments are correct, but rather finding a correct assignment that satisfies the single unified clause.

The advantage of UC-SAT at this point is that a single correct assignment can solve the entire problem. This is based on the rules of 3-SAT; because in a 3-SAT problem, having at least one literal as true in a clause satisfies that clause. UC-SAT adopts this logic by removing all parentheses and merging all clauses into a single structure, thus treating the problem as a single clause. Therefore, obtaining at least one true literal with any combination of assignments is sufficient to solve the problem. For this reason, assignment tracking becomes unnecessary in UC-SAT.

==== Independence Between Clauses or Dependence Between Literals? ====
The fundamental philosophy of the UC-SAT method is to strengthen the dependence between literals while highlighting the logical inconsistency of treating clauses as independent. If clauses are considered independently, it may be necessary, logically, to assign both true and false values to the same literal simultaneously. This means that a literal would have two different values at the same time, which creates a logical contradiction.

For example, consider the following two clauses:

&lt;math&gt;\begin{aligned}
(x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3) \\
(x_1 \vee x_4 \vee x_5)
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

If the clauses are independent, the literal &lt;math&gt;x_1
&lt;/math&gt; would need to be assigned true in the first clause and false in the second clause. This implies that &lt;math&gt;x_1
&lt;/math&gt; must be both true and false at the same time. Logically, this is impossible; a literal cannot have two different values simultaneously.

This situation demonstrates that the independence of clauses is illogical. If literals are dependent, then the clauses must also be dependent. The UC-SAT method eliminates this independence between clauses, ensuring that literals have consistent and unique values. When all clauses are combined into a single structure, the dependence between literals is strengthened, and logical consistency is achieved.

A similar logic applies to real-world problems. Even if a problem has multiple solutions, generally a single &quot;best&quot; solution is sought. Having more than one &quot;best&quot; solution for the same problem is logically impossible and does not occur in practice. Therefore, by strengthening the dependence between literals and eliminating the independence of clauses, UC-SAT provides a method that is both logically consistent and aligned with practical applications.

The reasons why the logical contradictions arising from clause independence are illogical will be discussed in detail in ''The Logical Examination of the Cook-Levin Theorem and 3-SAT'' section. In that section, we will delve deeper into how the independence of clauses conflicts with real-world problems and how UC-SAT addresses these issues from a specific perspective.

==== Assignment Tracking in 3-SAT and UC-SAT ====
In 3-SAT, there is a perception that assignment tracking is being performed; however, mathematically, this is not accurate. In 3-SAT, it is sufficient to have at least one true assignment, which satisfies the clause. Yet, whether all literals are correctly tracked is not verified. UC-SAT adopts the same logic because this is the fundamental rule of 3-SAT: Having at least one true literal in a clause satisfies that clause.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; In UC-SAT, a single true assignment is also sufficient to solve the entire problem.

Therefore, UC-SAT's approach of considering &quot;assignment tracking unnecessary&quot; is actually based on the inherent rules of 3-SAT. The correctness of the assignments is not checked; what matters is that at least one clause is satisfied by a true assignment. Since this principle also applies in UC-SAT, when random assignments are made using the Monte Carlo method, any true assignment will solve the problem. UC-SAT simplifies this process even further by removing parentheses, thereby consolidating all clauses into a single structure.

==== Strengthening Literal Dependence and Eliminating Clause Independence ====
Another strength of UC-SAT is its ability to eliminate the independence between clauses while further strengthening the dependence between literals. In 3-SAT problems, each clause is considered independently, and this independence can lead to logically incorrect results. UC-SAT removes the independence between clauses by unifying all clauses into a single structure, thereby increasing the interdependence among literals. This allows the problem to be solved in a more consistent and logical manner. Strengthening the connections between literals provides greater consistency during the problem-solving process.

=== Contribution to the Literature ===

==== UC-SAT's Contributions to Existing Literature and the New Perspective it Brings to the P=NP Discussion ====
The UC-SAT method makes a significant contribution to the existing literature with its innovative approach to solving 3-SAT problems. Traditionally, 3-SAT problems are classified as NP-complete, and solving these problems in polynomial time lies at the heart of the P=NP question. By claiming to solve 3-SAT problems in polynomial time, UC-SAT opens a new chapter in the literature.

==== A Comparative View of Existing Methods ====
Traditional 3-SAT solutions are impractical for large-scale problems due to their exponential time complexity. Existing algorithms in the literature typically handle each clause independently and require testing all possible assignment combinations. In contrast, UC-SAT eliminates parentheses and merges all clauses into a single structure, reducing the problem to polynomial time. This approach distinctly differs from existing methods in the literature and offers a new perspective on solving 3-SAT problems.

==== Bringing a New Perspective to the P=NP Discussion ====
One of the most striking contributions of UC-SAT is the innovative viewpoint it brings to the P=NP discussion. If an NP-complete problem like 3-SAT can be solved in polynomial time using the UC-SAT method, this provides a strong argument that the P=NP hypothesis might be true. By reducing the complexity of 3-SAT problems to polynomial time, UC-SAT allows for a reevaluation of the relationship between the P and NP classes. This could breathe new life into longstanding debates in computer science and mathematics.

==== Mathematical and Theoretical Contributions ====
The UC-SAT method not only offers a practical solution but also provides valuable mathematical contributions to the literature. By strengthening the dependency between literals and eliminating the independence between clauses, it allows for the development of new approaches in logical thinking. This method could open new research areas in logic theory and combinatorics and lead to a reevaluation of existing theories.

==== Impacts on Algorithm Design and Complexity Theory ====
The approach offered by UC-SAT can also have significant effects on algorithm design and complexity theory. This method, which demonstrates that problems can be solved in polynomial time, offers hope that other NP-complete problems can be approached similarly. This could form a foundation for developing more efficient algorithms and redefining complexity classes.

=== Future Research ===
The innovative approach presented by the UC-SAT method offers vast potential for future research. Exploring the applicability of the method to problems of different sizes and complexities, as well as its impact on other NP-complete problems, are significant areas awaiting exploration.

==== Reduction of NP-Complete Problems to 3-SAT and Solving with UC-SAT ====
Future research should focus on effectively reducing NP-complete problems to 3-SAT and then solving them using the UC-SAT method. Instead of directly extending UC-SAT to NP-complete problems, this approach involves converting NP-complete problems into the 3-SAT format using existing reduction techniques and then solving them with UC-SAT. By doing so, a significant hurdle in complexity theory can be overcome.

==== The P=NP Question and the Role of UC-SAT ====
UC-SAT's ability to solve 3-SAT problems in polynomial time provides a strong argument for the P=NP question. If all NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT and these reduced problems can be solved in polynomial time using UC-SAT, this supports the P=NP hypothesis. Future research should delve deeper into UC-SAT's potential and support this claim with mathematical proofs and experimental data.

==== Strengthening the Theoretical Foundations of UC-SAT ====
A detailed examination of UC-SAT's mathematical foundations and a robust proof of its method are critical for its acceptance by the scientific community. Fundamental principles of UC-SAT, such as strengthening the dependence among literals and eliminating the independence of clauses, need to be evaluated in terms of logical consistency and mathematical rigor. These studies will enhance UC-SAT's reliability and contribute to resolving the P=NP question.

==== Experimental Studies and Performance Evaluation ====
Within the scope of future research, it is important to test the UC-SAT method through extensive experiments and evaluate its performance. Specifically, the effectiveness and efficiency of the method should be measured during the processes of reducing different NP-complete problems to 3-SAT and solving them with UC-SAT. These experiments will demonstrate UC-SAT's practical success and reveal the generalizability of its method.

=== Conclusion ===
The UC-SAT method has made a significant advancement in computational complexity theory by presenting an innovative approach that solves classical 3-SAT problems in polynomial time. This study has demonstrated how UC-SAT can reduce the exponential time complexity in 3-SAT problems to a polynomial level, thereby bringing a new perspective to the P=NP question.

==== Strengths of UC-SAT: ====

* '''Polynomial Time Complexity''': UC-SAT has made it possible to obtain fast and effective results even in large-scale problems by solving 3-SAT problems with a time complexity of &lt;math&gt;O(n^k)
&lt;/math&gt;.
* '''Unification of Clauses''': By eliminating the independence between clauses and strengthening the dependence among literals, UC-SAT has simplified the problem's structure and accelerated the solution process.
* '''Elimination of the Need for Assignment Tracking''': By making random assignments using the Monte Carlo method, UC-SAT has removed the necessity to track whether the assignments are correct, thereby simplifying the solution process.

==== Limitations of UC-SAT: ====
The only limitation of UC-SAT is actually not a constraint but a logical error stemming from the logical structure of 3-SAT itself. This error involves the lack of assignment tracking and arises not from UC-SAT's methodology but from the fundamental principles of 3-SAT. This logical issue and detailed analyses will be discussed in ''The Logical Examination of the Cook-Levin Theorem and 3-SAT'' section.

==== Contribution to the Literature: ====
By providing a polynomial-time solution to 3-SAT problems, UC-SAT has made a significant contribution to the P=NP discussions. The method offers a strong argument that NP-complete problems can be solved in polynomial time, opening new research areas in existing algorithms and complexity theory. By going beyond traditional approaches in the literature, it brings a more logical and effective perspective to the problem-solving process.

==== '''Future Research:''' ====

* '''Solving NP-Complete Problems with UC-SAT''': Future studies may investigate reducing other NP-complete problems to 3-SAT and solving them using UC-SAT.
* '''Strengthening Mathematical Foundations''': Supporting the theoretical foundations of UC-SAT with detailed mathematical proofs will enhance the scientific acceptance of the method.
* '''Experimental Studies''': Conducting extensive experiments on problems of different scales and complexities can evaluate the performance and effectiveness of UC-SAT.

==== General Evaluation: ====
The UC-SAT method has introduced a revolutionary approach to solving 3-SAT problems and has opened new horizons in the field of computational complexity. It has the potential to overcome the limitations of existing methods in the literature and solve problems faster and more effectively. The advantages and innovations provided by the method are of great importance both theoretically and practically. With future studies, the scope of UC-SAT can be expanded, shedding light on fundamental questions in computational theory.

== The Logical Examination of the Cook-Levin Theorem and 3-SAT ==

=== The Nature of 3-SAT and Its Relevance to Real-World Problems ===
3-SAT is one of the most significant problems in computational complexity theory, classified under NP-complete problems. According to the Cook-Levin Theorem, any problem in NP can be reduced to a 3-SAT instance in polynomial time, meaning 3-SAT holds a central role in solving NP-complete problems. However, NP-complete problems encompass not just abstract, theoretical challenges but also real-world problems, which adds complexity when applying 3-SAT logic to these tangible scenarios.

For instance, consider the Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP) as a concrete NP-complete problem. TSP requires finding the shortest possible route that visits a set of cities exactly once and returns to the starting point. The complexity of solving this problem grows exponentially as the number of cities increases, making it computationally demanding. According to Cook-Levin, TSP can be reduced to 3-SAT, but the abstract logic of 3-SAT may struggle to reflect the nuance of real-world situations. In 3-SAT, a clause is satisfied as long as at least one literal is true, but in real-world problems like TSP, all cities must be considered equally important. Simply having one part of the problem &quot;correct&quot; does not imply an optimal or valid solution for the entire scenario.

=== 3-SAT's Deficiency in Reflecting Real-World Problem-Solving ===
While 3-SAT can solve problems by finding one or more satisfiable solutions, it does not evaluate which solution is the most optimal, especially for real-world applications. For example, in 3-SAT, consider two clauses:

&lt;math&gt;(x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3) \ \text{and} \ (\neg x_1 \vee x_4 \vee \neg x_2)&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;x_1 = \text{True}
&lt;/math&gt; is assigned, the first clause is satisfied, but this doesn't imply the second clause will be satisfied, as &lt;math&gt;\neg x_1
&lt;/math&gt; would need to be &lt;math&gt;\text{False}
&lt;/math&gt;. If &lt;math&gt;x_1 = \text{False}
&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;\neg x_1
&lt;/math&gt; is satisfied in the second clause, but the system doesn't track the satisfaction of &lt;math&gt;x_4
&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\neg x_2
&lt;/math&gt;. This ambiguity doesn't provide a unified or comprehensive solution for practical applications where the system needs a single, optimal outcome.

In UC-SAT, which unifies all clauses into a single structure by removing parentheses, the need for multiple solutions is removed. UC-SAT, through its unification process, ensures that no matter how literals are assigned (random or controlled), at least one true literal will always satisfy the problem. If &lt;math&gt;x_1 = \text{True}
&lt;/math&gt; in UC-SAT, the problem is solved entirely. Even if &lt;math&gt;x_1 = \text{False}
&lt;/math&gt;, the problem can still be solved because other literals like &lt;math&gt;\neg x_1
&lt;/math&gt; could take precedence and still satisfy the clause.

==== Example from Cryptography: The Key Discovery Problem ====
In the field of cryptography, the key discovery problem is a real-world, concrete NP-complete problem. The goal is to find the key for a specific encryption algorithm. These types of problems fall into the NP-complete category, and during the search for a solution, many potential keys can be tested. However, in the real world, only one correct key will successfully decrypt the system. 3-SAT, on the other hand, provides multiple solutions by satisfying clauses with different possible keys, but not all these keys will work in the encryption system. Only one correct key is valid, meaning 3-SAT's approach of searching for multiple solutions does not align well with real-world requirements.

For instance, consider the following clauses in an encryption algorithm:

Clause 1: &lt;math&gt;(A_1 \vee A_2 \vee A_3)
&lt;/math&gt;  → First part of the key

Clause 2: &lt;math&gt;(B_1 \vee B_2 \vee B_3)
&lt;/math&gt; → Second part of the key

According to this structure, 3-SAT would consider any literal being true as sufficient to satisfy the clauses, and the problem would be marked as solved. However, in reality, there is only one correct key combination that decrypts the system. 3-SAT might disregard the incorrect literals and present a superficial solution, but in the cryptographic world, this would be unacceptable. In critical fields like cryptography, only the correct key ensures the system operates properly, revealing 3-SAT's limitations in such contexts.

==== UC-SAT and Its Compatibility with Real-World Problems ====
In 3-SAT, when dealing with a problem involving 100 clauses, each clause is treated as if it requires a separate solution. This approach essentially turns one problem into 100 separate problems, each needing resolution. However, in reality, there is only one problem, and logically, this should lead to one optimal solution. The fact that 3-SAT searches for multiple solutions adds unnecessary complexity, which contradicts the nature of real-world problems. In most real-world scenarios, there is typically a single best solution, and searching for 100 different solutions for one problem is logically flawed.

This flaw arises from the independence maintained between clauses. While 3-SAT treats each clause independently, UC-SAT eliminates these independent structures by merging all the clauses into one unified entity and searches for a single solution. Real-world problems are typically interconnected, meaning that either the independence of clauses should be eliminated or the dependency of literals should be altered. UC-SAT addresses this interdependency by structuring the problem in a way that only one correct assignment is needed to solve the entire problem, aligning more closely with real-world problem-solving processes.

Some mathematicians and computer scientists may not consider 3-SAT’s search for multiple solutions a problem, given that it is a theoretical or abstract problem. However, it is essential to note that NP-complete problems encompass not only abstract problems but also concrete, real-world problems. If NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT, then 3-SAT's multiple-solution approach becomes logically incompatible with real-world problems, creating contradictions in practical applications.

==== Mathematical and Logical Assessment: 3-SAT vs. UC-SAT ====
If, during a thorough reevaluation by mathematicians and computer scientists, 3-SAT’s search for multiple solutions is deemed mathematically and logically sound, then UC-SAT’s ability to solve problems with a single true assignment should also be considered valid. The reasoning is that while 3-SAT evaluates each clause separately and allows for multiple solutions, it does not assess which solution is best. UC-SAT, on the other hand, consolidates the solution process, focusing on a single true assignment that resolves the entire problem, similar to how 3-SAT validates satisfiability without prioritizing optimality. Thus, if multiple satisfiable solutions in 3-SAT are accepted as legitimate, then UC-SAT’s method of solving through a single correct assignment should be equally valid.

In both cases, the evaluation of which solution is the best or most optimal is left to further exploration by the field of computational complexity.

==== Proving P=NP: The Role of UC-SAT ====
Should UC-SAT prove capable of solving NP-complete problems with just a single assignment, it would revolutionize the P=NP question. According to Cook-Levin, all NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT. If UC-SAT can then solve 3-SAT problems in polynomial time with just one true assignment, it would imply that all NP-complete problems can be solved in polynomial time. This breakthrough would, in effect, prove that P = NP, fundamentally altering the landscape of computational complexity.

Thus, UC-SAT, by addressing the limitations of 3-SAT in real-world applications, offers not just an alternative but potentially a definitive proof for one of the greatest open questions in theoretical computer science.

==== Conclusion ====
The abstract nature of 3-SAT is not compatible with real-world problems. Its search for multiple solutions, especially in complex and concrete problems, becomes impractical and illogical. UC-SAT, on the other hand, aims for a single solution, providing a more suitable approach for real-world problems. While the strength of 3-SAT, as proven by the Cook-Levin Theorem, offers a path to solving NP-complete problems, approaches like UC-SAT are more effective and logical in producing results in real-world scenarios.

=== Questioning the Cook-Levin Theorem ===

==== A Logical Analysis of 3-SAT and NP-Complete Problems ====
The Cook-Levin Theorem argues that NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT in polynomial time, positioning 3-SAT at the core of the NP-complete class. However, the abstract structure of 3-SAT and its search for multiple solutions may create a conflict that does not align with real-world problems. At this point, when the logical consistency of 3-SAT is questioned, the universality of the Cook-Levin Theorem is also brought into debate. So, is 3-SAT truly the most suitable method for solving all NP-complete problems? Below, we address the key points of this analysis.

==== The Deficiencies of 3-SAT in Real-World Decision-Making Systems ====
The logical structure of 3-SAT, as an abstract problem-solving method, may not be sufficient for real-world problems. Particularly in NP-complete problems used in artificial intelligence and decision-making processes, 3-SAT’s approach of searching for multiple solutions conflicts with real-world logic. For example, when an AI system is tasked with planning movements based on detecting environmental obstacles, 3-SAT seeks separate solutions for each clause. However, in the real world, all components must be interrelated, and a single final decision should provide the best solution. 3-SAT, on the other hand, complicates the problem by attempting to find independent solutions for each clause.

For instance, consider a robot that needs to detect obstacles and plan its movement. The robot must make logical decisions by evaluating various situations. Whether obstacles exist or not is evaluated separately by each clause in the 3-SAT structure. If one clause detects an obstacle, it disregards the importance of other clauses. This makes it difficult for the robot to consider all environmental factors. As a result, 3-SAT’s search for multiple solutions prevents the robot from making the most accurate decision and creates a disconnect with real-world applications. At this point, even though NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT via the Cook-Levin Theorem, 3-SAT’s logic is insufficient for solving concrete problems.

==== Example of Reducing NP-Complete to 3-SAT: The Shift Scheduling Problem ====
The shift scheduling problem is an NP-complete problem where each employee must be assigned to a specific shift. In this section, we will examine a simplified version of this complex real-world problem. Through this example, we will explore the potential logical issues that may arise when reducing NP-complete problems to 3-SAT.

'''Example Clause:'''

&lt;math&gt;(x_1 \vee x_2 \vee x_3)
&lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt;x_1
&lt;/math&gt;: Is Employee 1 working in Shift 1?
* &lt;math&gt;x_2
&lt;/math&gt;: Is Employee 2 working in Shift 2?
* &lt;math&gt;x_3
&lt;/math&gt;: Is Employee 3 working in Shift 3?

According to 3-SAT, it is sufficient for at least one literal in this clause to be &lt;math&gt;\text{True}
&lt;/math&gt;. If &lt;math&gt;x_1 = \text{True}
&lt;/math&gt; (Employee 1 is working in Shift 1), the other two literals (&lt;math&gt;x_2
&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x_3
&lt;/math&gt;) can be &lt;math&gt;\text{False}
&lt;/math&gt; In this case, the clause would be considered satisfied by 3-SAT, but Employee 2 (&lt;math&gt;x_2
&lt;/math&gt;) and Employee 3 (&lt;math&gt;x_3
&lt;/math&gt;)  would be regarded as not working in their shifts. In reality, these two employees may still be performing their duties, but the 3-SAT system does not account for this. 3-SAT only considers the clause satisfied if one literal is &lt;math&gt;\text{True}
&lt;/math&gt;, ignoring the status of the other employees. However, in real-world problems like shift scheduling, it is essential to assign every employee correctly.

==== '''Why Are We Providing This Example?''' ====
The purpose of this example is to discuss whether NP-complete problems can be accurately reduced to 3-SAT. As seen in the shift scheduling problem, reducing an NP-complete problem to 3-SAT may result in incomplete or flawed outcomes. The Cook-Levin Theorem &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; asserts that NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT, but this example demonstrates that the theorem’s application may not always be flawless, and thus it should be reexamined by mathematicians.

The Cook-Levin Theorem aims to prove that every NP-complete problem can be reduced to 3-SAT. However, in concrete real-world problems such as the shift scheduling problem, this reduction does not always produce accurate results. If the core logic of 3-SAT relies solely on one literal being , this does not guarantee that NP-complete problems are correctly solved. In problems like shift scheduling, where all components must be assigned correctly, 3-SAT's limitations become evident.

==== Logical Issue: ====
The core logic of 3-SAT is based on the principle that a clause is satisfied if at least one literal is &lt;math&gt;\text{True}
&lt;/math&gt; While this might work in an abstract logical framework, it overlooks whether the other variables (such as &lt;math&gt;x_2
&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x_3
&lt;/math&gt;) are correctly assigned. In real-world problems like shift scheduling, it is not enough for only one employee to be correctly assigned; all employees must be properly allocated to their shifts. This shows that the 3-SAT system may be inadequate for solving real-world problems.

==== Questioning the Cook-Levin Theorem: ====
The assertion that the Cook-Levin Theorem &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; reduces NP-complete problems to 3-SAT may not be accurate for certain NP-complete problems, such as the shift scheduling problem. If the logic of 3-SAT relies solely on one literal being , it cannot accurately represent or solve NP-complete problems. The incomplete or flawed reduction of problems like the shift scheduling problem to 3-SAT raises doubts about the universality of the Cook-Levin Theorem.

==== If the Cook-Levin Theorem Is Incorrect: ====
In this case, it would mean that not all NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT, but rather only some of them. If real-world problems like shift scheduling produce incomplete or flawed results in 3-SAT, then we may conclude that P ≠ NP cannot be proven through 3-SAT. Therefore, the validity of the Cook-Levin Theorem should be reexamined by mathematicians, and after further scrutiny, a definitive conclusion should be reached regarding whether the Cook-Levin Theorem can indeed reduce all NP-complete problems to 3-SAT without error.

==== If the Cook-Levin Theorem Is Correct: ====
If NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT without error via the Cook-Levin Theorem,&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; then it would still become apparent that these problems cannot be definitively solved using 3-SAT because the fundamental logic of 3-SAT itself is flawed. According to Boolean logic, a clause is satisfied as long as at least one literal is &lt;math&gt;\text{True}
&lt;/math&gt;, without checking the assignments of the other literals. My argument highlights that this flaw extends not only to the Cook-Levin Theorem but also to 3-SAT itself, suggesting it is logically flawed.

If further research determines that there are no flaws in 3-SAT, this would confirm that a clause in 3-SAT is satisfied as long as at least one literal is &lt;math&gt;\text{True}
&lt;/math&gt;, regardless of the values of the other literals. Consequently, this logic would also apply to solvers like UC-SAT. Any problem reduced from 3-SAT to UC-SAT would similarly be solved by assigning at least one &lt;math&gt;\text{True}
&lt;/math&gt; literal, without the need to track the values of other literals.

If the UC-SAT method is error-free, this indicates that neither Cook-Levin’s Theorem nor the logic of 3-SAT is flawed, and UC-SAT would directly prove that P = NP. UC-SAT would not only solve problems reduced from 3-SAT in polynomial time but would also solve all NP problems by assigning one correct literal, leading to the conclusion that P = NP.

The shift scheduling problem cannot be solved by merely assigning one employee correctly. In the real world, all employees must be assigned to their respective shifts correctly, highlighting the limitations of 3-SAT. The claim that the Cook-Levin Theorem &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; reduces NP-complete problems to 3-SAT may not hold true in complex real-world cases such as the shift scheduling problem, where 3-SAT may yield incomplete or flawed results. If 3-SAT is logically flawed, this calls into question both the Cook-Levin Theorem  and 3-SAT itself. Therefore, mathematicians must reexamine whether the theorem truly guarantees the seamless reduction of NP-complete problems to 3-SAT.

==== Review by Mathematicians and Computer Scientists: ====
If mathematicians and computer scientists evaluate that the search for multiple solutions in 3-SAT is mathematically valid, then UC-SAT’s approach of solving the problem with a single correct assignment should also be considered logically valid. While 3-SAT evaluates each clause independently, UC-SAT removes this independent structure by combining all clauses and offering a single solution. However, this does not disrupt the logic of 3-SAT; on the contrary, UC-SAT expands on 3-SAT’s fundamental principle, producing a more unified and coherent solution in a system where all variables are interrelated. Instead of checking whether each clause is independently satisfied, UC-SAT merges the overall structure of the literals and seeks a more comprehensive solution. With this approach, rather than relying on the local validity of individual truth assignments as in 3-SAT, a broader logical consistency is achieved.

At this point, UC-SAT simplifies the multiple-solution approach of 3-SAT without breaking the fundamental logic it inherits from 3-SAT. While 3-SAT provides multiple solutions, UC-SAT instead makes a single random assignment and always attempts to solve the problem with a true value. If the multiple-solution approach of 3-SAT is deemed logically valid, then UC-SAT’s approach of solving the problem with a single correct assignment should also be considered equally valid. Following these evaluations, it can be proven that UC-SAT is more optimal and aligned with real-world scenarios.

=== '''Conclusion''' ===
Based on our analysis, it is essential to emphasize two main possibilities concerning the UC-SAT method and computational theory:

==== 1. If UC-SAT is flawed, 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem may also be flawed. ====
The UC-SAT method offers a different approach by unifying the solutions of 3-SAT problems into a single solution. However, if UC-SAT is proven to be flawed, this suggests that not only UC-SAT but also 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem may need to be re-evaluated. From our detailed analysis, the following points emerge:

* '''Independence of Clauses in 3-SAT:''' UC-SAT eliminates the independence of 3-SAT clauses by combining all literals into a single structure. If this leads to logical inconsistencies, it implies that 3-SAT’s principle of clause independence is also flawed.
* '''Boolean Logic-Based Clause Solution:''' 3-SAT operates under the assumption that a clause can be satisfied if at least one literal is True. If UC-SAT fails to broaden this approach by finding a more comprehensive solution, it reveals the limitations of 3-SAT’s Boolean logic for solving real-world problems.
* '''Validity of the Cook-Levin Theorem:''' The Cook-Levin Theorem&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; asserts that NP-complete problems can be reduced to 3-SAT. If UC-SAT is shown to be flawed, it suggests that the reduction of NP-complete problems to 3-SAT might not always be accurate. In this case, we may conclude that P=NP cannot be proven using 3-SAT.

In this scenario, if UC-SAT is proven to be flawed, the validity of 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem must be re-examined. Consequently, P=NP would not be provable through 3-SAT.

==== 2. If UC-SAT is correct, the Cook-Levin Theorem and 3-SAT are logically sound, and P=NP can be proven. ====
If UC-SAT is proven to be correct, this implies that 3-SAT problems, and therefore all NP-complete problems, can be correctly solved. In this case, the following conclusions can be drawn:

* '''Logical Consistency:''' UC-SAT simplifies the multiple-solution approach of 3-SAT, offering a more unified and logical solution. If UC-SAT works correctly, NP-complete problems can be solved through a global solution that relates all variables.
* '''Confirmation of the Cook-Levin Theorem:''' The correctness of UC-SAT also confirms the validity of the Cook-Levin Theorem. If UC-SAT successfully solves problems reduced to 3-SAT, this demonstrates that all NP-complete problems can be solved in polynomial time, thus proving P=NP.

In this scenario, UC-SAT provides a revolutionary path to proving P=NP. The foundational principles of the Cook-Levin Theorem and 3-SAT would be confirmed, and NP-complete problems could be solved with a single correct assignment in polynomial time.

==== In conclusion: ====
The accuracy or inaccuracy of the UC-SAT method will not only impact the validity of 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem, but it will also directly affect the ultimate resolution of one of mathematics' greatest questions: the P=NP problem. If UC-SAT is flawed, the foundational assumptions of 3-SAT and the Cook-Levin Theorem will need to be fundamentally questioned. However, if UC-SAT is correct, it would mean that P=NP can be proven, leading to a groundbreaking, paradigm-shifting discovery in the world of mathematics.

== Conflict of Interest Statement ==
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest regarding the research, authorship, and publication of this article.

== Funding ==
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. All processes of the research were conducted personally by the author.

== Name to Be Used in Citations ==
This paper is published under the name Eric Moore. Although my legal name is Vahid Mammadov, I have been using the name Eric Moore in my research and professional work for the past two years, and I am in the process of legally changing it due to my interest in absurdism. Please cite this paper using the name Eric Moore in all future references. I am also open to any academic contributions or constructive feedback that could further enhance the scientific rigor and impact of this work.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== License ==
This work is licensed under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)]].</text>
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|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Where research is discussed, it is integrated with theory
# Insufficient integration with [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion
# Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best available psychological theory and research about the topic
# Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words
# Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
# Key points are well summarised
# Summarise key points
# The focus questions are addressed
# Address the focus questions
# Clear take-home message(s)
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is outstanding (highly professional)
## Overall, the quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
## Overall, the quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard
## Overall, the quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills
## Some of the written expression is quite abstract, which makes this a difficult read for an unfamiliar reader. Consider ways of simplifying the written expression to make it more accessible to a wider audience. This is the essence of [[w:science communication|science communication]].
## The written expression is quite convoluted, which makes this a difficult read. Consider ways of simplifying the written expression. This is important for effective [[w:science communication|science communication]].
## Use active (e.g., &quot;this chapter explores&quot;) rather than passive voice (e.g., &quot;this chapter has explored&quot; or &quot;this chapter will explore&quot;) [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/]
## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia].
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags)
## Some sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+.
## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --&gt;
## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences.
## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences.
## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
## Use gender-neutral language (e.g., mankind -&gt; humankind, s/he -&gt; they)
## Reduce use of [[w:weasel word|weasel word]]s which bulk out the text but don't enhance meaning
## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of &quot;20 years ago&quot;, refer to something like &quot;at the beginning of the 21st century&quot;. In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten.
## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion
## Consider using subheadings
## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; consider expanding
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics, bold, and/or change in font size)
## See earlier comments about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
## Provide more descriptive headings
## Move links from headings into their first mention in text
## Remove abbreviations from headings
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar, spelling, and proofreading are excellent
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas]
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect]
## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.)
### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out
### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms.
### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader
### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently aftwarwards
### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
## Use double (not single) quotation marks &quot;to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression&quot; (APA Style 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
## &quot;Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences&quot; (APA Style 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
## Direct quotes need page numbers – even better, communicate about concepts in your own words
## Direct quotes are overused – it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Add captions
### Use this format for captions: ''Figure X''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation).
### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;)
### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information
### Numbering needs correcting
### Increase some image sizes to make them easier to read
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
### Use APA style for captions ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]])
### Add an APA style caption to each table
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, talics, check and correct capitalisation)
### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.)
## Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
### Do not include author first name or initials
### Use ampersand (&amp;) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and &quot;and&quot; outside parentheses
### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname
### Multiple citations for a single point should be listed alphabetically in the same set of parentheses separated by a semi-colon; see example (Aardvark, 2020; Zebra &amp; Yak, 2024)
### A full stop is needed after &quot;et al&quot; (i.e., &quot;et al.&quot;) because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]]
### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]]
### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point)
### Check and correct placement of full-stops
### Move embedded links to peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois
### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Separate page numbers using an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
### Include hyperlinked dois
### Provide the full titles of journals
### Remove &quot;Retrieved ...&quot;
### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
### Use hanging indent (fixed)
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
# Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# No use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One/No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
# Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# Move links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of table(s)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of feature box(es)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
# The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages
# The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Also include links to related book chapters
## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link
## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite
## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section
## Add more links
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link
## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite
## Target an international audience
## Add more links
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with direct links to evidence
# Thanks very much for your extensive contributions
# ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
# Contributions made across three platforms
# Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# No logged contributions
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
gives
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an outstanding chapter. It successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a very good chapter. It makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a reasonably good chapter. It makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a basic, but sufficient chapter
# Overall, this is an insufficient chapter
# The main area for potential improvement is the quality of written expression / the use of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic
# The main area for potential improvement is to write using your own words based on reading and citing of the most relevant peer-reviewed academic literature about the topic
# I suspect that some of this chapter is based on unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles
# I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 5 topic development hours and 45 book chapter hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of primary, peer-reviewed sources as citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Move embedded external links to academic articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section, include links as dois, and provide APA style citation to the article in the main body text
# Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
# For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand
# Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes.
# This chapter &quot;[[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]]&quot; before directly tackling the target topic
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed/Solid/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box; also include a relevant image
# Engage reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Compellingly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
# Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
# Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail
# Too long/overly complicated – explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections.
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title)
## using [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]]
## using a numbered list or bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed)
# Add focus questions in a feature box
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A very good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A reasonably good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic
# Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic
# Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question).
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds exceptionally well on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds effectively on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds reasonably well on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds somewhat on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds on one previous [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] article
# Build more strongly on related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles (e.g., by embedding interwiki links for key terms)
# This chapter does not build on related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles (e.g., by embedding interwiki links for key terms)
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Excellent use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
# Some use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
# Basic use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
# Use tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
# In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source]
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Some/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Claims are well referenced
# Some/Many claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Where research is discussed, it is integrated with theory
# Insufficient integration with [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion
# Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best available psychological theory and research about the topic
# Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words
# Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
# Key points are well summarised
# Summarise key points
# The focus questions are addressed
# Address the focus questions
# Clear take-home message(s)
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is outstanding (highly professional)
## Overall, the quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
## Overall, the quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard
## Overall, the quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills
## Some of the written expression is quite abstract, which makes this a difficult read for an unfamiliar reader. Consider ways of simplifying the written expression to make it more accessible to a wider audience. This is the essence of [[w:science communication|science communication]].
## The written expression is quite convoluted, which makes this a difficult read. Consider ways of simplifying the written expression. This is important for effective [[w:science communication|science communication]].
## Use active (e.g., &quot;this chapter explores&quot;) rather than passive voice (e.g., &quot;this chapter has explored&quot; or &quot;this chapter will explore&quot;) [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/]
## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia].
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags)
## Some sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+.
## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --&gt;
## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences.
## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences.
## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
## Use gender-neutral language (e.g., mankind -&gt; humankind, s/he -&gt; they)
## Reduce use of [[w:weasel word|weasel word]]s which bulk out the text but don't enhance meaning
## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of &quot;20 years ago&quot;, refer to something like &quot;at the beginning of the 21st century&quot;. In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten.
## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion
## Consider using subheadings
## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; consider expanding
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics, bold, and/or change in font size)
## See earlier comments about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
## Provide more descriptive headings
## Move links from headings into their first mention in text
## Remove abbreviations from headings
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar, spelling, and proofreading are excellent
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas]
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect]
## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.)
### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out
### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms.
### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader
### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently aftwarwards
### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
## Use double (not single) quotation marks &quot;to introduce a word or phrase used as ... slang, or as an invented or coined expression&quot; (APA Style 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
## &quot;Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences&quot; (APA Style 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
## Direct quotes need page numbers – even better, communicate about concepts in your own words
## Direct quotes are overused – it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Add captions
### Use this format for captions: ''Figure X''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation).
### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;)
### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information
### Numbering needs correcting
### Increase some image sizes to make them easier to read
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
### Use APA style for captions ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]])
### Add an APA style caption to each table
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation)
### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.)
## Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
### Do not include author first name or initials
### Use ampersand (&amp;) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and &quot;and&quot; outside parentheses
### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname
### Multiple citations for a single point should be listed alphabetically in the same set of parentheses separated by a semi-colon; see example (Aardvark, 2020; Zebra &amp; Yak, 2024)
### A full stop is needed after &quot;et al&quot; (i.e., &quot;et al.&quot;) because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]]
### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]]
### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point)
### Check and correct placement of full-stops
### Move embedded links to peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois
### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Separate page numbers using an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
### Include hyperlinked dois
### Provide the full titles of journals
### Remove &quot;Retrieved ...&quot;
### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
### Use hanging indent (fixed)
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
# Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# No use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One/No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
# Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# Move links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of table(s)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of feature box(es)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
# The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages
# The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Also include links to related book chapters
## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link
## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite
## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section
## Add more links
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link
## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite
## Target an international audience
## Add more links
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with direct links to evidence
# Thanks very much for your extensive contributions
# ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
# Contributions made across three platforms
# Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# No logged contributions
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:47, 10 October 2024 (UTC)

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEMF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="55731" sha1="9xzaoe6rmcbb5wdmgoyqxz9ojm1xfio" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. 

Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]].
__NOTOC__&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback==
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This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements.
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===Overall===
{{{1|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]===
{{{2|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]===
{{{3|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]===
{{{4|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]===
{{{5|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]===
{{{6|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]===
{{{7|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]===
{{{8|No comment}}}
===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]===
{{{9|No comment}}}

{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}
==Simple example==
See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]]
&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;!-- Official feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
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#
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&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
#
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
gives
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
#
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# 
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
# 
|4=
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# 
|5=
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# 
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# 
|7=
&lt;!-- Style comments... --&gt;
# 
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
#
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
#
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:47, 10 October 2024 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==Detailed example==
Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an outstanding chapter. It successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a very good chapter. It makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a reasonably good chapter. It makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a basic, but sufficient chapter
# Overall, this is an insufficient chapter
# The main area for potential improvement is the quality of written expression / the use of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic
# The main area for potential improvement is to write using your own words based on reading and citing of the most relevant peer-reviewed academic literature about the topic
# I suspect that some of this chapter is based on unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles
# I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 5 topic development hours and 45 book chapter hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of primary, peer-reviewed sources as citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Move embedded external links to academic articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section, include links as dois, and provide APA style citation to the article in the main body text
# Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
# For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand
# Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes.
# This chapter &quot;[[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]]&quot; before directly tackling the target topic
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed/Solid/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box; also include a relevant image
# Engage reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Compellingly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
# Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
# Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail
# Too long/overly complicated – explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections.
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title)
## using [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]]
## using a numbered list or bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed)
# Add focus questions in a feature box
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A very good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A reasonably good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic
# Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic
# Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question).
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds exceptionally well on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds effectively on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds reasonably well on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds somewhat on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds on one previous [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] article
# Build more strongly on related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles (e.g., by embedding interwiki links for key terms)
# This chapter does not build on related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles (e.g., by embedding interwiki links for key terms)
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Excellent use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
# Some use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
# Basic use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
# Use tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
# In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source]
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Some/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Claims are well referenced
# Some/Many claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Where research is discussed, it is integrated with theory
# Insufficient integration with [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion
# Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best available psychological theory and research about the topic
# Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words
# Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
# Key points are well summarised
# Summarise key points
# The focus questions are addressed
# Address the focus questions
# Clear take-home message(s)
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is outstanding (highly professional)
## Overall, the quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
## Overall, the quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard
## Overall, the quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills
## Some of the written expression is quite abstract, which makes this a difficult read for an unfamiliar reader. Consider ways of simplifying the written expression to make it more accessible to a wider audience. This is the essence of [[w:science communication|science communication]].
## The written expression is quite convoluted, which makes this a difficult read. Consider ways of simplifying the written expression. This is important for effective [[w:science communication|science communication]].
## Use active (e.g., &quot;this chapter explores&quot;) rather than passive voice (e.g., &quot;this chapter has explored&quot; or &quot;this chapter will explore&quot;) [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/]
## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia].
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags)
## Some sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+.
## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --&gt;
## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences.
## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences.
## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
## Use gender-neutral language (e.g., mankind -&gt; humankind, s/he -&gt; they)
## Reduce use of [[w:weasel word|weasel word]]s which bulk out the text but don't enhance meaning
## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of &quot;20 years ago&quot;, refer to something like &quot;at the beginning of the 21st century&quot;. In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten.
## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion
## Consider using subheadings
## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; consider expanding
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics, bold, and/or change in font size)
## See earlier comments about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
## Provide more descriptive headings
## Move links from headings into their first mention in text
## Remove abbreviations from headings
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar, spelling, and proofreading are excellent
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas]
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect]
## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.)
### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out
### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms.
### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader
### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently aftwarwards
### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard
## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Written expression – APA style --&gt;
# APA style
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies Use sentence casing for the names of disorders, therapies, theories, etc.]
## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY Video] (1 min)
## Use double (not single) quotation marks &quot;to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression&quot; (APA Style 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
## &quot;Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences&quot; (APA Style 7th ed., 2020, p. 159)
## Express numbers &lt; 10 using words (e.g., two) and &gt;= 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)
## Direct quotes need page numbers – even better, communicate about concepts in your own words
## Direct quotes are overused – it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words
&lt;!-- Written expression – Figures --&gt;
## Figures
### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned
### Briefly captioned; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text
### Add captions
### Use this format for captions: ''Figure X''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]].
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation).
### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., &quot;(see Figure 1)&quot;)
### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information
### Numbering needs correcting
### Increase some image sizes to make them easier to read
&lt;!-- Written expression – Tables --&gt;
## Tables
### Table captions use APA style or wiki style
### Use APA style for captions ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]])
### Add an APA style caption to each table
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style
### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text
### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, talics, check and correct capitalisation)
### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Citations --&gt;
## Citations use excellent APA style (7th ed.)
## Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style (7th ed.). To improve:
### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either:
#### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or
#### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020)
### Do not include author first name or initials
### Use ampersand (&amp;) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and &quot;and&quot; outside parentheses
### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname
### Multiple citations for a single point should be listed alphabetically in the same set of parentheses separated by a semi-colon; see example (Aardvark, 2020; Zebra &amp; Yak, 2024)
### A full stop is needed after &quot;et al&quot; (i.e., &quot;et al.&quot;) because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]]
### Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]]
### Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point)
### Check and correct placement of full-stops
### Move embedded links to peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois
### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources
&lt;!-- Written expression – References --&gt;
## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style:
### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization]
### Check and correct use of italicisation
### Separate page numbers using an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
### Include hyperlinked dois
### Provide the full titles of journals
### Remove &quot;Retrieved from &quot;
### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
### Use hanging indent (fixed)
|8=
&lt;!-- Learning features comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
# Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# No use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]].
&lt;!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --&gt;
# Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
# Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One/No use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project.
# Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# Move links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
&lt;!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of table(s)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of feature box(es)
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples
&lt;!-- Learning features – Quizzes --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s)
# The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages
# The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end
&lt;!-- Learning features – See also --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of interwiki links in the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Also include links to related book chapters
## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link
## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite
## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section
## Add more links
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
&lt;!-- Learning features – External links --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of external links in the &quot;External links&quot; section
## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing]
## Use alphabetical order
## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link
## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite
## Target an international audience
## Add more links
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
|9=
&lt;!-- Social contribution comments... --&gt;
# ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with direct links to evidence
# Thanks very much for your extensive contributions
# ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence.
# Contributions made across three platforms
# Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
# No logged contributions
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
gives
&lt;!-- Official book chapter feedback --&gt;
{{MEBF/2024
|1=
&lt;!-- Overall comments... --&gt;
# Overall, this is an outstanding chapter. It successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is an excellent chapter. It successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a very good chapter. It makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a reasonably good chapter. It makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem.
# Overall, this is a basic, but sufficient chapter
# Overall, this is an insufficient chapter
# The main area for potential improvement is the quality of written expression / the use of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic
# The main area for potential improvement is to write using your own words based on reading and citing of the most relevant peer-reviewed academic literature about the topic
# I suspect that some of this chapter is based on unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles
# I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 5 topic development hours and 45 book chapter hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter
&lt;!-- Overall – Citations --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims
# In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of primary, peer-reviewed sources as citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Move embedded external links to academic articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section, include links as dois, and provide APA style citation to the article in the main body text
# Move embedded external links to non-peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section
# For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both
&lt;!-- Overall – Word count --&gt;
# Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand
# Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes.
# This chapter &quot;[[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]]&quot; before directly tackling the target topic
&lt;!-- Overall – Copyedits --&gt;
# For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits]
|2=
&lt;!-- Overview comments... --&gt;
# Well developed/Solid/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped
&lt;!-- Overview – Case study --&gt;
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
# Engages reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box; also include a relevant image
# Engage reader via a case study or scenario in a feature box with a relevant image
&lt;!-- Overview – Explains problem --&gt;
# Compellingly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
# Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon
# Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well
# Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail
# Too long/overly complicated – explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections.
&lt;!-- Overview – Focus questions --&gt;
# The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient
# The focus questions could be improved by:
## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title)
## using [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]]
## using a numbered list or bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]
## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed)
# Add focus questions in a feature box
|3=
&lt;!-- Theory comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Theory – Breadth --&gt;
# An excellent range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A very good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A reasonably good range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained
# A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic
# Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic
# Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question).
&lt;!-- Theory – Builds on --&gt;
# Builds exceptionally well on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds effectively on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds reasonably well on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds somewhat on other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles
# Builds on one previous [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] article
# Build more strongly on related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles (e.g., by embedding interwiki links for key terms)
# This chapter does not build on related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] and/or [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles (e.g., by embedding interwiki links for key terms)
&lt;!-- Theory – Depth --&gt;
# Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about relevant theory(ies)
&lt;!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --&gt;
# Excellent use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
# Effective use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help clearly convey key theoretical information
# Some use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
# Basic use of tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
# Use tables, figures, and/or lists to help convey key theoretical information
&lt;!-- Theory – Citations --&gt;
# Key citations are well used
# In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source]
&lt;!-- Theory – Examples --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Some/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
# Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts
|4=
&lt;!-- Research comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Research – Key findings --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research
# More detail about key studies would be ideal
# Any systematic reviews or meta-analyses in this area?
# In some/many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
# Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
&lt;!-- Research – Critical thinking --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident
# [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by:
## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies
## considering the strength of relationships
## acknowledging limitations
## pointing out critiques/counterarguments
## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research
# Claims are well referenced
# Some/Many claims lack sufficient citation (e.g., see the {{f}} tags)
|5=
&lt;!-- Integration comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between theory and research
# The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance
# Where research is discussed, it is integrated with theory
# Insufficient integration with [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]]
|6=
&lt;!-- Conclusion comments... --&gt;
# Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion
# Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best available psychological theory and research about the topic
# Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words
# Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest
# Key points are well summarised
# Summarise key points
# The focus questions are addressed
# Address the focus questions
# Clear take-home message(s)
# Add practical, take-home message(s)
# Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count
|7=
&lt;!-- Written expression – Style comments... --&gt;
&lt;!-- Written expression – Written expression --&gt;
# Written expression
## Overall, the quality of written expression is outstanding (highly professional)
## Overall, the quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic
## Overall, the quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard
## Overall, the quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills
## Some of the written expression is quite abstract, which makes this a difficult read for an unfamiliar reader. Consider ways of simplifying the written expression to make it more accessible to a wider audience. This is the essence of [[w:science communication|science communication]].
## The written expression is quite convoluted, which makes this a difficult read. Consider ways of simplifying the written expression. This is important for effective [[w:science communication|science communication]].
## Use active (e.g., &quot;this chapter explores&quot;) rather than passive voice (e.g., &quot;this chapter has explored&quot; or &quot;this chapter will explore&quot;) [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/]
## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia].
&lt;!-- Written expression – Sentences --&gt;
## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags)
## Some sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+.
## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --&gt;
## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences.
## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences.
## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs.
&lt;!-- Written expression – Language --&gt;
## Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., &quot;it&quot;) rather than 1st (e.g., &quot;we&quot;) or 2nd person (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) perspective[https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/] in the main text, although 1st or 2nd person perspective can work well for case studies or feature boxes
## Avoid directional referencing (e.g., &quot;As previously mentioned&quot;). Instead:
### it is, most often, not needed at all, or
### use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]
## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]]
## &quot;People&quot; is often a better term than &quot;individuals&quot;
## Use gender-neutral language (e.g., mankind -&gt; humankind, s/he -&gt; they)
## Reduce use of [[w:weasel word|weasel word]]s which bulk out the text but don't enhance meaning
## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of &quot;20 years ago&quot;, refer to something like &quot;at the beginning of the 21st century&quot;. In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten.
## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication
&lt;!-- Written expression – Layout --&gt;
# Layout
## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections
## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion
## Consider using subheadings
## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; consider expanding
## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional italics, bold, and/or change in font size)
## See earlier comments about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]]
## Provide more descriptive headings
## Move links from headings into their first mention in text
## Remove abbreviations from headings
## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Grammar --&gt;
# Grammar, spelling, and proofreading are excellent
# Grammar
## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see the {{g}} tags)
### Consider using a [https://www.google.com/search?q=grammar+checking+tools grammar checking tool]
### Another option is to use a services provided by UC, such as Studiosity
### Another option is to share draft work with peers and ask for their assistance
## Check and make [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ correct use of commas]
## Check and correct use of possessive apostrophes (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats')[https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/apostrophe-rules.html]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who]
## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect]
## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)]
&lt;!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --&gt;
## Abbreviations
### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.)
### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out
### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms.
### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader
### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently aftwarwards
### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used
&lt;!-- Written expression – Spelling --&gt;
# Spelling
## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages.
## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour)
&lt;!-- Written expression – Proofreading --&gt;
# Proofreading
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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:47, 10 October 2024 (UTC)

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]
* [[Template:METF]]
* [[Template:MEMF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2024]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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    <title>Bully Metric Bohr Model</title>
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      <text bytes="19366" sha1="1sd5177mvib25hfl9eezzxoqtmbr38x" xml:space="preserve">The following text was copied from the Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model Bohr model] article and was adapted to use [[Bully Metric]] Units:

[[Image:Bohr atom model.svg|thumb|310px|Figure 1. The Bohr 
model of the hydrogen atom ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|''Z'' &gt; 1}}), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (''h&amp;nu;'').&lt;ref name=&quot;Akhlesh Lakhtakia Ed. 1996&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lakhtakia |first1=Akhlesh |last2=Salpeter |first2=Edwin E. |year=1996 |title=Models and Modelers of Hydrogen |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=65 |issue=9 |pages=933 |bibcode=1997AmJPh..65..933L |doi=10.1119/1.18691}}&lt;/ref&gt; The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number. The {{nowrap|3 &amp;rarr; 2}} transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) it results in a photon of wavelength 71 millapan ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/ASD/lines1.pl?spectra=1H&amp;output_type=0&amp;low_w=500&amp;upp_w=800&amp;unit=1&amp;submit=Retrieve+Data&amp;de=0&amp;plot_out=0&amp;I_scale_type=1&amp;format=0&amp;line_out=0&amp;en_unit=0&amp;output=0&amp;bibrefs=1&amp;page_size=15&amp;show_obs_wl=1&amp;show_calc_wl=1&amp;unc_out=1&amp;order_out=0&amp;max_low_enrg=&amp;show_av=2&amp;max_upp_enrg=&amp;tsb_value=0&amp;min_str=&amp;A_out=0&amp;intens_out=on&amp;max_str=&amp;allowed_out=1&amp;forbid_out=1&amp;min_accur=&amp;min_intens=&amp;conf_out=on&amp;term_out=on&amp;enrg_out=on&amp;J_out=on 656 nanometer red light]).]]

In atomic physics, the '''Bohr model''' or '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' was the first successful model of the atom (see Figure 1).  Developed from 1911 to 1918 by Niels Bohr and building on Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model.  It supplanted the plum pudding model of J J Thomson only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).

==Development==
In 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model:

# The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
# The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: &lt;math&gt; m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar &lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n= 1, 2, 3, ...&lt;/math&gt; is called the principal quantum number, and &lt;math&gt;\hbar = h/2\pi&lt;/math&gt;. The lowest value of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bohrrada0 52.917 721 picometers]) for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus.
# Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: &lt;math&gt;\Delta E = E_2-E_1 = h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant.

=Calculation of the orbits=
The Bohr model gives accurate results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions, a quantum rule and classical electromagnetism.
* '''A quantum rule'''
: The magnitude of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum angular momentum] is an integer (n) multiple of ''ħ'':
:: &lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;L = rmv_\perp = rp_\perp = n \hbar.&lt;/math&gt;
: For a circular orbit, the electron's total momentum (p) will always be perpendicular to the orbital radius (r), thus:
:: &lt;math&gt;rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

* '''classical electromagnetism'''
: The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force centripetal force] is therefore equal to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law Coulomb force].
:: &lt;math&gt; \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},&lt;/math&gt;
: where ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the electron's mass, ''e'' is the elementary charge, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the Coulomb constant and ''Z'' is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This classical equation determines that the product of the orbital radius (r) with the square of the electron's momentum (p), is constant:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;

=Conversion to Bully Metric Units=
: It will be advantageous to represent the Coulomb constant ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; in terms of the Reduced Planck constant ''ħ'', the speed of light ''c'', the elementary charge ''e'', and the fine-structure constant ''α''.
:: &lt;math&gt;k_\mathrm{e} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} = \frac
{\alpha \hbar c}{e^2}&lt;/math&gt;
: From whence Bohr's equations become:
:: &lt;math&gt;r p = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt;r p^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Z \alpha \hbar c = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;

In Bully Metric units, the speed of light (c = 1 la / ta),  the reduced Planck constant (ħ = 1 An), and the elementary charge (1 e) are all normalized, which means that many of the electron's properties carry the same numeric value but with differing units as shown in Table 1.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: Electron Properties
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Electron Mass (m)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Rest Energy (mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''(mcħ)'''''
|-
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta la&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An^2 la&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

===Bohr's Quantization Rule in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Quantization of Angular Momentum.png|thumb|450px|Figure 2. Quantization of angular momentum demands an integer value for the product of orbital radius with the momentum perpendicular to the radius.  This appears as a series of parallel straight lines on a log-log plot.  The above graphic includes plots for principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000).]]
The quantization rule:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

Can be written in Bully units as:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
This rule is not a special property of the Bohr atom, but rather, is a universal property of quantum mechanics called quantization of angular momentum. This rule has an extremely simple form when momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 2).  The quantization of angular momentum appears as a series of parallel straight lines with a slope of negative one, each line representing an integer value of the principle quantum number n. The lowest energy level (n = 1) has the property that the momentum is always equal to the numerical inverse of the radius.  For example, if an electron were to orbit a nucleus at 1 micropan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=0.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs+in+pm 9.159 picometers]), then the quantization of angular momentum would require the electron's perpendicular momentum to be at least 1 actionat per micropan, or in other words, a million actionats per length apan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=hbar+%2F+%280.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs%29+in+kg+%28m%2Fs%29 1.151 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; kg * (m / s)]).  The slope of negative one indicates that momentum in Bully units is proportional to the inverse of the radius in Bully units.

===Bohr's Classical Electromagnetism in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Bohr Model Hydrogen Atom.png|thumb|450px|Figure 3. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom on a log-log plot in Bully Metric units.  The black line represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation.  The other lines represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to quantization of angular momentum. The points where the black line intersects with other lines are solutions (energy levels) of Bohr's model]]

Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;
Can be written in Bully units as shown below (note that [https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alphinv 137.035999177 is the inverse fine-structure constant] and the value 23717311.411 is obtained from table 1 above):
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
For a hydrogen atom with one proton (Z = 1), this becomes:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
When momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 3), Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation appears as a straight line with a slope of negative two (negative two indicating that momentum squared is proportional to the inverse of the radius).

===Bohr Model Solutions in Bully Units===

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 1: Bohr Model Hydrogen Solutions
|-
! n 
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

A solution (or energy level) of the Bohr model, is a point on the momentum-radius graph that satisfies both the quantization rule and the classical electromagnetism equation.  Solutions of the Bohr model can be found algebraically through simple manipulation of Bohr's two equations:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r = \frac{(rp)^2}{rp^2} = \frac{137.035999177\,n^2}{23717311.411} la&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; p = \frac{rp^2}{rp} = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177\,n} \frac{An}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;

Figure 3 illustrates and Table 1 lists Bohr model solutions for the Hydrogen atom with principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000), and for infinity (solutions are marked with an asterisk(*) and labeled as &quot;Energy Levels&quot; in Figure 3).

=== Related constants ===
A trio of related lengths are marked in Figure 3. These include the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius Bohr radius] (&lt;math&gt; a_0 &lt;/math&gt;), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_wavelength#Reduced_Compton_wavelength reduced Compton wavelength] (&lt;math&gt; \lambda_{\mathrm{e}} / 2\pi &lt;/math&gt;), and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electron_radius classical electron radius] (&lt;math&gt; r_{\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;). Any one of these constants can be written in terms of any of the others using the fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt;:
: &lt;math&gt;r_{\mathrm{e}} = \alpha \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{e}}}{2\pi} = \alpha^2 a_0.&lt;/math&gt;

The Bohr radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] is the smallest possible orbital radius for an electron in the hydrogen atom. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus without violating one of Bohr's criteria. However, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject to Bohr's quantization rule, but is not subject to the classical electromagnetism equation, then the electron's orbit might slide down even closer to the nucleus, to the reduced Compton wavelength of [https://www.google.com/search?q=3.8615926744*10%5E%28%E2%88%9213%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 42.163 295 nanopan] as shown in Figure 3.  Or, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject Bohr's 
classical electromagnetism equation, but not subject to Bohr's quantization rule, then the electron's orbit might slide down even further to the classical electron radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=2.8179403205*10%5E%28%E2%88%9215%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 0.307 680 nanopan]. The points for the reduced Compton wavelength and classical electron radius in Figure 3,  both have a momentum value of 23717311.411 An / la.  This is due to a relativistic criteria that a particle can never have a momentum larger than mc, where m is its rest mass and c is the speed of light (see table 1 for electron properties).

=Calculation of energy levels=
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy Potential energy] (P) is the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors. In the Bohr model, the pertinent form of potential energy is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy electric potential].  The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy kinetic energy] (K) of an object is the form of energy that it possesses due to its motion. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass ''m'' traveling at a speed ''v'' is &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt; \frac{1}{2}mv^2&lt;/math&gt;.  The total energy (E) of the Bohr model atom is: 
:: &lt;math&gt; E = K + P = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{2} - \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r} &lt;/math&gt;
: Multiplying both sides by the radius (r) and mass (m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;): 
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,K + r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,P = \frac{r p^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 &lt;/math&gt;
: Note from a previous section that Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation is:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;
: From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = \frac{r p^2}{2} - r p^2 = -\frac{r p^2}{2} &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; E = -\frac{p^2}{2 m_\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;

The total energy here is negative and inversely proportional to ''r''. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the atom. For infinite values of ''r'', the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. 

See Table 3 provides 
for the list of Bohr hydrogen atom energy level solutions in Bully Metric units.  Table 3 provides a list of photons that are emitted or absorbed when an electron transitions to a different energy level within the Bohr hydrogen atom.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Bohr Model Hydrogen Energy Levels
|-
! n 
! Velocity &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{la}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Energy &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000000 ||  0.000 || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 0.000007 ||  -0.001 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 0.000073 ||  -0.063 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 0.000730 ||  -6.315 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 0.000811 ||  -7.796 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 0.000912 ||  -9.867 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 0.001042 ||  -12.888 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 0.001216 ||  -17.541 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 0.001459 ||  -25.260 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 0.001824 ||  -39.468 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 0.002432 ||  -70.165 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 0.003649 ||  -157.872 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 0.007297 ||  -631.489 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

=== Table ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Photon
|-
! Transition
! Lyman series &lt;br/&gt; (n=1)
! Balmer series &lt;br/&gt; (n=2)
! Paschen series &lt;br/&gt; (n=3)
! Brackett series &lt;br/&gt; (n=4)
|-
| n→∞ || 631.152904 &lt;br/&gt;631.489478 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.336574&lt;/span&gt; || 157.875323 &lt;br/&gt;157.872370 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.002954&lt;/span&gt; || 70.143290 &lt;br/&gt;70.165498 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022207&lt;/span&gt; || 39.468831 &lt;br/&gt;39.468092 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000738&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→9 || 623.360648 &lt;br/&gt;623.693312 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.332664&lt;/span&gt; || 150.038067 &lt;br/&gt;150.076203 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.038136&lt;/span&gt; || 62.346214 &lt;br/&gt;62.369331 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023117&lt;/span&gt; || 31.670641 &lt;br/&gt;31.671926 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.001285&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→8 || 621.290915 &lt;br/&gt;621.622455 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.331540&lt;/span&gt; || 147.967622 &lt;br/&gt;148.005346 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.037724&lt;/span&gt; || 60.282375 &lt;br/&gt;60.298474 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.016099&lt;/span&gt; || 29.601623 &lt;br/&gt;29.601069 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000554&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→7 || 618.272041 &lt;br/&gt;618.601938 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.329896&lt;/span&gt; || 144.948283 &lt;br/&gt;144.984829 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.036546&lt;/span&gt; || 57.259259 &lt;br/&gt;57.277957 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018698&lt;/span&gt; || 26.567662 &lt;br/&gt;26.580552 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.012890&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→6 || 613.620732 &lt;br/&gt;613.948104 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.327372&lt;/span&gt; || 140.295678 &lt;br/&gt;140.330995 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.035317&lt;/span&gt; || 52.601056 &lt;br/&gt;52.624123 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023067&lt;/span&gt; || 21.922116 &lt;br/&gt;21.926718 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.004602&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→5 || 605.906685 &lt;br/&gt;606.229899 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.323214&lt;/span&gt; || 132.579027 &lt;br/&gt;132.612790 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.033764&lt;/span&gt; || 44.887329 &lt;br/&gt;44.905918 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018590&lt;/span&gt; || 14.205272 &lt;br/&gt;14.208513 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.003242&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→4 || 591.705868 &lt;br/&gt;592.021386 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.315518&lt;/span&gt; || 118.373611 &lt;br/&gt;118.404277 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.030666&lt;/span&gt; || 30.690963 &lt;br/&gt;30.697405 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.006442&lt;/span&gt; || 
|-
| n→3 || 561.024872 &lt;br/&gt;561.323981 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.299109&lt;/span&gt; || 87.684591 &lt;br/&gt;87.706872 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022281&lt;/span&gt; ||  || 
|-
| n→2 || 473.364899 &lt;br/&gt;473.617109 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.252210&lt;/span&gt; ||  ||  || 
|}

[[File:Bully Metric values of Hydrogen transitions.png|Electron shell transitions of Hydrogen atom with energies listed in Bully Metric values]]</text>
      <sha1>1sd5177mvib25hfl9eezzxoqtmbr38x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687911</id>
      <parentid>2687910</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T22:32:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Related constants */</comment>
      <origin>2687911</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19361" sha1="lst4d3oeorfafot5daoxc3kbqrwlo9g" xml:space="preserve">The following text was copied from the Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model Bohr model] article and was adapted to use [[Bully Metric]] Units:

[[Image:Bohr atom model.svg|thumb|310px|Figure 1. The Bohr 
model of the hydrogen atom ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|''Z'' &gt; 1}}), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (''h&amp;nu;'').&lt;ref name=&quot;Akhlesh Lakhtakia Ed. 1996&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lakhtakia |first1=Akhlesh |last2=Salpeter |first2=Edwin E. |year=1996 |title=Models and Modelers of Hydrogen |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=65 |issue=9 |pages=933 |bibcode=1997AmJPh..65..933L |doi=10.1119/1.18691}}&lt;/ref&gt; The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number. The {{nowrap|3 &amp;rarr; 2}} transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) it results in a photon of wavelength 71 millapan ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/ASD/lines1.pl?spectra=1H&amp;output_type=0&amp;low_w=500&amp;upp_w=800&amp;unit=1&amp;submit=Retrieve+Data&amp;de=0&amp;plot_out=0&amp;I_scale_type=1&amp;format=0&amp;line_out=0&amp;en_unit=0&amp;output=0&amp;bibrefs=1&amp;page_size=15&amp;show_obs_wl=1&amp;show_calc_wl=1&amp;unc_out=1&amp;order_out=0&amp;max_low_enrg=&amp;show_av=2&amp;max_upp_enrg=&amp;tsb_value=0&amp;min_str=&amp;A_out=0&amp;intens_out=on&amp;max_str=&amp;allowed_out=1&amp;forbid_out=1&amp;min_accur=&amp;min_intens=&amp;conf_out=on&amp;term_out=on&amp;enrg_out=on&amp;J_out=on 656 nanometer red light]).]]

In atomic physics, the '''Bohr model''' or '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' was the first successful model of the atom (see Figure 1).  Developed from 1911 to 1918 by Niels Bohr and building on Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model.  It supplanted the plum pudding model of J J Thomson only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).

==Development==
In 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model:

# The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
# The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: &lt;math&gt; m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar &lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n= 1, 2, 3, ...&lt;/math&gt; is called the principal quantum number, and &lt;math&gt;\hbar = h/2\pi&lt;/math&gt;. The lowest value of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bohrrada0 52.917 721 picometers]) for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus.
# Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: &lt;math&gt;\Delta E = E_2-E_1 = h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant.

=Calculation of the orbits=
The Bohr model gives accurate results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions, a quantum rule and classical electromagnetism.
* '''A quantum rule'''
: The magnitude of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum angular momentum] is an integer (n) multiple of ''ħ'':
:: &lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;L = rmv_\perp = rp_\perp = n \hbar.&lt;/math&gt;
: For a circular orbit, the electron's total momentum (p) will always be perpendicular to the orbital radius (r), thus:
:: &lt;math&gt;rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

* '''classical electromagnetism'''
: The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force centripetal force] is therefore equal to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law Coulomb force].
:: &lt;math&gt; \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},&lt;/math&gt;
: where ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the electron's mass, ''e'' is the elementary charge, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the Coulomb constant and ''Z'' is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This classical equation determines that the product of the orbital radius (r) with the square of the electron's momentum (p), is constant:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;

=Conversion to Bully Metric Units=
: It will be advantageous to represent the Coulomb constant ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; in terms of the Reduced Planck constant ''ħ'', the speed of light ''c'', the elementary charge ''e'', and the fine-structure constant ''α''.
:: &lt;math&gt;k_\mathrm{e} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} = \frac
{\alpha \hbar c}{e^2}&lt;/math&gt;
: From whence Bohr's equations become:
:: &lt;math&gt;r p = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt;r p^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Z \alpha \hbar c = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;

In Bully Metric units, the speed of light (c = 1 la / ta),  the reduced Planck constant (ħ = 1 An), and the elementary charge (1 e) are all normalized, which means that many of the electron's properties carry the same numeric value but with differing units as shown in Table 1.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: Electron Properties
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Electron Mass (m)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Rest Energy (mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''(mcħ)'''''
|-
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta la&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An^2 la&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

===Bohr's Quantization Rule in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Quantization of Angular Momentum.png|thumb|450px|Figure 2. Quantization of angular momentum demands an integer value for the product of orbital radius with the momentum perpendicular to the radius.  This appears as a series of parallel straight lines on a log-log plot.  The above graphic includes plots for principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000).]]
The quantization rule:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

Can be written in Bully units as:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
This rule is not a special property of the Bohr atom, but rather, is a universal property of quantum mechanics called quantization of angular momentum. This rule has an extremely simple form when momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 2).  The quantization of angular momentum appears as a series of parallel straight lines with a slope of negative one, each line representing an integer value of the principle quantum number n. The lowest energy level (n = 1) has the property that the momentum is always equal to the numerical inverse of the radius.  For example, if an electron were to orbit a nucleus at 1 micropan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=0.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs+in+pm 9.159 picometers]), then the quantization of angular momentum would require the electron's perpendicular momentum to be at least 1 actionat per micropan, or in other words, a million actionats per length apan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=hbar+%2F+%280.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs%29+in+kg+%28m%2Fs%29 1.151 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; kg * (m / s)]).  The slope of negative one indicates that momentum in Bully units is proportional to the inverse of the radius in Bully units.

===Bohr's Classical Electromagnetism in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Bohr Model Hydrogen Atom.png|thumb|450px|Figure 3. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom on a log-log plot in Bully Metric units.  The black line represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation.  The other lines represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to quantization of angular momentum. The points where the black line intersects with other lines are solutions (energy levels) of Bohr's model]]

Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;
Can be written in Bully units as shown below (note that [https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alphinv 137.035999177 is the inverse fine-structure constant] and the value 23717311.411 is obtained from table 1 above):
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
For a hydrogen atom with one proton (Z = 1), this becomes:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
When momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 3), Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation appears as a straight line with a slope of negative two (negative two indicating that momentum squared is proportional to the inverse of the radius).

===Bohr Model Solutions in Bully Units===

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 1: Bohr Model Hydrogen Solutions
|-
! n 
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

A solution (or energy level) of the Bohr model, is a point on the momentum-radius graph that satisfies both the quantization rule and the classical electromagnetism equation.  Solutions of the Bohr model can be found algebraically through simple manipulation of Bohr's two equations:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r = \frac{(rp)^2}{rp^2} = \frac{137.035999177\,n^2}{23717311.411} la&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; p = \frac{rp^2}{rp} = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177\,n} \frac{An}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;

Figure 3 illustrates and Table 1 lists Bohr model solutions for the Hydrogen atom with principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000), and for infinity (solutions are marked with an asterisk(*) and labeled as &quot;Energy Levels&quot; in Figure 3).

=== Related constants ===
A trio of related lengths are marked in Figure 3. These include the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius Bohr radius] (&lt;math&gt; a_0 &lt;/math&gt;), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_wavelength#Reduced_Compton_wavelength reduced Compton wavelength] (&lt;math&gt; \lambda_{\mathrm{e}} / 2\pi &lt;/math&gt;), and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electron_radius classical electron radius] (&lt;math&gt; r_{\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;). Any one of these constants can be written in terms of any of the others using the fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt;:
: &lt;math&gt;r_{\mathrm{e}} = \alpha \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{e}}}{2\pi} = \alpha^2 a_0.&lt;/math&gt;

The Bohr radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] is the smallest possible orbital radius for an electron in the hydrogen atom. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus without violating one of Bohr's criteria. However, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject to Bohr's quantization rule, but is not subject to the classical electromagnetism equation, then the electron's orbit might slide down closer to the nucleus, to the reduced Compton wavelength of [https://www.google.com/search?q=3.8615926744*10%5E%28%E2%88%9213%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 42.163 295 nanopan] as shown in Figure 3.  Or, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject Bohr's 
classical electromagnetism equation, but not subject to Bohr's quantization rule, then the electron's orbit might slide down even further to the classical electron radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=2.8179403205*10%5E%28%E2%88%9215%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 0.307 680 nanopan]. The points for the reduced Compton wavelength and classical electron radius in Figure 3,  both have a momentum value of 23717311.411 An / la.  This is due to a relativistic criteria that a particle can never have a momentum larger than mc, where m is its rest mass and c is the speed of light (see table 1 for electron properties).

=Calculation of energy levels=
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy Potential energy] (P) is the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors. In the Bohr model, the pertinent form of potential energy is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy electric potential].  The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy kinetic energy] (K) of an object is the form of energy that it possesses due to its motion. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass ''m'' traveling at a speed ''v'' is &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt; \frac{1}{2}mv^2&lt;/math&gt;.  The total energy (E) of the Bohr model atom is: 
:: &lt;math&gt; E = K + P = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{2} - \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r} &lt;/math&gt;
: Multiplying both sides by the radius (r) and mass (m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;): 
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,K + r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,P = \frac{r p^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 &lt;/math&gt;
: Note from a previous section that Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation is:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;
: From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = \frac{r p^2}{2} - r p^2 = -\frac{r p^2}{2} &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; E = -\frac{p^2}{2 m_\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;

The total energy here is negative and inversely proportional to ''r''. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the atom. For infinite values of ''r'', the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. 

See Table 3 provides 
for the list of Bohr hydrogen atom energy level solutions in Bully Metric units.  Table 3 provides a list of photons that are emitted or absorbed when an electron transitions to a different energy level within the Bohr hydrogen atom.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Bohr Model Hydrogen Energy Levels
|-
! n 
! Velocity &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{la}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Energy &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000000 ||  0.000 || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 0.000007 ||  -0.001 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 0.000073 ||  -0.063 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 0.000730 ||  -6.315 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 0.000811 ||  -7.796 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 0.000912 ||  -9.867 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 0.001042 ||  -12.888 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 0.001216 ||  -17.541 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 0.001459 ||  -25.260 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 0.001824 ||  -39.468 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 0.002432 ||  -70.165 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 0.003649 ||  -157.872 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 0.007297 ||  -631.489 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

=== Table ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Photon
|-
! Transition
! Lyman series &lt;br/&gt; (n=1)
! Balmer series &lt;br/&gt; (n=2)
! Paschen series &lt;br/&gt; (n=3)
! Brackett series &lt;br/&gt; (n=4)
|-
| n→∞ || 631.152904 &lt;br/&gt;631.489478 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.336574&lt;/span&gt; || 157.875323 &lt;br/&gt;157.872370 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.002954&lt;/span&gt; || 70.143290 &lt;br/&gt;70.165498 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022207&lt;/span&gt; || 39.468831 &lt;br/&gt;39.468092 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000738&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→9 || 623.360648 &lt;br/&gt;623.693312 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.332664&lt;/span&gt; || 150.038067 &lt;br/&gt;150.076203 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.038136&lt;/span&gt; || 62.346214 &lt;br/&gt;62.369331 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023117&lt;/span&gt; || 31.670641 &lt;br/&gt;31.671926 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.001285&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→8 || 621.290915 &lt;br/&gt;621.622455 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.331540&lt;/span&gt; || 147.967622 &lt;br/&gt;148.005346 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.037724&lt;/span&gt; || 60.282375 &lt;br/&gt;60.298474 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.016099&lt;/span&gt; || 29.601623 &lt;br/&gt;29.601069 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000554&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→7 || 618.272041 &lt;br/&gt;618.601938 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.329896&lt;/span&gt; || 144.948283 &lt;br/&gt;144.984829 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.036546&lt;/span&gt; || 57.259259 &lt;br/&gt;57.277957 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018698&lt;/span&gt; || 26.567662 &lt;br/&gt;26.580552 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.012890&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→6 || 613.620732 &lt;br/&gt;613.948104 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.327372&lt;/span&gt; || 140.295678 &lt;br/&gt;140.330995 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.035317&lt;/span&gt; || 52.601056 &lt;br/&gt;52.624123 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023067&lt;/span&gt; || 21.922116 &lt;br/&gt;21.926718 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.004602&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→5 || 605.906685 &lt;br/&gt;606.229899 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.323214&lt;/span&gt; || 132.579027 &lt;br/&gt;132.612790 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.033764&lt;/span&gt; || 44.887329 &lt;br/&gt;44.905918 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018590&lt;/span&gt; || 14.205272 &lt;br/&gt;14.208513 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.003242&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→4 || 591.705868 &lt;br/&gt;592.021386 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.315518&lt;/span&gt; || 118.373611 &lt;br/&gt;118.404277 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.030666&lt;/span&gt; || 30.690963 &lt;br/&gt;30.697405 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.006442&lt;/span&gt; || 
|-
| n→3 || 561.024872 &lt;br/&gt;561.323981 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.299109&lt;/span&gt; || 87.684591 &lt;br/&gt;87.706872 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022281&lt;/span&gt; ||  || 
|-
| n→2 || 473.364899 &lt;br/&gt;473.617109 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.252210&lt;/span&gt; ||  ||  || 
|}

[[File:Bully Metric values of Hydrogen transitions.png|Electron shell transitions of Hydrogen atom with energies listed in Bully Metric values]]</text>
      <sha1>lst4d3oeorfafot5daoxc3kbqrwlo9g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687912</id>
      <parentid>2687911</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T22:37:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Related constants */</comment>
      <origin>2687912</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19418" sha1="qtcwej4qrm1htwaz3tju2khwpmtpv1v" xml:space="preserve">The following text was copied from the Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model Bohr model] article and was adapted to use [[Bully Metric]] Units:

[[Image:Bohr atom model.svg|thumb|310px|Figure 1. The Bohr 
model of the hydrogen atom ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|''Z'' &gt; 1}}), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (''h&amp;nu;'').&lt;ref name=&quot;Akhlesh Lakhtakia Ed. 1996&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lakhtakia |first1=Akhlesh |last2=Salpeter |first2=Edwin E. |year=1996 |title=Models and Modelers of Hydrogen |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=65 |issue=9 |pages=933 |bibcode=1997AmJPh..65..933L |doi=10.1119/1.18691}}&lt;/ref&gt; The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number. The {{nowrap|3 &amp;rarr; 2}} transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) it results in a photon of wavelength 71 millapan ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/ASD/lines1.pl?spectra=1H&amp;output_type=0&amp;low_w=500&amp;upp_w=800&amp;unit=1&amp;submit=Retrieve+Data&amp;de=0&amp;plot_out=0&amp;I_scale_type=1&amp;format=0&amp;line_out=0&amp;en_unit=0&amp;output=0&amp;bibrefs=1&amp;page_size=15&amp;show_obs_wl=1&amp;show_calc_wl=1&amp;unc_out=1&amp;order_out=0&amp;max_low_enrg=&amp;show_av=2&amp;max_upp_enrg=&amp;tsb_value=0&amp;min_str=&amp;A_out=0&amp;intens_out=on&amp;max_str=&amp;allowed_out=1&amp;forbid_out=1&amp;min_accur=&amp;min_intens=&amp;conf_out=on&amp;term_out=on&amp;enrg_out=on&amp;J_out=on 656 nanometer red light]).]]

In atomic physics, the '''Bohr model''' or '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' was the first successful model of the atom (see Figure 1).  Developed from 1911 to 1918 by Niels Bohr and building on Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model.  It supplanted the plum pudding model of J J Thomson only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).

==Development==
In 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model:

# The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
# The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: &lt;math&gt; m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar &lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n= 1, 2, 3, ...&lt;/math&gt; is called the principal quantum number, and &lt;math&gt;\hbar = h/2\pi&lt;/math&gt;. The lowest value of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bohrrada0 52.917 721 picometers]) for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus.
# Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: &lt;math&gt;\Delta E = E_2-E_1 = h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant.

=Calculation of the orbits=
The Bohr model gives accurate results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions, a quantum rule and classical electromagnetism.
* '''A quantum rule'''
: The magnitude of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum angular momentum] is an integer (n) multiple of ''ħ'':
:: &lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;L = rmv_\perp = rp_\perp = n \hbar.&lt;/math&gt;
: For a circular orbit, the electron's total momentum (p) will always be perpendicular to the orbital radius (r), thus:
:: &lt;math&gt;rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

* '''classical electromagnetism'''
: The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force centripetal force] is therefore equal to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law Coulomb force].
:: &lt;math&gt; \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},&lt;/math&gt;
: where ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the electron's mass, ''e'' is the elementary charge, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the Coulomb constant and ''Z'' is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This classical equation determines that the product of the orbital radius (r) with the square of the electron's momentum (p), is constant:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;

=Conversion to Bully Metric Units=
: It will be advantageous to represent the Coulomb constant ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; in terms of the Reduced Planck constant ''ħ'', the speed of light ''c'', the elementary charge ''e'', and the fine-structure constant ''α''.
:: &lt;math&gt;k_\mathrm{e} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} = \frac
{\alpha \hbar c}{e^2}&lt;/math&gt;
: From whence Bohr's equations become:
:: &lt;math&gt;r p = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt;r p^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Z \alpha \hbar c = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;

In Bully Metric units, the speed of light (c = 1 la / ta),  the reduced Planck constant (ħ = 1 An), and the elementary charge (1 e) are all normalized, which means that many of the electron's properties carry the same numeric value but with differing units as shown in Table 1.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: Electron Properties
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Electron Mass (m)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Rest Energy (mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''(mcħ)'''''
|-
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta la&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An^2 la&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

===Bohr's Quantization Rule in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Quantization of Angular Momentum.png|thumb|450px|Figure 2. Quantization of angular momentum demands an integer value for the product of orbital radius with the momentum perpendicular to the radius.  This appears as a series of parallel straight lines on a log-log plot.  The above graphic includes plots for principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000).]]
The quantization rule:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

Can be written in Bully units as:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
This rule is not a special property of the Bohr atom, but rather, is a universal property of quantum mechanics called quantization of angular momentum. This rule has an extremely simple form when momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 2).  The quantization of angular momentum appears as a series of parallel straight lines with a slope of negative one, each line representing an integer value of the principle quantum number n. The lowest energy level (n = 1) has the property that the momentum is always equal to the numerical inverse of the radius.  For example, if an electron were to orbit a nucleus at 1 micropan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=0.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs+in+pm 9.159 picometers]), then the quantization of angular momentum would require the electron's perpendicular momentum to be at least 1 actionat per micropan, or in other words, a million actionats per length apan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=hbar+%2F+%280.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs%29+in+kg+%28m%2Fs%29 1.151 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; kg * (m / s)]).  The slope of negative one indicates that momentum in Bully units is proportional to the inverse of the radius in Bully units.

===Bohr's Classical Electromagnetism in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Bohr Model Hydrogen Atom.png|thumb|450px|Figure 3. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom on a log-log plot in Bully Metric units.  The black line represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation.  The other lines represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to quantization of angular momentum. The points where the black line intersects with other lines are solutions (energy levels) of Bohr's model]]

Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;
Can be written in Bully units as shown below (note that [https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alphinv 137.035999177 is the inverse fine-structure constant] and the value 23717311.411 is obtained from table 1 above):
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
For a hydrogen atom with one proton (Z = 1), this becomes:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
When momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 3), Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation appears as a straight line with a slope of negative two (negative two indicating that momentum squared is proportional to the inverse of the radius).

===Bohr Model Solutions in Bully Units===

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 1: Bohr Model Hydrogen Solutions
|-
! n 
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

A solution (or energy level) of the Bohr model, is a point on the momentum-radius graph that satisfies both the quantization rule and the classical electromagnetism equation.  Solutions of the Bohr model can be found algebraically through simple manipulation of Bohr's two equations:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r = \frac{(rp)^2}{rp^2} = \frac{137.035999177\,n^2}{23717311.411} la&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; p = \frac{rp^2}{rp} = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177\,n} \frac{An}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;

Figure 3 illustrates and Table 1 lists Bohr model solutions for the Hydrogen atom with principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000), and for infinity (solutions are marked with an asterisk(*) and labeled as &quot;Energy Levels&quot; in Figure 3).

=== Related constants ===
A trio of related lengths are marked in Figure 3. These include the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius Bohr radius] (&lt;math&gt; a_0 &lt;/math&gt;), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_wavelength#Reduced_Compton_wavelength reduced Compton wavelength] (&lt;math&gt; \lambda_{\mathrm{e}} / 2\pi &lt;/math&gt;), and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electron_radius classical electron radius] (&lt;math&gt; r_{\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;). Any one of these constants can be written in terms of any of the others using the fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt;:
: &lt;math&gt;r_{\mathrm{e}} = \alpha \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{e}}}{2\pi} = \alpha^2 a_0.&lt;/math&gt;

The Bohr radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] is the smallest possible orbital radius for an electron in the hydrogen atom. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus without violating one of Bohr's criteria. However, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject to Bohr's quantization rule, but is not subject to the classical electromagnetism equation, then the electron's orbit might slide down closer to the nucleus, to the reduced Compton wavelength of [https://www.google.com/search?q=3.8615926744*10%5E%28%E2%88%9213%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 42.163 295 nanopan] as shown in Figure 3.  Or, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject Bohr's 
classical electromagnetism equation, but not subject to Bohr's quantization rule, then the electron's orbit might slide down even further to the classical electron radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=2.8179403205*10%5E%28%E2%88%9215%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 0.307 680 nanopan]. The points for the reduced Compton wavelength and classical electron radius in Figure 3,  both have a momentum value of 23717311.411 An / la.  This is due to a relativistic criteria that a particle can never move faster than the speed of light, and hence can never have a momentum larger than mc, where m is its rest mass and c is the speed of light (see table 1 for electron properties).

=Calculation of energy levels=
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy Potential energy] (P) is the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors. In the Bohr model, the pertinent form of potential energy is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy electric potential].  The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy kinetic energy] (K) of an object is the form of energy that it possesses due to its motion. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass ''m'' traveling at a speed ''v'' is &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt; \frac{1}{2}mv^2&lt;/math&gt;.  The total energy (E) of the Bohr model atom is: 
:: &lt;math&gt; E = K + P = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{2} - \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r} &lt;/math&gt;
: Multiplying both sides by the radius (r) and mass (m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;): 
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,K + r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,P = \frac{r p^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 &lt;/math&gt;
: Note from a previous section that Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation is:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;
: From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = \frac{r p^2}{2} - r p^2 = -\frac{r p^2}{2} &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; E = -\frac{p^2}{2 m_\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;

The total energy here is negative and inversely proportional to ''r''. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the atom. For infinite values of ''r'', the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. 

See Table 3 provides 
for the list of Bohr hydrogen atom energy level solutions in Bully Metric units.  Table 3 provides a list of photons that are emitted or absorbed when an electron transitions to a different energy level within the Bohr hydrogen atom.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Bohr Model Hydrogen Energy Levels
|-
! n 
! Velocity &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{la}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Energy &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000000 ||  0.000 || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 0.000007 ||  -0.001 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 0.000073 ||  -0.063 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 0.000730 ||  -6.315 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 0.000811 ||  -7.796 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 0.000912 ||  -9.867 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 0.001042 ||  -12.888 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 0.001216 ||  -17.541 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 0.001459 ||  -25.260 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 0.001824 ||  -39.468 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 0.002432 ||  -70.165 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 0.003649 ||  -157.872 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 0.007297 ||  -631.489 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

=== Table ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Photon
|-
! Transition
! Lyman series &lt;br/&gt; (n=1)
! Balmer series &lt;br/&gt; (n=2)
! Paschen series &lt;br/&gt; (n=3)
! Brackett series &lt;br/&gt; (n=4)
|-
| n→∞ || 631.152904 &lt;br/&gt;631.489478 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.336574&lt;/span&gt; || 157.875323 &lt;br/&gt;157.872370 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.002954&lt;/span&gt; || 70.143290 &lt;br/&gt;70.165498 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022207&lt;/span&gt; || 39.468831 &lt;br/&gt;39.468092 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000738&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→9 || 623.360648 &lt;br/&gt;623.693312 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.332664&lt;/span&gt; || 150.038067 &lt;br/&gt;150.076203 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.038136&lt;/span&gt; || 62.346214 &lt;br/&gt;62.369331 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023117&lt;/span&gt; || 31.670641 &lt;br/&gt;31.671926 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.001285&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→8 || 621.290915 &lt;br/&gt;621.622455 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.331540&lt;/span&gt; || 147.967622 &lt;br/&gt;148.005346 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.037724&lt;/span&gt; || 60.282375 &lt;br/&gt;60.298474 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.016099&lt;/span&gt; || 29.601623 &lt;br/&gt;29.601069 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000554&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→7 || 618.272041 &lt;br/&gt;618.601938 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.329896&lt;/span&gt; || 144.948283 &lt;br/&gt;144.984829 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.036546&lt;/span&gt; || 57.259259 &lt;br/&gt;57.277957 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018698&lt;/span&gt; || 26.567662 &lt;br/&gt;26.580552 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.012890&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→6 || 613.620732 &lt;br/&gt;613.948104 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.327372&lt;/span&gt; || 140.295678 &lt;br/&gt;140.330995 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.035317&lt;/span&gt; || 52.601056 &lt;br/&gt;52.624123 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023067&lt;/span&gt; || 21.922116 &lt;br/&gt;21.926718 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.004602&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→5 || 605.906685 &lt;br/&gt;606.229899 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.323214&lt;/span&gt; || 132.579027 &lt;br/&gt;132.612790 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.033764&lt;/span&gt; || 44.887329 &lt;br/&gt;44.905918 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018590&lt;/span&gt; || 14.205272 &lt;br/&gt;14.208513 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.003242&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→4 || 591.705868 &lt;br/&gt;592.021386 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.315518&lt;/span&gt; || 118.373611 &lt;br/&gt;118.404277 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.030666&lt;/span&gt; || 30.690963 &lt;br/&gt;30.697405 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.006442&lt;/span&gt; || 
|-
| n→3 || 561.024872 &lt;br/&gt;561.323981 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.299109&lt;/span&gt; || 87.684591 &lt;br/&gt;87.706872 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022281&lt;/span&gt; ||  || 
|-
| n→2 || 473.364899 &lt;br/&gt;473.617109 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.252210&lt;/span&gt; ||  ||  || 
|}

[[File:Bully Metric values of Hydrogen transitions.png|Electron shell transitions of Hydrogen atom with energies listed in Bully Metric values]]</text>
      <sha1>qtcwej4qrm1htwaz3tju2khwpmtpv1v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687916</id>
      <parentid>2687912</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T22:42:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Calculation of energy levels */</comment>
      <origin>2687916</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19510" sha1="5mqu3zgsjic8w9w9137sxzplrhd1f6h" xml:space="preserve">The following text was copied from the Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model Bohr model] article and was adapted to use [[Bully Metric]] Units:

[[Image:Bohr atom model.svg|thumb|310px|Figure 1. The Bohr 
model of the hydrogen atom ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|''Z'' &gt; 1}}), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (''h&amp;nu;'').&lt;ref name=&quot;Akhlesh Lakhtakia Ed. 1996&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lakhtakia |first1=Akhlesh |last2=Salpeter |first2=Edwin E. |year=1996 |title=Models and Modelers of Hydrogen |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=65 |issue=9 |pages=933 |bibcode=1997AmJPh..65..933L |doi=10.1119/1.18691}}&lt;/ref&gt; The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number. The {{nowrap|3 &amp;rarr; 2}} transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) it results in a photon of wavelength 71 millapan ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/ASD/lines1.pl?spectra=1H&amp;output_type=0&amp;low_w=500&amp;upp_w=800&amp;unit=1&amp;submit=Retrieve+Data&amp;de=0&amp;plot_out=0&amp;I_scale_type=1&amp;format=0&amp;line_out=0&amp;en_unit=0&amp;output=0&amp;bibrefs=1&amp;page_size=15&amp;show_obs_wl=1&amp;show_calc_wl=1&amp;unc_out=1&amp;order_out=0&amp;max_low_enrg=&amp;show_av=2&amp;max_upp_enrg=&amp;tsb_value=0&amp;min_str=&amp;A_out=0&amp;intens_out=on&amp;max_str=&amp;allowed_out=1&amp;forbid_out=1&amp;min_accur=&amp;min_intens=&amp;conf_out=on&amp;term_out=on&amp;enrg_out=on&amp;J_out=on 656 nanometer red light]).]]

In atomic physics, the '''Bohr model''' or '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' was the first successful model of the atom (see Figure 1).  Developed from 1911 to 1918 by Niels Bohr and building on Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model.  It supplanted the plum pudding model of J J Thomson only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).

==Development==
In 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model:

# The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
# The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: &lt;math&gt; m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar &lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n= 1, 2, 3, ...&lt;/math&gt; is called the principal quantum number, and &lt;math&gt;\hbar = h/2\pi&lt;/math&gt;. The lowest value of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bohrrada0 52.917 721 picometers]) for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus.
# Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: &lt;math&gt;\Delta E = E_2-E_1 = h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant.

=Calculation of the orbits=
The Bohr model gives accurate results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions, a quantum rule and classical electromagnetism.
* '''A quantum rule'''
: The magnitude of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum angular momentum] is an integer (n) multiple of ''ħ'':
:: &lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;L = rmv_\perp = rp_\perp = n \hbar.&lt;/math&gt;
: For a circular orbit, the electron's total momentum (p) will always be perpendicular to the orbital radius (r), thus:
:: &lt;math&gt;rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

* '''classical electromagnetism'''
: The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force centripetal force] is therefore equal to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law Coulomb force].
:: &lt;math&gt; \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},&lt;/math&gt;
: where ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the electron's mass, ''e'' is the elementary charge, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the Coulomb constant and ''Z'' is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This classical equation determines that the product of the orbital radius (r) with the square of the electron's momentum (p), is constant:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;

=Conversion to Bully Metric Units=
: It will be advantageous to represent the Coulomb constant ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; in terms of the Reduced Planck constant ''ħ'', the speed of light ''c'', the elementary charge ''e'', and the fine-structure constant ''α''.
:: &lt;math&gt;k_\mathrm{e} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} = \frac
{\alpha \hbar c}{e^2}&lt;/math&gt;
: From whence Bohr's equations become:
:: &lt;math&gt;r p = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt;r p^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Z \alpha \hbar c = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;

In Bully Metric units, the speed of light (c = 1 la / ta),  the reduced Planck constant (ħ = 1 An), and the elementary charge (1 e) are all normalized, which means that many of the electron's properties carry the same numeric value but with differing units as shown in Table 1.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: Electron Properties
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Electron Mass (m)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Rest Energy (mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''(mcħ)'''''
|-
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta la&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An^2 la&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

===Bohr's Quantization Rule in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Quantization of Angular Momentum.png|thumb|450px|Figure 2. Quantization of angular momentum demands an integer value for the product of orbital radius with the momentum perpendicular to the radius.  This appears as a series of parallel straight lines on a log-log plot.  The above graphic includes plots for principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000).]]
The quantization rule:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

Can be written in Bully units as:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
This rule is not a special property of the Bohr atom, but rather, is a universal property of quantum mechanics called quantization of angular momentum. This rule has an extremely simple form when momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 2).  The quantization of angular momentum appears as a series of parallel straight lines with a slope of negative one, each line representing an integer value of the principle quantum number n. The lowest energy level (n = 1) has the property that the momentum is always equal to the numerical inverse of the radius.  For example, if an electron were to orbit a nucleus at 1 micropan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=0.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs+in+pm 9.159 picometers]), then the quantization of angular momentum would require the electron's perpendicular momentum to be at least 1 actionat per micropan, or in other words, a million actionats per length apan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=hbar+%2F+%280.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs%29+in+kg+%28m%2Fs%29 1.151 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; kg * (m / s)]).  The slope of negative one indicates that momentum in Bully units is proportional to the inverse of the radius in Bully units.

===Bohr's Classical Electromagnetism in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Bohr Model Hydrogen Atom.png|thumb|450px|Figure 3. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom on a log-log plot in Bully Metric units.  The black line represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation.  The other lines represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to quantization of angular momentum. The points where the black line intersects with other lines are solutions (energy levels) of Bohr's model]]

Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;
Can be written in Bully units as shown below (note that [https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alphinv 137.035999177 is the inverse fine-structure constant] and the value 23717311.411 is obtained from table 1 above):
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
For a hydrogen atom with one proton (Z = 1), this becomes:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
When momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 3), Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation appears as a straight line with a slope of negative two (negative two indicating that momentum squared is proportional to the inverse of the radius).

===Bohr Model Solutions in Bully Units===

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 1: Bohr Model Hydrogen Solutions
|-
! n 
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

A solution (or energy level) of the Bohr model, is a point on the momentum-radius graph that satisfies both the quantization rule and the classical electromagnetism equation.  Solutions of the Bohr model can be found algebraically through simple manipulation of Bohr's two equations:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r = \frac{(rp)^2}{rp^2} = \frac{137.035999177\,n^2}{23717311.411} la&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; p = \frac{rp^2}{rp} = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177\,n} \frac{An}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;

Figure 3 illustrates and Table 1 lists Bohr model solutions for the Hydrogen atom with principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000), and for infinity (solutions are marked with an asterisk(*) and labeled as &quot;Energy Levels&quot; in Figure 3).

=== Related constants ===
A trio of related lengths are marked in Figure 3. These include the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius Bohr radius] (&lt;math&gt; a_0 &lt;/math&gt;), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_wavelength#Reduced_Compton_wavelength reduced Compton wavelength] (&lt;math&gt; \lambda_{\mathrm{e}} / 2\pi &lt;/math&gt;), and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electron_radius classical electron radius] (&lt;math&gt; r_{\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;). Any one of these constants can be written in terms of any of the others using the fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt;:
: &lt;math&gt;r_{\mathrm{e}} = \alpha \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{e}}}{2\pi} = \alpha^2 a_0.&lt;/math&gt;

The Bohr radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] is the smallest possible orbital radius for an electron in the hydrogen atom. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus without violating one of Bohr's criteria. However, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject to Bohr's quantization rule, but is not subject to the classical electromagnetism equation, then the electron's orbit might slide down closer to the nucleus, to the reduced Compton wavelength of [https://www.google.com/search?q=3.8615926744*10%5E%28%E2%88%9213%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 42.163 295 nanopan] as shown in Figure 3.  Or, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject Bohr's 
classical electromagnetism equation, but not subject to Bohr's quantization rule, then the electron's orbit might slide down even further to the classical electron radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=2.8179403205*10%5E%28%E2%88%9215%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 0.307 680 nanopan]. The points for the reduced Compton wavelength and classical electron radius in Figure 3,  both have a momentum value of 23717311.411 An / la.  This is due to a relativistic criteria that a particle can never move faster than the speed of light, and hence can never have a momentum larger than mc, where m is its rest mass and c is the speed of light (see table 1 for electron properties).

=Calculation of energy levels=
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy Potential energy] (P) is the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors. In the Bohr model, the pertinent form of potential energy is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy electric potential].  The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy kinetic energy] (K) of an object is the form of energy that it possesses due to its motion. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass ''m'' traveling at a speed ''v'' is &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt; \frac{1}{2}mv^2&lt;/math&gt;.  The total energy (E) of the Bohr model atom is: 
:: &lt;math&gt; E = K + P = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{2} - \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r} &lt;/math&gt;
: Multiplying both sides by the radius (r) and mass (m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;): 
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,K + r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,P = \frac{r p^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 &lt;/math&gt;
: Note from a previous section that Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation is:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;
: From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 = -\frac{m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2} &lt;/math&gt;
: Thus:
:: &lt;math&gt; E = -\frac{p^2}{2 m_\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;

The total energy here is negative and inversely proportional to ''r''. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the atom. For infinite values of ''r'', the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. 

See Table 3 provides 
for the list of Bohr hydrogen atom energy level solutions in Bully Metric units.  Table 3 provides a list of photons that are emitted or absorbed when an electron transitions to a different energy level within the Bohr hydrogen atom.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Bohr Model Hydrogen Energy Levels
|-
! n 
! Velocity &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{la}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Energy &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000000 ||  0.000 || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 0.000007 ||  -0.001 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 0.000073 ||  -0.063 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 0.000730 ||  -6.315 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 0.000811 ||  -7.796 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 0.000912 ||  -9.867 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 0.001042 ||  -12.888 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 0.001216 ||  -17.541 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 0.001459 ||  -25.260 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 0.001824 ||  -39.468 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 0.002432 ||  -70.165 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 0.003649 ||  -157.872 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 0.007297 ||  -631.489 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

=== Table ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Photon
|-
! Transition
! Lyman series &lt;br/&gt; (n=1)
! Balmer series &lt;br/&gt; (n=2)
! Paschen series &lt;br/&gt; (n=3)
! Brackett series &lt;br/&gt; (n=4)
|-
| n→∞ || 631.152904 &lt;br/&gt;631.489478 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.336574&lt;/span&gt; || 157.875323 &lt;br/&gt;157.872370 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.002954&lt;/span&gt; || 70.143290 &lt;br/&gt;70.165498 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022207&lt;/span&gt; || 39.468831 &lt;br/&gt;39.468092 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000738&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→9 || 623.360648 &lt;br/&gt;623.693312 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.332664&lt;/span&gt; || 150.038067 &lt;br/&gt;150.076203 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.038136&lt;/span&gt; || 62.346214 &lt;br/&gt;62.369331 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023117&lt;/span&gt; || 31.670641 &lt;br/&gt;31.671926 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.001285&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→8 || 621.290915 &lt;br/&gt;621.622455 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.331540&lt;/span&gt; || 147.967622 &lt;br/&gt;148.005346 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.037724&lt;/span&gt; || 60.282375 &lt;br/&gt;60.298474 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.016099&lt;/span&gt; || 29.601623 &lt;br/&gt;29.601069 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000554&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→7 || 618.272041 &lt;br/&gt;618.601938 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.329896&lt;/span&gt; || 144.948283 &lt;br/&gt;144.984829 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.036546&lt;/span&gt; || 57.259259 &lt;br/&gt;57.277957 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018698&lt;/span&gt; || 26.567662 &lt;br/&gt;26.580552 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.012890&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→6 || 613.620732 &lt;br/&gt;613.948104 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.327372&lt;/span&gt; || 140.295678 &lt;br/&gt;140.330995 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.035317&lt;/span&gt; || 52.601056 &lt;br/&gt;52.624123 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023067&lt;/span&gt; || 21.922116 &lt;br/&gt;21.926718 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.004602&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→5 || 605.906685 &lt;br/&gt;606.229899 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.323214&lt;/span&gt; || 132.579027 &lt;br/&gt;132.612790 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.033764&lt;/span&gt; || 44.887329 &lt;br/&gt;44.905918 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018590&lt;/span&gt; || 14.205272 &lt;br/&gt;14.208513 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.003242&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→4 || 591.705868 &lt;br/&gt;592.021386 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.315518&lt;/span&gt; || 118.373611 &lt;br/&gt;118.404277 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.030666&lt;/span&gt; || 30.690963 &lt;br/&gt;30.697405 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.006442&lt;/span&gt; || 
|-
| n→3 || 561.024872 &lt;br/&gt;561.323981 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.299109&lt;/span&gt; || 87.684591 &lt;br/&gt;87.706872 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022281&lt;/span&gt; ||  || 
|-
| n→2 || 473.364899 &lt;br/&gt;473.617109 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.252210&lt;/span&gt; ||  ||  || 
|}

[[File:Bully Metric values of Hydrogen transitions.png|Electron shell transitions of Hydrogen atom with energies listed in Bully Metric values]]</text>
      <sha1>5mqu3zgsjic8w9w9137sxzplrhd1f6h</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687918</id>
      <parentid>2687916</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T22:44:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Calculation of energy levels */</comment>
      <origin>2687918</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19514" sha1="hqaciuapya11ajqd7lvabesrydwsf0q" xml:space="preserve">The following text was copied from the Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model Bohr model] article and was adapted to use [[Bully Metric]] Units:

[[Image:Bohr atom model.svg|thumb|310px|Figure 1. The Bohr 
model of the hydrogen atom ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|''Z'' &gt; 1}}), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (''h&amp;nu;'').&lt;ref name=&quot;Akhlesh Lakhtakia Ed. 1996&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lakhtakia |first1=Akhlesh |last2=Salpeter |first2=Edwin E. |year=1996 |title=Models and Modelers of Hydrogen |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=65 |issue=9 |pages=933 |bibcode=1997AmJPh..65..933L |doi=10.1119/1.18691}}&lt;/ref&gt; The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number. The {{nowrap|3 &amp;rarr; 2}} transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) it results in a photon of wavelength 71 millapan ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/ASD/lines1.pl?spectra=1H&amp;output_type=0&amp;low_w=500&amp;upp_w=800&amp;unit=1&amp;submit=Retrieve+Data&amp;de=0&amp;plot_out=0&amp;I_scale_type=1&amp;format=0&amp;line_out=0&amp;en_unit=0&amp;output=0&amp;bibrefs=1&amp;page_size=15&amp;show_obs_wl=1&amp;show_calc_wl=1&amp;unc_out=1&amp;order_out=0&amp;max_low_enrg=&amp;show_av=2&amp;max_upp_enrg=&amp;tsb_value=0&amp;min_str=&amp;A_out=0&amp;intens_out=on&amp;max_str=&amp;allowed_out=1&amp;forbid_out=1&amp;min_accur=&amp;min_intens=&amp;conf_out=on&amp;term_out=on&amp;enrg_out=on&amp;J_out=on 656 nanometer red light]).]]

In atomic physics, the '''Bohr model''' or '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' was the first successful model of the atom (see Figure 1).  Developed from 1911 to 1918 by Niels Bohr and building on Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model.  It supplanted the plum pudding model of J J Thomson only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).

==Development==
In 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model:

# The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
# The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: &lt;math&gt; m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar &lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n= 1, 2, 3, ...&lt;/math&gt; is called the principal quantum number, and &lt;math&gt;\hbar = h/2\pi&lt;/math&gt;. The lowest value of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bohrrada0 52.917 721 picometers]) for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus.
# Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: &lt;math&gt;\Delta E = E_2-E_1 = h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant.

=Calculation of the orbits=
The Bohr model gives accurate results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions, a quantum rule and classical electromagnetism.
* '''A quantum rule'''
: The magnitude of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum angular momentum] is an integer (n) multiple of ''ħ'':
:: &lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;L = rmv_\perp = rp_\perp = n \hbar.&lt;/math&gt;
: For a circular orbit, the electron's total momentum (p) will always be perpendicular to the orbital radius (r), thus:
:: &lt;math&gt;rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

* '''classical electromagnetism'''
: The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force centripetal force] is therefore equal to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law Coulomb force].
:: &lt;math&gt; \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},&lt;/math&gt;
: where ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the electron's mass, ''e'' is the elementary charge, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the Coulomb constant and ''Z'' is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This classical equation determines that the product of the orbital radius (r) with the square of the electron's momentum (p), is constant:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;

=Conversion to Bully Metric Units=
: It will be advantageous to represent the Coulomb constant ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; in terms of the Reduced Planck constant ''ħ'', the speed of light ''c'', the elementary charge ''e'', and the fine-structure constant ''α''.
:: &lt;math&gt;k_\mathrm{e} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} = \frac
{\alpha \hbar c}{e^2}&lt;/math&gt;
: From whence Bohr's equations become:
:: &lt;math&gt;r p = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt;r p^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Z \alpha \hbar c = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;

In Bully Metric units, the speed of light (c = 1 la / ta),  the reduced Planck constant (ħ = 1 An), and the elementary charge (1 e) are all normalized, which means that many of the electron's properties carry the same numeric value but with differing units as shown in Table 1.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: Electron Properties
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Electron Mass (m)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Rest Energy (mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''(mcħ)'''''
|-
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta la&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An^2 la&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

===Bohr's Quantization Rule in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Quantization of Angular Momentum.png|thumb|450px|Figure 2. Quantization of angular momentum demands an integer value for the product of orbital radius with the momentum perpendicular to the radius.  This appears as a series of parallel straight lines on a log-log plot.  The above graphic includes plots for principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000).]]
The quantization rule:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

Can be written in Bully units as:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
This rule is not a special property of the Bohr atom, but rather, is a universal property of quantum mechanics called quantization of angular momentum. This rule has an extremely simple form when momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 2).  The quantization of angular momentum appears as a series of parallel straight lines with a slope of negative one, each line representing an integer value of the principle quantum number n. The lowest energy level (n = 1) has the property that the momentum is always equal to the numerical inverse of the radius.  For example, if an electron were to orbit a nucleus at 1 micropan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=0.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs+in+pm 9.159 picometers]), then the quantization of angular momentum would require the electron's perpendicular momentum to be at least 1 actionat per micropan, or in other words, a million actionats per length apan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=hbar+%2F+%280.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs%29+in+kg+%28m%2Fs%29 1.151 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; kg * (m / s)]).  The slope of negative one indicates that momentum in Bully units is proportional to the inverse of the radius in Bully units.

===Bohr's Classical Electromagnetism in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Bohr Model Hydrogen Atom.png|thumb|450px|Figure 3. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom on a log-log plot in Bully Metric units.  The black line represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation.  The other lines represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to quantization of angular momentum. The points where the black line intersects with other lines are solutions (energy levels) of Bohr's model]]

Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;
Can be written in Bully units as shown below (note that [https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alphinv 137.035999177 is the inverse fine-structure constant] and the value 23717311.411 is obtained from table 1 above):
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
For a hydrogen atom with one proton (Z = 1), this becomes:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
When momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 3), Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation appears as a straight line with a slope of negative two (negative two indicating that momentum squared is proportional to the inverse of the radius).

===Bohr Model Solutions in Bully Units===

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 1: Bohr Model Hydrogen Solutions
|-
! n 
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

A solution (or energy level) of the Bohr model, is a point on the momentum-radius graph that satisfies both the quantization rule and the classical electromagnetism equation.  Solutions of the Bohr model can be found algebraically through simple manipulation of Bohr's two equations:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r = \frac{(rp)^2}{rp^2} = \frac{137.035999177\,n^2}{23717311.411} la&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; p = \frac{rp^2}{rp} = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177\,n} \frac{An}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;

Figure 3 illustrates and Table 1 lists Bohr model solutions for the Hydrogen atom with principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000), and for infinity (solutions are marked with an asterisk(*) and labeled as &quot;Energy Levels&quot; in Figure 3).

=== Related constants ===
A trio of related lengths are marked in Figure 3. These include the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius Bohr radius] (&lt;math&gt; a_0 &lt;/math&gt;), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_wavelength#Reduced_Compton_wavelength reduced Compton wavelength] (&lt;math&gt; \lambda_{\mathrm{e}} / 2\pi &lt;/math&gt;), and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electron_radius classical electron radius] (&lt;math&gt; r_{\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;). Any one of these constants can be written in terms of any of the others using the fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt;:
: &lt;math&gt;r_{\mathrm{e}} = \alpha \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{e}}}{2\pi} = \alpha^2 a_0.&lt;/math&gt;

The Bohr radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] is the smallest possible orbital radius for an electron in the hydrogen atom. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus without violating one of Bohr's criteria. However, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject to Bohr's quantization rule, but is not subject to the classical electromagnetism equation, then the electron's orbit might slide down closer to the nucleus, to the reduced Compton wavelength of [https://www.google.com/search?q=3.8615926744*10%5E%28%E2%88%9213%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 42.163 295 nanopan] as shown in Figure 3.  Or, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject Bohr's 
classical electromagnetism equation, but not subject to Bohr's quantization rule, then the electron's orbit might slide down even further to the classical electron radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=2.8179403205*10%5E%28%E2%88%9215%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 0.307 680 nanopan]. The points for the reduced Compton wavelength and classical electron radius in Figure 3,  both have a momentum value of 23717311.411 An / la.  This is due to a relativistic criteria that a particle can never move faster than the speed of light, and hence can never have a momentum larger than mc, where m is its rest mass and c is the speed of light (see table 1 for electron properties).

=Calculation of energy levels=
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy Potential energy] (P) is the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors. In the Bohr model, the pertinent form of potential energy is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy electric potential].  The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy kinetic energy] (K) of an object is the form of energy that it possesses due to its motion. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass ''m'' traveling at a speed ''v'' is &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt; \frac{1}{2}mv^2&lt;/math&gt;.  The total energy (E) of the Bohr model atom is: 
:: &lt;math&gt; E = K + P = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{2} - \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r} &lt;/math&gt;
: Multiplying both sides by the radius (r) and mass (m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;): 
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,K + r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,P = \frac{r p^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 &lt;/math&gt;
: Note from a previous section that Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation is:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;
: From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 = -\frac{m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2} &lt;/math&gt;
: Thus:
:: &lt;math&gt; E =  -\frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2 r} &lt;/math&gt;

The total energy here is negative and inversely proportional to ''r''. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the atom. For infinite values of ''r'', the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. 

See Table 3 provides 
for the list of Bohr hydrogen atom energy level solutions in Bully Metric units.  Table 3 provides a list of photons that are emitted or absorbed when an electron transitions to a different energy level within the Bohr hydrogen atom.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Bohr Model Hydrogen Energy Levels
|-
! n 
! Velocity &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{la}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Energy &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000000 ||  0.000 || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 0.000007 ||  -0.001 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 0.000073 ||  -0.063 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 0.000730 ||  -6.315 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 0.000811 ||  -7.796 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 0.000912 ||  -9.867 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 0.001042 ||  -12.888 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 0.001216 ||  -17.541 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 0.001459 ||  -25.260 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 0.001824 ||  -39.468 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 0.002432 ||  -70.165 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 0.003649 ||  -157.872 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 0.007297 ||  -631.489 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

=== Table ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Photon
|-
! Transition
! Lyman series &lt;br/&gt; (n=1)
! Balmer series &lt;br/&gt; (n=2)
! Paschen series &lt;br/&gt; (n=3)
! Brackett series &lt;br/&gt; (n=4)
|-
| n→∞ || 631.152904 &lt;br/&gt;631.489478 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.336574&lt;/span&gt; || 157.875323 &lt;br/&gt;157.872370 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.002954&lt;/span&gt; || 70.143290 &lt;br/&gt;70.165498 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022207&lt;/span&gt; || 39.468831 &lt;br/&gt;39.468092 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000738&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→9 || 623.360648 &lt;br/&gt;623.693312 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.332664&lt;/span&gt; || 150.038067 &lt;br/&gt;150.076203 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.038136&lt;/span&gt; || 62.346214 &lt;br/&gt;62.369331 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023117&lt;/span&gt; || 31.670641 &lt;br/&gt;31.671926 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.001285&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→8 || 621.290915 &lt;br/&gt;621.622455 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.331540&lt;/span&gt; || 147.967622 &lt;br/&gt;148.005346 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.037724&lt;/span&gt; || 60.282375 &lt;br/&gt;60.298474 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.016099&lt;/span&gt; || 29.601623 &lt;br/&gt;29.601069 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000554&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→7 || 618.272041 &lt;br/&gt;618.601938 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.329896&lt;/span&gt; || 144.948283 &lt;br/&gt;144.984829 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.036546&lt;/span&gt; || 57.259259 &lt;br/&gt;57.277957 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018698&lt;/span&gt; || 26.567662 &lt;br/&gt;26.580552 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.012890&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→6 || 613.620732 &lt;br/&gt;613.948104 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.327372&lt;/span&gt; || 140.295678 &lt;br/&gt;140.330995 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.035317&lt;/span&gt; || 52.601056 &lt;br/&gt;52.624123 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023067&lt;/span&gt; || 21.922116 &lt;br/&gt;21.926718 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.004602&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→5 || 605.906685 &lt;br/&gt;606.229899 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.323214&lt;/span&gt; || 132.579027 &lt;br/&gt;132.612790 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.033764&lt;/span&gt; || 44.887329 &lt;br/&gt;44.905918 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018590&lt;/span&gt; || 14.205272 &lt;br/&gt;14.208513 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.003242&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→4 || 591.705868 &lt;br/&gt;592.021386 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.315518&lt;/span&gt; || 118.373611 &lt;br/&gt;118.404277 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.030666&lt;/span&gt; || 30.690963 &lt;br/&gt;30.697405 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.006442&lt;/span&gt; || 
|-
| n→3 || 561.024872 &lt;br/&gt;561.323981 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.299109&lt;/span&gt; || 87.684591 &lt;br/&gt;87.706872 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022281&lt;/span&gt; ||  || 
|-
| n→2 || 473.364899 &lt;br/&gt;473.617109 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.252210&lt;/span&gt; ||  ||  || 
|}

[[File:Bully Metric values of Hydrogen transitions.png|Electron shell transitions of Hydrogen atom with energies listed in Bully Metric values]]</text>
      <sha1>hqaciuapya11ajqd7lvabesrydwsf0q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687920</id>
      <parentid>2687918</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T22:47:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Calculation of energy levels */</comment>
      <origin>2687920</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19544" sha1="2uwqdhlphwnea8vjx64lbiptjjp6s0u" xml:space="preserve">The following text was copied from the Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model Bohr model] article and was adapted to use [[Bully Metric]] Units:

[[Image:Bohr atom model.svg|thumb|310px|Figure 1. The Bohr 
model of the hydrogen atom ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|''Z'' &gt; 1}}), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (''h&amp;nu;'').&lt;ref name=&quot;Akhlesh Lakhtakia Ed. 1996&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lakhtakia |first1=Akhlesh |last2=Salpeter |first2=Edwin E. |year=1996 |title=Models and Modelers of Hydrogen |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=65 |issue=9 |pages=933 |bibcode=1997AmJPh..65..933L |doi=10.1119/1.18691}}&lt;/ref&gt; The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number. The {{nowrap|3 &amp;rarr; 2}} transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) it results in a photon of wavelength 71 millapan ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/ASD/lines1.pl?spectra=1H&amp;output_type=0&amp;low_w=500&amp;upp_w=800&amp;unit=1&amp;submit=Retrieve+Data&amp;de=0&amp;plot_out=0&amp;I_scale_type=1&amp;format=0&amp;line_out=0&amp;en_unit=0&amp;output=0&amp;bibrefs=1&amp;page_size=15&amp;show_obs_wl=1&amp;show_calc_wl=1&amp;unc_out=1&amp;order_out=0&amp;max_low_enrg=&amp;show_av=2&amp;max_upp_enrg=&amp;tsb_value=0&amp;min_str=&amp;A_out=0&amp;intens_out=on&amp;max_str=&amp;allowed_out=1&amp;forbid_out=1&amp;min_accur=&amp;min_intens=&amp;conf_out=on&amp;term_out=on&amp;enrg_out=on&amp;J_out=on 656 nanometer red light]).]]

In atomic physics, the '''Bohr model''' or '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' was the first successful model of the atom (see Figure 1).  Developed from 1911 to 1918 by Niels Bohr and building on Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model.  It supplanted the plum pudding model of J J Thomson only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).

==Development==
In 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model:

# The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
# The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: &lt;math&gt; m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar &lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n= 1, 2, 3, ...&lt;/math&gt; is called the principal quantum number, and &lt;math&gt;\hbar = h/2\pi&lt;/math&gt;. The lowest value of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bohrrada0 52.917 721 picometers]) for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus.
# Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: &lt;math&gt;\Delta E = E_2-E_1 = h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant.

=Calculation of the orbits=
The Bohr model gives accurate results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions, a quantum rule and classical electromagnetism.
* '''A quantum rule'''
: The magnitude of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum angular momentum] is an integer (n) multiple of ''ħ'':
:: &lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;L = rmv_\perp = rp_\perp = n \hbar.&lt;/math&gt;
: For a circular orbit, the electron's total momentum (p) will always be perpendicular to the orbital radius (r), thus:
:: &lt;math&gt;rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

* '''classical electromagnetism'''
: The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force centripetal force] is therefore equal to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law Coulomb force].
:: &lt;math&gt; \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},&lt;/math&gt;
: where ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the electron's mass, ''e'' is the elementary charge, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the Coulomb constant and ''Z'' is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This classical equation determines that the product of the orbital radius (r) with the square of the electron's momentum (p), is constant:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;

=Conversion to Bully Metric Units=
: It will be advantageous to represent the Coulomb constant ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; in terms of the Reduced Planck constant ''ħ'', the speed of light ''c'', the elementary charge ''e'', and the fine-structure constant ''α''.
:: &lt;math&gt;k_\mathrm{e} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} = \frac
{\alpha \hbar c}{e^2}&lt;/math&gt;
: From whence Bohr's equations become:
:: &lt;math&gt;r p = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt;r p^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Z \alpha \hbar c = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;

In Bully Metric units, the speed of light (c = 1 la / ta),  the reduced Planck constant (ħ = 1 An), and the elementary charge (1 e) are all normalized, which means that many of the electron's properties carry the same numeric value but with differing units as shown in Table 1.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: Electron Properties
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Electron Mass (m)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Rest Energy (mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''(mcħ)'''''
|-
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta la&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An^2 la&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

===Bohr's Quantization Rule in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Quantization of Angular Momentum.png|thumb|450px|Figure 2. Quantization of angular momentum demands an integer value for the product of orbital radius with the momentum perpendicular to the radius.  This appears as a series of parallel straight lines on a log-log plot.  The above graphic includes plots for principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000).]]
The quantization rule:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

Can be written in Bully units as:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
This rule is not a special property of the Bohr atom, but rather, is a universal property of quantum mechanics called quantization of angular momentum. This rule has an extremely simple form when momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 2).  The quantization of angular momentum appears as a series of parallel straight lines with a slope of negative one, each line representing an integer value of the principle quantum number n. The lowest energy level (n = 1) has the property that the momentum is always equal to the numerical inverse of the radius.  For example, if an electron were to orbit a nucleus at 1 micropan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=0.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs+in+pm 9.159 picometers]), then the quantization of angular momentum would require the electron's perpendicular momentum to be at least 1 actionat per micropan, or in other words, a million actionats per length apan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=hbar+%2F+%280.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs%29+in+kg+%28m%2Fs%29 1.151 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; kg * (m / s)]).  The slope of negative one indicates that momentum in Bully units is proportional to the inverse of the radius in Bully units.

===Bohr's Classical Electromagnetism in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Bohr Model Hydrogen Atom.png|thumb|450px|Figure 3. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom on a log-log plot in Bully Metric units.  The black line represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation.  The other lines represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to quantization of angular momentum. The points where the black line intersects with other lines are solutions (energy levels) of Bohr's model]]

Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;
Can be written in Bully units as shown below (note that [https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alphinv 137.035999177 is the inverse fine-structure constant] and the value 23717311.411 is obtained from table 1 above):
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
For a hydrogen atom with one proton (Z = 1), this becomes:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
When momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 3), Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation appears as a straight line with a slope of negative two (negative two indicating that momentum squared is proportional to the inverse of the radius).

===Bohr Model Solutions in Bully Units===

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 1: Bohr Model Hydrogen Solutions
|-
! n 
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

A solution (or energy level) of the Bohr model, is a point on the momentum-radius graph that satisfies both the quantization rule and the classical electromagnetism equation.  Solutions of the Bohr model can be found algebraically through simple manipulation of Bohr's two equations:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r = \frac{(rp)^2}{rp^2} = \frac{137.035999177\,n^2}{23717311.411} la&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; p = \frac{rp^2}{rp} = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177\,n} \frac{An}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;

Figure 3 illustrates and Table 1 lists Bohr model solutions for the Hydrogen atom with principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000), and for infinity (solutions are marked with an asterisk(*) and labeled as &quot;Energy Levels&quot; in Figure 3).

=== Related constants ===
A trio of related lengths are marked in Figure 3. These include the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius Bohr radius] (&lt;math&gt; a_0 &lt;/math&gt;), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_wavelength#Reduced_Compton_wavelength reduced Compton wavelength] (&lt;math&gt; \lambda_{\mathrm{e}} / 2\pi &lt;/math&gt;), and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electron_radius classical electron radius] (&lt;math&gt; r_{\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;). Any one of these constants can be written in terms of any of the others using the fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt;:
: &lt;math&gt;r_{\mathrm{e}} = \alpha \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{e}}}{2\pi} = \alpha^2 a_0.&lt;/math&gt;

The Bohr radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] is the smallest possible orbital radius for an electron in the hydrogen atom. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus without violating one of Bohr's criteria. However, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject to Bohr's quantization rule, but is not subject to the classical electromagnetism equation, then the electron's orbit might slide down closer to the nucleus, to the reduced Compton wavelength of [https://www.google.com/search?q=3.8615926744*10%5E%28%E2%88%9213%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 42.163 295 nanopan] as shown in Figure 3.  Or, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject Bohr's 
classical electromagnetism equation, but not subject to Bohr's quantization rule, then the electron's orbit might slide down even further to the classical electron radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=2.8179403205*10%5E%28%E2%88%9215%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 0.307 680 nanopan]. The points for the reduced Compton wavelength and classical electron radius in Figure 3,  both have a momentum value of 23717311.411 An / la.  This is due to a relativistic criteria that a particle can never move faster than the speed of light, and hence can never have a momentum larger than mc, where m is its rest mass and c is the speed of light (see table 1 for electron properties).

=Calculation of energy levels=
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy Potential energy] (P) is the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors. In the Bohr model, the pertinent form of potential energy is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy electric potential].  The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy kinetic energy] (K) of an object is the form of energy that it possesses due to its motion. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass ''m'' traveling at a speed ''v'' is &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt; \frac{1}{2}mv^2&lt;/math&gt;.  The total energy (E) of the Bohr model atom is: 
:: &lt;math&gt; E = K + P = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{2} - \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r} &lt;/math&gt;
: Multiplying both sides by the radius (r) and mass (m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;): 
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,K + r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,P = \frac{r p^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 &lt;/math&gt;
: Note from a previous section that Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation is:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;
: From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 = -\frac{m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2} &lt;/math&gt;
: Thus:
:: &lt;math&gt; E =  -\frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2 r} = -\frac{p^2}{2 m_\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;

The total energy here is negative and inversely proportional to ''r''. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the atom. For infinite values of ''r'', the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. 

See Table 3 provides 
for the list of Bohr hydrogen atom energy level solutions in Bully Metric units.  Table 3 provides a list of photons that are emitted or absorbed when an electron transitions to a different energy level within the Bohr hydrogen atom.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Bohr Model Hydrogen Energy Levels
|-
! n 
! Velocity &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{la}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Energy &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000000 ||  0.000 || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 0.000007 ||  -0.001 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 0.000073 ||  -0.063 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 0.000730 ||  -6.315 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 0.000811 ||  -7.796 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 0.000912 ||  -9.867 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 0.001042 ||  -12.888 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 0.001216 ||  -17.541 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 0.001459 ||  -25.260 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 0.001824 ||  -39.468 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 0.002432 ||  -70.165 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 0.003649 ||  -157.872 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 0.007297 ||  -631.489 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

=== Table ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Photon
|-
! Transition
! Lyman series &lt;br/&gt; (n=1)
! Balmer series &lt;br/&gt; (n=2)
! Paschen series &lt;br/&gt; (n=3)
! Brackett series &lt;br/&gt; (n=4)
|-
| n→∞ || 631.152904 &lt;br/&gt;631.489478 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.336574&lt;/span&gt; || 157.875323 &lt;br/&gt;157.872370 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.002954&lt;/span&gt; || 70.143290 &lt;br/&gt;70.165498 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022207&lt;/span&gt; || 39.468831 &lt;br/&gt;39.468092 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000738&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→9 || 623.360648 &lt;br/&gt;623.693312 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.332664&lt;/span&gt; || 150.038067 &lt;br/&gt;150.076203 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.038136&lt;/span&gt; || 62.346214 &lt;br/&gt;62.369331 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023117&lt;/span&gt; || 31.670641 &lt;br/&gt;31.671926 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.001285&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→8 || 621.290915 &lt;br/&gt;621.622455 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.331540&lt;/span&gt; || 147.967622 &lt;br/&gt;148.005346 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.037724&lt;/span&gt; || 60.282375 &lt;br/&gt;60.298474 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.016099&lt;/span&gt; || 29.601623 &lt;br/&gt;29.601069 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000554&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→7 || 618.272041 &lt;br/&gt;618.601938 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.329896&lt;/span&gt; || 144.948283 &lt;br/&gt;144.984829 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.036546&lt;/span&gt; || 57.259259 &lt;br/&gt;57.277957 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018698&lt;/span&gt; || 26.567662 &lt;br/&gt;26.580552 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.012890&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→6 || 613.620732 &lt;br/&gt;613.948104 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.327372&lt;/span&gt; || 140.295678 &lt;br/&gt;140.330995 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.035317&lt;/span&gt; || 52.601056 &lt;br/&gt;52.624123 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023067&lt;/span&gt; || 21.922116 &lt;br/&gt;21.926718 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.004602&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→5 || 605.906685 &lt;br/&gt;606.229899 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.323214&lt;/span&gt; || 132.579027 &lt;br/&gt;132.612790 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.033764&lt;/span&gt; || 44.887329 &lt;br/&gt;44.905918 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018590&lt;/span&gt; || 14.205272 &lt;br/&gt;14.208513 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.003242&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→4 || 591.705868 &lt;br/&gt;592.021386 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.315518&lt;/span&gt; || 118.373611 &lt;br/&gt;118.404277 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.030666&lt;/span&gt; || 30.690963 &lt;br/&gt;30.697405 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.006442&lt;/span&gt; || 
|-
| n→3 || 561.024872 &lt;br/&gt;561.323981 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.299109&lt;/span&gt; || 87.684591 &lt;br/&gt;87.706872 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022281&lt;/span&gt; ||  || 
|-
| n→2 || 473.364899 &lt;br/&gt;473.617109 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.252210&lt;/span&gt; ||  ||  || 
|}

[[File:Bully Metric values of Hydrogen transitions.png|Electron shell transitions of Hydrogen atom with energies listed in Bully Metric values]]</text>
      <sha1>2uwqdhlphwnea8vjx64lbiptjjp6s0u</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687921</id>
      <parentid>2687920</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T22:52:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Calculation of energy levels */</comment>
      <origin>2687921</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19648" sha1="sn9wcw9qtdg2xmu234x8i5yshcrz3m2" xml:space="preserve">The following text was copied from the Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model Bohr model] article and was adapted to use [[Bully Metric]] Units:

[[Image:Bohr atom model.svg|thumb|310px|Figure 1. The Bohr 
model of the hydrogen atom ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion ({{nowrap|''Z'' &gt; 1}}), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (''h&amp;nu;'').&lt;ref name=&quot;Akhlesh Lakhtakia Ed. 1996&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lakhtakia |first1=Akhlesh |last2=Salpeter |first2=Edwin E. |year=1996 |title=Models and Modelers of Hydrogen |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=65 |issue=9 |pages=933 |bibcode=1997AmJPh..65..933L |doi=10.1119/1.18691}}&lt;/ref&gt; The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number. The {{nowrap|3 &amp;rarr; 2}} transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen ({{nowrap|''Z'' {{=}} 1}}) it results in a photon of wavelength 71 millapan ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/ASD/lines1.pl?spectra=1H&amp;output_type=0&amp;low_w=500&amp;upp_w=800&amp;unit=1&amp;submit=Retrieve+Data&amp;de=0&amp;plot_out=0&amp;I_scale_type=1&amp;format=0&amp;line_out=0&amp;en_unit=0&amp;output=0&amp;bibrefs=1&amp;page_size=15&amp;show_obs_wl=1&amp;show_calc_wl=1&amp;unc_out=1&amp;order_out=0&amp;max_low_enrg=&amp;show_av=2&amp;max_upp_enrg=&amp;tsb_value=0&amp;min_str=&amp;A_out=0&amp;intens_out=on&amp;max_str=&amp;allowed_out=1&amp;forbid_out=1&amp;min_accur=&amp;min_intens=&amp;conf_out=on&amp;term_out=on&amp;enrg_out=on&amp;J_out=on 656 nanometer red light]).]]

In atomic physics, the '''Bohr model''' or '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' was the first successful model of the atom (see Figure 1).  Developed from 1911 to 1918 by Niels Bohr and building on Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model.  It supplanted the plum pudding model of J J Thomson only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).

==Development==
In 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates to provide an electron model consistent with Rutherford's nuclear model:

# The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
# The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: &lt;math&gt; m_\mathrm{e} v r = n \hbar &lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n= 1, 2, 3, ...&lt;/math&gt; is called the principal quantum number, and &lt;math&gt;\hbar = h/2\pi&lt;/math&gt;. The lowest value of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] ([https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bohrrada0 52.917 721 picometers]) for hydrogen. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus.
# Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency &lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: &lt;math&gt;\Delta E = E_2-E_1 = h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant.

=Calculation of the orbits=
The Bohr model gives accurate results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions, a quantum rule and classical electromagnetism.
* '''A quantum rule'''
: The magnitude of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum angular momentum] is an integer (n) multiple of ''ħ'':
:: &lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;L = rmv_\perp = rp_\perp = n \hbar.&lt;/math&gt;
: For a circular orbit, the electron's total momentum (p) will always be perpendicular to the orbital radius (r), thus:
:: &lt;math&gt;rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

* '''classical electromagnetism'''
: The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force centripetal force] is therefore equal to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law Coulomb force].
:: &lt;math&gt; \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},&lt;/math&gt;
: where ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the electron's mass, ''e'' is the elementary charge, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; is the Coulomb constant and ''Z'' is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This classical equation determines that the product of the orbital radius (r) with the square of the electron's momentum (p), is constant:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;

=Conversion to Bully Metric Units=
: It will be advantageous to represent the Coulomb constant ''k''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; in terms of the Reduced Planck constant ''ħ'', the speed of light ''c'', the elementary charge ''e'', and the fine-structure constant ''α''.
:: &lt;math&gt;k_\mathrm{e} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} = \frac
{\alpha \hbar c}{e^2}&lt;/math&gt;
: From whence Bohr's equations become:
:: &lt;math&gt;r p = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt;r p^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Z \alpha \hbar c = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;

In Bully Metric units, the speed of light (c = 1 la / ta),  the reduced Planck constant (ħ = 1 An), and the elementary charge (1 e) are all normalized, which means that many of the electron's properties carry the same numeric value but with differing units as shown in Table 1.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: Electron Properties
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Electron Mass (m)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Rest Energy (mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)'''''
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''(mcħ)'''''
|-
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta la&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An ta&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;border-right:none;&quot;|{{val|23717311.411}}
| style=&quot;border-left :none;&quot;| An^2 la&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

===Bohr's Quantization Rule in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Quantization of Angular Momentum.png|thumb|450px|Figure 2. Quantization of angular momentum demands an integer value for the product of orbital radius with the momentum perpendicular to the radius.  This appears as a series of parallel straight lines on a log-log plot.  The above graphic includes plots for principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000).]]
The quantization rule:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n \hbar. &lt;/math&gt;

Can be written in Bully units as:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
This rule is not a special property of the Bohr atom, but rather, is a universal property of quantum mechanics called quantization of angular momentum. This rule has an extremely simple form when momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 2).  The quantization of angular momentum appears as a series of parallel straight lines with a slope of negative one, each line representing an integer value of the principle quantum number n. The lowest energy level (n = 1) has the property that the momentum is always equal to the numerical inverse of the radius.  For example, if an electron were to orbit a nucleus at 1 micropan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=0.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs+in+pm 9.159 picometers]), then the quantization of angular momentum would require the electron's perpendicular momentum to be at least 1 actionat per micropan, or in other words, a million actionats per length apan ([https://www.google.com/search?q=hbar+%2F+%280.000001+*+c+*++30.55+fs%29+in+kg+%28m%2Fs%29 1.151 × 10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; kg * (m / s)]).  The slope of negative one indicates that momentum in Bully units is proportional to the inverse of the radius in Bully units.

===Bohr's Classical Electromagnetism in Bully Units===
[[File:Bully Metric Bohr Model Hydrogen Atom.png|thumb|450px|Figure 3. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom on a log-log plot in Bully Metric units.  The black line represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation.  The other lines represents allowed radius-momentum value combinations according to quantization of angular momentum. The points where the black line intersects with other lines are solutions (energy levels) of Bohr's model]]

Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z (\alpha) (m_\mathrm{e} c \hbar). &lt;/math&gt;
Can be written in Bully units as shown below (note that [https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alphinv 137.035999177 is the inverse fine-structure constant] and the value 23717311.411 is obtained from table 1 above):
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = Z \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
For a hydrogen atom with one proton (Z = 1), this becomes:
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
When momentum and radius are plotted on a log-log graph using Bully units (see Figure 3), Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation appears as a straight line with a slope of negative two (negative two indicating that momentum squared is proportional to the inverse of the radius).

===Bohr Model Solutions in Bully Units===

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot;  style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 1: Bohr Model Hydrogen Solutions
|-
! n 
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

A solution (or energy level) of the Bohr model, is a point on the momentum-radius graph that satisfies both the quantization rule and the classical electromagnetism equation.  Solutions of the Bohr model can be found algebraically through simple manipulation of Bohr's two equations:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp = n\,An&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; r p^2 = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177} \frac{An^2}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;
From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r = \frac{(rp)^2}{rp^2} = \frac{137.035999177\,n^2}{23717311.411} la&lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; p = \frac{rp^2}{rp} = \frac{23717311.411}{137.035999177\,n} \frac{An}{la}.&lt;/math&gt;

Figure 3 illustrates and Table 1 lists Bohr model solutions for the Hydrogen atom with principle quantum numbers one through ten (n = 1 .. 10), and for various powers of ten (n = 100, 1000, 10000, and 100000), and for infinity (solutions are marked with an asterisk(*) and labeled as &quot;Energy Levels&quot; in Figure 3).

=== Related constants ===
A trio of related lengths are marked in Figure 3. These include the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius Bohr radius] (&lt;math&gt; a_0 &lt;/math&gt;), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_wavelength#Reduced_Compton_wavelength reduced Compton wavelength] (&lt;math&gt; \lambda_{\mathrm{e}} / 2\pi &lt;/math&gt;), and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electron_radius classical electron radius] (&lt;math&gt; r_{\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;). Any one of these constants can be written in terms of any of the others using the fine-structure constant &lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt;:
: &lt;math&gt;r_{\mathrm{e}} = \alpha \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{e}}}{2\pi} = \alpha^2 a_0.&lt;/math&gt;

The Bohr radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=5.2917721*10%5E(%E2%88%9211)+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 5.777 889 micropan] is the smallest possible orbital radius for an electron in the hydrogen atom. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus without violating one of Bohr's criteria. However, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject to Bohr's quantization rule, but is not subject to the classical electromagnetism equation, then the electron's orbit might slide down closer to the nucleus, to the reduced Compton wavelength of [https://www.google.com/search?q=3.8615926744*10%5E%28%E2%88%9213%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 42.163 295 nanopan] as shown in Figure 3.  Or, if one were to imagine a counterfactual universe where the electron is subject Bohr's 
classical electromagnetism equation, but not subject to Bohr's quantization rule, then the electron's orbit might slide down even further to the classical electron radius of [https://www.google.com/search?q=2.8179403205*10%5E%28%E2%88%9215%29+m+%2F+c+%2F+30.55+fs 0.307 680 nanopan]. The points for the reduced Compton wavelength and classical electron radius in Figure 3,  both have a momentum value of 23717311.411 An / la.  This is due to a relativistic criteria that a particle can never move faster than the speed of light, and hence can never have a momentum larger than mc, where m is its rest mass and c is the speed of light (see table 1 for electron properties).

=Calculation of energy levels=
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy Potential energy] (P) is the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors. In the Bohr model, the pertinent form of potential energy is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy electric potential].  The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy kinetic energy] (K) of an object is the form of energy that it possesses due to its motion. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass ''m'' traveling at a speed ''v'' is &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt; \frac{1}{2}mv^2&lt;/math&gt;.  The total energy (E) of the Bohr model atom is: 
:: &lt;math&gt; E = K + P = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{2} - \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r} &lt;/math&gt;
: Multiplying both sides by the radius (r) and mass (m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;): 
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,K + r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,P = \frac{r p^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 &lt;/math&gt;
: Note from a previous section that Bohr's classical electromagnetism equation is:
:: &lt;math&gt; rp^2 = r(m_\mathrm{e} v)^2 = m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2. &lt;/math&gt;
: From whence:
:: &lt;math&gt; r\,m_\mathrm{e}\,E = \frac{m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2} - m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2 = -\frac{m_\mathrm{e} \, Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2} &lt;/math&gt;
: Thus:
:: &lt;math&gt; E =  -\frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{2 r} = -\frac{p^2}{2 m_\mathrm{e}} &lt;/math&gt;

The total energy here is negative and inversely proportional to ''r''. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the atom. For infinite values of ''r'', the energy and momentum are both zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. Table 3 lists the same solutions as Table 2 (Bohr hydrogen atom energy level solutions in Bully Metric units), but Table three also lists the energy and electron velocity for each solution.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 3: Bohr Model Hydrogen Energy Levels
|-
! n 
! Velocity &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{la}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Energy &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{ta} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Momentum &lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{An}{la} \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
! Radius &lt;math&gt; \left ( la \right ) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|| ∞ || 0.000000 ||  0.000 || 0.000 || ∞
|-
|| 1000 || 0.000007 ||  -0.001 || 173.074 || 5.777889273
|-
|| 100 || 0.000073 ||  -0.063 || 1730.736 || 0.057778893
|-
|| 10 || 0.000730 ||  -6.315 || 17307.358 || 0.000577789
|-
|| 9 || 0.000811 ||  -7.796 || 19230.398 || 0.000468009
|-
|| 8 || 0.000912 ||  -9.867 || 21634.198 || 0.000369785
|-
|| 7 || 0.001042 ||  -12.888 || 24724.798 || 0.000283117
|-
|| 6 || 0.001216 ||  -17.541 || 28845.597 || 0.000208004
|-
|| 5 || 0.001459 ||  -25.260 || 34614.717 || 0.000144447
|-
|| 4 || 0.001824 ||  -39.468 || 43268.396 || 0.000092446
|-
|| 3 || 0.002432 ||  -70.165 || 57691.194 || 0.000052001
|-
|| 2 || 0.003649 ||  -157.872 || 86536.792 || 0.000023112
|-
|| 1 || 0.007297 ||  -631.489 || 173073.583 || 0.000005778
|}

=== Table ===
Table 4 provides a list of photons that are emitted or absorbed when an electron transitions to a different energy level within the Bohr hydrogen atom.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0; text-align: center; width: 0; white-space: nowrap;&quot;
|+Table 4: Photon
|-
! Transition
! Lyman series &lt;br/&gt; (n=1)
! Balmer series &lt;br/&gt; (n=2)
! Paschen series &lt;br/&gt; (n=3)
! Brackett series &lt;br/&gt; (n=4)
|-
| n→∞ || 631.152904 &lt;br/&gt;631.489478 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.336574&lt;/span&gt; || 157.875323 &lt;br/&gt;157.872370 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.002954&lt;/span&gt; || 70.143290 &lt;br/&gt;70.165498 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022207&lt;/span&gt; || 39.468831 &lt;br/&gt;39.468092 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000738&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→9 || 623.360648 &lt;br/&gt;623.693312 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.332664&lt;/span&gt; || 150.038067 &lt;br/&gt;150.076203 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.038136&lt;/span&gt; || 62.346214 &lt;br/&gt;62.369331 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023117&lt;/span&gt; || 31.670641 &lt;br/&gt;31.671926 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.001285&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→8 || 621.290915 &lt;br/&gt;621.622455 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.331540&lt;/span&gt; || 147.967622 &lt;br/&gt;148.005346 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.037724&lt;/span&gt; || 60.282375 &lt;br/&gt;60.298474 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.016099&lt;/span&gt; || 29.601623 &lt;br/&gt;29.601069 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;-0.000554&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→7 || 618.272041 &lt;br/&gt;618.601938 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.329896&lt;/span&gt; || 144.948283 &lt;br/&gt;144.984829 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.036546&lt;/span&gt; || 57.259259 &lt;br/&gt;57.277957 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018698&lt;/span&gt; || 26.567662 &lt;br/&gt;26.580552 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.012890&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→6 || 613.620732 &lt;br/&gt;613.948104 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.327372&lt;/span&gt; || 140.295678 &lt;br/&gt;140.330995 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.035317&lt;/span&gt; || 52.601056 &lt;br/&gt;52.624123 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.023067&lt;/span&gt; || 21.922116 &lt;br/&gt;21.926718 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.004602&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→5 || 605.906685 &lt;br/&gt;606.229899 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.323214&lt;/span&gt; || 132.579027 &lt;br/&gt;132.612790 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.033764&lt;/span&gt; || 44.887329 &lt;br/&gt;44.905918 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.018590&lt;/span&gt; || 14.205272 &lt;br/&gt;14.208513 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.003242&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| n→4 || 591.705868 &lt;br/&gt;592.021386 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.315518&lt;/span&gt; || 118.373611 &lt;br/&gt;118.404277 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.030666&lt;/span&gt; || 30.690963 &lt;br/&gt;30.697405 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.006442&lt;/span&gt; || 
|-
| n→3 || 561.024872 &lt;br/&gt;561.323981 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.299109&lt;/span&gt; || 87.684591 &lt;br/&gt;87.706872 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.022281&lt;/span&gt; ||  || 
|-
| n→2 || 473.364899 &lt;br/&gt;473.617109 &lt;br/&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot; &gt;0.252210&lt;/span&gt; ||  ||  || 
|}

[[File:Bully Metric values of Hydrogen transitions.png|Electron shell transitions of Hydrogen atom with energies listed in Bully Metric values]]</text>
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    <title>Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/RICH-2K/Recommended editions</title>
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      <text bytes="73413" sha1="kg549u3emciyveoy3mrkbis5ni7fyo5" xml:space="preserve">{{Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/Navbox}}
'''Recommended Editions''' are editions of texts referenced in the articles of the ''Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary''. These texts fall under two categories:

* ''Primary sources,'' i.e. the original Latin and Greek texts.
* ''Secondary sources,'' i.e. texts used to understand the primary sources.

The sections about [[#Requirements|requirements]] and [[#Selection criteria for primary resources|selection criteria]] provide information about how these editions are to be selected.

== Recommended Editions ==

The following list contains example references, mainly from the articles of RICH-1849, followed, where available, by citations with links to &quot;recommended&quot; online editions. This is a work in progress.

* Achill. Tat., ''de Amor. Clitoph. et Leucip.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Acro. ad Hor. ''Ep.''
* Acro. ad Hor. ''Sat.''
* Acron. ad Hor. ''Od.''
* Acron.
* Aelian., ''Variar.''
* Aelian., ''Var. Hist.''
* Aesch., ''Ag.''
* Aesch., ''in Timarch.''
* Aesch., ''Pers.''
* Aesch., ''Prom.''
* African., ''Dig.''
* Agathias
* Agostini, ''Gemme'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15878 |title=Le gemme antiche figurate di Leonardo Agostini ... Parte prima |last=Agostini |first=Leonardo}}
* Agostini, ''Gemme'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15879 |title=Le gemme antiche figurate di Leonardo Agostini ... Parte seconda |last=Agostini |first=Leonardo}}
* Alciphron, ''Ep.'': {{Cite book|url=http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id413839001/7 |title=Alciphronis Rhetoris Epistularum libri IV |last=Alciphron |first= |year=1905}}
* Alcuinus, ''De Divinis Officiis''
* Alex., ''Κηρυττ.''
* Alstorp, ''de Hastis Veterum'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Joh_Alstorphii_de_Hastis_Veterum_opus_po/xRxdNXuQDHwC |title=De Hastis Veterum Opus Posthumum |last=Alstorph |first=Jan}}
* Amm. Marc.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Ammian: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Ampel.: {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/epitomaedetitoli00floruoft/page/126/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Liber memorialis |last=Ampelius |first=Lucius |year=1873}}
* Anthol. Lat.'' (ed. Burm.?)
* Anthol. Lat. Ep.
* Anthyl ap. Oribas. ''Coll. Med.''
* Anton. (e. g. ad Pet. ''Sat.'')
* Anton. Caracall.
* Apic.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Apollodor.: {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001 |title=Bibliotheca |last=Apollodorus |first=}}
* Apollodor., ''Bibl.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001 |title=Bibliotheca |last=Apollodorus |first=}}
* Appian., ''Bell. Civ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0551.tlg017 |title=Civil Wars |last=Appianus of Alexandria |first=}}
* Apul., ''Apol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi001 |title=Apologia |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Apul, ''de Mund.'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=jIlOlDUcCGQC&amp;hl=de&amp;pg=PA105#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |title=De mundo |last=Apuleius |first=Lucius |year=1876}}
* Apul, ''Deo Socr.'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=jIlOlDUcCGQC&amp;hl=de&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false |title=De deo Socratis |last=Apuleius |first=Lucius |year=1876}}
* Apul., ''Flor.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi003 |title=Florida |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Apul., ''Met.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1212.phi002 |title=Metamorphoses |last=Apuleius |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Ach.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg001 |title=Acharnians |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Av.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg006 |title=Aves |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist., ''Eth.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg010 |title=Nicomachean Ethics |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist., ''Fragm.''
* Aristot., ''Gen. An.''
* Aristotle, ''H. N.''
* Aristot., ''Rhet..'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Aristoph., ''Eq.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg002 |title=Equites |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Nub.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg003 |title=Nubes |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist.'', ''de Mund.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., ''Pac.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg005 |title=Pax |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Plut.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg011 |title=Plutus |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arist., ''Polit.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., ''Probl.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arist., ''Ran.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg009 |title=Ranae |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristophanes., ''Thesm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg008 |title=Thesmophoriazusae  |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Aristoph., ''Vesp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0019.tlg004 |title=Vespae |last=Aristophanes |first=}}
* Arnob.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arnob., ''adv. Gent.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Arrian., ''Anab.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg001 |title=Anabsis |last=Arrian |first=}}
* Arrian., ''Tact.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg005 |title=Tactica |last=Arrian |first=}}
* Artemidorus: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Artis., ''Durobriv.'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Ascon. ''ad Cic. Fragm. pro C. Cornel.''
* Ascon. ''Argument. Milon.'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/qasconiipedianio00ascouoft/page/30/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Q. Asconii Pediani Orationum Ciceronis Quinque Enarratio |last=Asconius Pedianus |first=Quintus |year=1907}}
* Ascon. ''in Cic. Verr.''
* Ascon. ''in Cic. Orat. pro Scauro'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/qasconiipedianio00ascouoft/page/18/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Q. Asconii Pediani Orationum Ciceronis Quinque Enarratio |last=Asconius Pedianus |first=Quintus |year=1907}}
* Ascon. ''in Verr.''
* Athen. (Suidas)
* Athen., ''Deipn.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0008.tlg001 |title=Deipnosophistae |last=Athenaeus of Naucratis |first=}}
* Auctor. ''ad Herenn.''
* Auct., ''Agrar.'' (ed. Goes.)
* Auct., ''Consol. ad Liv.''
* Auct., ''Dial. de Orat.''
* Auct., ''Paneg. ad Pison.'' bzw. ''Pan. in Pis.''
* August., ''contra Faust.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* August., ''Dial. Antiqu.''
* August., ''in Psalm.''
* August., ''Mon. Ancyran.'' ap. Grut.
* Augustin., ''Civ. Dei'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Augustin., ''de Gent.''
* Aul. Gell.: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0071 |title=Noctes Atticae |last=Gellius |first=Aulus}}
* Aur. Arc., ''Dig.''
* Aurel., ''Vopisc.''
* Aurel. Vict.
* Aurel. Vict., ''Caes.''
* Aurel. Vict., ''Epit.''
* Aurel. Vict., ''Vit. Caes.''
* Aurel. Vict., ''Vri. Illustr.''
* Auson., ''Clar. Urb.''
* Auson., ''in Div. Verr.''
* Auson., ''Ecl. de Fer. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa007.perseus-lat1:23 |title=De Feriis Romanis |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Auson., ''Edyll.''
* Auson., ''Ephem. in Parecb.''
* Auson., ''Epigr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa010 |title=Epigrammata Ausonii de diversis rebus |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Auson., ''Grat. Act.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Auson., ''Mosell.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0045.stoa019 |title=Mosella |last=Ausonius |first=Decimus Magnus}}
* Ausonius, ''Perioch. Odyss.''
* Ausonius, ''Period. Od.'' (ev. fehlerhaft für ''Perioch. Od.''?)
* Auson., ''Profess.''
* Avian., ''Fab.''
* Avien., ''in Arat.''
* B. Crus. ''ad Suet. Aug.''
* Balduinus, ''de Calceo'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/baudouin1667?ui_lang=eng |title=De calceo antiquo et Jul. Nigronus De caliga veterum |last=Baudouin |first=Benoît |year=1667}}
* Bartholin., ''de Puerp.'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/1282124 |title=Anitquitatum veteris puerperii synopsis |last=Bartholin |first=Thomas |year=1676}}
* Bartoli, ''Admirand.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1693 |title=Admiranda Romanarvm Antiqvitatvm Ac Veteris Scvlptvrae Vestigia: Anaglyphico Opere Elaborata Ex Marmoreis Exemplaribvs Qvae Romae Adhvc Extant In Capitolio Aedibvs Hortisqve Virorvm Principvm Ad Antiqvam Elegantiam |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, ''Admirand. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1693 |title=Admiranda Romanarvm Antiqvitatvm Ac Veteris Scvlptvrae Vestigia: Anaglyphico Opere Elaborata Ex Marmoreis Exemplaribvs Qvae Romae Adhvc Extant In Capitolio Aedibvs Hortisqve Virorvm Principvm Ad Antiqvam Elegantiam |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, ''Lucerne'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1691 |title=Le Antiche Lvcerne [lucerne] Sepolcrali Figvrate [figurate] Raccolte dalle Caue [cave] sotterranee, e grotte di Roma |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro}}
* Bartoli, ''Sep.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bartoli1728?ui_lang=ger |title= |last=Bartoli |first=Pietro |year=1728}}
* Bartolini, ''de Paenula''
* Bartolom. Font., ''Comment. in Pers.''
* Baumgarten-Crusius, ''Clavis'' (gemeint ist wohl ''Clavis Suetoniana triplicem continens indicem...'', 1818)
* Bayfius, ''Re Nav.'': {{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15227837 |title=De Re navali libellus |last=Baïf |first=Lazare de |year=1537}}
* Becchi, ''del Calcidico e della Cripta di Eumachia'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15059 |title=Del Calcidico e della cripta di Eumachia scavati nel Foro di Pompeja l'anno 1820 |last=Bechi |first=Guglielmo |year=1820}}
* Becchi, ''Mus. Borb.''
* Becker, ''Augusteum'': {{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k64627493 |title=Augusteum ou description des monuments antiques qui se trouve a Dresden (Tome Premier) |last=Becker |first=Wilhelm Gottlieb |year=1804}}
* Becker, ''Augusteum'': {{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k64627493 |title=Augusteum ou description des monuments antiques qui se trouve a Dresden (Tome Second) |last= |first= |year=1808}}
* Becker, ''Augusteum'': {{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6468167t |title=Augusteum ou description des monuments antiques qui se trouve a Dresden (Tome Troisieme) |last= |first= |year=811}}
* Becker, ''Augusteum'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/becker1804ga |title=Augusteum: Dresden's Antike Denkmäler Enthaltend (Band 1) |last=Becker |first=Wilhelm Gottlieb |year=1804}}
* Becker, ''Charicles, Excurs.'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.ag/books?id=eIwOAAAAQAAJ |title=Charicles; Or, Illustrations of the Private Life of the Ancient Greeks |last=Becker |first=Wilhelm Adolf |year=1886}}
* Becker, ''Charicles, Excurs.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Charikles/qGw6AAAAcAAJ |title=Bilder altgriechischer Sitte, zur genaueren Kenntniss des griechischen Privatlebens (Band 1) |last=Becker |first=Wilhelm Adolf |year=1840}}
* Becker, ''Charicles, Excurs.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Charikles_Bilder_altgriechischer_Sitte/4lMPAAAAQAAJ |title=Bilder altgriechischer Sitte, zur genaueren Kenntniss des griechischen Privatlebens (Band 2) |last=Becker |first=Wilhelm Adolf |year=1840}}
* Becker, ''Charicles, Excurs.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Charikles/Mj42AAAAMAAJ |title=Bilder altgriechischer Sitte, zur genaueren Kenntniss des griechischen Privatlebens (Band 3) |last=Becker |first=Wilhelm Adolf |year=1854}}
* Becker, ''Gallus'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/Gallus_oder_R%C3%B6mische_Scenen_aus_der_Zei/_pk-AQAAMAAJ |title=Gallus; oder, Römische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts (Bände 1-3) |last=Becker |first=Wilhelm Adolf |year=1880}}
* Becker, ''Quaest. Plautin.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.google.at/books/edition/De_comicis_Romanorum_fabulis_maxime_Plau/UW3RAAAAMAAJ |title=De comicis Romanorum fabulis maxime Plautinis quaestiones |last=Becker |first=Wilhelm Adolf |year=1837}}
* Beckman, ''History of Inventions'' (London, 1846): {{Cite book|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/48151 |title=A History of Inventions, Discoveries, and Origins, Volume 1 (of 2) |last=Beckmann |first=John |year=1846}}
* Beckman, ''History of Inventions'' (London, 1846): {{Cite book|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/48152 |title=A History of Inventions, Discoveries, and Origins, Volume 2 (of 2) |last=Beckmann |first=John |year=1846}}
* Beier, ''ad Cic. Amic.''
* Bellori, ''Fragm. Urb. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15896 |title=Fragmenta vestigij veteris Romae ex lapidibus Farnesianis nunc primum in lucem edita |last=Bellori |first=Giovanni Pietro |year=1673}}
* Benecke ad Cic. ''Cat.''
* Bertoli, ''Antichità di Aquileja'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15882 |title=Le antichità di Aquileja profane e sacre, per la maggior parte finora inedite |last=Bertoli |first=Gian Domenico |year=1739}}
* Bianchini, ''Storia Univers.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/bianchini1747?ui_lang=eng |title=La Istoria Universale Provata Con Monumenti, e figurata con simboli degli Antichi |last=Bianchini |first=Francesco |year=1747}}
* Bion
* Blanchini, ''Instrument. Mus. Vet.'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/francisciblanchi00bian/page/n1/mode/2up |title=De tribus generibus instrumentorum musicae veterum organicae dissertatio |last=Bianchini |first=Francesco |year=1742}}
* Böck, ''Urk.''
* Boldetti, ''Cimiterj'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10867226?page=6,7 |title=Osservazioni Sopra I Cimiterj De' Santi Martiri, Ed Antichi Christiani di Roma. Vol. 1. |last=Boldetti |first=Marco Antonio |year=1720}}
* Boldetti, ''Cimiterj'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10867227?page=2,3 |title=Osservazioni Sopra I Cimiterj De' Santi Martiri, Ed Antichi Christiani di Roma. Vol. 2. |last=Boldetti |first=Marco Antonio |year=1720}}
* Boldetti, ''Cimiterj'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10867228?page=,1 |title=Osservazioni Sopra I Cimiterj De' Santi Martiri, Ed Antichi Christiani di Roma. Vol. 3 |last=Boldetti |first=Marco Antonio |year=1720}}
* Brocchi, ''Suolo di Roma'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=X3ATenFlj3MC&amp;hl |title=Dello stato fisico del suolo di Roma, memoria per servire d'illustrazione alla carta geognostica di questa citta |last=Brocchi |first=Giovanni Battista |year=1820}}
* Brocchi, ''Carta fisica del suolo di Roma'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/brocchi-carta-fisica-del-suolo-di-roma-1820 |title=Carta fisica del suolo di Roma |last=Brocchi |first=Giovanni Battista |year=1820}}
* Broüer, ''de Adorat.''
* Brut. ad Cic. ''Fam.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0532.tlg001 |title=Leucippe et Clitophon |last=Tatius |first=Achilles}}
* Budaeus, ''de Asse'': {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Buonarotti, ''Med.''
* Buonarotti, ''Vasi di Vetro'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/buonarroti1716?ui_lang=eng |title=Osservazioni sopra alcuni frammenti di vasi antichi di vetro, ornati di figure, trovati ne' cimeteri di Roma |last=Buonarroti |first=Filippo |year=1716}}
* Burney, ''Hist. of Music'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* Burney, ''Hist. of Music'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url= |title= |last= |first=}}
* C. Soph., ''Fragm.''
* Cael. ad Cic. ''Fam.''
* Cael. Aurel., ''Tard.''
* Caes. Germ. in Arat.&quot;
* Caes., ''Bell. Civ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0075 |title=De bello Civili |last=Caesar |first=Julius}}
* Caes., ''B. G.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0002 |title=De bello Gallico |last=Caesar |first=Julius}}
* Caesius, ''in Asterismo Lyrae''
* Caii (ev. Call.), ''Dig.''
* Call., ''Dig.''
* Callim., ''Dem.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0481%3ahymn%3d6 |title=Hymn to Demeter |last=Callimachus |first=}}
* Callim., ''Hymn. in Dian.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0481%3ahymn%3d3 |title=Hymn to Artemis |last=Callimachus |first=}}
* Callixenus ap. Athen.
* Calpurn., ''Ecl.'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/minorlatinpoetsw00duffuoft/page/206/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Eclogae |last=Calpurnius Siculus |first=Titus}}
* Cancellieri, ''Carcere Tulliano'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/Notizie_del_Carcere_Tulliano_detto_poi_M.html?id=xcvI5VR19rsC |title=Notizie del Carcere Tulliano |last=Cancellieri |first=Francesco}}
* Capell.
* ''Capitoline Museum''
* Capitol., ''Antonin.''
* Capitol., ''Anton. Philosoph.''
* Capitol., ''Macrin.''
* Capitol., ''Marc. Antonin.'' (bzw. ''Marc. Antonin. Philos.''
* Capitol., ''Max. et Balb.''
* Capitol., ''Maxim.''
* Capitol., ''Maxim. jun.''
* Capitol., ''Pertinax''
* Capitol., ''Ver.''
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2892712 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Prima |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893042 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Seconda |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 3): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893452 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Terza |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 4): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2893852 |title=Delle antichità italiche. Parte Quarta |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'' (Vol. 5): {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2894196 |title=Appendici di documenti spettanti alla parte quarta delle Antichità Italiche |last=Carli |first=Giovanni Rinaldo}}
* Caryst. ap. Athen.
* Casali, ''Splendid. Urb. Rom.''
* Casaub.
* Cassian., ''Institut.'': {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0076c.stoa002.opp-lat2:1 |title=Institutiones |last=Cassian |first=John}}
* Cassini, ''Pitture Antichi'': {{Cite book|url=https://cicognara.org/catalog/3658 |title=Pitture antiche trovate nello scavo aperto in una vigna presso lo spedale di S. Giovanni Laterano in Roma |last=Cassini |first=Giovanni Maria |year=1783}}
* Cassiodorus, ''in Psalm.''
* Cassiodorus, ''Var. Ep.''
* Cato, ''R. R.''
* Catull.: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0003 |title=Carmina |last= |first=}}
* Caylus: {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/caylus1752ga |title=Recueil D'Antiquités, Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques Et Romaines |last= |first=}}
* Caylus, ''Receuil d'Antiq.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/caylus1752ga |title=Recueil D'Antiquités, Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques Et Romaines |last= |first=}}
* Celsus: {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0141 |title=De Medicina |last= |first=}}
* Censorin., ''De Die Nat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id408082488/5 |title=De die natali |last=Censorinus |first=}}
* Charis.
* Chishul, ''Inscr. Sig.''
* Cic. ap. Macrob. ''Sat.''
* Cic., ''Acad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0032 |title=Academica |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Agrar.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi011.perseus-lat1 |title=Orationes de Lege Agraria |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Amic.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0040 |title=De Amicitia |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Arch.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dArch. |title=Pro Archia |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Att.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi057 |title=Letters to Atticus |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Brut.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0544 |title=Brutus |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Caecin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi008 |title=Pro A. Caecina Oratio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Cael.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dCael. |title=Pro Caelio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Cat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dCatil. |title=In Catilinam |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Cluent.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dClu. |title=Pro Cluentio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''de Orat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0120 |title=De Oratore |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''de Rep.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0031 |title=De Republica |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Div.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0034 |title=De Divinatione |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Ep. ad Att.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi057 |title=Letters to Atticus |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Fam.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0009 |title=Epistulae ad Familiares |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Fin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi048 |title=De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Fl.'' (vermutl. ''Flacc.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dFlac. |title=Pro L. Flacco |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Flacc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dFlac. |title=Pro L. Flacco |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., Fragm. ap. Non.
* Cic., ''Fragm. Or. in Clod.''
* Cic., ''Harusp. Respons.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0014%3atext%3dHar. |title=De haruspicum responso |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Ibis''
* Cic., ''in Cael. Div.'' (???, ev. ''in Coel. Div.'')
* Cic., ''in Senat.''
* Cic., ''Inv.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0683 |title=De Inventione |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Leg.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0030 |title=De Legibus |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Ligar.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi033 |title=Pro Q. Ligario Oratio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Milo'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0020%3atext%3dMil. |title=Milo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Muren.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dMur. |title=Pro Murena |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Muret.''
* Cic., ''N. D.'' (''Nat. Deor.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0037 |title=De Natura Deorum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Off.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0047 |title=De Officiis |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Orat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0120 |title=De Oratore |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Par.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Parad.''): {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Parad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Phil.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0045 |title=Paradoxa stoicorum ad M. Brutum |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Pis.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dPis. |title=In L. Pisonem |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Planc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dPlanc. |title=Pro Plancio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Post Red.''
* Cic., ''Prov. Cons.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi025 |title=De provinciis consularibus in senatu oratio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''ad Q. Fr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0017 |title=??? Letters to and from Quintus ??? |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''pro Rosc. Com.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dQ.+Rosc. |title=Pro Q. Roscio comoedo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''R. Perd.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi012 |title=Pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo ad quirites oratio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Rabir. Post.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0013%3atext%3dRab.+Post. |title=Pro C. Rabiro Postumo |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Rosc. Am.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0010%3atext%3dS.+Rosc. |title=Pro Sex. Roscio |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Senect.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0038 |title=De Senectute |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Sext.''
* Cic., ''Somn.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi043.perseus-lat1:6.1 |title=Somnium Scipionis (book vi of De Republica) |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Sull.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0015%3atext%3dSul. |title=Pro Sulla |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Top.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi042 |title=Topica |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Tusc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2007.01.0044 |title=Tusculanae Disputationes |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Univers.''
* Cic., ''Vatin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0014%3atext%3dVat. |title=??? Against Vatinius ??? |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cic., ''Verr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0012%3atext%3dVer. |title=In C. Verrem |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Cincius ap. Gell.
* Circ., ''Acad.''
* Claud., ''B. Gild.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa002 |title=De bello Gildonico |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''Cons. Honor.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0696 |title=Panegyricus de tertio consulatu Honorii Augusti |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''Cons. Honor.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa011 |title=Panegyricus de quarto consulatu Honorii Augusti |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''Cons. Honor.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa012 |title=Panegyricus de sexto consulatu Honorii Augusti |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''Cons. Stilich.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa004 |title=De consulatu Stilichonis |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''de Laud. Stilich.''
* Claud., ''Ep.''
* Claud., ''Epigr.''
* Claud., ''in Eutrop.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa008 |title=In Eutropium |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''in Rufin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa009 |title=In Rufinum |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''Laud. Stil.''
* Claud., ''Mall. Theod.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa013 |title=Panegyricus dictus Manlio Theodoro consuli |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''Nupt. Honor. et Mar.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa006 |title=Epithalamium de nuptiis Honorii Augusti |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud., ''Proem. ad Epith. in Nupt. Hon. et Mar.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0089.stoa006 |title=Epithalamium de nuptiis Honorii Augusti |last=Claudianus |first=Claudius}}
* Claud. Quadrigar. ap. Gell.
* Cod. Theodos.
* Coel. Aurel., ''Acut.''
* Coel. Aurel., ''Tard.''
* Columell.: {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0845.phi002.perseus-lat3:1 |title=Res Rustica |last=Columella |first=Lucius Junius Moderatus}}
* Columell., ''Arb.''
* Coryate, ''Crudities'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=sGeowgOkNuIC |title=Coryat's crudities |last=Coryate |first=Thomas}}
* Curt.
* Cyprian., ''de Habitu Virgin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/corpusscriptor203cypruoft#page/184/mode/2up |title=De habitu virginum |last=Cyprian Saint, Bishop of Carthage |first=}}
* Davis, ''China''
* Demosth. (Reiske)
* Demosth., ''Contra Conon.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0014.tlg054.perseus-grc1 |title=Against Conon |last=Demosthenes |first=}}
* Demosth., ''de Coron.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0014.tlg018.perseus-grc1 |title=On the Crown |last=Demosthenes |first=}}
* Demosth., ''de Fals. Leg.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0014.tlg019.perseus-grc1 |title=On the False Embassy |last=Demosthenes |first=}}
* Demosth., ''in Mid.'' (Schaeffer): {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0014.tlg021.perseus-grc1 |title=Against Midias |last=Demosthenes |first=}}
* Dig.
* Diodor.
* Diomed.
* Dionys.
* Dion. Cass.
* Dion. Hal.
* Dionys.
* Dioscor.
* Doederl.
* Don.
* Donat. ad Terent. ''Adelph.''
* Donat. ap. Terent. ''Phorm''
* Donati, ''Dittici Antichi'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/donati1753a?ui_lang=eng |title=De' dittici degli antichi profani e sacri: libri III |last=Donati |first=Sebastiano}}
* Dorvill., ''Iter. Sicul.''
* Dosiad. ap. Athen
* Dr. Hyde/Christie, ''Ancient Greek Games'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/An_Inquiry_Into_the_Ancient_Greek_Game_S.html?id=jftdAAAAcAAJ |title=An Inquiry Into the Ancient Greek Game |last=Christie |first=James}}
* Ducang., ''Gloss. Graec. et Lat.''
* Du Choul, ''Castramet. des Romains'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/duchoul1672a/0001/image,info |title=Discours sur la Castrametation et Discipline Militaire des Romains |last=Du Choul |first=Guillaume}}
* Durant., ''de Rit.'': {{Cite book|url=https://dl.ub.uni-freiburg.de/diglit/duranti1592/0005?sid=a5420853dc46e5e4570407304842daeb |title=De Ritibus Ecclesiae Catholicae: Libri Tres |last=Duranti |first=Jean Étienne}}
* 'Edict of Diocletian''
* Eichstädt., ''Dissertt. de Imagg. Rom.''
* Elmes, ''Lectures on Architecture''
* Ennius ap. Cic. ''Acad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi045 |title=Academica |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius}}
* Ennius ap. Isidor. ''Orig.''
* Ernesti, ''Clav. Cic.''
* Etymol. Sylburg. ap. Scheffer, ''Re Nav.''
* Eum., ''Paneg. ad Const.''
* Eurip., ''Alcest.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg002 |title=Alcestis |last=Euripides |first=}}
* Eur., ''Cycl.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg001 |title=Cyclops |last=Euripides |first=}}
* Eur., ''Hel.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg014 |title=Helen |last=Euripides |first=}}
* Eur., ''Hippol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg005 |title=Hippolytus |last=Euripides |first=}}
* Eurip., ''Ion.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg010 |title=Ion |last=Euripides |first=}}
* Eurip., ''Iph. Taur.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg013 |title=Iphigenia in Tauris |last=Euripides |first=}}
* Eur., ''Med.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg003 |title=Medea |last=Euripides |first=}}
* Eurip., ''Suppl.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0006.tlg008 |title=Suppliants |last=Euripides |first=}}
* Eust., ''Od.''
* Eustath., ad Hom. ''Od.''
* Eustath., ''ad Il.''
* Fabius Pictor ap. Gell.
* Fabretii, ''Aq.'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/raphfabrettigasp00fabr/page/n5/mode/2up |title=De aquis et aquaeductibus veteris Romae |last=Fabretti |first=Raffaele}}
* Fabretti, ''Col. Tr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN657572187 |title=De Columna Traiani Syntagma |last=Fabretti |first=Raffaele}}
* Fabretti, ''Col. Tr. Addend.''
* Fabri., ''Agon.''
* Fellow, ''Journal in Asia Minor'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/journalwrittendu00felliala/page/n3/mode/2up |title=A journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor |last=Fellows |first=Charles}}
* Ferrarius
* Festus
* Ficoroni, ''La Bolla d'Oro'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/1265437 |title=La bolla d'oro de' fanciulli nobili romani, e quella de' libertini, ed altre singolarita spettanti a' mausolei |last=Ficoroni |first=Francesco}}
* Ficoroni, ''Labico Antico'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15920 |title=Le memorie ritrovate nel territorio della prima, e seconda citta di Labico e i loro giusti siti |last=Ficoroni |first=Francesco}}
* Ficoroni, ''Vestig. Rom.'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/16549 |title=Le Vestigia, e rarità di Roma antica |last=Ficoroni |first=Francesco}}
* Firm. Math. oder Firm. Matth.
* Florent., ''Dig.''
* Florus
* Fortunatus Schackius, ''Myriothec.''
* 'Fragm. jur. ante Justinean. a Maio edita''
* Francesco di Gorgio
* Front., ''ad M. Caes. Ep.'' (ed. A. Maio)
* Front., ''de Or. Ep.'' (ed. A. Maio)
* Front., ''Strateg.'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/strategematiconl00fronuoft/page/n19/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Strategematicon |last=Frontinus |first=Sextus Julius}}
* Fronto, ad Verum Imp. Ep.
* Frontin., ''Ag.''
* Frontinus, ''de Aquaeduct.'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/stratagemsaquedu00fronuoft/page/330/mode/2up |title=De aquis urbis Romae |last=Frontinus |first=Sextus Julius}}
* Fulgent. Planc.
* Furnaletti
* Furnaletti, ''de Musiv.''
* Furnaletti, ''Lex. Facciolat.''
* Gabius Bassus ap. Gell.
* Galen., ''Comment. in Hippocr. de Articul.''
* Galen, ''Compos. Med. per. gen.''
* Gally Knight, ''Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008639680/page/n5/mode/2up |title= |last=Knight |first=Henry Gally}}
* Gally Knight, ''Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008639037/page/n5/mode/2up |title= |last=Knight |first=Henry Gally}}
* Gamucci, ''Antichità di Roma'' (Venez. 1588): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gamucci1565?ui_lang=eng |title=Libri Quattro Dell'Antichita Della Citta Di Roma |last=Gamucci |first=Bernardo}}
* Gell.
* Gell., ''Itinerary of Morea'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/Itinerary_of_the_Morea.html?id=dHCgAAAAMAAJ |title=Itinerary of the Morea: Being a Description of the Routes of that Peninsula |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Gell, ''Pompeiana'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gell1832bd1 |title=Pompeiana: the topography, edifices and ornaments of Pompeii ; the result of excavations since 1819 (Vol. 1) |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Gell, ''Pompeiana'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gell1832bd2 |title=Pompeiana: the topography, edifices and ornaments of Pompeii ; the result of excavations since 1819 (Vol. 2) |last=Gell |first=William}}
* Geopon.
* Ginzrot, ''Wagen und Fahrwerke'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/ginzrot1817ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Die Wagen und Fahrwerke der Griechen und Römer und anderer alten Völker |last=Ginzrot |first=Johann Christian}}
* 'Giornal. Arcad.''
* 'Gloss. Isid.''
* Gloss. Philox. Vulgat. ''Ezech.''
* Gloss. Philox., ''ξίφος ἐπικαμπὲς''
* Gori, ''Inscript. Antiq. Flor.''
* Gori, ''Mus. Etrusc.'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1737bd1 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 1) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gori, ''Mus. Etrusc.'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1737bd2 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 2) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gori, ''Mus. Etrusc.'' (Vol. 3): {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/gori1743bd3 |title=Museum Etruscum Exhibens Insignia Veterum Etruscorum Monumenta (Vol. 3) |last=Gori |first=Antonio Francesco}}
* Gorlaeus, ''Dactyliotheca'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/15090 |title=Dactyliothecae |last=Goorle |first=Abraham van}}
* Grat., ''Cyneg.''
* Gronov, ''Thesaur. Antiqu. Gr.''
* Grut. (Inscr.)
* Guasco, ''Delle Ornatrici'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1fdwnp517owC/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Delle ornatrici, e de' loro uffizi, ed insieme della superstizione de' gentili nella chioma; e della cultura della medesima presso le antiche donne romane |last=Guasco |first=Francesco Eugenio}}
* Guischard, ''Mémoires Milit.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10525879?page=1 |title=Mémoires militaires sur les Grecs et les Romains. Tome 1 |last=Guischardt |first=Charles}}
* Gwilt, ''Encyclopaedia of Architecture'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00gwiluoft |title=An encyclopaedia of architecture, historical, theoretical, and practical |last=Gwilt |first=Joseph}}
* Gwilt, ''Glossary of Architecture''
* Heraclid. ap. Athen.
* Heindorf. ad Hor. ''Op.''
* Heindorf. ad Hor. ''Sat.''
* Heraclides of Pontus ap. Athen.
* Hero, ''de Spirit.''
* Herod.
* Herodian.
* Herzog ad Sall. ''Cat.''
* Hesiod., ''Op.''
* Hesiod., ''Theogn.''
* Hesychius
* Heyne ad Virg. ''Aen.''
* Hieron., ''adv. Jov.''
* Hieron., ''Comment. Matth.''
* Hieron., ''Epist.''
* Hieron., ''Ep. ad Demetr.''
* Hieron., ''Ep. ad Julian.''
* Hieron., ''in Hierem.''
* Hieron., ''in Isai.''
* Hieron., ''in prol. Amos''
* Hieron., ''Vit. Hilar.''
* Hirt., ''Bell. Afr.''
* Hirt., ''Bell. Alex.''
* Homer., ''Hymn. Merc.''
* Homer, ''Il.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001 |title=Iliad |last= |first=}}
* Homer, ''Merc.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Hymn. Merc.'')
* Hom., ''Od.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002 |title=Odyssey |last= |first=}}
* Hope, ''Costumes'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/costumeofancient00hopeuoft/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Costume of the ancients (Vol. 1) |last=Hope |first=Thomas}}
* Hope, ''Costumes'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/costumeofancient02hopes/page/n5/mode/2up |title=Costume of the ancients (Vol. 2) |last=Hope |first=Thomas}}
* Hor., ''A. P.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0893.phi006 |title=De Arte Poetica liber |last=Horace |first=}}
* Hor., ''Carm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0893.phi002 |title=Carmen Saeculare |last=Horace |first=}}
* Hor., ''Epist.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0893.phi005 |title=Epistles |last=Horace |first=}}
* Hor., ''Epod.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0893.phi003 |title=Epodon |last=Horace |first=}}
* Hor., ''Od.''
* Hor., ''Sat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0893.phi004 |title=Satyrarum liber |last=Horace |first=}}
* Howell, ''Treatise on the War Galleys of the Ancients'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=DVpHAAAAYAAJ |title=An Essay on the War-galleys of the Ancients |last=Howell |first=John}}
* Howell, ''War Gallies of the Ancients'' (vermutl. identisch mit vorigem): {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=DVpHAAAAYAAJ |title=An Essay on the War-galleys of the Ancients |last=Howell |first=John}}
* Hussey, ''On Ancient Weights and Money'': {{Cite book|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/xmqsccqn/items?canvas=7 |title=An essay on the ancient weights and money, and the Roman and Greek liquid measures, with an appendix on the Roman and Greek foot |last=Hussey |first=Robert |year=1836}}
* Hyg., ''de Limit.'' (ed.? Goes.)
* Hygin., ''Astron.'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=nCMb-G2mma8C |title=Astronomica / De astronomia |last=Hyginus |first=C. Julius |year=1875}}
* Hygin., ''Fab.''
* Imp. Anast., ''Cod.''
* Imp. Justin., ''Cod.''
* Impp. Valent. et Valens. Cod. Theodos.
* Inscript. ap. Gruter
* Interpet. Vet. ad Virg. ''Ecl.''
* Iorio, ''Mimica degli Antichi'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_NeQGAAAAQAAJ/page/n5/mode/2up |title=La mimica degli antichi investigata nel gestire napoletano |last=Jorio |first=Andrea de |year=1832}}
* Iorio, ''Officina de' Papiri'' (bzw. ''Officina de' Papiri, del Real. Mus. Borb.''): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/realmuseoborbon01jorigoog/page/n5/mode/2up |title=Real museo borbonico: Officina de' Papiri |last=Jorio |first=Andrea de |year=1825}}
* Isidor., ''Gloss.''
* Isidorus, ''Orig.''
* Jabolen., ''Dig.''
* Jal, ''Archéologie Navale'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_jMkZCGHyzH8C/page/n7/mode/2up |title=Archéologie Navale |last=Jal |first=Auguste}}
* Jean Marteihle (''Autobiography of a French Protestant'')
* Jo. Bapt. Suarez (&quot;work on the antiquities of Cadiz&quot;)
* Jo. Cam. Rossi (ed.), ''Inscript. Vet.''
* Joann. Evang.
* Joseph., ''Bell. Jud.''
* Jul. Cap., ''Pertinax''
* Julius Pollux
* Justin
* Juv., ''Sat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1276.phi001 |title=Satires |last=Juvenal |first=Decimus Junius |year=1918}}
* 'Kings'' (ex Bible)
* Kircher. ''Musurg.'': {{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1280287g |title=Musurgia universalis sive Ars magna consoni et dissoni. Tomus I |last=Kircher |first=Athanasius |year=1650}}
* Kircher. ''Musurg.'': {{Cite book|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k123681g |title=Musurgia universalis sive Ars magna consoni et dissoni. Tomus II |last=Kircher |first=Athanasius |year=1650}}
* Labacco, ''Libro dell' Architettura''
* Labeon., ''Dig.''
* Labus., ''Antich. di Mantova''
* La Chausse, ''Receuil d'Antiq. Romaines''
* Lact., ''Mort. persecut.''
* Lactant.
* Lambeccio, ''Append. ad Lib. IV. Comment.''
* Lambecc., ''Bibliothec. Caes.''
* Lambeccius, ''Comment. Bibl. Caes.''
* Giovanni Lami, ''Dissertaz. sopra le Ciste Mistiche''
* Lamprid., ''Alex. Sev.''
* Lamprid., ''Commodus''
* Lamprid., ''Elagab.''
* Lamprid., ''Heliog.''
* Liban. Antioch.
* Licetus, ''De gemmis anulorum'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_7i0a9224zjQC/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Hieroglyphica sive Antiqua schemata gemmarum anularium |last=Liceti |first=Fortunio}}
* Licetus, ''Lucern.'' (?): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008532349/page/n3/mode/2up |title=De lucernis antiquorum reconditis libri sex |last=Liceti |first=Fortunio}}
* Liv.
* Liv., ''Epit.''
* Livius Andronicus
* Longus
* Lorenzo Pignori, ''De Serv.''
* Luc., ''Zeux.''
* Lucan.
* Lucan., ''Phars.''
* Lucian., ''Lexiph.''
* Lucian., ''Salt.''
* Lucil., ''Salt.'' (ev. falsch für Lucian.?)
* Lucil., ''Sat.'' (ed. Gerlach)
* Lucret.
* Luctat. in Stat. ''Theb.''
* Lumisden, ''Antiquities of Rome'': {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.at/books/about/Remarks_on_the_Antiquities_of_Rome_and_I.html?id=n70sAAAAYAAJ |title=Remarks on the Antiquities of Rome and Its Environs |last=Lumisden |first=Andrew}}
* Lycophr.
* Lysias ap. Poll.
* Macer., ''Dig.''
* Macrin. Imp. ap. Capitolin.
* Macrob., ''Sat.''
* Maecen. ap. Senec. ''Ep.''
* Maffei, ''Mus. Veron.''
* Manilius, ''Astr.''
* Manni, ''Dissert. degli Occhiali''
* Manutius ad Cic. ''Fam.''
* Manutius, ''de Comit. Rom.''
* Mar. Victorin.
* Marcell., ''Dig.''
* Marcell. Empir.
* Marc. Capell.
* Marini
* Marini, ''Frat. Arv.''
* Marini, ''Inscriz. Alb.''
* Marius Victorin.
* Marquez, ''Case degli Antichi Romani''
* Marquez, ''Ord. Dor.''
* Mart., ''Epigramm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1294.phi002 |title=Epigrammata |last=Martialis |first=Marcus Valerius |year=1925}}
* Mart., ''in Lemmate''
* Mart., ''Spect.''
* Mart., ''Tit. in Ep.''
* Martian. Capell.
* Martini, ''von den Sonnenuhren der Alten''
* Mauricii (bzw. Mauricius), ''Ars Mil.'' (ed. Joh. Scheffer)
* Mazois, ''Ruines de Pomp.''
* Mazzocchi, ''de Ascia''
* Mela
* Mercuriali, ''Gymn.''
* Micali, ''Italia avanti il Dominio de' Romani''
* Micali, ''Italia avanti i Romani''
* Millin, ''Vas. Ant.''
* Minucius Felix
* Minucius Felix, ''in Octav.''
* Modest.
* Montfauc., ''Antiq. Expl.''
* Morell., ''Dissert. de' Littori''
* Moschus ap. Athen.
* Mosebach, ''de Praecon. Vet.''
* Muller, ''Hist. of Greek Literature''
* Müller, ''Archaologie der Kunst'' (korrekt wohl ''Archäologie der Kunst'')
* Müller, ''Handbuch der Archäologie der Kunst''
* Murat (Inscriptions)?
* Muratori, ''Inscript.''
* Muret (Inscriptions)?
* ''Museo Borbon.''
* ''Mus. Capitol.''
* ''Mus. Chiaramont.''
* ''Mus. Pio-Clem.''
* Nardini, ''Rom. Ant.''
* Nemes., ''Fragm. de Aucup.''
* Nemesian, ''Cyneg.''
* Nepos., ''Ag.''
* Nepos., ''Ages.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Ag.'')
* Nepos., ''Alcib.''
* Nepos, ''Att.''
* Nepos, ''Con.''
* Nepos, ''Dat.''
* Nepos, ''Dion.''
* Nepos, ''Epam.''
* Nepos, ''Eum.''
* Nepos, ''Iphicr.''
* Nepos, ''Milt.''
* Nepos, ''Pel.''
* Nepos, ''Them.''
* Nicet. Choniat., ''Script. Byzant.''
* Nicolai, ''Antichità di Pesto''
* Niebuhr, ''Hist. Rom.''
* Nigid. ap. Isidor.
* Non. (page number in the codex „Merc.“ is found below the ordinary page number): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/noniimarcellidec01noni/page/n1/mode/2up |title=Nonii Marcelli De conpendiosa doctrina: Volumen I |last=Nonius |first=Marcellus |year=1903}}
* Non. (page number in the codex „Merc.“ is found below the ordinary page number): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/noniimarcellidec02noni/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Nonii Marcelli De conpendiosa doctrina: Volumen II |last=Nonius |first=Marcellus |year=1903}}
* Non. (page number in the codex „Merc.“ is found below the ordinary page number): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/noniimarcellidec03noni/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Nonii Marcelli De conpendiosa doctrina: Volumen III |last=Nonius |first=Marcellus |year=1903}}
* Nonn., ''Dionys.''
* 'Not. Tires.''
* 'Notitia Imperii''
* 'Novum Testamentum''
* Oppian., ''Cyneg.''
* Oppian., ''Hal.''
* Orelli, ''Inscr.''
* Oribas, ''Coll. Med.''
* Oudendorp ''ad Suet. Galb.''
* Ov., ''Med. fac.''
* Ovid., ''Amor.''
* Ovid., ''Art. Am.''
* Ovid., ''Fast.''
* Ovid., ''Her.''
* Ovid., ''Ibis''
* Ovid., ''Met.''
* Ovid., ''Nux''
* Ovid., ''Pont.''
* Ovid., ''Rem.'' (ev. identisch mit ''Rem. Am.'')
* Ovid., ''Rem. Am.''
* Ovid., ''Trist.''
* P. Syrus ap. Pet. ''Sat.''
* P. Victor, ''de Reg. Urb. Rom.''
* Pacuv. ap. Non.
* Pallad.
* Pallad., ''Jan.''
* Pallad., ''Feb.''
* Pallad., ''Jun.''
* Pallad., ''Oct.''
* Pallad., ''Nov.''
* Panofka, ''Recherches sur les véritables Noms des Vases Grecs''
* Panvinus, ''de Lud. Circen.''
* Paterc.
* Paul. ex Fest.
* Paul., ''Dig.''
* Paul., ''Sentent.''
* Paul. Nol., ''Ep.''
* Pausan.
* Pedo Albin., ''El.''
* Perecr., ''Δουλ.''
* Persius, ''Sat.''
* Pet., ''Fragm.''
* Pet., ''Priap.''
* Pet., ''Sat.''
* Phaedr.
* Philostr., ''Imag.''
* 'Pict. Crypt.''
* Pietro Stancovich, ''Anfiteatro di Pola''
* Pignorius, ''de Serv.''
* 'Pitture de Ercolan.''
* Pindar, ''Olymp.''
* Pitisc. (Inscriptions)
* Plato, ''de Leg.''
* Plato, ''Euthyphr.''
* Plato, ''Phaed.'' (ed. Bipont)
* Plat., ''Symp.''
* Plat., ''Theaet.''
* Plaut., ''Amph.''
* Plaut., ''As.'' (''Asin.''?)
* Plaut., ''Aul.''
* Plaut., ''Bacch.''
* Plaut., ''Capt.''
* Plaut., ''Cas.''
* Plaut., ''Cist.''
* Plaut., ''Crass.''
* Plaut., ''Curc.''
* Plaut., ''Epid.''
* Plaut., ''Men.''
* Plaut., ''Merc.''
* Plaut., ''Mil.''
* Plaut., ''Most.''
* Plaut., ''Pers.''
* Plaut., ''Poen.''
* Plaut., ''Pseud.''
* Plaut., ''Rud.''
* Plaut., ''Stich.''
* Plin., ''Ep.''
* Plin. Jun., ''Ep.'' (ev. identisch mit dem vorigen?)
* Plinius, ''Historia Naturalis''
* Plin., ''Paneg.''
* Plut., ''Coriol.''
* Plut., ''de Garrul.''
* Plutarch.
* Plutarch., ''Agid. et Cleom.''
* Plutarch., ''Alex.''
* Plutarch., ''Anton.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg058 |title=Antonius |last=Plutarch |first=}}
* Plutarch., ''Crass.''
* Plutarch., ''Galb.''
* Plutarch., ''Gracch.''
* Plutarch., ''Lysand.''
* Plutarch., ''Paul. Aemil.''
* Plutarch., ''Pericl.''
* Plutarch., ''T. Gracch.''
* Poet. vet. ap. Quint.
* Poet Vet. in ''Antholog. Lat.'' (Burman.)
* Pollux
* Pollux, ''Onomast.''
* Polyb.
* Polyb., ''Fr. Hist.''
* Pompon. ap. ''Non.''
* Pomp., ''Dig.''
* Pontedera, ''Curae Posth. ad l.'' (?ad Cato, R. R.?)
* Porphyr. ''Schol. ad Hor.''
* Porphyr. ad Hor. ''Od.''
* Porphyr. ''in Ptol. Harm.''
* Prince of Biscari, ''Degli antichi Ornamenti e Trastulli de' Bambini''
* Procop., ''de Aedific. Justin.''
* Procop., ''Goth.''
* Procul., ''Dig.''
* 'Procuratori Baphii Cissae Histriae'' (siehe ev. Carli, ''Antich. Ital.'')
* Propert.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0620.phi001 |title=Elegiae |last=Propertius |first=Sextus}}
* Prud., ''Apoth.'': {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa005.perseus-lat2:1 |title=Apotheosis |last=Propertius |first=Sextus}}
* Prudent., ''Cathem.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa004 |title=Cathemerina |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prudent., ''Hamart.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa006 |title=Hamartigenia |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prud., ''Peri Steph.'' (im Text in Griechisch, siehe ''Brabeum''): {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa001.perseus-lat2:1 |title=Liber Peristephanon |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prud., ''Psychom.'': {{Cite book|url=https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa002.perseus-lat2:pr |title=Psychomachia |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* Prudent., ''in Symmach.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0238.stoa007 |title=Contra Symmachum |last=Prudentius |first=Aurelius Clemens}}
* P. Scipio ap. Macrob. ''Sat.''
* Quaranta., ''Mus. Borb.''
* Quint.
* Quint., ''Declam.''
* Quint., ''Inst.''
* Q. Cic., ''Pet. Cons.''
* Reines., ''Inscr.''
* Rheines, ''Syntagm. Inscript.''
* Rhemn. Fann., ''de Pond. et Mens.''
* Rhodius
* Riddle
* 'Riddle's English-Latin Dictionary''
* Romanelli, ''Topogr. Napolitan.''
* Romanelli, ''Viagg. a Pompei''
* Ruperti, ''ad Suet. Aug.''
* Ruperti, ''ad Juv.''
* Rutil., ''Itiner.''
* Sallust, ''Cat.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0631.phi001 |title=Catilinae Coniuratio |last=Sallustius Crispus |first=Gaius}}
* Sallust, ''Fragm. ap. Non.''
* Sallust, ''Fragm. Incert.'' (ed. Gerlach.)
* Sallust, ''Hist.'' ap. Non.
* Sallust, ''Jugurth.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0631.phi002 |title=Bellum Iugurthinum |last=Sallustius Crispus |first=Gaius}}
* Salmas., ''de Mod. Usur.''
* Salmas ad Lamprid, ''Alex. Sev.''
* Salmas ad Solin.
* Samas. (ev. Salmas?), ''ad Tertull. de Pall.''
* Salvian., ''Gub D.''
* Scaev., ''Dig.''
* Scheffer, ''Mil. Nav.''
* Scheffer, ''Mil. Nav. Addend.''
* Scheffer, ''Re Vehic.''
* Schilte ad Kircher. ''Musurg.''
* Schneider (zu Columell.?)
* Schneider (zu R. R.?)
* Schneider, ''Index R. R. Script.''
* Schneider (zu Vitruv.?)
* Schneider, ''de trapeto Catonis''
* Schneider, Index. ''Script. R. R.''
* Schol. Acron. ad Hor. ''Sat.''
* Schol. Aristoph. ''Eq.''
* Schol. ad Thucyd.
* Schol. Vet.
* Schol. Vet. ap. Juv. ''Sat.''
* Scip.
* Scipio Afr. ap. Gell.
* Scipio Afr. ap. Macrob. ''Sat.''
* Scribon., ''Compos.''
* Seneca, ''Agam.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi007 |title=Agamemnon |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Apocol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi011 |title=Apocolocyntosis |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Benef.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi013 |title=De Beneficiis |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Brev. Vit.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa004 |title=De Brevitate Vitae |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Cons. ad Marc.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa007 |title=De Consolatione ad Marciam |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Const. Sap.''
* Seneca, ''Contr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1014.phi001 |title=Controversiae |last=Seneca the Elder |first=}}
* Seneca, ''Ep.''
* Seneca, ''Herc. Fur.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi001 |title=Hercules Furens |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Herc. Oet.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi009 |title=Hercules Oetaeus |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Hipp.''
* Seneca, ''Ira'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa010 |title=De Ira |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Med.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi004 |title=Medea |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Octav.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi010 |title=Octavia |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Oed.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi006 |title=Oedipus |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Prov.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa012 |title=De Providentia |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Quaest. Nat.''
* Seneca, ''Suas.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1014.phi003 |title=Suasoriae |last=Seneca the Elder |first=}}
* Seneca, ''Tranquill.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa013 |title=De Tranquillitate Animi |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Troad.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi002 |title=Troades |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''Thyest.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1017.phi008 |title=Thyestes |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seneca, ''V. B.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0255.stoa014 |title=De Vita Beata |last=Seneca |first=Lucius Annaeus}}
* Seren. Sammon.
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Aen.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0053 |title=Servii Grammatici in Vergilii Aeneidos Librum Primum Commentarius |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Bucol..'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0091 |title=Commentary on the Eclogues of Vergil |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Serv. ad Virg. ''Georg.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0092 |title=Commentary on the Georgics of Vergil |last=Servius the Grammarian |first=}}
* Sever., ''Aetn.''
* Sext. Ruf., ''de Reg. Urb.''
* Sicul. Flacc., ''de Condit. Agror.'' (Goes.)
* Sidon., ''Carm.''
* Sidon., ''Epist.'' (I-IX): {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0261.stoa0002 |title=Epistulae |last=Sidonius Apollinaris |first=}}
* Sidon., ''in conc. post Epist.''
* Sidon. Apoll., ''Carm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0261.stoa0001 |title=Carmina |last=Sidonius Apollinaris |first=}}
* Sil. Ital.
* Simpl. ap. Goes.
* Sisenna. ap. Non.
* Sisenna ap. Charis
* Solin.
* Soph., ''Ag.''
* Soph., ''Electr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg005 |title=Electra |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Soph., ''Oed. T.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg004 |title=Oedipus Tyrannus |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Soph., ''Tr.'' (see Soph., ''Trachin.'')
* Soph., ''Trachin.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0011.tlg001 |title=Trachiniae |last=Sophocles |first=}}
* Spanheim
* Spanheim ad Callim. ''Hymn. in Dian.''
* Spart., ''Ael. Ver.''
* Spart., ''Caracall.''
* Spart., ''Hadr.''
* Spart., ''Pescenn. Nig.''
* Spart., ''Sev.''
* Spon., ''Miscell. Erud. Ant.''
* Spon., ''Recherches''
* Spratt and Forbes, ''Travels in Lycia''
* Stackelberg, ''Gräb. d. Hell.''
* Stat., ''Achill.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi003 |title=Achilleis |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Stat., ''Sylv.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi002 |title=Silvae |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Statius, ''Theb.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1020.phi001 |title=Thebais |last=Statius |first=Publius Papinius}}
* Staunton
* Strabo ed. Siebenk.: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001 |title=Geography |last= |first=Strabo}}
* Stuart, ''Antiq. of Athens''
* Suet., ''Aug.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo012 |title=Divus Augustus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Cal.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo014 |title=Caligula |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Claud.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo015 |title=Divus Claudius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Dom.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo022 |title=Domitianus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Galb.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo017 |title=Galba |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Gramm.''
* Suet., ''Jul.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo011 |title=Divus Julius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Nero'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo016 |title=Nero |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Octav.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo012 |title=Divus Augustus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Otho'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo018 |title=Otho |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Tib.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo013 |title=Tiberius |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Tit.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo021 |title=Divus Titus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Vesp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo020 |title=Divus Vespasianus |last=Suetonius Tranquillus |first=Gaius}}
* Suet., ''Vitell.''
* Suidas: {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_muMfQ3EzcKUC_2 |title=Suidas |last=Anon. |first=}}
* Sulpic. ad Cic. ''Fam.''
* Sulp. Sev.
* Sulp. Sev., ''Dial.''
* Sulp. Sev., ''Hist. Sacr.''
* Symeoni, ''Epitaffi Antichi'' (Lione, 1557)
* Symm., ''Ep.''
* Sympos.
* Sympos., ''Aenigm.''
* Tac., ''Ann.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi005 |title=Annales |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Tac., ''Germ.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi002 |title=De Origine et Situ Germanorum Liber |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Tac., ''Hist.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1351.phi004 |title=Historiae |last=Tacitus |first=Cornelius}}
* Terent., ''Adelph.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi006 |title=Adelphi |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Eun.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi003 |title=Eunuchus |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Heautontim.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi002 |title=Heautontimorumenos |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Terent., ''Hecyr.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi005 |title=Hecyra |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Ter., ''Phorm.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0134.phi004 |title=Phormio |last=Terentius Afer |first=Publius}}
* Tertull., ''Anim.''
* Tertull., ''Apol.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0275.stoa009 |title=Apologeticum |last=Tertullianus |first=Quintus Septimius Florens}}
* Tertull., ''Carm. de Jona et Ninive''
* Tertull., ''ad Hermog.''???
* Tertull., ''ad Nation.''
* Tertull., ''ad Scapul.''
* Tertull., ''Habit. Mil.''
* Tertull., ''adv. Hermog.''
* Tertull., ''adv. Jud.''
* Tertull., ''adv. Marc.''
* Tertull., ''Coron. Mil.''
* Tertull., ''(de) Cult. Foem.''
* Tertull., ''Pall.''
* Tertull., ''Poen.'' (ev. ''P&lt;ae&gt;n.''?)
* Tertull., ''Praescr.''
* Tertull., ''de Spectac.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:stoa0275.stoa027 |title=De Spectaculis |last=Tertullianus |first=Quintus Septimius Florens}}
* Tertull., ''Virg. Veland.''
* Theocr., ''Idyl.''
* Theophrast., ''Hist. Plant.''
* Thucyd.
* Tibull.
* Tiro ap. Gell.
* Titin. ap. Non.
* Titinnius (vermutlich identisch mit letztem)
* Tischbein
* Townsend, ''Itinerary''
* Trajan. ad Plin. ''Ep.''
* Trebell., ''Claud.''
* Trebell., ''Gallien.''
* Trebell., ''Trig. Tyrann.''
* Turnbull, ''Treatise on Ancient Painting'': {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008696383/page/n5/mode/2up |title=A treatise on ancient painting |last=Turnbull |first=George |year=1740}}
* Turnebus, ''Advers.''
* Tzetz, ''ad Lycophr.''
* Uggeri, ''Capo di Bove''
* Ulp., ''Dig.''
* Val. Flacc.
* Valerius Maximus: {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1038.phi001 |title=Facta et Dicta Memorabilia |last=Valerius Maximus |first=}}
* Val. Max., ''Ext.''
* Valerian. ''in Epist. ap. Trebell. Claud.''
* Varro, ap. Non.
* Varro, ''L. L.''
* Varro, ''R. R.''
* Varro, ''De Vit. Pop. Ro. ap. Non.''
* Vatican Virgil
* Veget., ''Mil.''
* Veget., ''Mul. Med.'' oder ''Mulom.''
* Veget., ''Vet.''
* Vell.
* Vell. Pat.
* Velser, ''Histor. Augustan.''
* Venant., ''Carm.''
* Virg., ''Aen.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi003 |title=Aeneid |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., ''Catalect.''
* Virg., ''Cir.'' / ''Ciris.''
* Virg., ''Copa''
* Virg., ''Cul.''
* Virg., ''Ecl.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi001 |title=Eclogae |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., ''Georg.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0690.phi002 |title=Georgicon |last=Vergilius Maro |first=Publius}}
* Virg., ''Moret.''
* Virg., ''Pervigil. Ven.''
* Visconti, ''Inscript. Triop.''
* Visconti, ''Lettera al Sigr. Giuseppe Carnveali, sopra alcuni Vasi sepolcrali rinvenuti nella vicinanza della antica Alba Longa''
* Visconti, ''Mus. Pio. Clem.''
* Vitruv.
* Vitruv., ''Compend.''
* Vopisc., ''Bonos.''
* Vopisc., ''Carin.''
* Vopisc., ''Prob.''
* Vopisc., ''Saturn.''
* Vopisc., ''Tac.''
* Vulg., ''Exod.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg002.perseus-lat1 |title=Exodus |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Vulg., ''1. Kings'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg013.perseus-lat1 |title=1 Kings |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Vulg., ''Levit.'': {{Cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0527.tlg003.perseus-lat1 |title=Leviticus |last=Saint Jerome |first=}}
* Wernsdorf (e.g. &quot;Poet Lat. Min. ap. Wernsdorf&quot;)
* Wesseling ad Diodor. Sic.
* Wilkinson, ''Ancient Egyptians'' bzw. ''Manners and Customs of Ancient Egyptians'' (see below)
* Wilkinson, ''Manners and Customs of the Egyptians'' (Vol. 1): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mannerscustomsof01wilk/page/n7/mode/2up |title=The manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians: Vol. 1 |last=Wilkinson |first=John Gardner}}
* Wilkinson, ''Manners and Customs of the Egyptians'' (Vol. 2): {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mannerscustomsof02wilk/page/n7/mode/2up |title=The manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians: Vol. 2 |last=Wilkinson |first=John Gardner}}
* Wilkinson, ''Manners and Customs of the Egyptians'' (Vol. 3 missing)
* Winkelm., ''Cab. Stosch.''
* Wink., ''Mon. Ant. Ined.: {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/winckelmann1767ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Monumenti antichi inediti |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Mon. Ined.'': {{Cite book|url=https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/winckelmann1767ga?ui_lang=eng |title=Monumenti antichi inediti |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Pierres gravées'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/16588 |title=Description des pierres gravées du feu baron de Stosch dediée a son eminence monseigneur le cardinal Aléxandre Albani par m. l'abbé Winckelmann bibliothecaire de son eminence |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wink., ''Storia delle Arti'': {{Cite book|url=https://arachne.dainst.org/entity/2087673 |title=Storia delle arti del disegno presso gli antichi |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim}}
* Wunder., ''Codex Erfutens.''
* Xen., ''Anab.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg006 |title=Anabasis |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''Cyrop.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg007 |title=Cyropaedia |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''Equest.'' (see Xen., ''R. Equest.'')
* Xen., ''Hell.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg001 |title=Hellenica |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''R. Equest.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg013.perseus-grc1 |title=De re equestri |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xen., ''Symp.'': {{Cite book|url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg004 |title=Symposium |last=Xenophon |first=}}
* Xenophon., ''Hellen.'' (see Xen., ''Hell.'')

[[Category:Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary|*]]

== Requirements ==

All recommended editions should be ''freely available.'' This means, that access is both unrestricted and for free. This usually entails that these texts are in the public domain or licensed under one of the ''Creative Commons''-licenses. The point of this is to enable to provide references to Latin and Greek passages (and other cited texts) which lead to freely accessible online editions of these texts. No amount of money must be charged to access them, and no login-data be necessary in order to access these texts. The user should also be able to download these texts.

Recommended editions should be fully digital editions, that is, the text has been transcribed instead of pages merely having been scanned and made available as images. Where ''free'' editions of such digital texts are unavailable, scanned books can be used as well, however.

== Selection criteria for primary resources ==

Texts are selected from the following sources and in the following order (e.g. Perseus Digital Library is preferred, where available):

# [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ Perseus Digital Library]: Editions of Latin and Greek texts available at the ''Perseus Digital Library'' should be chosen, if these are either in the public domain or shared using a ''Creative Commmons''-license. ''Perseus'' provides mostly &quot;canonical&quot; texts.
# [https://www.opengreekandlatin.org/ Open Greek &amp; Latin] and the [https://scaife.perseus.org/library/ Scaife Viewer]: Where ''Perseus'' does not offer an author or specific text, this site is next in line.
# Online editions which meet the above requirements and allow links to a specific page (or even passage) of the text in question. Web-sites providing such a functionality are, for example: Archive.org, Gallica.
# Online editions, which meet the above requirements but do not allow links to a specific page. These editions should be a last resort, however.

== External links ==

* [https://creativecommons.org/ Creative Commons]: This organization provides templates for copyright licenses, which using and sharing content less restrictive.
* [https://archive.org Archive.org]
* [https://gallica.bnf.fr Gallica]

[[Category:Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary|*]]
[[Category:RICH-2K/Project pages]]</text>
      <sha1>kg549u3emciyveoy3mrkbis5ni7fyo5</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Institute for Mental and Behavioral Health Research (IMBHR) at Nationwide Children's Hospital/Reference Management SOPs</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>2687899</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Parodda</username>
        <id>2936296</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adding info from &quot;zotero: eliminating duplicates&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="7448" sha1="ctuzvf9o7746kqlp4tigborifs5raw1" xml:space="preserve">=== How to use Zotero to Eliminate Duplicates - Options for Automation ===
Automating the merging of duplicates in Zotero requires a combination of built-in Zotero features and third-party tools or scripts. Here’s a guide to streamline the process:

==== 1. Built-in Zotero Features ====
Zotero has a duplicate detection feature that can help you identify and manually merge duplicates:

* Go to the '''Library'''
* Select the '''Duplicate Items''' collection in the left sidebar.
* Zotero will display potential duplicates. You can select and merge them manually by choosing the correct metadata files to keep. 

==== 2. Using Zotero Plugins ====
Several plugins can help automate or speed up the duplicate management process:

===== a) Zotero Utilities Plugin =====

* This plugin offers batch operations, including better deduplication workflows.
* Download and install the plugin from the Zotero plugin repository.
* Use the plugin's deduplication tools to merge similar items.

====== b) Better BibTeX for Zotero ======

* Designed for managing large libraries, it can enhance duplicate detection, especially for citation metadata.
* Install it and configure the duplicate handling options in the preferences.

==== 3. Custom Automation Using Zotero's API ====
If you're comfortable with coding, you can write a script using Zotero's API to automate duplicate merging. Here's an outline:

* Use the Zotero Web API to fetch your library items.
* Identify duplicates based on title, author, or DOI.
* Automatically merge duplicates by keeping the most complete metadata.

Python and JavaScript are commonly used for scripting. Libraries like pyzotero can help.

==== 4. External Tools ====

* Export your Zotero library to a format like CSV or RIS.
* Use a deduplication tool (e.g., OpenRefine) to clean up the data.
* Re-import the cleaned library into Zotero.

==== 5. Tips for Prevention ====

* Use Zotero’s metadata retrieval and DOI import features carefully to avoid introducing duplicates.
* Periodically clean your library by reviewing the '''Duplicate Items''' collection.

=== Better BibTeX for Zotero (BBT) ===
'''Better BibTeX for Zotero''' is primarily designed to manage bibliographies for LaTeX and other writing systems, but it also offers advanced deduplication and citation key management features.

==== Installation: ====

===== 1. Download the Plugin =====

* Visit the BBT GitHub page.
* Download the latest release of the plugin compatible with your Zotero version.

===== 2. Install the Plugin =====

* Open Zotero.
* Go Tools &gt; Add-ons &gt; Gear Icon &gt; Install Add-on From File.
* Select the downloaded .xpi file and install it
* Restart Zotero to activate the plugin

==== Using Better BibTeX for Deduplication ====

===== 1. Access Deduplication Settings: =====

* Open Zotero and go to Edit &gt; Preferences &gt; Better BibTeX.

===== 2. Enable Duplicate Detection: =====

* In the Export tab, enable the '''“Keep Citation Keys Unique”''' option. This ensures every item has a unique key, helping identify duplicates.

===== 3. Customizing Deduplication: =====

* Navigate to the Advanced tab and adjust duplicate detection settings:
** '''Fields to Compare:''' Set priority fields fro deduplication, such as title, author, DOI, or ISBN.
** '''Threshold:''' Control how strict the comparison criteria should be. 

===== 4. Run Deduplication: =====

* In Zotero, select the '''Duplicate Items''' collection in the left-hand sidebar.
* BBT improves the detection logic here, highlighting items that might not be caught by Zotero’s default settings.

===== 5. Merge Duplicates =====

* Select items flagged as duplicates.
* Use the '''Merge Items''' button to consolidate them into a single entry while preserving important metadata.

==== Batch Export and Cleanup ====
BBT can help in cleaning up your library by exporting and re-importing data with deduplication applied:

===== 1. Export Your Library =====

* Right-click your library or a collection
* Select Export Library and choose '''Better BibTeX format (.bib)'''.
* Save the .bib file to your desired location.

===== 2. Edit in a Text Editor =====

* Open the exported .bib file in a text editor.
* Look for entries with similar citation keys, titles, or authors.
* Manually resolve conflicts if needed.

===== 3. Re-import =====

* Import the cleaned .bib file back into Zotero.

==== Advanced Tips ====

===== 1. Automatic Key Generation =====

* In the Better BibTeX settings, enable custom citation key patterns to generate unique keys automatically (e.g., [auth:lower][year]).

===== 2. Sync Deduplication Settings =====

* If using Zotero on multiple devices, sync BBT preferences across installations.

===== 3. Automated Maintenance =====

* Use the '''Auto-export''' feature to maintain a clean, deduplicated .bib file for external projects.

=== Workflow: ===

* Pull PDFs for chapters, articles, download a copy of standards or guidelines for web resources (so that we have an offline copy available, as well as the link)
* Put in one folder
* Add to Zotero IMBHR, with &quot;folders/projects&quot; that reflect source (more on that below)
* Share back with EAY to add to JenEric reference library
** Plan for harmonizing with IMBHR is to do ~quarterly harvests
*** Where we export the .xml using the methods Marissa described in her excellent email
**** Plan for importing based on VIBE protocol:
***** Open the .enl file
***** Ctrl &amp; A to select all references
***** Click arrow icon, change file to XML and save it under .Data folder
***** Import XML to Zotero
**** If the file is too big to upload:
***** Zotero will just crash each time you try to import
***** Easiest work-around is to open the .enl file as usual, but then filter at the top by the first letter of the author's last name.
***** Once it filters, you can do Ctrl &amp; A to select only the items with that letter. 
***** You can then save the XML by adding (letter) to the last name, so we know what letter the file is for. 
***** Update from Marissa: The As have 989 references and it took about 4 minutes for the import into Zotero, the Bs have 2360 and it took over 20 minutes, but it worked and kept the PDFs from EndNote. It seems like this is the way we'll have to go about it, which will take some time. I already did the ones that don't have an author. Each import needs to go to a new collection, otherwise all of the references will go straight to the general IMBHR Library, and you'll have to make a new collection and move them manually (learned this the hard way with the Bs). I made a JenEric main folder so we can drag and drop the new collections there. 
*** With one tweak: We sort the library by &quot;ascension number&quot; and only add the ones with the newer ascensions (= bigger numbers) than where we left off last time.
**** This should accomplish the &quot;smaller&quot; batching that Marissa invented by filtering by the first letter of author name!

=== [https://apastyle.apa.org/jars?utm_campaign=apa_publishing&amp;utm_medium=direct_email&amp;utm_source=businessdevelopment&amp;utm_content=openscience_promo_jars_educators_11152024&amp;utm_term=text_top_apastyle APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS)] ===

* APA Style JARS can be used to make sure that all necessary information is included in manuscript sections for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research. The JARS also include information on how best to discuss race, ethnicity, and culture across methodologies.</text>
      <sha1>ctuzvf9o7746kqlp4tigborifs5raw1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687900</id>
      <parentid>2687899</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T19:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Parodda</username>
        <id>2936296</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2687900</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11053" sha1="nkq59vg0afb6tlxzaogy9zcp54z2v07" xml:space="preserve">=== How to use Zotero to Eliminate Duplicates - Options for Automation ===
[[File:Merging_Citations_in_Zotero.png|thumb|Instructions for merging citations in the Zotero desktop application]]
Automating the merging of duplicates in Zotero requires a combination of built-in Zotero features and third-party tools or scripts. Here’s a guide to streamline the process:

==== 1. Built-in Zotero Features ====
Zotero has a duplicate detection feature that can help you identify and manually merge duplicates:

* Go to the '''Library'''
* Select the '''Duplicate Items''' collection in the left sidebar.
* Zotero will display potential duplicates. You can select and merge them manually by choosing the correct metadata files to keep. 

==== 2. Using Zotero Plugins ====
Several plugins can help automate or speed up the duplicate management process:

===== a) Zotero Utilities Plugin =====

* This plugin offers batch operations, including better deduplication workflows.
* Download and install the plugin from the Zotero plugin repository.
* Use the plugin's deduplication tools to merge similar items.

====== b) Better BibTeX for Zotero ======

* Designed for managing large libraries, it can enhance duplicate detection, especially for citation metadata.
* Install it and configure the duplicate handling options in the preferences.

==== 3. Custom Automation Using Zotero's API ====
If you're comfortable with coding, you can write a script using Zotero's API to automate duplicate merging. Here's an outline:

* Use the Zotero Web API to fetch your library items.
* Identify duplicates based on title, author, or DOI.
* Automatically merge duplicates by keeping the most complete metadata.

Python and JavaScript are commonly used for scripting. Libraries like pyzotero can help.

==== 4. External Tools ====

* Export your Zotero library to a format like CSV or RIS.
* Use a deduplication tool (e.g., OpenRefine) to clean up the data.
* Re-import the cleaned library into Zotero.

==== 5. Tips for Prevention ====

* Use Zotero’s metadata retrieval and DOI import features carefully to avoid introducing duplicates.
* Periodically clean your library by reviewing the '''Duplicate Items''' collection.

=== Better BibTeX for Zotero (BBT) ===
'''Better BibTeX for Zotero''' is primarily designed to manage bibliographies for LaTeX and other writing systems, but it also offers advanced deduplication and citation key management features.

==== Installation: ====

===== 1. Download the Plugin =====

* Visit the BBT GitHub page.
* Download the latest release of the plugin compatible with your Zotero version.

===== 2. Install the Plugin =====

* Open Zotero.
* Go Tools &gt; Add-ons &gt; Gear Icon &gt; Install Add-on From File.
* Select the downloaded .xpi file and install it
* Restart Zotero to activate the plugin

==== Using Better BibTeX for Deduplication ====

===== 1. Access Deduplication Settings: =====

* Open Zotero and go to Edit &gt; Preferences &gt; Better BibTeX.

===== 2. Enable Duplicate Detection: =====

* In the Export tab, enable the '''“Keep Citation Keys Unique”''' option. This ensures every item has a unique key, helping identify duplicates.

===== 3. Customizing Deduplication: =====

* Navigate to the Advanced tab and adjust duplicate detection settings:
** '''Fields to Compare:''' Set priority fields fro deduplication, such as title, author, DOI, or ISBN.
** '''Threshold:''' Control how strict the comparison criteria should be. 

===== 4. Run Deduplication: =====

* In Zotero, select the '''Duplicate Items''' collection in the left-hand sidebar.
* BBT improves the detection logic here, highlighting items that might not be caught by Zotero’s default settings.

===== 5. Merge Duplicates =====

* Select items flagged as duplicates.
* Use the '''Merge Items''' button to consolidate them into a single entry while preserving important metadata.

==== Batch Export and Cleanup ====
BBT can help in cleaning up your library by exporting and re-importing data with deduplication applied:

===== 1. Export Your Library =====

* Right-click your library or a collection
* Select Export Library and choose '''Better BibTeX format (.bib)'''.
* Save the .bib file to your desired location.

===== 2. Edit in a Text Editor =====

* Open the exported .bib file in a text editor.
* Look for entries with similar citation keys, titles, or authors.
* Manually resolve conflicts if needed.

===== 3. Re-import =====

* Import the cleaned .bib file back into Zotero.

==== Advanced Tips ====

===== 1. Automatic Key Generation =====

* In the Better BibTeX settings, enable custom citation key patterns to generate unique keys automatically (e.g., [auth:lower][year]).

===== 2. Sync Deduplication Settings =====

* If using Zotero on multiple devices, sync BBT preferences across installations.

===== 3. Automated Maintenance =====

* Use the '''Auto-export''' feature to maintain a clean, deduplicated .bib file for external projects.

=== [https://icite.od.nih.gov/howtocite How to Cite iCite Data and Methodologies in your Scholarly Publications:] ===

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002541 Relative Citation Ratio Publication (Influence Module)]: ====
Hutchins BI, Yuan X, Anderson JM, Santangelo GM. Relative Citation Ratio (RCR): A New Metric That Uses Citation Rates to Measure Influence at the Article Level. PLoS Biol. 2016 Sep 6;14(9):e1002541. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002541. PMID: 27599104; PMCID: PMC5012559.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;5&quot;&gt;
File:Fig 1. Properties of co-citation networks.png
File:Fig 2. Text similarity of articles is defined more accurately by their co-citation networks than by the journals in which they appear.png
File:Fig 3. Algorithm for calculating the Relative Citation Ratio (RCR).png
File:Table 1. Variance of FCRs and ECRs using different levels of the citation network for calculations (based on 35,837 R01-funded papers published in 2009).png
File:Fig 4. RCRs correspond with expert reviewer scores.png
File:Fig 5. iCite, a publicly available tool for calculating RCR and accessing related citation information.png
File:Fig 6. RCR-based evaluation of two NIH-funded research programs.png
File:Fig 7. Properties of RCRs at the article and investigator level.png
File:Fig 8. Scientific mobility of investigators’ influence relative to their field.png
File:Table 2. Summary of investigator-level bibliometric measures and their stability from one 4-y period to the next (PIs with more than five articles in each period, except for article count).png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000416 Approximate Potential to Translate Publication (Translation Module)]: ====
Hutchins BI, Davis MT, Meseroll RA, Santangelo GM. Predicting translational progress in biomedical research. PLoS Biol. 2019. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000416.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
File:Table 1. Seminal publications leading to Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine and their clinical citations.png
File:Fig 1. Temporal dynamics of translation.png
File:Fig 2. Training a machine learning system to predict future translation.png
File:Fig 3. Validation of machine learning predictions.png
File:Table 2. Importance rank of features for prediction.png
File:Fig 4. Effect on the translational potential of a paper after it receives different classes of citations.png
File:Fig 5. Screenshot of the translation module of iCite.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000385 NIH Open Citation Collection Publication (Citations Module):] ====
Hutchins BI, Baker K, Davis M, Diwersy M, Haque E, Harriman R, Hoppe T, Leicht S, Santangelo GM. The NIH Open Citation Collection: A public access, broad coverage resource. PLoS Biol. 2019. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000385.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
File:Fig 2. Screen capture of the iCite web interface to open citation data.png
File:Fig 1. Citations in the NIH-OCC.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2003552 Updates to RCR Calculation of Recent Papers (Influence Module):] ====
Hutchins BI, Hoppe TA, Meseroll RA, Anderson JM, Santangelo GM. Additional support for RCR: A validated article-level measure of scientific influence. PLoS Biol. 2017 Oct 2;15(10):e2003552. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2003552. PMID: 28968381; PMCID: PMC5624567.

=== Workflow: ===

* Pull PDFs for chapters, articles, download a copy of standards or guidelines for web resources (so that we have an offline copy available, as well as the link)
* Put in one folder
* Add to Zotero IMBHR, with &quot;folders/projects&quot; that reflect source (more on that below)
* Share back with EAY to add to JenEric reference library
** Plan for harmonizing with IMBHR is to do ~quarterly harvests
*** Where we export the .xml using the methods Marissa described in her excellent email
**** Plan for importing based on VIBE protocol:
***** Open the .enl file
***** Ctrl &amp; A to select all references
***** Click arrow icon, change file to XML and save it under .Data folder
***** Import XML to Zotero
**** If the file is too big to upload:
***** Zotero will just crash each time you try to import
***** Easiest work-around is to open the .enl file as usual, but then filter at the top by the first letter of the author's last name.
***** Once it filters, you can do Ctrl &amp; A to select only the items with that letter. 
***** You can then save the XML by adding (letter) to the last name, so we know what letter the file is for. 
***** Update from Marissa: The As have 989 references and it took about 4 minutes for the import into Zotero, the Bs have 2360 and it took over 20 minutes, but it worked and kept the PDFs from EndNote. It seems like this is the way we'll have to go about it, which will take some time. I already did the ones that don't have an author. Each import needs to go to a new collection, otherwise all of the references will go straight to the general IMBHR Library, and you'll have to make a new collection and move them manually (learned this the hard way with the Bs). I made a JenEric main folder so we can drag and drop the new collections there. 
*** With one tweak: We sort the library by &quot;ascension number&quot; and only add the ones with the newer ascensions (= bigger numbers) than where we left off last time.
**** This should accomplish the &quot;smaller&quot; batching that Marissa invented by filtering by the first letter of author name!

=== [https://apastyle.apa.org/jars?utm_campaign=apa_publishing&amp;utm_medium=direct_email&amp;utm_source=businessdevelopment&amp;utm_content=openscience_promo_jars_educators_11152024&amp;utm_term=text_top_apastyle APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS)] ===

* APA Style JARS can be used to make sure that all necessary information is included in manuscript sections for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research. The JARS also include information on how best to discuss race, ethnicity, and culture across methodologies.</text>
      <sha1>nkq59vg0afb6tlxzaogy9zcp54z2v07</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687901</id>
      <parentid>2687900</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-19T19:50:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Parodda</username>
        <id>2936296</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2687901</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11157" sha1="fy6yeiz3zbzk41qyxa8iwqomdk472os" xml:space="preserve">=== How to use Zotero to Eliminate Duplicates - Options for Automation ===
[[File:Merging_Citations_in_Zotero.png|thumb|Instructions for merging citations in the Zotero desktop application]]
Automating the merging of duplicates in Zotero requires a combination of built-in Zotero features and third-party tools or scripts. Here’s a guide to streamline the process:

==== 1. Built-in Zotero Features ====
Zotero has a duplicate detection feature that can help you identify and manually merge duplicates:

* Go to the '''Library'''
* Select the '''Duplicate Items''' collection in the left sidebar.
* Zotero will display potential duplicates. You can select and merge them manually by choosing the correct metadata files to keep. 

==== 2. Using Zotero Plugins ====
Several plugins can help automate or speed up the duplicate management process:

===== a) Zotero Utilities Plugin =====

* This plugin offers batch operations, including better deduplication workflows.
* Download and install the plugin from the Zotero plugin repository.
* Use the plugin's deduplication tools to merge similar items.

====== b) Better BibTeX for Zotero ======

* Designed for managing large libraries, it can enhance duplicate detection, especially for citation metadata.
* Install it and configure the duplicate handling options in the preferences.

==== 3. Custom Automation Using Zotero's API ====
If you're comfortable with coding, you can write a script using Zotero's API to automate duplicate merging. Here's an outline:

* Use the Zotero Web API to fetch your library items.
* Identify duplicates based on title, author, or DOI.
* Automatically merge duplicates by keeping the most complete metadata.

Python and JavaScript are commonly used for scripting. Libraries like pyzotero can help.

==== 4. External Tools ====

* Export your Zotero library to a format like CSV or RIS.
* Use a deduplication tool (e.g., OpenRefine) to clean up the data.
* Re-import the cleaned library into Zotero.

==== 5. Tips for Prevention ====

* Use Zotero’s metadata retrieval and DOI import features carefully to avoid introducing duplicates.
* Periodically clean your library by reviewing the '''Duplicate Items''' collection.

=== Better BibTeX for Zotero (BBT) ===
'''Better BibTeX for Zotero''' is primarily designed to manage bibliographies for LaTeX and other writing systems, but it also offers advanced deduplication and citation key management features.

==== Installation: ====

===== 1. Download the Plugin =====

* Visit the BBT GitHub page.
* Download the latest release of the plugin compatible with your Zotero version.

===== 2. Install the Plugin =====

* Open Zotero.
* Go Tools &gt; Add-ons &gt; Gear Icon &gt; Install Add-on From File.
* Select the downloaded .xpi file and install it
* Restart Zotero to activate the plugin

==== Using Better BibTeX for Deduplication ====

===== 1. Access Deduplication Settings: =====

* Open Zotero and go to Edit &gt; Preferences &gt; Better BibTeX.

===== 2. Enable Duplicate Detection: =====

* In the Export tab, enable the '''“Keep Citation Keys Unique”''' option. This ensures every item has a unique key, helping identify duplicates.

===== 3. Customizing Deduplication: =====

* Navigate to the Advanced tab and adjust duplicate detection settings:
** '''Fields to Compare:''' Set priority fields fro deduplication, such as title, author, DOI, or ISBN.
** '''Threshold:''' Control how strict the comparison criteria should be. 

===== 4. Run Deduplication: =====

* In Zotero, select the '''Duplicate Items''' collection in the left-hand sidebar.
* BBT improves the detection logic here, highlighting items that might not be caught by Zotero’s default settings.

===== 5. Merge Duplicates =====

* Select items flagged as duplicates.
* Use the '''Merge Items''' button to consolidate them into a single entry while preserving important metadata.

==== Batch Export and Cleanup ====
BBT can help in cleaning up your library by exporting and re-importing data with deduplication applied:

===== 1. Export Your Library =====

* Right-click your library or a collection
* Select Export Library and choose '''Better BibTeX format (.bib)'''.
* Save the .bib file to your desired location.

===== 2. Edit in a Text Editor =====

* Open the exported .bib file in a text editor.
* Look for entries with similar citation keys, titles, or authors.
* Manually resolve conflicts if needed.

===== 3. Re-import =====

* Import the cleaned .bib file back into Zotero.

==== Advanced Tips ====

===== 1. Automatic Key Generation =====

* In the Better BibTeX settings, enable custom citation key patterns to generate unique keys automatically (e.g., [auth:lower][year]).

===== 2. Sync Deduplication Settings =====

* If using Zotero on multiple devices, sync BBT preferences across installations.

===== 3. Automated Maintenance =====

* Use the '''Auto-export''' feature to maintain a clean, deduplicated .bib file for external projects.

=== [https://icite.od.nih.gov/howtocite How to Cite iCite Data and Methodologies in your Scholarly Publications:] ===

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002541 Relative Citation Ratio Publication (Influence Module)]: ====
Hutchins BI, Yuan X, Anderson JM, Santangelo GM. Relative Citation Ratio (RCR): A New Metric That Uses Citation Rates to Measure Influence at the Article Level. PLoS Biol. 2016 Sep 6;14(9):e1002541. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002541. PMID: 27599104; PMCID: PMC5012559.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;5&quot;&gt;
File:Fig 1. Properties of co-citation networks.png
File:Fig 2. Text similarity of articles is defined more accurately by their co-citation networks than by the journals in which they appear.png
File:Fig 3. Algorithm for calculating the Relative Citation Ratio (RCR).png
File:Table 1. Variance of FCRs and ECRs using different levels of the citation network for calculations (based on 35,837 R01-funded papers published in 2009).png
File:Fig 4. RCRs correspond with expert reviewer scores.png
File:Fig 5. iCite, a publicly available tool for calculating RCR and accessing related citation information.png
File:Fig 6. RCR-based evaluation of two NIH-funded research programs.png
File:Fig 7. Properties of RCRs at the article and investigator level.png
File:Fig 8. Scientific mobility of investigators’ influence relative to their field.png
File:Table 2. Summary of investigator-level bibliometric measures and their stability from one 4-y period to the next (PIs with more than five articles in each period, except for article count).png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000416 Approximate Potential to Translate Publication (Translation Module)]: ====
Hutchins BI, Davis MT, Meseroll RA, Santangelo GM. Predicting translational progress in biomedical research. PLoS Biol. 2019. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000416.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
File:Table 1. Seminal publications leading to Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine and their clinical citations.png
File:Fig 1. Temporal dynamics of translation.png
File:Fig 2. Training a machine learning system to predict future translation.png
File:Fig 3. Validation of machine learning predictions.png
File:Table 2. Importance rank of features for prediction.png
File:Fig 4. Effect on the translational potential of a paper after it receives different classes of citations.png
File:Fig 5. Screenshot of the translation module of iCite.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000385 NIH Open Citation Collection Publication (Citations Module):] ====
Hutchins BI, Baker K, Davis M, Diwersy M, Haque E, Harriman R, Hoppe T, Leicht S, Santangelo GM. The NIH Open Citation Collection: A public access, broad coverage resource. PLoS Biol. 2019. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000385.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
File:Fig 2. Screen capture of the iCite web interface to open citation data.png
File:Fig 1. Citations in the NIH-OCC.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2003552 Updates to RCR Calculation of Recent Papers (Influence Module):] ====
Hutchins BI, Hoppe TA, Meseroll RA, Anderson JM, Santangelo GM. Additional support for RCR: A validated article-level measure of scientific influence. PLoS Biol. 2017 Oct 2;15(10):e2003552. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2003552. PMID: 28968381; PMCID: PMC5624567.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot;&gt;
File:Fig 1. Stability of Relative Citation Ratio (RCR) over time.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Workflow: ===

* Pull PDFs for chapters, articles, download a copy of standards or guidelines for web resources (so that we have an offline copy available, as well as the link)
* Put in one folder
* Add to Zotero IMBHR, with &quot;folders/projects&quot; that reflect source (more on that below)
* Share back with EAY to add to JenEric reference library
** Plan for harmonizing with IMBHR is to do ~quarterly harvests
*** Where we export the .xml using the methods Marissa described in her excellent email
**** Plan for importing based on VIBE protocol:
***** Open the .enl file
***** Ctrl &amp; A to select all references
***** Click arrow icon, change file to XML and save it under .Data folder
***** Import XML to Zotero
**** If the file is too big to upload:
***** Zotero will just crash each time you try to import
***** Easiest work-around is to open the .enl file as usual, but then filter at the top by the first letter of the author's last name.
***** Once it filters, you can do Ctrl &amp; A to select only the items with that letter. 
***** You can then save the XML by adding (letter) to the last name, so we know what letter the file is for. 
***** Update from Marissa: The As have 989 references and it took about 4 minutes for the import into Zotero, the Bs have 2360 and it took over 20 minutes, but it worked and kept the PDFs from EndNote. It seems like this is the way we'll have to go about it, which will take some time. I already did the ones that don't have an author. Each import needs to go to a new collection, otherwise all of the references will go straight to the general IMBHR Library, and you'll have to make a new collection and move them manually (learned this the hard way with the Bs). I made a JenEric main folder so we can drag and drop the new collections there. 
*** With one tweak: We sort the library by &quot;ascension number&quot; and only add the ones with the newer ascensions (= bigger numbers) than where we left off last time.
**** This should accomplish the &quot;smaller&quot; batching that Marissa invented by filtering by the first letter of author name!

=== [https://apastyle.apa.org/jars?utm_campaign=apa_publishing&amp;utm_medium=direct_email&amp;utm_source=businessdevelopment&amp;utm_content=openscience_promo_jars_educators_11152024&amp;utm_term=text_top_apastyle APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS)] ===

* APA Style JARS can be used to make sure that all necessary information is included in manuscript sections for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research. The JARS also include information on how best to discuss race, ethnicity, and culture across methodologies.</text>
      <sha1>fy6yeiz3zbzk41qyxa8iwqomdk472os</sha1>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Parodda</username>
        <id>2936296</id>
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      <text bytes="18650" sha1="7w5yoernoojgszhsyaiebwott0cvkds" xml:space="preserve">=== How to use Zotero to Eliminate Duplicates - Options for Automation ===
[[File:Merging_Citations_in_Zotero.png|thumb|Instructions for merging citations in the Zotero desktop application]]
Automating the merging of duplicates in Zotero requires a combination of built-in Zotero features and third-party tools or scripts. Here’s a guide to streamline the process:

==== 1. Built-in Zotero Features ====
Zotero has a duplicate detection feature that can help you identify and manually merge duplicates:

* Go to the '''Library'''
* Select the '''Duplicate Items''' collection in the left sidebar.
* Zotero will display potential duplicates. You can select and merge them manually by choosing the correct metadata files to keep. 

==== 2. Using Zotero Plugins ====
Several plugins can help automate or speed up the duplicate management process:

===== a) Zotero Utilities Plugin =====

* This plugin offers batch operations, including better deduplication workflows.
* Download and install the plugin from the Zotero plugin repository.
* Use the plugin's deduplication tools to merge similar items.

====== b) Better BibTeX for Zotero ======

* Designed for managing large libraries, it can enhance duplicate detection, especially for citation metadata.
* Install it and configure the duplicate handling options in the preferences.

==== 3. Custom Automation Using Zotero's API ====
If you're comfortable with coding, you can write a script using Zotero's API to automate duplicate merging. Here's an outline:

* Use the Zotero Web API to fetch your library items.
* Identify duplicates based on title, author, or DOI.
* Automatically merge duplicates by keeping the most complete metadata.

Python and JavaScript are commonly used for scripting. Libraries like ''pyzotero'' can help.

==== 4. External Tools ====

* Export your Zotero library to a format like CSV or RIS.
* Use a deduplication tool (e.g., OpenRefine) to clean up the data.
* Re-import the cleaned library into Zotero.

==== 5. Tips for Prevention ====

* Use Zotero’s metadata retrieval and DOI import features carefully to avoid introducing duplicates.
* Periodically clean your library by reviewing the '''Duplicate Items''' collection.

=== Better BibTeX for Zotero (BBT) ===
'''Better BibTeX for Zotero''' is primarily designed to manage bibliographies for LaTeX and other writing systems, but it also offers advanced deduplication and citation key management features.

==== Installation: ====

===== 1. Download the Plugin =====

* Visit the BBT GitHub page.
* Download the latest release of the plugin compatible with your Zotero version.

===== 2. Install the Plugin =====

* Open Zotero.
* Go to ''Tools &gt; Add-ons &gt; Gear Icon &gt; Install Add-on From File.''
* Select the downloaded .''xpi'' file and install it
* Restart Zotero to activate the plugin

==== Using Better BibTeX for Deduplication ====

===== 1. Access Deduplication Settings: =====

* Open Zotero and go to ''Edit &gt; Preferences &gt; Better BibTeX.''

===== 2. Enable Duplicate Detection: =====

* In the ''Export'' tab, enable the '''“Keep Citation Keys Unique”''' option. This ensures every item has a unique key, helping identify duplicates.

===== 3. Customizing Deduplication: =====

* Navigate to the Advanced tab and adjust duplicate detection settings:
** '''Fields to Compare:''' Set priority fields fro deduplication, such as ''title'', ''author'', ''DOI'', or ''ISBN''.
** '''Threshold:''' Control how strict the comparison criteria should be. 

===== 4. Run Deduplication: =====

* In Zotero, select the '''Duplicate Items''' collection in the left-hand sidebar.
* BBT improves the detection logic here, highlighting items that might not be caught by Zotero’s default settings.

===== 5. Merge Duplicates =====

* Select items flagged as duplicates.
* Use the '''Merge Items''' button to consolidate them into a single entry while preserving important metadata.

==== Batch Export and Cleanup ====
BBT can help in cleaning up your library by exporting and re-importing data with deduplication applied:

===== 1. Export Your Library =====

* Right-click your library or a collection
* Select ''Export Library'' and choose '''Better BibTeX format (.bib)'''.
* Save the .''bib'' file to your desired location.

===== 2. Edit in a Text Editor =====

* Open the exported .''bib'' file in a text editor.
* Look for entries with similar citation keys, titles, or authors.
* Manually resolve conflicts if needed.

===== 3. Re-import =====

* Import the cleaned .''bib'' file back into Zotero.

==== Advanced Tips ====

===== 1. Automatic Key Generation =====

* In the ''Better BibTeX'' settings, enable custom citation key patterns to generate unique keys automatically (e.g., ''[auth:lower][year]'').

===== 2. Sync Deduplication Settings =====

* If using Zotero on multiple devices, sync BBT preferences across installations.

===== 3. Automated Maintenance =====

* Use the '''Auto-export''' feature to maintain a clean, deduplicated .''bib'' file for external projects.

==== Why Use Better BibTeX? ====

* '''Enhanced Duplicate Detection''': Goes beyond Zotero’s default logic by comparing additional metadata fields.
* '''Customizable Keys''': Ensures that each item has a unique and traceable citation key.
* '''Batch Operations''': Speeds up library cleanup for large collections.

Here’s an '''R script''' for detecting and merging duplicates in a Zotero library using the Zotero Web API. It uses the ''httr'' and ''jsonlite'' packages for API interaction.

==== Prerequisites ====
Install the required R packages:

* ''httr''
* ''jsonlite''

Copy code: ''install.packages(c(&quot;httr&quot;, &quot;jsonlite&quot;))''

Obtain your Zotero API Key and User/Group ID

* Go to Zotero API Settings.
* Generate an API key with read/write permissions for your library.

==== R Script for Duplicate Detection and Merging ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;r&quot; line=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
library(httr)
library(jsonlite)

# Configuration
api_key &lt;- &quot;your_api_key_here&quot;
library_id &lt;- &quot;your_library_id_here&quot;
library_type &lt;- &quot;user&quot; # Use &quot;group&quot; if it's a group library
base_url &lt;- paste0(&quot;https://api.zotero.org/&quot;, library_type, &quot;s/&quot;, library_id)

# Fetch all items
fetch_all_items &lt;- function() {
  items &lt;- list()
  start &lt;- 0
  limit &lt;- 100
  
  repeat {
    url &lt;- paste0(base_url, &quot;/items?limit=&quot;, limit, &quot;&amp;start=&quot;, start, &quot;&amp;key=&quot;, api_key)
    response &lt;- GET(url)
    stop_for_status(response)
    batch &lt;- fromJSON(content(response, as = &quot;text&quot;, encoding = &quot;UTF-8&quot;))
    
    if (length(batch) == 0) break
    
    items &lt;- c(items, batch)
    start &lt;- start + length(batch)
  }
  
  print(paste(&quot;Fetched&quot;, length(items), &quot;items&quot;))
  return(items)
}

# Identify duplicates
find_duplicates &lt;- function(items) {
  duplicates &lt;- list()
  
  for (item in items) {
    if (!is.null(item$data$title) &amp;&amp; !is.null(item$data$creators)) {
      title &lt;- tolower(item$data$title)
      authors &lt;- tolower(paste(sapply(item$data$creators, function(x) x$lastName), collapse = &quot;,&quot;))
      key &lt;- paste0(title, &quot;|&quot;, authors)
      
      if (!is.null(duplicates[[key]])) {
        duplicates[[key]] &lt;- c(duplicates[[key]], item)
      } else {
        duplicates[[key]] &lt;- list(item)
      }
    }
  }
  
  duplicates &lt;- Filter(function(x) length(x) &gt; 1, duplicates)
  print(paste(&quot;Found&quot;, length(duplicates), &quot;duplicate groups&quot;))
  return(duplicates)
}

# Merge duplicates
merge_duplicates &lt;- function(duplicates) {
  for (key in names(duplicates)) {
    group &lt;- duplicates[[key]]
    master &lt;- group[[which.max(sapply(group, function(x) length(x$data)))]]
    master_key &lt;- master$key
    
    for (item in group) {
      if (item$key != master_key) {
        print(paste(&quot;Deleting duplicate item:&quot;, item$key))
        url &lt;- paste0(base_url, &quot;/items/&quot;, item$key, &quot;?key=&quot;, api_key)
        DELETE(url)
      }
    }
  }
  print(&quot;Duplicate merging complete!&quot;)
}

# Main script
items &lt;- fetch_all_items()
duplicates &lt;- find_duplicates(items)

if (length(duplicates) &gt; 0) {
  merge_duplicates(duplicates)
} else {
  print(&quot;No duplicates found&quot;)
}

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== Script Breakdown ====

===== 1. Fetch All Items: =====

* Fetches all items from the Zotero library in batches of 100 using the API.

===== 2. Identify Duplicates: =====

* Detects duplicates based on the ''title'' and ''authors''. You can add fields like ''DOI'' or ''ISBN'' to refine detection.

==== 3. Merge Duplicates: ====

* Retains the item with the most metadata and deletes the rest using the Zotero API.

===== 4. Execution =====

* The script outputs the duplicates detected and actions taken during merging.

==== Customization Options ====

* '''Duplicate Detection'''
** Modify the ''key'' logic in ''find_duplicates()'' to include fields like ''year'' or ''DOI.''
* '''Merging Logic'''
** Add a step to copy tags, notes, or other data from duplicates to the master item before deletion.
* '''Error Handling'''
** Add error handling for network issues or API rate limits.
Here’s a basic '''Python script''' to help automate detecting and merging duplicates in Zotero using the '''Zotero Web API''' and the ''pyzotero'' library/

==== Prerequisites ====
Install the ''pyzotero'' library.

Copy code: ''pip install pyzotero''

Get your Zotero API Key:

* Visit Zotero API Settings.
* Generate an API key with the required permissions for your library.

Identify your Zotero User or Group ID:

* You can find it in your Zotero API settings

==== Python Script for Duplicate Detection and Merging ====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;python&quot; line=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
from pyzotero import zotero
from collections import defaultdict

# Configure your Zotero credentials
API_KEY = &quot;your_api_key_here&quot;
LIBRARY_ID = &quot;your_library_id_here&quot;
LIBRARY_TYPE = &quot;user&quot;  # Use 'group' if working with a group library

# Initialize the Zotero API client
zot = zotero.Zotero(LIBRARY_ID, LIBRARY_TYPE, API_KEY)

def fetch_all_items():
    &quot;&quot;&quot;Fetch all items from the Zotero library.&quot;&quot;&quot;
    items = zot.everything(zot.items())
    print(f&quot;Fetched {len(items)} items.&quot;)
    return items

def find_duplicates(items):
    &quot;&quot;&quot;Identify duplicates based on title and authors.&quot;&quot;&quot;
    duplicates = defaultdict(list)
    for item in items:
        if &quot;title&quot; in item[&quot;data&quot;] and &quot;creators&quot; in item[&quot;data&quot;]:
            title = item[&quot;data&quot;][&quot;title&quot;].lower()
            authors = tuple(creator[&quot;lastName&quot;].lower() for creator in item[&quot;data&quot;][&quot;creators&quot;] if &quot;lastName&quot; in creator)
            key = (title, authors)
            duplicates[key].append(item)

    # Filter out non-duplicates
    return {k: v for k, v in duplicates.items() if len(v) &gt; 1}

def merge_duplicates(duplicates):
    &quot;&quot;&quot;Merge duplicates by keeping the most complete metadata.&quot;&quot;&quot;
    for key, items in duplicates.items():
        print(f&quot;Processing duplicates for: {key}&quot;)
        # Determine the item with the most metadata fields
        master_item = max(items, key=lambda x: len(x[&quot;data&quot;]))
        master_key = master_item[&quot;key&quot;]

        for item in items:
            if item[&quot;key&quot;] != master_key:
                # Add tags or notes to the master item before deletion if needed
                print(f&quot;Deleting duplicate item: {item['key']}&quot;)
                zot.delete_item(item)

if __name__ == &quot;__main__&quot;:
    # Step 1: Fetch all items
    items = fetch_all_items()

    # Step 2: Find duplicates
    duplicates = find_duplicates(items)
    print(f&quot;Found {len(duplicates)} duplicate groups.&quot;)

    # Step 3: Merge duplicates
    if duplicates:
        merge_duplicates(duplicates)
        print(&quot;Duplicate merging complete!&quot;)
    else:
        print(&quot;No duplicates found.&quot;)

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

==== Explanation of the Script ====

===== 1. Fetching Items: =====

* All items are fetched using the Zotero API.

===== 2. Finding Duplicates =====

* Duplicates are identified based on a combination of ''title'' and ''authors''. You can modify the criteria to include ''DOI'' or ''ISBN''.

===== 3. Merging Duplicates =====

* The script keeps the item with the most metadata fields and deletes the rest. You can customize this behavior, for example, by merging tags or notes from duplicates.

===== 4. Execution: =====

* Run the script in Python. It will log the duplicates found and actions taken.

==== Customization ====

* '''Merge Criteria''': Adjust the duplicate detection logic to include fields like ''DOI'' or ''year''.
* '''Prevention''': Add tags, notes, or other data from duplicates to the master item before deletion.

=== [https://icite.od.nih.gov/howtocite How to Cite iCite Data and Methodologies in your Scholarly Publications:] ===

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002541 Relative Citation Ratio Publication (Influence Module)]: ====
Hutchins BI, Yuan X, Anderson JM, Santangelo GM. Relative Citation Ratio (RCR): A New Metric That Uses Citation Rates to Measure Influence at the Article Level. PLoS Biol. 2016 Sep 6;14(9):e1002541. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002541. PMID: 27599104; PMCID: PMC5012559.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;5&quot;&gt;
File:Fig 1. Properties of co-citation networks.png
File:Fig 2. Text similarity of articles is defined more accurately by their co-citation networks than by the journals in which they appear.png
File:Fig 3. Algorithm for calculating the Relative Citation Ratio (RCR).png
File:Table 1. Variance of FCRs and ECRs using different levels of the citation network for calculations (based on 35,837 R01-funded papers published in 2009).png
File:Fig 4. RCRs correspond with expert reviewer scores.png
File:Fig 5. iCite, a publicly available tool for calculating RCR and accessing related citation information.png
File:Fig 6. RCR-based evaluation of two NIH-funded research programs.png
File:Fig 7. Properties of RCRs at the article and investigator level.png
File:Fig 8. Scientific mobility of investigators’ influence relative to their field.png
File:Table 2. Summary of investigator-level bibliometric measures and their stability from one 4-y period to the next (PIs with more than five articles in each period, except for article count).png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000416 Approximate Potential to Translate Publication (Translation Module)]: ====
Hutchins BI, Davis MT, Meseroll RA, Santangelo GM. Predicting translational progress in biomedical research. PLoS Biol. 2019. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000416.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
File:Table 1. Seminal publications leading to Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine and their clinical citations.png
File:Fig 1. Temporal dynamics of translation.png
File:Fig 2. Training a machine learning system to predict future translation.png
File:Fig 3. Validation of machine learning predictions.png
File:Table 2. Importance rank of features for prediction.png
File:Fig 4. Effect on the translational potential of a paper after it receives different classes of citations.png
File:Fig 5. Screenshot of the translation module of iCite.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000385 NIH Open Citation Collection Publication (Citations Module):] ====
Hutchins BI, Baker K, Davis M, Diwersy M, Haque E, Harriman R, Hoppe T, Leicht S, Santangelo GM. The NIH Open Citation Collection: A public access, broad coverage resource. PLoS Biol. 2019. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000385.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; perrow=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
File:Fig 2. Screen capture of the iCite web interface to open citation data.png
File:Fig 1. Citations in the NIH-OCC.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==== [https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2003552 Updates to RCR Calculation of Recent Papers (Influence Module):] ====
Hutchins BI, Hoppe TA, Meseroll RA, Anderson JM, Santangelo GM. Additional support for RCR: A validated article-level measure of scientific influence. PLoS Biol. 2017 Oct 2;15(10):e2003552. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2003552. PMID: 28968381; PMCID: PMC5624567.&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot;&gt;
File:Fig 1. Stability of Relative Citation Ratio (RCR) over time.png
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=== Workflow: ===

* Pull PDFs for chapters, articles, download a copy of standards or guidelines for web resources (so that we have an offline copy available, as well as the link)
* Put in one folder
* Add to Zotero IMBHR, with &quot;folders/projects&quot; that reflect source (more on that below)
* Share back with EAY to add to JenEric reference library
** Plan for harmonizing with IMBHR is to do ~quarterly harvests
*** Where we export the .xml using the methods Marissa described in her excellent email
**** Plan for importing based on VIBE protocol:
***** Open the .enl file
***** Ctrl &amp; A to select all references
***** Click arrow icon, change file to XML and save it under .Data folder
***** Import XML to Zotero
**** If the file is too big to upload:
***** Zotero will just crash each time you try to import
***** Easiest work-around is to open the .enl file as usual, but then filter at the top by the first letter of the author's last name.
***** Once it filters, you can do Ctrl &amp; A to select only the items with that letter. 
***** You can then save the XML by adding (letter) to the last name, so we know what letter the file is for. 
***** Update from Marissa: The As have 989 references and it took about 4 minutes for the import into Zotero, the Bs have 2360 and it took over 20 minutes, but it worked and kept the PDFs from EndNote. It seems like this is the way we'll have to go about it, which will take some time. I already did the ones that don't have an author. Each import needs to go to a new collection, otherwise all of the references will go straight to the general IMBHR Library, and you'll have to make a new collection and move them manually (learned this the hard way with the Bs). I made a JenEric main folder so we can drag and drop the new collections there. 
*** With one tweak: We sort the library by &quot;ascension number&quot; and only add the ones with the newer ascensions (= bigger numbers) than where we left off last time.
**** This should accomplish the &quot;smaller&quot; batching that Marissa invented by filtering by the first letter of author name!

=== [https://apastyle.apa.org/jars?utm_campaign=apa_publishing&amp;utm_medium=direct_email&amp;utm_source=businessdevelopment&amp;utm_content=openscience_promo_jars_educators_11152024&amp;utm_term=text_top_apastyle APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS)] ===

* APA Style JARS can be used to make sure that all necessary information is included in manuscript sections for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research. The JARS also include information on how best to discuss race, ethnicity, and culture across methodologies.</text>
      <sha1>7w5yoernoojgszhsyaiebwott0cvkds</sha1>
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    <title>User:Jaredscribe/Department of Government Efficiency</title>
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      <text bytes="18957" sha1="dkvnpbumk49jvw8dtz3rivvdu5vfidq" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

The '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} ('''DOGE''') will be a United States [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] aimed at cutting federal spending and reducing the size of government bureaucracy, reducing the [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; , during the [[wikipedia:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|the second administration]] of U.S. president-elect [[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]], who intends it to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;. He also stated that Musk and Ramaswamy will work with the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] to address what he called &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (hereafter WOGE) will overview the federal bureaucracy and federal budget in the context of president-elect Trump's [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the DOGE might fulfill its mission.

DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State, to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulation ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the Federal Register first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to Trump's first term  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The ''Chevron'' deference had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent SCOTUS rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Reducing Federal civil service employees ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Healthcare and  Medicare Reform ==
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]].&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== U.S. Department of Defense ==

== Social Security ==
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Education ==

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]


== Reference Notes ==
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      <text bytes="18921" sha1="5vbdzit3jxxyardhd475llrv6ec6sqb" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the federal bureaucracy, federal civil service and federal budget in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;.  This wiki-research-project will work with the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] to address what president-elect[[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] called &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulation ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the Federal Register first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to Trump's first term  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The ''Chevron'' deference had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent SCOTUS rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Reducing Federal civil service employees ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Healthcare and  Medicare Reform ==
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]].&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== U.S. Department of Defense ==

== Social Security ==
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Department of Education ==

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot; /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>5vbdzit3jxxyardhd475llrv6ec6sqb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687931</id>
      <parentid>2687930</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T00:40:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaredscribe</username>
        <id>2906761</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* U.S. Department of Defense */ copied from [[w:US Department of Education]]</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20248" sha1="cypn52oaq9kh015fcz7vk5ng3xqj3qx" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the federal bureaucracy, federal civil service and federal budget in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;.  This wiki-research-project will work with the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] to address what president-elect[[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] called &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulation ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the Federal Register first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to Trump's first term  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The ''Chevron'' deference had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent SCOTUS rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Reducing Federal civil service employees ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Healthcare and  Medicare Reform ==
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]].&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== Department of State ==
{{Main article|w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Prospective_foreign_policy|w:State Department}}

== U.S. Department of Defense ==

== Social Security ==
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Department of Education ==
[[w:United_States_Department_of_Education|w:Department of Education]] has 4,400 employees – the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html|title=Federal Role in Education|date=2021-06-15|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2022-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; – and a 2024 budget of $238 billion.&lt;ref name=&quot;DOE-mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaspending.gov/agency/department-of-education?fy=2024|title=Agency Profile {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www2.ed.gov|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2023 Budget was $274 billion, which included funding for children with disabilities ([[wikipedia:Individuals_with_Disabilities_Education_Act|IDEA]]), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, [[wikipedia:Pell_Grant|Pell Grants]], [[wikipedia:Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act|Title I]], work assistance, among other programs. This budget was down from $637.7 billion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.future-ed.org/what-the-new-pisa-results-really-say-about-u-s-schools/|title=What the New PISA Results Really Say About U.S. Schools|date=2021-06-15|website=future-ed.com|language=en|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot; /&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="20353" sha1="db0fb0ygvikf0ffrhkcyxh4ut8oyk2n" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the federal bureaucracy, the federal civil service and federal budget in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;.  This wiki-research-project will work with the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] to address what president-elect[[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] called &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[w:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulation ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the [[w:Federal_Register|Federal Register]] first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to [[w:First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|Trump's first term]].  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The [[w:Chevron_deference|''Chevron'' deference]] had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent [[w:SCOTUS|SCOTUS]] rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Reducing Federal civil service employees ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Healthcare and  Medicare Reform ==
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]].&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== Department of State ==
{{Main article|w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Prospective_foreign_policy|w:State Department}}

== U.S. Department of Defense ==

== Social Security ==
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Department of Education ==
[[w:United_States_Department_of_Education|w:Department of Education]] has 4,400 employees – the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html|title=Federal Role in Education|date=2021-06-15|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2022-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; – and a 2024 budget of $238 billion.&lt;ref name=&quot;DOE-mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaspending.gov/agency/department-of-education?fy=2024|title=Agency Profile {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www2.ed.gov|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2023 Budget was $274 billion, which included funding for children with disabilities ([[wikipedia:Individuals_with_Disabilities_Education_Act|IDEA]]), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, [[wikipedia:Pell_Grant|Pell Grants]], [[wikipedia:Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act|Title I]], work assistance, among other programs. This budget was down from $637.7 billion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.future-ed.org/what-the-new-pisa-results-really-say-about-u-s-schools/|title=What the New PISA Results Really Say About U.S. Schools|date=2021-06-15|website=future-ed.com|language=en|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
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      <text bytes="20654" sha1="j9tkx3ovuk1o5vo860a33wthxgyyrzr" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the federal bureaucracy, the federal civil service and federal budget in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;.  This wiki-research-project will work with the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] to address what president-elect[[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] called &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[w:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulate the Economy ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the [[w:Federal_Register|Federal Register]] first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to [[w:First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|Trump's first term]].  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The [[w:Chevron_deference|''Chevron'' deference]] had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent [[w:SCOTUS|SCOTUS]] rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shrink the federal civil service ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Reform Entitlements ==

=== Healthcare and  Medicare ===
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

See below:  Department of Health and Human Services

=== Social Security ===
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Strategic Foreign Policy and Military reform ==

=== Department of State ===
{{Main article|w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Prospective_foreign_policy|w:State Department}}

=== U.S. Department of Defense ===

== Reform the other Government Bureaus and Departments ==

=== Department of Education ===
[[w:United_States_Department_of_Education|w:Department of Education]] has 4,400 employees – the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html|title=Federal Role in Education|date=2021-06-15|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2022-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; – and a 2024 budget of $238 billion.&lt;ref name=&quot;DOE-mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaspending.gov/agency/department-of-education?fy=2024|title=Agency Profile {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www2.ed.gov|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2023 Budget was $274 billion, which included funding for children with disabilities ([[wikipedia:Individuals_with_Disabilities_Education_Act|IDEA]]), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, [[wikipedia:Pell_Grant|Pell Grants]], [[wikipedia:Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act|Title I]], work assistance, among other programs. This budget was down from $637.7 billion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.future-ed.org/what-the-new-pisa-results-really-say-about-u-s-schools/|title=What the New PISA Results Really Say About U.S. Schools|date=2021-06-15|website=future-ed.com|language=en|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ===
[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]],&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the mission of &quot;Making America Healthy Again&quot;.  He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot; /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>j9tkx3ovuk1o5vo860a33wthxgyyrzr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687935</id>
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      <timestamp>2024-11-20T02:49:00Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Jaredscribe</username>
        <id>2906761</id>
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      <comment>/* U.S. Department of Health and Human Services */</comment>
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      <text bytes="23260" sha1="768j8sinx2tykatnp88p92p96x10msu" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the federal bureaucracy, the federal civil service and federal budget in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;.  This wiki-research-project will work with the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] to address what president-elect[[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] called &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[w:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulate the Economy ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the [[w:Federal_Register|Federal Register]] first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to [[w:First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|Trump's first term]].  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The [[w:Chevron_deference|''Chevron'' deference]] had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent [[w:SCOTUS|SCOTUS]] rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shrink the federal civil service ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Reform Entitlements ==

=== Healthcare and  Medicare ===
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

See below:  Department of Health and Human Services

=== Social Security ===
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Strategic Foreign Policy and Military reform ==

=== Department of State ===
{{Main article|w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Prospective_foreign_policy|w:State Department}}

=== U.S. Department of Defense ===

== Reform the other Government Bureaus and Departments ==

=== Department of Education ===
[[w:United_States_Department_of_Education|w:Department of Education]] has 4,400 employees – the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html|title=Federal Role in Education|date=2021-06-15|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2022-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; – and a 2024 budget of $238 billion.&lt;ref name=&quot;DOE-mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaspending.gov/agency/department-of-education?fy=2024|title=Agency Profile {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www2.ed.gov|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2023 Budget was $274 billion, which included funding for children with disabilities ([[wikipedia:Individuals_with_Disabilities_Education_Act|IDEA]]), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, [[wikipedia:Pell_Grant|Pell Grants]], [[wikipedia:Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act|Title I]], work assistance, among other programs. This budget was down from $637.7 billion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.future-ed.org/what-the-new-pisa-results-really-say-about-u-s-schools/|title=What the New PISA Results Really Say About U.S. Schools|date=2021-06-15|website=future-ed.com|language=en|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ===
[[w:U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services|U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]] has 12 operating divisions, 9 of which constitute the [[w:Public_Health_Services|Public Health Services]]

The Department of Health and Human Services was authorized a budget for [[w:2020_United_States_federal_budget|fiscal year 2020]] of $1.293 trillion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy2020/index.html|title=HHS FY 2020 Budget in Brief|date=October 5, 2019|website=HHS Budget &amp; Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|page=7|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
!Program
!Budget authority (in millions)
|-
|Food and Drug Administration
|$3,329
|-
|Health Resources and Services Administration
|$11,004
|-
|Indian Health Service
|$6,104
|-
|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
|$6,767
|-
|National Institutes of Health
|$33,669
|-
|Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
|$5,535
|-
|Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
|$0
|-
|Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services
|$1,169,091
|-
|Administration for Children and Families
|$52,121
|-
|Administration for Community Living
|$1,997
|-
|Departmental Management
|$340
|-
|Non-Recurring Expense Fund
|$-400
|-
|Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals
|$186
|-
|Office of the National Coordinator
|$43
|-
|Office for Civil Rights
|$30
|-
|Office of Inspector General
|$82
|-
|Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund
|$2,667
|-
|Program Support Center
|$749
|-
|Offsetting Collections
|$-629
|-
|Other Collections
|$-163
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''$1,292,523'''
|}
The FY2020 budget included a $1.276 billion budget decrease for the Centers for Disease Control, and a $4.533 billion budget decrease for the National Institutes of Health.  These budget cuts, along with other changes since 2019, comprised a total decrease of over $24 billion in revised discretionary budget authority across the entire Department of Health and Human Services for Fiscal Year 2020.&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot; /&gt;

Additional details of the budgeted outlays, budget authority, and detailed budgets for other years, can be found at the HHS Budget website.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://WWW.HHS.GOV/BUDGET|title=Health and Human Services: Budget and Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] has been nominated as [[w:United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services|United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services]]

He is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]],&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the mission of &quot;Making America Healthy Again&quot;.  He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot; /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>768j8sinx2tykatnp88p92p96x10msu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687936</id>
      <parentid>2687935</parentid>
      <timestamp>2024-11-20T02:57:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaredscribe</username>
        <id>2906761</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* U.S. Department of Health and Human Services */  copied from eponymous wp article</comment>
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      <text bytes="23973" sha1="q78jkmthxfze8y1q8boya1oxxnphupa" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the federal bureaucracy, the federal civil service and federal budget in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;.  This wiki-research-project will work with the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] to address what president-elect[[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] called &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[w:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulate the Economy ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the [[w:Federal_Register|Federal Register]] first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to [[w:First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|Trump's first term]].  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The [[w:Chevron_deference|''Chevron'' deference]] had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent [[w:SCOTUS|SCOTUS]] rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shrink the federal civil service ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Reform Entitlements ==

=== Healthcare and  Medicare ===
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

See below:  Department of Health and Human Services

=== Social Security ===
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Strategic Foreign Policy and Military reform ==

=== Department of State ===
{{Main article|w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Prospective_foreign_policy|w:State Department}}

=== U.S. Department of Defense ===

== Reform the other Government Bureaus and Departments ==

=== Department of Education ===
[[w:United_States_Department_of_Education|w:Department of Education]] has 4,400 employees – the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html|title=Federal Role in Education|date=2021-06-15|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2022-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; – and a 2024 budget of $238 billion.&lt;ref name=&quot;DOE-mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaspending.gov/agency/department-of-education?fy=2024|title=Agency Profile {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www2.ed.gov|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2023 Budget was $274 billion, which included funding for children with disabilities ([[wikipedia:Individuals_with_Disabilities_Education_Act|IDEA]]), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, [[wikipedia:Pell_Grant|Pell Grants]], [[wikipedia:Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act|Title I]], work assistance, among other programs. This budget was down from $637.7 billion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.future-ed.org/what-the-new-pisa-results-really-say-about-u-s-schools/|title=What the New PISA Results Really Say About U.S. Schools|date=2021-06-15|website=future-ed.com|language=en|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ===
[[w:U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services|U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]] has 12 operating divisions, 9 of which constitute the [[w:Public_Health_Services|Public Health Services]]

The Department of Health and Human Services was authorized a budget for [[w:2020_United_States_federal_budget|fiscal year 2020]] of $1.293 trillion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy2020/index.html|title=HHS FY 2020 Budget in Brief|date=October 5, 2019|website=HHS Budget &amp; Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|page=7|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
!Program
!Budget authority (in millions)
|-
|[[w:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]]
|$3,329
|-
|[[w:Health Resources and Services Administration|Health Resources and Services Administration]]
|$11,004
|-
|[[w:Indian Health Service|Indian Health Service]]
|$6,104
|-
|[[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
|$6,767
|-
|[[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]]
|$33,669
|-
|[[w:Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration|Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]]
|$5,535
|-
|[[w:Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality|Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]]
|$0
|-
|[[w:Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services|Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services]]
|$1,169,091
|-
|[[w:Administration for Children and Families|Administration for Children and Families]]
|$52,121
|-
|[[w:Administration for Community Living|Administration for Community Living]]
|$1,997
|-
|[[w:Departmental Management|Departmental Management]]
|$340
|-
|Non-Recurring Expense Fund
|$-400
|-
|[[w:Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals|Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals]]
|$186
|-
|[[w:Office of the National Coordinator|Office of the National Coordinator]]
|$43
|-
|[[w:Office for Civil Rights|Office for Civil Rights]]
|$30
|-
|[[w:Office of Inspector General|Office of Inspector General]]
|$82
|-
|[[w:Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund|Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund]]
|$2,667
|-
|[[w:Program Support Center|Program Support Center]]
|$749
|-
|Offsetting Collections
|$-629
|-
|Other Collections
|$-163
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''$1,292,523'''
|}
The FY2020 budget included a $1.276 billion budget decrease for the Centers for Disease Control, and a $4.533 billion budget decrease for the National Institutes of Health.  These budget cuts, along with other changes since 2019, comprised a total decrease of over $24 billion in revised discretionary budget authority across the entire Department of Health and Human Services for Fiscal Year 2020.&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot; /&gt;

Additional details of the budgeted outlays, budget authority, and detailed budgets for other years, can be found at the HHS Budget website.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://WWW.HHS.GOV/BUDGET|title=Health and Human Services: Budget and Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] has been nominated as [[w:United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services|United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services]]

He is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]],&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the mission of &quot;Making America Healthy Again&quot;.  He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot; /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>q78jkmthxfze8y1q8boya1oxxnphupa</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2687937</id>
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      <timestamp>2024-11-20T03:00:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaredscribe</username>
        <id>2906761</id>
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      <comment>/* U.S. Department of Health and Human Services */</comment>
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      <text bytes="23982" sha1="t0cj9qv69ze158tltrubruof6i76w3z" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the federal bureaucracy, the federal civil service and federal budget in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;.  This wiki-research-project will work with the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] to address what president-elect[[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]] called &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[w:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulate the Economy ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the [[w:Federal_Register|Federal Register]] first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to [[w:First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|Trump's first term]].  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The [[w:Chevron_deference|''Chevron'' deference]] had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent [[w:SCOTUS|SCOTUS]] rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shrink the federal civil service ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Reform Entitlements ==

=== Healthcare and  Medicare ===
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

See below:  Department of Health and Human Services

=== Social Security ===
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Strategic Foreign Policy and Military reform ==

=== Department of State ===
{{Main article|w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Prospective_foreign_policy|w:State Department}}

=== U.S. Department of Defense ===

== Reform the other Government Bureaus and Departments ==

=== Department of Education ===
[[w:United_States_Department_of_Education|w:Department of Education]] has 4,400 employees – the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html|title=Federal Role in Education|date=2021-06-15|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2022-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; – and a 2024 budget of $238 billion.&lt;ref name=&quot;DOE-mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaspending.gov/agency/department-of-education?fy=2024|title=Agency Profile {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www2.ed.gov|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2023 Budget was $274 billion, which included funding for children with disabilities ([[wikipedia:Individuals_with_Disabilities_Education_Act|IDEA]]), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, [[wikipedia:Pell_Grant|Pell Grants]], [[wikipedia:Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act|Title I]], work assistance, among other programs. This budget was down from $637.7 billion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.future-ed.org/what-the-new-pisa-results-really-say-about-u-s-schools/|title=What the New PISA Results Really Say About U.S. Schools|date=2021-06-15|website=future-ed.com|language=en|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ===
[[w:U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services|U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]] has 12 operating divisions, 9 of which constitute the [[w:Public_Health_Services|Public Health Services]]

The Department of Health and Human Services was authorized a budget for [[w:2020_United_States_federal_budget|fiscal year 2020]] of $1.293 trillion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy2020/index.html|title=HHS FY 2020 Budget in Brief|date=October 5, 2019|website=HHS Budget &amp; Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|page=7|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
!Program
!2020 Budget
!2022 Budget
! employees
|-
|[[w:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]]
|$3,329 MM
|-
|[[w:Health Resources and Services Administration|Health Resources and Services Administration]]
|$11,004
|-
|[[w:Indian Health Service|Indian Health Service]]
|$6,104
|-
|[[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
|$6,767
|-
|[[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]]
|$33,669
|-
|[[w:Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration|Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]]
|$5,535
|-
|[[w:Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality|Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]]
|$0
|-
|[[w:Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services|Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services]]
|$1,169,091
|-
|[[w:Administration for Children and Families|Administration for Children and Families]]
|$52,121
|-
|[[w:Administration for Community Living|Administration for Community Living]]
|$1,997
|-
|[[w:Departmental Management|Departmental Management]]
|$340
|-
|Non-Recurring Expense Fund
|$-400
|-
|[[w:Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals|Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals]]
|$186
|-
|[[w:Office of the National Coordinator|Office of the National Coordinator]]
|$43
|-
|[[w:Office for Civil Rights|Office for Civil Rights]]
|$30
|-
|[[w:Office of Inspector General|Office of Inspector General]]
|$82
|-
|[[w:Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund|Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund]]
|$2,667
|-
|[[w:Program Support Center|Program Support Center]]
|$749
|-
|Offsetting Collections
|$-629
|-
|Other Collections
|$-163
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''$1,292,523'''
|}
The FY2020 budget included a $1.276 billion budget decrease for the Centers for Disease Control, and a $4.533 billion budget decrease for the National Institutes of Health.  These budget cuts, along with other changes since 2019, comprised a total decrease of over $24 billion in revised discretionary budget authority across the entire Department of Health and Human Services for Fiscal Year 2020.&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot; /&gt;

Additional details of the budgeted outlays, budget authority, and detailed budgets for other years, can be found at the HHS Budget website.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://WWW.HHS.GOV/BUDGET|title=Health and Human Services: Budget and Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] has been nominated as [[w:United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services|United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services]]

He is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]],&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the mission of &quot;Making America Healthy Again&quot;.  He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
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      <text bytes="24137" sha1="1tui7dg36pi4hupqob5g5abnx321fjk" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the [[w:U.S._Federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]], federal bureaucracy, and [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]], in the public interest, and in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with non-partisan research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, and cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;, in the words of president-elect [[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]], who called for it to address &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;   The DOGE will work with through the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] as its &quot;policy vector&quot;.

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[w:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulate the Economy ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the [[w:Federal_Register|Federal Register]] first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to [[w:First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|Trump's first term]].  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The [[w:Chevron_deference|''Chevron'' deference]] had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent [[w:SCOTUS|SCOTUS]] rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shrink the federal civil service ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Reform Entitlements ==

=== Healthcare and  Medicare ===
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

See below:  Department of Health and Human Services

=== Social Security ===
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Strategic Foreign Policy and Military reform ==

=== Department of State ===
{{Main article|w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Prospective_foreign_policy|w:State Department}}

=== U.S. Department of Defense ===

== Reform the other Government Bureaus and Departments ==

=== Department of Education ===
[[w:United_States_Department_of_Education|w:Department of Education]] has 4,400 employees – the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html|title=Federal Role in Education|date=2021-06-15|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2022-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; – and a 2024 budget of $238 billion.&lt;ref name=&quot;DOE-mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaspending.gov/agency/department-of-education?fy=2024|title=Agency Profile {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www2.ed.gov|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2023 Budget was $274 billion, which included funding for children with disabilities ([[wikipedia:Individuals_with_Disabilities_Education_Act|IDEA]]), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, [[wikipedia:Pell_Grant|Pell Grants]], [[wikipedia:Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act|Title I]], work assistance, among other programs. This budget was down from $637.7 billion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.future-ed.org/what-the-new-pisa-results-really-say-about-u-s-schools/|title=What the New PISA Results Really Say About U.S. Schools|date=2021-06-15|website=future-ed.com|language=en|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ===
[[w:U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services|U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]] has 12 operating divisions, 9 of which constitute the [[w:Public_Health_Services|Public Health Services]]

The Department of Health and Human Services was authorized a budget for [[w:2020_United_States_federal_budget|fiscal year 2020]] of $1.293 trillion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy2020/index.html|title=HHS FY 2020 Budget in Brief|date=October 5, 2019|website=HHS Budget &amp; Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|page=7|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
!Program
!2020 Budget
!2022 Budget
! employees
|-
|[[w:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]]
|$3,329 MM
|-
|[[w:Health Resources and Services Administration|Health Resources and Services Administration]]
|$11,004
|-
|[[w:Indian Health Service|Indian Health Service]]
|$6,104
|-
|[[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
|$6,767
|-
|[[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]]
|$33,669
|-
|[[w:Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration|Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]]
|$5,535
|-
|[[w:Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality|Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]]
|$0
|-
|[[w:Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services|Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services]]
|$1,169,091
|-
|[[w:Administration for Children and Families|Administration for Children and Families]]
|$52,121
|-
|[[w:Administration for Community Living|Administration for Community Living]]
|$1,997
|-
|[[w:Departmental Management|Departmental Management]]
|$340
|-
|Non-Recurring Expense Fund
|$-400
|-
|[[w:Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals|Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals]]
|$186
|-
|[[w:Office of the National Coordinator|Office of the National Coordinator]]
|$43
|-
|[[w:Office for Civil Rights|Office for Civil Rights]]
|$30
|-
|[[w:Office of Inspector General|Office of Inspector General]]
|$82
|-
|[[w:Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund|Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund]]
|$2,667
|-
|[[w:Program Support Center|Program Support Center]]
|$749
|-
|Offsetting Collections
|$-629
|-
|Other Collections
|$-163
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''$1,292,523'''
|}
The FY2020 budget included a $1.276 billion budget decrease for the Centers for Disease Control, and a $4.533 billion budget decrease for the National Institutes of Health.  These budget cuts, along with other changes since 2019, comprised a total decrease of over $24 billion in revised discretionary budget authority across the entire Department of Health and Human Services for Fiscal Year 2020.&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot; /&gt;

Additional details of the budgeted outlays, budget authority, and detailed budgets for other years, can be found at the HHS Budget website.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://WWW.HHS.GOV/BUDGET|title=Health and Human Services: Budget and Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] has been nominated as [[w:United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services|United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services]]

He is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]],&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the mission of &quot;Making America Healthy Again&quot;.  He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
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      <text bytes="24294" sha1="7pkyk1iy2qnwyt16y6rja5xun2ml09c" xml:space="preserve">The U.S. [[w:Department of Government Efficiency]].

{{Infobox Organization
|name=Department of Government Efficiency
|logo=DOGE Logo as of November 14, 2024.jpg
|logo_size=150px
|logo_caption=Logo on [[Twitter|X]] (formerly Twitter) as of November 14, 2024
|seal=
|seal_size=
|seal_caption=
|formation=Announced on November 12, 2024; yet to be established
|abbreviation=DOGE
|key_people={{plainlist|[[w:Commissioner of the Department of Government Efficiency|Co-commissioners]]:
* [[w:Elon Musk]] 
* [[w:Vivek Ramaswamy]] }}
|website={{URL|https://x.com/DOGE|x.com/DOGE}}
}}

This &quot;Wiki Of Government Efficiency&quot; (WOGE) will analyze the [[w:U.S._Federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]], [[User:Jaredscribe/Department of Government Efficiency#Reform the other Government Bureaus and Departments|federal bureaucracy]], and [[User:Jaredscribe/Department of Government Efficiency#Shrink the federal civil service|federal civil service]], in the public interest, and in the context of [[w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|president-elect Trump']]&lt;nowiki/&gt;s [[w:Agenda_47|Agenda 47]], with non-partisan research, analysis, and criticism of forward-looking proposals on how the '''[[w:Department of Government Efficiency|Department of Government Efficiency]]'''{{Efn|Also referred to as '''Government Efficiency Commission'''}} (DOGE) might fulfill its mission to &quot;dismantle government bureaucracy, slash excess regulations, and cut wasteful expenditures and restructure federal agencies&quot;, in the words of president-elect [[wikipedia:Donald_Trump|Donald Trump]], who called for it to address &quot;massive waste and fraud&quot; in government spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qwn8p0l0o|title=Donald Trump picks Elon Musk for US government cost-cutting role|last1=Faguy|first1=Ana|last2=FitzGerald|first2=James|date=2024-11-13|publisher=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-13}}&lt;/ref&gt;   The DOGE will work with through the [[w:Office_of_Management_and_Budget|Office of Management and Budget]] as its &quot;policy vector&quot;.

The [[w:U.S._budget_deficit|U.S. Budget deficit]], (C.f. [[w:Government_budget_balance|fiscal deficit]]), and the [[w:National_debt_of_the_United_States|U.S. National debt]], currently $35.7 Trillion as of 10/2024, which is 99% of the [[w:U.S._GDP|U.S. GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite news|newspaper=Financial Post| title= Musk's $2 Trillion of Budget Cuts Would Have These Stocks Moving|url=https://financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/musks-2-trillion-of-budget-cuts-would-have-these-stocks-moving|first=Alexandra|last=Semenova|date=November 4, 2024}}|{{cite news|newspaper= New York Times|title=Elon|url=https://nytimes.com/2024/10/29/us/politics/elon-musk-trump-economy-hardship.html}}|{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2024 |title=Trump says he'd create a government efficiency commission led by Elon Musk |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-elon-musk-government-efficiency-commission-e831ed5dc2f6a56999e1a70bb0a4eaeb |publisher=AP News}}|{{cite web|first=Jenn|last=Brice|title=How Elon Musk's $130 million investment in Trump's victory could reap a huge payoff for Tesla and the rest of his business empire|url=https://fortune.com/2024/11/06/elon-musk-donald-trump-tesla-spacex-xai-boring-neuralink|website=Fortune}}|{{cite web|url=https://axios.com/2024/11/07/elon-musk-government-efficiency-trump|title=Musk will bring his Twitter management style to government reform}}|{{cite news| access-date =November 9, 2024|work=Reuters|date=September 6, 2024|first1=Helen|first2=Gram|last1=Coster| last2=Slattery|title=Trump says he will tap Musk to lead government efficiency commission if elected| url= https://reuters.com/world/us/trump-adopt-musks-proposal-government-efficiency-commission-wsj-reports-2024-09-05}}|{{cite web|title=Trump says Musk could head 'government efficiency' force|url= https://bbc.com/news/articles/c74lgwkrmrpo|publisher=BBC}}|{{cite web|date =November 5, 2024|title=How Elon Musk could gut the government under Trump|url=https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/elon-musk-donald-trump-economy-job-cuts-b2641644.html|website= The Independent}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and expected to grow to 134% of GDP by 2034 if current laws remain unchanged, according to the [[w:Congressional_Budget_Office|Congressional Budget Office]].   The DOGE will be a [[wikipedia:Presidential_commission_(United_States)|presidential advisory commission]] led by the billionaire businessmen [[wikipedia:Elon_Musk|Elon Musk]] and [[wikipedia:Vivek_Ramaswamy|Vivek Ramaswamy]], and possibly [[w:Ron_Paul|Ron Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/video/ron-paul-vows-to-join-elon-musk-help-eliminate-government-waste-in-a-trump-admin/10191375|title=Ron Paul vows to join Elon Musk, help eliminate government waste in a Trump admin|date=November 5, 2024|website=The Hill}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday.com/story/business/2024/10/28/patricia-healy-elon-musk-highlights-need-for-government-efficiency/75798556007|title=Elon Musk puts spotlight on ... Department of Government Efficiency? {{!}} Cumberland Comment|last=Healy|first=Patricia|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|access-date=November 9, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Musk stated his belief that DOGE could remove US$2 trillion from the [[w:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/live/HysDMs2a-iM?si=92I5LD1FY2PAsSuG&amp;t=15822|title=WATCH LIVE: Trump holds campaign rally at Madison Square Garden in New York|date=October 28, 2024|website=youtube.com|publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]]|language=en|format=video}}&lt;/ref&gt; without specifying whether these savings would be made over a single year or a longer period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cdj38mekdkgo|title=Can Elon Musk cut $2 trillion from US government spending?|last=Chu|first=Ben|date=2024-11-13|website=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;  
[[File:2023_US_Federal_Budget_Infographic.png|thumb|An infographic on outlays and revenues in the 2023 [[United States federal budget|U.S. federal budget]]]]
DOGE could also streamline permitting with “categorical exclusions” from environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act.

{{sidebar with collapsible lists|name=U.S. deficit and debt topics|namestyle=background:#bf0a30;|style=width:22.0em; border: 4px double #d69d36; background:var(--background-color-base, #FFFFFF);|bodyclass=vcard|pretitle='''&lt;span class=&quot;skin-invert&quot;&gt;This article is part of [[:Category:United States|a series]] on the&lt;/span&gt;'''|title=[[United States federal budget|&lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-base, #000000);&quot;&gt;Budget and debt in the&lt;br/&gt;United States of America&lt;/span&gt;]]|image=[[File:Seal of the United States Congress.svg|90px]] [[File:Seal of the United States Department of the Treasury.svg|90px]]|titlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #002868); background-clip:padding-box;|headingstyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff);|listtitlestyle=background:var(--background-color-base, #bf0a30); color:var(--color-base, #fff); text-align:center;|expanded={{{expanded|{{{1|}}}}}}|list1name=dimensions|list1title=Major dimensions|list1class=hlist skin-invert|list1=* [[Economy of the United States|Economy]]
* [[Expenditures in the United States federal budget|Expenditures]]
* [[United States federal budget|Federal budget]]
* [[Financial position of the United States|Financial position]]
* [[Military budget of the United States|Military budget]]
* [[National debt of the United States|Public debt]]
* [[Taxation in the United States|Taxation]]
* [[Unemployment in the United States|Unemployment]]
* [[Government_spending_in_the_United_States|Gov't spending]]|list2name=programs|list2title=Programs|list2class=hlist skin-invert|list2=* [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]
* [[Social programs in the United States|Social programs]] 
* [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]|list3name=issues|list3title=Contemporary issues|list3class=skin-invert|list3=&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:0.5em&quot;&gt;
[[National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform|Bowles–Simpson Commission]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--Bu--&gt;  [[Bush tax cuts]]
* &lt;!--Deb--&gt; [[United States debt ceiling|Debt ceiling]]
** [[History of the United States debt ceiling|history]]
* &lt;!--Def--&gt; [[Deficit reduction in the United States|Deficit reduction]]
* &lt;!--F--&gt;   [[United States fiscal cliff|Fiscal cliff]]
* &lt;!--H--&gt;   [[Healthcare reform in the United States|Healthcare reform]]
* &lt;!--P--&gt;   [[Political debates about the United States federal budget|Political debates]]
* &lt;!--So--&gt;  [[Social Security debate in the United States|Social Security debate]]
* &lt;!--St--&gt;  &quot;[[Starve the beast]]&quot;
* &lt;!--Su--&gt;  [[Subprime mortgage crisis]]
{{endflatlist}}
&lt;/div&gt;
[[2007–2008 financial crisis]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--D--&gt; [[United States debt-ceiling crisis (disambiguation)|Debt-ceiling crises]]
** [[2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2011]]
** [[2013 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2013]]
** [[2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis|2023]]
{{endflatlist}}
[[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]]
{{flatlist}}
* &lt;!--G--&gt; [[Government shutdowns in the United States|Government shutdowns]]
** [[1980 United States federal government shutdown|1980]]
** [[1981, 1984, and 1986 U.S. federal government shutdowns|1981, 1984, 1986]]
** [[1990 United States federal government shutdown|1990]]
** [[1995–1996 United States federal government shutdowns|1995–1996]]
** [[2013 United States federal government shutdown|2013]]
** [[January 2018 United States federal government shutdown|Jan 2018]]
** [[2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown|2018–2019]]
{{endflatlist}}
Related events
{{flatlist}}
*&lt;!--E--&gt;[[Removal of Kevin McCarthy as Speaker of the House|2023 Removal of Kevin McCarthy]]
{{endflatlist}}|list4name=terminology|list4title=Terminology|list4class=hlist skin-invert|list4=Cumulative [[Government budget balance|deficit]] + [[National debt of the United States#Debates|Interest]] ≈ [[Government debt|Debt]] 
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Continuing resolution]]}}

[[w:Deficit_reduction_in_the_United_States|Deficit reduction in the United States]]

== Deregulate the Economy ==
The legal theory that this can be done through the executive branch is found in the U.S. Supreme Court’s ''[[w:West_Virginia_v._EPA|West Virginia v. EPA]]'' and ''[[w:Loper_Bright|Loper Bright]]'' rulings, which rein in the administrative state and mean that much of what the federal government now does is illegal.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/department-of-government-efficiency-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-donald-trump-1e086dab|website=[[w:Wall Street Journal]]|title=The Musk-Ramaswamy Project Could Be Trump’s Best Idea}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mr. Trump has set a goal of eliminating 10 regulations for every new one.  The [[w:Competitive_Enterprise_Institute|Competitive Enterprise Institute]]’s Wayne Crews says 217,565 rules have been issued since the [[w:Federal_Register|Federal Register]] first began itemizing them in 1976, with 89,368 pages added last year.

DOGE’s first order will be to pause enforcement of overreaching rules while starting the process to roll them back. Mr. Trump and DOGE could direct agencies to settle legal challenges to Biden rules by vacating them. This could ease the laborious process of undoing them by rule-making through the [[w:Administrative_Procedure_Act|Administrative Procedure Act]].  A source tells the WSJ they’ll do whatever they think they legally can without the APA.

The [[w:Congressional_Review_Act|Congressional Review Act]]—which allows Congress to overturn recently issued agency regulations—had been used only once, prior to [[w:First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump|Trump's first term]].  While in office, he and the Republican Congress used it on 16 rules. This time, there will be more than 56 regulatory actions recent enough to be repealed.

The [[w:Chevron_deference|''Chevron'' deference]] had required federal courts to defer to agencies’ interpretations of ambiguous statutes, but this was overturned in 2024.  Taken together, with some other recent [[w:SCOTUS|SCOTUS]] rulings, we now have, says the WSJ, the biggest opportunity to cut regulatory red tape in more than 40 years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/let-the-trump-deregulation-begin-us-chamber-of-commerce-second-term-economic-growth-73f24387?cx_testId=3&amp;cx_testVariant=cx_166&amp;cx_artPos=0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shrink the federal civil service ==
The government has around three million [[w:United_States_federal_civil_service|federal civil service]] employees, with an average salary of $106,000. Dr. Anthony Fauci made $481,000 in 2022.

The federal head count has ballooned by 120,800 during the Biden years. Civil service and union protections make it hard to fire workers.  

Mr. Trump intends to quickly resurrect the [[w:Schedule_F|Schedule F]] reform that he sought to implement at the end of his first term but was scrapped by Mr. Biden. These would high-level federal employees to be removed like political appointees, by eliminating their job protections.

WSJ proposals[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/the-doge-cheat-sheet-elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-department-of-government-efficiency-1c231783#cxrecs_s]

== Reform Entitlements ==

=== Healthcare and  Medicare ===
[[w:ObamaCare|ObamaCare]] started as a plausible scheme for universal, cost-effective health insurance with subsidies for the needy. Only the subsidies survive because the ObamaCare policies actually delivered are so overpriced nobody would buy them without a subsidy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/opinion/elons-real-trump-mission-protect-growth-department-of-government-efficiency-appointments-cabinet-9e7e62b2]&lt;/ref&gt;

See below:  Department of Health and Human Services

=== Social Security ===
Even FDR was aware of its flaw:  it discourages working and saving.

== Strategic Foreign Policy and Military reform ==

=== Department of State ===
{{Main article|w:Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump#Prospective_foreign_policy|w:State Department}}

=== U.S. Department of Defense ===

== Reform the other Government Bureaus and Departments ==

=== Department of Education ===
[[w:United_States_Department_of_Education|w:Department of Education]] has 4,400 employees – the smallest staff of the Cabinet agencies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html|title=Federal Role in Education|date=2021-06-15|website=www2.ed.gov|language=en|access-date=2022-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; – and a 2024 budget of $238 billion.&lt;ref name=&quot;DOE-mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaspending.gov/agency/department-of-education?fy=2024|title=Agency Profile {{!}} U.S. Department of Education|website=www2.ed.gov|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2023 Budget was $274 billion, which included funding for children with disabilities ([[wikipedia:Individuals_with_Disabilities_Education_Act|IDEA]]), pandemic recovery, early childhood education, [[wikipedia:Pell_Grant|Pell Grants]], [[wikipedia:Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act|Title I]], work assistance, among other programs. This budget was down from $637.7 billion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.future-ed.org/what-the-new-pisa-results-really-say-about-u-s-schools/|title=What the New PISA Results Really Say About U.S. Schools|date=2021-06-15|website=future-ed.com|language=en|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ===
[[w:U.S._Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services|U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]] has 12 operating divisions, 9 of which constitute the [[w:Public_Health_Services|Public Health Services]]

The Department of Health and Human Services was authorized a budget for [[w:2020_United_States_federal_budget|fiscal year 2020]] of $1.293 trillion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy2020/index.html|title=HHS FY 2020 Budget in Brief|date=October 5, 2019|website=HHS Budget &amp; Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|page=7|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
!Program
!2020 Budget
!2022 Budget
! employees
|-
|[[w:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]]
|$3,329 MM
|-
|[[w:Health Resources and Services Administration|Health Resources and Services Administration]]
|$11,004
|-
|[[w:Indian Health Service|Indian Health Service]]
|$6,104
|-
|[[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
|$6,767
|-
|[[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]]
|$33,669
|-
|[[w:Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration|Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]]
|$5,535
|-
|[[w:Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality|Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]]
|$0
|-
|[[w:Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services|Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services]]
|$1,169,091
|-
|[[w:Administration for Children and Families|Administration for Children and Families]]
|$52,121
|-
|[[w:Administration for Community Living|Administration for Community Living]]
|$1,997
|-
|[[w:Departmental Management|Departmental Management]]
|$340
|-
|Non-Recurring Expense Fund
|$-400
|-
|[[w:Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals|Office of Medicare Hearings and Appeals]]
|$186
|-
|[[w:Office of the National Coordinator|Office of the National Coordinator]]
|$43
|-
|[[w:Office for Civil Rights|Office for Civil Rights]]
|$30
|-
|[[w:Office of Inspector General|Office of Inspector General]]
|$82
|-
|[[w:Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund|Public Health and Social Services Emergency Fund]]
|$2,667
|-
|[[w:Program Support Center|Program Support Center]]
|$749
|-
|Offsetting Collections
|$-629
|-
|Other Collections
|$-163
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''$1,292,523'''
|}
The FY2020 budget included a $1.276 billion budget decrease for the Centers for Disease Control, and a $4.533 billion budget decrease for the National Institutes of Health.  These budget cuts, along with other changes since 2019, comprised a total decrease of over $24 billion in revised discretionary budget authority across the entire Department of Health and Human Services for Fiscal Year 2020.&lt;ref name=&quot;hhs_budget_fy2020&quot; /&gt;

Additional details of the budgeted outlays, budget authority, and detailed budgets for other years, can be found at the HHS Budget website.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://WWW.HHS.GOV/BUDGET|title=Health and Human Services: Budget and Performance|publisher=United States Department of Health &amp; Human Services|access-date=May 9, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr.|Robert F. Kennedy Jr.]] has been nominated as [[w:United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services|United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services]]

He is an American politician, [[Environmental law|environmental lawyer]], [[anti-vaccine activist]], and anti-packaged food industry activist, anti-pharmaceutical industry activist, who will be nominated to serve as [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]],&lt;ref name=&quot;v502&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2024/11/14/rfk-jr-launches-independent-2024-run-here-are-all-the-conspiracies-he-promotes-from-vaccines-to-mass-shootings/|title=Trump Taps RFK Jr. As Secretary Of Health And Human Services: Here Are All The Conspiracies He's Promoted|last=Dorn|first=Sara|date=2024-11-14|website=Forbes|access-date=2024-11-15}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the mission of &quot;Making America Healthy Again&quot;.  He is the chairman and founder of [[Children's Health Defense]], an anti-vaccine advocacy group and proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine misinformation|dubious COVID-19 vaccine information]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_12/15/2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;KW&quot; /&gt;

== History and Miscellaneous facts ==
DOGE's work will &quot;conclude&quot; no later than July 4, 2026, the 250th anniversary of the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|U.S. Declaration of Independence]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/4987402-trump-musk-advisory-group-spending/|title=Elon Musk, Vivek Ramaswamy to lead Trump's Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)|last=Nazzaro|first=Miranda|date=November 13, 2024|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt; also coinciding with America's [[United States Semiquincentennial|semiquincentennial]] celebrations and a proposed &quot;Great American Fair&quot;.

Despite its name it is not expected to be a [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_executive_departments|federal executive department]], but rather may operate under the [[Federal Advisory Committee Act]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-department-of-government-efficiency-doge-elon-musk-ramaswamy/|title=What to know about Trump's Department of Government Efficiency, led by Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy - CBS News|last=Picchi|first=Aimee|date=2024-11-14|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; so its formation is not expected to require approval from the [[wikipedia:United_States_Congress|U.S. Congress]].

Musk has stated that he believes such a commission could reduce the [[wikipedia:United_States_federal_budget|U.S. federal budget]] by $2 trillion, which would be a reduction of almost one third from its 2023 total. [[Maya MacGuineas]] of the [[Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget]] has said that this saving is &quot;absolutely doable&quot; over a period of 10 years, but it would be difficult to do in a single year &quot;without compromising some of the fundamental objectives of the government that are widely agreed upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/business/4966789-elon-musk-skepticism-2-trillion-spending-cuts/|title=Elon Musk draws skepticism with call for $2 trillion in spending cuts|last=Folley|first=Aris|date=2024-11-03|website=The Hill|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:Jamie_Dimon|Jamie Dimon]], the chief executive officer of [[wikipedia:JPMorgan_Chase|JPMorgan Chase]], has supported the idea. Some commentators questioned whether DOGE is a conflict of interest for Musk given that his companies are contractors to the federal government.

The body is &quot;unlikely to have any regulatory teeth on its own, but there's little doubt that it can have influence on the incoming administration and how it will determine its budgets&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/policy/384904/trumps-department-of-government-efficiency-sounds-like-a-joke-it-isnt|title=Trump tapped Musk to co-lead the &quot;Department of Government Efficiency.&quot; What the heck is that?|last=Fayyad|first=Abdallah|date=2024-11-13|website=Vox|language=en-US|access-date=2024-11-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Elon Musk had called [[w:Federico_Sturzenegger|Federico Sturzenegger]], Argentina's [[Minister of Deregulation and Transformation of the State]] ([[w:es:Ministerio_de_Desregulación_y_Transformación_del_Estado|es]]), to discuss imitating his ministry's model.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.infobae.com/economia/2024/11/08/milei-brindo-un-nuevo-apoyo-a-sturzenegger-y-afirmo-que-elon-musk-imitara-su-gestion-en-eeuu/|title=Milei brindó un nuevo apoyo a Sturzenegger y afirmó que Elon Musk imitará su gestión en EEUU|date=November 8, 2024|website=infobae|language=es-ES|access-date=November 13, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[w:Second_presidential_transition_of_Donald_Trump|Second presidential transition of Donald Trump]]
* [[w:United_States_federal_budget#Deficits_and_debt|United States federal budget - Deficits and debt]]
* [[w:United_States_Bureau_of_Efficiency|United States Bureau of Efficiency]] – United States federal government bureau from 1916 to 1933
* [[w:Brownlow_Committee|Brownlow Committee]] – 1937 commission recommending United States federal government reforms
* [[w:Grace_Commission|Grace Commission]] – Investigation to eliminate inefficiency in the United States federal government
* [[w:Hoover_Commission|Hoover Commission]] – United States federal commission in 1947 advising on executive reform
* [[w:Keep_Commission|Keep Commission]]
* [[w:Project_on_National_Security_Reform|Project on National Security Reform]]
== Reference Notes ==
&lt;references group=&quot;lower-alpha&quot; /&gt;</text>
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== Licensing ==
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{{Information
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|Date=2024-11-19
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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== Licensing ==
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__NOTOC__
This is a lesson in the course, [[Introduction to Computer Science]], which is a part of [[School:Computer Science|The School of Computer Science]].

==Instructions for this lesson==
Read the text and try to understand it.  If something is not clear, follow the links for an explanation.</text>
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|journal         = WikiJournal Preprints      &lt;!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --&gt;
|last1           = Lastname
|first1          = Firstname
|last2           =
|first2          =
|last3           =
|first3          =
|last4           =
|first4          = &lt;!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --&gt;
|et_al           = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
|affiliations    = institutes / affiliations
|correspondence  = email@address.com
|keywords        = &lt;!-- up to 6 keywords --&gt;
|license         = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
|abstract        =

Abstract text goes here 
}}

==First Heading==

[[file:example image.png|thumb|left
| Image caption text goes here
(attribution: name of image creator, [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0])
]]

Manuscript text goes re


===Subheading===


==Second Heading==


==Third Heading, etc==


==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
Any conflicts of interest that you would like to declare. Otherwise, a statement that the authors have no competing interest.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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| journal = WikiJournal Preprints 
WikiJournal of Medicine
| last1 = Bulus
| orcid1 = 0009-0001-9503-2448
| first1 = Alhamdu Dawa
| last2 = Ezeh
| orcid2 = 0009-0008-8242-8292
| first2 = Esther Chidinma
| last3 = Goldim
| orcid3 = 0009-0008-0608-9890
| affiliation2 = Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University Gashua Yobe State, Nigeria
| first3 = Ritji Victor
| last4 = Obeta
| affiliation4 = Department of Health Policy, Planning and Financing Global Health and Infectious Diseases Institute (GHIDI), Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.
| first5 = Myaltong
| last5 = Datok
| affiliation5 = Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Distance Learning Centre Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| first6 = Uchechukwu Cynthia
| last6 = Ofoma
| affiliation6 = Polymer Chemistry; Department of Chemistry in Education, University of Jos Plateau State, Nigeria.
| affiliation3 = Laboratory Department, Edoch Medical Services, Jos-South Plateau State, Nigeria
| first4 = Odinaka Kingsley
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| affiliation1 = Department of Molecular Biology and Genomics, Global Health and Infectious Diseases Control Institute, Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria
| correspondence1 = ezehestherchidinma@gmail.com
| affiliations = 'affiliation1' Department of Molecular Biology and Genomics, Global Health and Infectious Diseases Control Institute, Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.    'affiliation2' Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University Gashua Yobe State, Nigeria.                                                                        'affiliation3' Laboratory Department, Edoch Medical Services, Jos-South Plateau State, Nigeria.                                                                                                   'affiliation4' Department of Health Policy, Planning and Financing Global Health and Infectious Diseases Institute (GHIDI), Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.                                                                                                   'affiliation5' Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Distance Learning Centre Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.  'affiliation6' Polymer Chemistry; Department of Chemistry in Education, University of Jos Plateau State, Nigeria.
| correspondence = ezehestherchidinma@gmail.com
| keywords = antimicrobial resistance, cancer care, chemotherapy, immunocompromised
patients, infection prevention, prophylactic antibiotics
| submitted = 12th October, 2024
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = Abstract.
The use of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer treatment has been fraught with dangers in
addition to advantages. Prophylactic antibiotic usage has emerged as a critical tactic in cancer
care to avoid infections in immunocompromised patients receiving severe treatments such as
chemotherapy. Antibiotics help prevent infections in cancer patients with impaired immune
systems, but overuse of them adds to the increasing global problem of antimicrobial resistance.
The significance of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer are critically examined in this review,
which also discusses the hazards associated with them, such as the development of
antimicrobial resistance, alteration of the microbiome, and adverse drug reactions, as well as
their advantages in preventing infections and lowering mortality. This review makes the case
that, despite the fact that prophylactic antibiotics can be a lifesaver for many cancer patients,
we must carefully weigh the risks associated with using them. It asks for a more detailed
recommendation that take into account the risk factors, cancer kinds, and treatment plans
unique to each patient. The report concludes with policy implications and ideas for future
research. It also addresses alternate tactics for infection prevention and the need for a
personalized approach to antibiotic use in cancer care. Moreover, it underscores the necessity
of continued investigation into substitute preventive approaches, such immunomodulatory
treatments and microbiome-based interventions, in order to lessen the dependence on
antibiotics. We may better manage the intricacies of prophylactic antibiotic usage in cancer
care by re-evaluating present methods and embracing a more individualized approach, ensuring
that it continues to be an advantageous tool rather than a liability.
}}

'''1.0 Introduction'''

'''1.1 Overview of Infection Risk and Cancer Care'''

Patients with cancer, especially those undergoing rigorous treatments like radiation or chemotherapy, have weakened immune systems, which puts them at higher risk of infection. As a preventative step to lessen this risk, prophylactic antibiotics are frequently used (Tartari E. ''et al.,'' 2017). Nevertheless, with antibiotic use growing, questions have been raised concerning the long-term safety and effectiveness of these drugs, particularly in light of the global increase in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (WHO, 2020). The purpose of this study is to objectively examine whether preventive antibiotics in cancer care are a necessary precautionary measure or if they represent a serious risk that could ultimately jeopardize patient outcomes and public health. It aims to give a thorough knowledge of whether prophylactic antibiotics are a lifeline or liability in the context of cancer treatment by examining existing guidelines, clinical outcomes, and developing issues. Hence, the focus of this review is to assess prophylactic antibiotics' function in cancer care critically by weighing the dangers involved with using them against their potential to save lives.

'''1.2 Rationale for Prophylactic Antibiotics in Cancer Care'''

Due to immune system weakness brought on by chemotherapy, radiation, or surgery, cancer patients are more vulnerable to infections (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010). Prophylactic antibiotics are used as a preventive measure since infections are a major source of morbidity and mortality among cancer patients (Rubenstein EB. ''et al.,'' 2004). The goal of prophylactic antibiotics is to lower the risk of infection, especially in high-risk patients who are neutropenic (Bucaneve G. ''et al.,'' 2005). Common antibiotics called fluoroquinolones have been shown to lower the frequency of ''febrile neutropenia'' (Gafter-Gvili A. ''et al.,'' 2012). Prophylactic antibiotics have been demonstrated in studies to benefit patients with acute myeloid leukaemia, that receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and certain cancer populations by significantly reducing infection rates and improving overall survival (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005; Pohlen M. ''et al.,'' 2016).

A significant contributor to morbidity and mortality in cancer patients, especially those receiving intense chemotherapy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), are infection-related problems. By concentrating on common bacteria, before they have a chance to cause infections, prophylactic antibiotics can reduce these dangers. Studies have indicated that this strategy lowers morbidity and death associated with infections (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Preventive antibiotics can lessen the frequency and severity of infections, which can enhance the quality of life for cancer patients. Patients' overall quality of life is improved by preventing infections because it saves money on further treatments, hospital stays, and the discomfort that goes along with them (Pizzo PA. ''et al.,'' 1984). Nonetheless, a major obstacle to the treatment of cancer is the emergence of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics, which is associated with antibiotic overuse (Tacconelli E. ''et al.,'' 2018; Kelly CR. ''et al.,'' 2021); antibiotics can also disturb the normal microbiome, which might result in further issues such Clostridium difficile infections.

'''1.3 The Debate: Lifeline or Liability?'''

The use of preventive antibiotics in cancer therapy presents a double-edged sword. On one hand, they serve as a critical safety net for immunocompromised patients, reducing the risk of life-threatening infections. For cancer patients undergoing treatments like chemotherapy or radiation, where immune function is severely weakened, antibiotics play a life-saving role by preventing bacterial infections, such as ''febrile neutropenia'', which can significantly improve survival rates and treatment outcomes (Gafter-Gvili A. ''et al.,'' 2012; Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005). This is especially true for high-risk populations, such as those receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplants or intensive chemotherapy regimens, where infection risks are elevated (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

However, the benefits of prophylactic antibiotics are countered by significant risks. One major concern is the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a global public health crisis exacerbated by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics (Tacconelli E. ''et al.,'' 2018). Frequent use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones, can lead to the emergence of resistant bacterial strains, which complicates future treatments and reduces antibiotic efficacy (Paterson DL. ''Et al.,'' 2006; Gudiol C. ''et al.,'' 2010). This issue not only threatens individual patient outcomes but also presents a broader risk to public health, as resistant infections are becoming increasingly difficult to treat (Lode HM. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Additionally, the use of antibiotics can disrupt the patient's microbiome, leading to complications such as Clostridium difficile infections, which have been linked to the overuse of antibiotics (Kelly CR. ''et al.,'' 2021). Such disruptions to the microbiome can weaken immune defences, making patients more vulnerable to other infections and potentially affecting the effectiveness of cancer treatments (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015). Furthermore, antibiotics can cause adverse drug reactions, ranging from mild gastrointestinal issues to severe allergic responses and life-threatening conditions like Stevens-Johnson syndrome (Arora R. ''et al.,'' 2021).

Thus, while prophylactic antibiotics are indispensable in managing infection risks for cancer patients, their use must be carefully balanced against the potential for harm. Determining when the benefits of antibiotic use outweigh the risks requires a more personalized approach, considering factors such as cancer type, treatment regimen, and individual patient health (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018). Without careful stewardship, the life-saving potential of antibiotics could be undermined by the very risks they pose, turning a safety net into a liability.

'''2.0 Cancer and Infection Risk'''

Patients with cancer are frequently more susceptible to infections because of the illness itself as well as the therapies they receive, such as radiation and chemotherapy. Immunosuppression, neutropenia (a decrease in white blood cells), and disruption of mucosal barriers that often guard against infections are the main causes of this elevated risk.

Patients undergoing cancer therapies, such as radiation and chemotherapy, frequently experience immunosuppression, which leaves them extremely vulnerable to infections. Particularly, a higher risk of bacterial infections is linked to chemotherapy-induced neutropenia, a condition in which white blood cell numbers drastically decrease (Kuderer NM. ''et al.,'' 2006). Antibiotics are essential in preventing potentially fatal infections in this immunosuppressed state, which calls for strict infection control measures.

'''2.1 Immunosuppression in Cancer Patients'''

Cancer and its therapies might weaken the immune system in several ways. For instance, chemotherapy can harm cells that divide quickly, such as those in the bone marrow, which lowers the generation of immune cells like neutrophils, which are essential for battling infections. By changing bone marrow and immune cell synthesis, radiation therapy can also compromise immunological function.

Individuals, who suffer from haematological malignancies, including lymphoma or leukaemia, are more vulnerable because these illnesses affect blood cells, including immunological cells. Further suppression of immune function can result from treatments such as corticosteroids and some biologic medicines (e.g., rituximab, which targets B cells), leaving patients more vulnerable to infections by bacteria, fungi, and viruses (Nates JL. ''et al.,'' 2024; Sharma A. ''et al.,'' 2024).

'''2.2 Common Infections in People with Cancer'''

Common bacteria like ''Escherichia coli'', ''Staphylococcus aureus'', and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' are frequently involved in infections in cancer patients (Kuderer NM. ''et al.,'' 2006). Bloodstream infections are very deadly because of their quick progression and high fatality rates. These infections can range in severity from moderate to severe.

Neutropenia, a common side effect of chemotherapy, raises the risk of bacterial infections, particularly bloodstream infections that can result in sepsis. This increases the likelihood of bacterial infections. If these infections are not treated right away, they may become fatal. Fungal infections are the result of immunosuppression, and individuals who have chronic neutropenia are more susceptible to opportunistic fungal infections. Immunosuppressed patients, particularly those receiving bone marrow or stem cell transplants, are susceptible to serious consequences from viruses including ''cytomegalovirus'' and ''herpes simplex virus'' (Nates JL ''et al.,'' 2024).

Treatment is made more difficult by the existence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) organisms, which emphasizes the significance of efficient preventative measures (Gudiol C. ''et al.,'' 2010).

'''2.3 Methods for Lowering the Risk of Infection'''

Prophylactic antibiotics, antifungals, and antiviral drugs are common preventive strategies used by high-risk individuals to reduce their chance of infection. Growth factors, such as granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), can be given to increase the production of white blood cells and shorten the period of neutropenia, which lowers the risk of infection (Nates JL. ''et al.,'' 2024). 

A complicated interaction between the disease's effects, treatment plans, and unique patient characteristics results in the immunological suppression seen in cancer patients. Monitoring closely, taking preventative measures, and using specialized treatment plans to strengthen the immune system when appropriate are all necessary to manage these risks.

'''3.0 Antibiotic prophylaxis in oncology'''

In oncology, prophylactic antibiotics are mainly used to avoid infections in patients who are more vulnerable as a result of cancer treatments like radiation or chemotherapy, which can cause neutropenia, or a marked decrease in neutrophils, a subset of white blood cells. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), this elevated risk of infections might result in serious side effects including ''febrile neutropenia'', which can postpone therapy and raise mortality.

'''3.1 Present Recommendations'''

Prophylactic antibiotic treatment is advised in patients at high risk of ''febrile neutropenia'', according to current guidelines from prominent health organizations including the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) (Flowers CR, ''et al.,'' 2013). According to (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018), the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) has guidelines that suggest prophylactic antibiotic usage in high-risk cancer patients. The guidelines highlight the necessity to weigh the advantages of infection prevention against the risks of resistance and undesirable effects.

These recommendations however do also highlight the necessity of weighing the advantages of infection control against the dangers of acquiring AMR.

'''3.2 Types and Indications of Prophylactic Antibiotic Use'''

Patients who experience prolonged and severe neutropenia (absolute neutrophil count &lt; 500 cells/µL), which is frequently observed in patients receiving chemotherapy for solid tumours or hematologic malignancies, as well as those receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), are generally advised to take prophylactic antibiotics (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Due to their broad-spectrum activity against both grammeme-positive and grammeme-negative bacteria, fluoroquinolones—such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin—are the most often used preventive antibiotics in cancer therapy (Gafter–Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007). Because fluoroquinolones, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, are effective against Gramme-negative bacteria, which are frequently linked to infections in patients with neutropenia, they are frequently used for bacterial prophylaxis (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007).

To avoid infections, some pathogens, such as ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', employ alternative medicines, like ''sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim''. Its use is also beneficial for patients receiving other immunosuppressive therapy or high-dose corticosteroids (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).  The use of antifungal (''fluconazole,'' for example) and antiviral (''acyclovir,'' for example) prophylaxis may also be restricted by specific risk factors and institutional procedures (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

'''3.3 Risks and Considerations'''

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant organisms as a result of extended and widespread use is a significant worry and is becoming a bigger problem in the field of oncology. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), side effects from prophylactic antibiotics include gastrointestinal distress, ''Clostridium difficile'' infection, and allergic responses.

There are a few things to think about when using preventative antibiotics including; practices for infection control and cross-infection, behaviour and psychological aspects, and Low-Resource and Global Configurations.

'''3.3.1 Practices for Infection Control and Cross-Infection'''

In oncology settings, infection control methods should be viewed more broadly when considering the inclusion of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer care. Antibiotics used prophylactically are one part of a comprehensive strategy to avoid infections, especially in people with impaired immune systems. To avoid unforeseen outcomes like cross-infection and the emergence of resistant organisms, we must carefully balance their use with other infection control strategies.

'''Protocols for isolation and environmental controls'''

Reducing infection risks in cancer wards is mostly dependent on infection control strategies like stringent environmental cleaning, frequent screening for multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), and the application of isolation techniques (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).  Prophylactic antibiotic use ought to supplement these methods rather than take their place, since depending just on: antibiotics can cause complacency in other crucial areas of infection control (Wilson BE, ''et al.,'' 2020).

'''Handwashing practices and staff training'''

Reducing hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) in cancer patients requires ongoing staff education and a focus on hand hygiene. Improved hand hygiene compliance among healthcare workers has been demonstrated in studies to considerably lower the incidence of HAIs, particularly those brought on by bacteria resistant to antibiotics (Allegranzi B, ''et al.,'' 2013). Prophylactic antibiotic use must be carefully managed to avoid compromising these efforts by giving rise to a false sense of security.

'''Risk of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)'''

Antibiotics used prophylactically may raise the risk of CDI, which is a serious issue in oncology units. By putting in place strict infection control procedures and antibiotic stewardship programs, oncology facilities can reduce this risk. Antibiotics should only be used when necessary (Tamma PD, ''et al.,'' 2014).

'''3.3.2 Behaviour and psychological aspects to take into account'''

Prophylactic antibiotic use has the potential to change patient attitudes and behaviour, which can influence compliance with more comprehensive infection prevention measures. It is essential to comprehend these behavioural and psychological factors in order to maximize patient outcomes when receiving cancer treatment.

'''The sense of security'''

Prophylactic antibiotic recipients may believe they are immune to infections, which could result in less adherence to other preventive measures such eating a restricted diet or practicing good personal hygiene (Lederberg J., 2000). Healthcare professionals should inform patients about the drawbacks of antibiotics, as well as the value of a thorough infection prevention strategy.

'''Antibiotic Dependency and Perception of Resistance'''

Patients run the danger of becoming dependent on antibiotics, which could raise demand for the drugs even in situations where they are not medically necessary. The larger problem of antibiotic resistance may be exacerbated by this behaviour (Davis ME, ''et al.,'' 2017). Teaching patients about the responsible use of antibiotics and the worldwide effects of antibiotic resistance can reduce these dangers.

'''Effect on Life Quality'''

Prophylactic antibiotic side effects, like gastrointestinal problems or allergic responses, can seriously impair a patient's quality of life. Additionally, the psychological weight of possible side effects may cause worry or worsen treatment compliance. Managing patient expectations and encouraging adherence to other protective behaviours need addressing these issues through counselling and clear communication.

'''3.3.3 Low-Resource and Global Configurations'''

In global and low-resource contexts, where the balance of benefits and dangers may fluctuate dramatically due to variations in healthcare infrastructure, antibiotic availability, and local resistance patterns, the use of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer therapy poses distinct problems.

'''Problems in Low-Resource Environments'''

Implementing preventive antibiotic treatments can be challenging in low-resource settings due to restricted access to medical facilities, diagnostic equipment, and medications. Furthermore, because of over-the-counter sales and a lack of regulatory control, these areas frequently have high rates of antibiotic resistance (Laxminarayan R, ''et al.,'' 2013). When preventive antibiotics are used indiscriminately in certain conditions, resistance problems may worsen and the medications' effectiveness may be diminished when they are actually needed.

'''Customized Approaches'''

It is imperative to implement customized preventive interventions that take into account local resistance trends and epidemiology. To lessen dependency on broad-spectrum medications that fuel resistance, guidelines for instance, might advise using probiotics or immunomodulators as an alternative to antibiotic prophylaxis.

'''Issues of equity and access'''

In low-resource contexts, fairness in access to preventive measures such as prophylactic antibiotics is a major concern. Without worsening already-existing disparities, we should work to guarantee that cancer patients in these areas receive sufficient care for infection prevention. Collaborations with foreign organizations and regional administrations can assist in supplying the tools and instruction required to put into practice efficient infection control procedures.

'''Budgetary efficiency and resource distribution'''

In environments with limited resources, cost-effectiveness needs to be taken into account. Invest resources in regions where they can have the biggest impact, concentrating on patients who are most at risk of infection and who stand to gain the most from prophylaxis. We must make sure that healthcare resources and available antibiotics are used fairly and efficiently in order to provide the best results for patients (Bodey GP, ''et al.,'' 1983).

'''4.0 Advantages of Preventive Antibiotic Use'''

Preventive antibiotics, on the one hand, have been shown to dramatically cut the occurrence of infections, which lowers hospitalization rates and improves quality of life for cancer patients. Patients with severe neutropenia or those receiving bone marrow transplants, when there is a significant danger of infection, benefit most from them. Research has indicated that prompt use of antibiotics might avert potentially fatal consequences, making it an essential part of supportive cancer treatment.

'''4.1 Preventing infections'''

Patients with cancer, particularly those receiving chemotherapy, are more vulnerable to infections because of neutropenia. Prophylactic antibiotics help these patients avoid bacterial infections; examples are ''trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole'', ''macrolides'', and ''fluoroquinolones''. Prophylactic fluoroquinolones decreased the risk of ''febrile'' episodes, recorded infections, and infection-related mortality in patients with neutropenia, according to a meta-analysis by (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007). These results highlight the critical role that antibiotics play in protecting susceptible cancer patients from potentially fatal infections. Prophylactic usage of certain antibiotics is advised for patients with haematological malignancies in order to prevent certain infections, such as ''pneumocystis pneumonia'' (PCP). To avoid PCP, for example, these patients frequently take ''trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole''.

'''4.2 Decreased Chance of Sepsis'''

One frequent and dangerous side effect of chemotherapy is ''febrile neutropenia'', which can result in infections that could be fatal. According to (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005), preventive antibiotics can reduce the frequency of ''febrile neutropenia'', enabling continuous cancer treatment regimens.

'''4.3 Decreased Death and Morbidity'''

Prophylactic antibiotics lower hospital admissions, intensive care unit stays, and overall death rates in cancer patients by preventing infections. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), this can greatly enhance both the overall results of treatment and quality of life. Fluoroquinolone prophylaxis in neutropenic individuals was shown to significantly reduce all-cause mortality, according to a study by (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005). Patients receiving intense chemotherapy gain the most from this, as they are at the biggest risk of developing deadly infections.

'''4.4 Life Quality'''

By lowering the frequency of hospital stays, fever episodes, and the need for further therapies, infection prevention by preventive antibiotic use can also enhance the quality of life for cancer patients. Patients can stick to their treatment plans and avoid the mental and physical effects of serious diseases by avoiding infections.

'''5.0 Use of Prophylactic Antibiotics: Drawbacks and Hazards'''

However, frequent use of antibiotics carries a number of hazards, such as the development of organisms resistant to several drugs, which can make future treatments more difficult to implement and worsen the prognosis for patients. Antibiotic resistance is a global public health concern that is exacerbated by the careless use of antibiotics, thus its use in cancer treatment must be more tailored and prudent.

'''5.1 Development of Antimicrobial Resistance'''

Prophylactic antibiotic treatment carries a number of major dangers, one of which is antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The selective pressure that promotes the emergence of resistant strains, especially in Gramme-negative bacteria, is exacerbated by the extensive use of antibiotics in cancer treatment (Paterson DL. ''Et al.,'' 2006). Multidrug-resistant organisms can colonize and infect cancer patients receiving preventive antibiotic treatment, according to studies (Gudiol C. et al., 2010).

Antibiotic overuse and misuse can result in the formation of multidrug-resistant organisms, which are dangerous for patient health and the public since they are difficult to treat (Lode HM. ''et al.,'' 2010).

'''5.2 Adverse Reactions to Drugs''' 

Antibiotics can bring on side effects from mild (such gastrointestinal distress and allergic responses) to severe (like a Clostridium difficile infection, which can result in severe diarrhoea and colitis). These responses may impair the health of the patient and make cancer treatment more difficult (Bartlett JG, ''et al.,'' 2002).

Antibiotic side effects in cancer patients who use them frequently or for an extended period can range from minor gastrointestinal issues to serious, life-threatening illnesses like Stevens-Johnson syndrome (Arora R. ''et al.,'' 2021). These adverse effects may make managing cancer more difficult and lower patients' tolerance to treatment as a whole.

'''5.3 The Microbiome Is Disrupted'''

Preventive antibiotics have the potential to upset the balance of the microbiome, leading to dysbiosis and a host of unfavourable consequences, including ''Clostridium difficile'' infections (Alexander JL, ''et al.,'' 2017). This may weaken the immune system, make one more vulnerable to infections, and even affect how well cancer treatments work (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015).

Since there is growing evidence that a healthy microbiome influences how the body reacts to treatments like immunotherapy, alteration of the gut ''microbiota'' may also impact the effectiveness of cancer medicines (Gopalakrishnan V, ''et al.,'' 2018).

'''5.4 Price and Utilization of Resources'''

Due to the cost of the medications themselves, side effect monitoring, and addressing issues resulting from antibiotic resistance or bad effects, the use of prophylactic antibiotics can result in higher healthcare expenses.

'''6.0 Juggling the Benefits and Risks'''

A thorough evaluation of each patient's risk for infection, the possibility of side effects, and the possibility of antibiotic resistance is necessary to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of prophylactic antibiotic use in cancer treatment. The decision to take prophylactic antibiotics should be guided by clinical guidelines, patient-specific considerations, and a multidisciplinary approach comprising infectious disease specialists, pharmacists, and oncologists.

'''6.1 Stratification of Risk'''

It is essential to stratify patients according to their unique infection and AMR risk factors in order to optimize the advantages of prophylactic antibiotics while reducing the hazards. Patients with high-risk factors—such as those experiencing prolonged and profound neutropenia (absolute neutrophil count &lt; 100 cells/µL for more than seven days), which is commonly observed in patients receiving intense chemotherapy for acute leukaemia or undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation—are generally advised to take prophylactic antibiotics; low-risk patients, on the other hand, may be treated with different approaches.

According to (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018), patients with solid tumours undergoing less rigorous chemotherapy may not require routine prophylactic antibiotics due to their decreased likelihood of severe neutropenia. This could minimize unnecessary exposure and the potential for resistance.

Patients receiving high-intensity chemotherapy or those with haematological malignancies are more susceptible to infections and may benefit more from taking preventive antibiotics. Individuals with severe neutropenia, such as an absolute neutrophil count below 500 cells/µL, may need to take preventative antibiotics (Klastersky J, ''et al.,'' 2006).

'''6.2 Selecting the Appropriate Antibiotic'''

The local epidemiology of infections and patterns of resistance should be taken into consideration while choosing antibiotics. Given that fluoroquinolones are frequently used to treat Gram-negative bacteria, it is important to take the patient's history of colonization or infection into account (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007).

To reduce the likelihood of selecting for resistant organisms and to prevent disruption of the patient's normal flora, utilize narrow-spectrum antibiotics whenever possible (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Prophylactic use of narrow-spectrum antibiotics can help reduce the likelihood of resistance. Compared to broad-spectrum antibiotics, narrow-spectrum drugs focus on particular pathogens and have less of an effect on the microbial ecology as a whole.

'''6.3 Monitoring for Adverse Effects'''

In order to identify and treat any side effects, such as gastrointestinal disorders, allergic responses, or ''Clostridium difficile'' infection, patients using prophylactic antibiotics must be regularly monitored. If side effects outweigh the advantages, this diligence aids in quickly stopping or switching antibiotics (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

'''6.4 Restricting the Prophylactic Duration'''

Restrict prophylaxis to times when there is a high risk, like during a period of acute neutropenia. Steer clear of extended use to reduce the possibility of resistance and other negative effects (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

A more individualized strategy may be possible in certain situations where the length of prophylaxis is modified in response to the patient's clinical status and neutrophil count recovery (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018).

'''6.5 Personalized Medicine Approach'''

Tailored prophylaxis based on patient-specific characteristics, including the type of cancer, the chemotherapy regimen, and the patient's overall health status. This tailored strategy minimizes potential side effects, such as the possibility of bacterial strains becoming resistant, while maximizing the advantages of prophylaxis. Prophylactic techniques can be optimized with a tailored strategy to antibiotic use that takes the patient's immunological condition, treatment regimen, and microbiome into account. While still offering sufficient defence against infections, personalized medication may lessen needless antibiotic exposure and lessen the dangers associated with antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

'''6.6 Antimicrobial Stewardship Integration'''

Antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASP) are essential for maximizing the use of preventive antibiotics in oncology settings. These initiatives keep an eye on patterns of antibiotic resistance inside the facility and guarantee that prophylaxis is used appropriately, considering patient-specific risks as well as current guidelines (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

The creation of regional policies ought to be aided by the stewardship program. The incidence of resistant organisms and the unique requirements of the patient group should be considered when developing evidence-based, regionally tailored guidelines for the use of antibiotics. The concepts of antimicrobial stewardship, which include knowing the importance of using antibiotics appropriately and the hazards associated with resistance, are taught to healthcare practitioners. In order to guarantee adherence to standards and make necessary adjustments to practices, ASPs put in place systems for tracking the use of antibiotics and giving feedback to healthcare practitioners (Bodey GP, ''et al.,'' 1983).

'''6.7 Shared Decision-Making and Patient Education'''

Talking with patients about the advantages and disadvantages of preventive antibiotics might help customize the treatment to their unique needs and preferences. A collaborative approach to therapy is facilitated by educating patients about potential side effects, the significance of adhering to prescribed medications, and infection signs (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018).

'''7.0 Alternative Strategies to Avoid Infections'''

By utilizing the body's immune system, advantageous microbes, or compounds that directly inhibit dangerous bacteria without causing antibiotic resistance, these tactics provide alternatives to antibiotics. Given the rise in antibiotic resistance, other approaches to antibiotic prophylaxis warrant consideration.

'''7.1 Non-Antibiotic Prophylaxis'''

Granulocyte-colony stimulating factors (G-CSFs), which increase the formation of white blood cells and shorten the duration of neutropenia, are an alternative strategy for preventing infections in cancer patients (Smith TJ, ''et al.,'' 2015). Antibiotic prophylaxis would otherwise be necessary to prevent infections that can be prevented by vaccination. As an illustration, vaccinations against ''influenza'', ''meningococcus'', and ''pneumococcus'' lower the incidence of illnesses (Plotkin SA, ''et al.,'' 2014).

Other approaches to preventing infections without antibiotics include:

'''Hygiene and Infection Control Measures''' 

To lower the risk of infections, strict hygiene measures such as handwashing and sterile procedures must be followed. Infection control techniques should be taught to patients and healthcare professionals (Pizzo PA. ''et al.,'' 1984).

'''Assistive Healthcare'''

To improve patients' general health and resistance to infections, improve supportive care strategies include treating comorbidities and offering nutritional support.

'''7.2 The Microbiome's Function'''

Without the use of antibiotics, maintaining and repairing the gut ''microbiota'' is showing promise as a means of preventing infections. Probiotics, faecal ''microbiota'' transplantation, and dietary modifications are being investigated by researchers as ways to help cancer patients maintain a healthy microbiome and lower their risk of infection. Probiotics, or good bacteria, can aid in the prevention of infections by strengthening the immune system, creating antimicrobial compounds, and competing with pathogens for resources and adhesion sites (Ouwehand AC, ''et al.,'' 2016).

'''7.3 Immunotherapy'''

The development of immunotherapy has created new opportunities for preventing infections. Therapies such checkpoint inhibitors, which strengthen the patient's immune system, may lessen the need for preventative antibiotics. Immunomodulatory treatments strengthen the immune system's ability to fend against infections without going after the bacteria directly. Furthermore, continuing studies into cutting-edge antimicrobial agents, including antimicrobial peptides and ''bacteriophages'', may offer substitutes for conventional infection management strategies in cancer settings (Czaplewski L, ''et al.,'' 2016). Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a component of the innate immune system that damage bacterial membranes to stop infections (Zasloff M, ''et al.,'' 2002).

Viral agents known as &quot;''bacteriophages''&quot; target only bacteria, providing a focused method of preventing infections without interfering with the body's natural flora (Abedon ST, ''et al.,'' 2017).

'''7.4 Silver Nanoparticles'''

Silver nanoparticles offer broad-spectrum antibacterial characteristics that can be used in medical device coatings to prevent infections (Rai M, ''et al.,'' 2009).

'''7.5 Plant-Derived Compounds'''

Plant extracts and essential oils are examples of compounds with antibacterial qualities that can operate as substitute preventive measures (Burt S, ''et al.,'' 2004).

By inhibiting bacterial adhesion to the urinary system lining, cranberry extracts are used by researchers to prevent urinary tract infections (Jepson RG, ''et al.,'' 2012). Prebiotics strengthen the body's defences against infections by encouraging the growth of good bacteria (Slavin J, ''et al.,'' 2013).

'''8.0 Policy and Practice Implications''' 

In cancer care, antibiotic prophylaxis is essential for preventing infections, particularly in patients with impaired immune systems. The approach however does, also bring up issues with patient safety, antibiotic resistance, and the requirement for evidence-based practices, policies, and standards.

'''8.1 Guidelines Updates'''

Clinical guidelines need to be reviewed and maybe revised in light of the dangers associated with prophylactic antibiotic usage. This will allow them to incorporate the most recent findings on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and infection control measures in cancer care. According to (Paul M, ''et al.,'' 2014), guidelines ought to prioritise the prudent use of antibiotics and promote the incorporation of non-antibiotic prophylactic techniques when applicable.

Specific antibiotic prophylaxis regimens are recommended based on the patient's risk of infection and the type of cancer treatment, according to guidelines such as those from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), these recommendations aid in standardizing care and lowering the overuse of antibiotics.

'''8.2 Antibiotics Stewardship in Oncology''' 

Fighting antimicrobial resistance (AMR) requires the implementation of antibiotic stewardship programs designed especially for oncology settings. The goals of these initiatives ought to be to monitor patterns of resistance, optimize the use of antibiotics, and inform medical professionals about the dangers of misuse (MacDougall C, ''et al.,'' 2005).

'''8.3 Global Health Perspective'''

The obstacles associated with the proactive use of antibiotics in cancer treatment are especially severe in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where there is restricted access to both effective antibiotics and cancer treatment. Global health programs in these environments need to give top priority to creating context-specific infection and antimicrobial resistance management plans for cancer patients (Pramesh CS, ''et al.,'' 2022).

A one-size-fits-all strategy for prophylactic antibiotics might not be practical in environments with limited resources. Rather, healthcare professionals to identify the patients who stand the best chance of benefiting from prophylaxis should use risk stratification.

'''8.4 Infection Surveillance and Frequent Evaluations'''

Early identification of infection trends and resistance patterns is facilitated by the deployment of surveillance systems to track infections and antibiotic use in cancer patients. Clinical results can be enhanced and policy changes can be informed by consistent reporting and feedback. We should routinely evaluate and update preventative procedures in light of new therapeutic choices, changing clinical practices, and emerging evidence on resistance patterns in order to maintain their efficacy and relevance.

'''8.6 Education of Patients and Healthcare Providers'''

Guidelines compliance and stewardship initiatives can be strengthened by educating patients and healthcare professionals on the proper use of prophylactic antibiotics and the dangers of overusing them. When appropriate, policies should promote the use of narrow-spectrum antibiotics to lower the likelihood of resistance development. Broad-spectrum antibiotics only should be used in high-risk situations, or when the pathogen is unclear (Pizzo PA, ''et al.,'' 1993).

'''9.0 Future Research Directions'''

Since cancer, patients frequently have weakened immune systems because of their illness or therapies like chemotherapy, prophylactic antibiotics are used in cancer care to prevent infections. Subsequent investigations in this field need to focus on optimizing the application of these antibiotics to enhance patient results, diminish the incidence of infections during cancer treatment, and tackle the worldwide predicament of antibiotic resistance. The long-term effects of prophylactic antibiotic usage on cancer recurrence and the function of the microbiome in modifying cancer outcomes are two areas of the existing literature that need more research. To create and validate risk classification instruments that can direct individualized preventative measures, more study is required.

Subsequent investigations ought to delve into inventive methods of averting infections, like employing nanotechnology to administer specific antibacterial treatments or creating immunizations against germs that are resistant to several drugs. Research on the impact of incorporating antibiotic stewardship into standard cancer therapy, and how it affects patient outcomes might also be beneficial (Willyard C, ''et al.,'' 2017).

'''9.1 Tailored Prevention'''

Based on the unique risk variables of each patient, such as their microbiome, treatment plan, cancer kind, and genetic susceptibility, creating more personalized ways to antibiotic prophylaxis is a way forward. This is because patients with cancer who get prophylactic antibiotics may have altered gut microbiomes, which may have an impact on treatment response, infection risk, and cancer progression (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015).

'''9.2 Long-Term Outcomes'''

To give a thorough picture of the advantages and disadvantages, the long-term effects of antibiotic prophylaxis, including the influence on cancer recurrence, survival, and quality of life has to be thoroughly examined.

'''9.3 Novel Antibiotics and their substitutes'''

Investigating non-antibiotic options, such as ''bacteriophages'', probiotics, or immunomodulatory treatments, to avoid infections, or investigating novel antibiotics that are efficient against resistant organisms (Schooley RT, ''et al.,'' 2017). In order to improve patient selection criteria, researchers are finding biomarkers that can detect which patients are most likely to become infected and would benefit most from preventive antibiotics.

'''9.4 Mitigating Infections in Particular Populations'''

Prophylactic techniques unique to cancer populations are also a way forward in oncology care especially for patients receiving immunotherapy, those having bone marrow transplants, and those with solid tumours as opposed to haematological malignancies (Baden LR, ''et al.,'' 2016). 

'''9.7 Clinical Trials and Empirical Data'''

In addition to gathering real-world data to inform clinical practice, carrying out extensive clinical trials to assess the safety and effectiveness of various preventive regimens is a vital recommendation that should be looked at (Gudiol C. et al., 2010).

'''9.8 Economic Efficiency Studies'''

To make sure that the advantages of antibiotic prophylaxis exceed the dangers and expenses related to its usage, evaluating the cost-effectiveness of different preventative measures is crucial especially for patients with cancer (Flowers CR, ''et al.,'' 2013).

'''10.0 Conclusion'''

In the treatment of cancer, preventive antibiotics are both a lifesaver and a liability. Although they are essential for preventing infections and enhancing patient outcomes, abuse of them exacerbates the issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and may have unfavourable effects on other aspects of health. Optimizing prophylactic antibiotic benefits while minimizing hazards requires a well-rounded strategy that incorporates risk classification, personalized therapy, and the incorporation of alternative infection prevention techniques. Ongoing research and policy revisions will be essential to guarantee that prophylactic antibiotic use remains a useful tool in oncology care as the landscape of cancer treatment continues to change.

==Additional information==
'''Author Contributions'''

Alhamdu Dawa Bulus made significant contributions to the planning, coordination, critically reviewing, and supervising of this review. Ritji Victor Goldim took the responsibility of literature search, gathering of relevant informations, and drafting the work. Esther Chidinma Ezeh critically revised, and edited the work as the corresponding author. Odinaka Kingsley Obeta, Myaltong Datok, Uchechukwu Cynthia Ofoma proofread the work and final approval of the version to be published. All authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of this work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of this work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

=== Competing interests ===
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest to disclose.

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      <text bytes="56993" sha1="5t2l6d4lnvmxw3kbxr2knyhmba6v4jv" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| journal = WikiJournal Preprints 
WikiJournal of Medicine
| last1 = Bulus
| orcid1 = 0009-0001-9503-2448
| first1 = Alhamdu Dawa
| last2 = Ezeh
| orcid2 = 0009-0008-8242-8292
| first2 = Esther Chidinma
| last3 = Goldim
| orcid3 = 0009-0008-0608-9890
| affiliation2 = Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University Gashua Yobe State, Nigeria
| first3 = Ritji Victor
| last4 = Obeta
| affiliation4 = Department of Health Policy, Planning and Financing Global Health and Infectious Diseases Institute (GHIDI), Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.
| first5 = Myaltong
| last5 = Datok
| affiliation5 = Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Distance Learning Centre Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| first6 = Uchechukwu Cynthia
| last6 = Ofoma
| affiliation6 = Polymer Chemistry; Department of Chemistry in Education, University of Jos Plateau State, Nigeria.
| affiliation3 = Laboratory Department, Edoch Medical Services, Jos-South Plateau State, Nigeria
| first4 = Odinaka Kingsley
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| affiliation1 = Department of Molecular Biology and Genomics, Global Health and Infectious Diseases Control Institute, Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria
| correspondence1 = ezehestherchidinma@gmail.com
| affiliations = 'affiliation1' Department of Molecular Biology and Genomics, Global Health and Infectious Diseases Control Institute, Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.    'affiliation2' Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University Gashua Yobe State, Nigeria.                                                                        'affiliation3' Laboratory Department, Edoch Medical Services, Jos-South Plateau State, Nigeria.                                                                                                   'affiliation4' Department of Health Policy, Planning and Financing Global Health and Infectious Diseases Institute (GHIDI), Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.                                                                                                   'affiliation5' Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Distance Learning Centre Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.  'affiliation6' Polymer Chemistry; Department of Chemistry in Education, University of Jos Plateau State, Nigeria.
| correspondence = ezehestherchidinma@gmail.com
| keywords = antimicrobial resistance, cancer care, chemotherapy, immunocompromised
patients, infection prevention, prophylactic antibiotics
| submitted = 12th October, 2024
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = Abstract.
The use of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer treatment has been fraught with dangers in
addition to advantages. Prophylactic antibiotic usage has emerged as a critical tactic in cancer
care to avoid infections in immunocompromised patients receiving severe treatments such as
chemotherapy. Antibiotics help prevent infections in cancer patients with impaired immune
systems, but overuse of them adds to the increasing global problem of antimicrobial resistance.
The significance of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer are critically examined in this review,
which also discusses the hazards associated with them, such as the development of
antimicrobial resistance, alteration of the microbiome, and adverse drug reactions, as well as
their advantages in preventing infections and lowering mortality. This review makes the case
that, despite the fact that prophylactic antibiotics can be a lifesaver for many cancer patients,
we must carefully weigh the risks associated with using them. It asks for a more detailed
recommendation that take into account the risk factors, cancer kinds, and treatment plans
unique to each patient. The report concludes with policy implications and ideas for future
research. It also addresses alternate tactics for infection prevention and the need for a
personalized approach to antibiotic use in cancer care. Moreover, it underscores the necessity
of continued investigation into substitute preventive approaches, such immunomodulatory
treatments and microbiome-based interventions, in order to lessen the dependence on
antibiotics. We may better manage the intricacies of prophylactic antibiotic usage in cancer
care by re-evaluating present methods and embracing a more individualized approach, ensuring
that it continues to be an advantageous tool rather than a liability.
}}

== Introduction ==

=== Overview of Infection Risk and Cancer Care ===
Patients with cancer, especially those undergoing rigorous treatments like radiation or chemotherapy, have weakened immune systems, which puts them at higher risk of infection. As a preventative step to lessen this risk, prophylactic antibiotics are frequently used (Tartari E. ''et al.,'' 2017). Nevertheless, with antibiotic use growing, questions have been raised concerning the long-term safety and effectiveness of these drugs, particularly in light of the global increase in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (WHO, 2020). The purpose of this study is to objectively examine whether preventive antibiotics in cancer care are a necessary precautionary measure or if they represent a serious risk that could ultimately jeopardize patient outcomes and public health. It aims to give a thorough knowledge of whether prophylactic antibiotics are a lifeline or liability in the context of cancer treatment by examining existing guidelines, clinical outcomes, and developing issues. Hence, the focus of this review is to assess prophylactic antibiotics' function in cancer care critically by weighing the dangers involved with using them against their potential to save lives.

=== Rationale for Prophylactic Antibiotics in Cancer Care ===
Due to immune system weakness brought on by chemotherapy, radiation, or surgery, cancer patients are more vulnerable to infections (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010). Prophylactic antibiotics are used as a preventive measure since infections are a major source of morbidity and mortality among cancer patients (Rubenstein EB. ''et al.,'' 2004). The goal of prophylactic antibiotics is to lower the risk of infection, especially in high-risk patients who are neutropenic (Bucaneve G. ''et al.,'' 2005). Common antibiotics called fluoroquinolones have been shown to lower the frequency of ''febrile neutropenia'' (Gafter-Gvili A. ''et al.,'' 2012). Prophylactic antibiotics have been demonstrated in studies to benefit patients with acute myeloid leukaemia, that receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and certain cancer populations by significantly reducing infection rates and improving overall survival (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005; Pohlen M. ''et al.,'' 2016).

A significant contributor to morbidity and mortality in cancer patients, especially those receiving intense chemotherapy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), are infection-related problems. By concentrating on common bacteria, before they have a chance to cause infections, prophylactic antibiotics can reduce these dangers. Studies have indicated that this strategy lowers morbidity and death associated with infections (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Preventive antibiotics can lessen the frequency and severity of infections, which can enhance the quality of life for cancer patients. Patients' overall quality of life is improved by preventing infections because it saves money on further treatments, hospital stays, and the discomfort that goes along with them (Pizzo PA. ''et al.,'' 1984). Nonetheless, a major obstacle to the treatment of cancer is the emergence of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics, which is associated with antibiotic overuse (Tacconelli E. ''et al.,'' 2018; Kelly CR. ''et al.,'' 2021); antibiotics can also disturb the normal microbiome, which might result in further issues such Clostridium difficile infections.

=== The Debate: Lifeline or Liability? ===
The use of preventive antibiotics in cancer therapy presents a double-edged sword. On one hand, they serve as a critical safety net for immunocompromised patients, reducing the risk of life-threatening infections. For cancer patients undergoing treatments like chemotherapy or radiation, where immune function is severely weakened, antibiotics play a life-saving role by preventing bacterial infections, such as ''febrile neutropenia'', which can significantly improve survival rates and treatment outcomes (Gafter-Gvili A. ''et al.,'' 2012; Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005). This is especially true for high-risk populations, such as those receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplants or intensive chemotherapy regimens, where infection risks are elevated (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

However, the benefits of prophylactic antibiotics are countered by significant risks. One major concern is the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a global public health crisis exacerbated by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics (Tacconelli E. ''et al.,'' 2018). Frequent use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones, can lead to the emergence of resistant bacterial strains, which complicates future treatments and reduces antibiotic efficacy (Paterson DL. ''Et al.,'' 2006; Gudiol C. ''et al.,'' 2010). This issue not only threatens individual patient outcomes but also presents a broader risk to public health, as resistant infections are becoming increasingly difficult to treat (Lode HM. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Additionally, the use of antibiotics can disrupt the patient's microbiome, leading to complications such as Clostridium difficile infections, which have been linked to the overuse of antibiotics (Kelly CR. ''et al.,'' 2021). Such disruptions to the microbiome can weaken immune defences, making patients more vulnerable to other infections and potentially affecting the effectiveness of cancer treatments (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015). Furthermore, antibiotics can cause adverse drug reactions, ranging from mild gastrointestinal issues to severe allergic responses and life-threatening conditions like Stevens-Johnson syndrome (Arora R. ''et al.,'' 2021).

Thus, while prophylactic antibiotics are indispensable in managing infection risks for cancer patients, their use must be carefully balanced against the potential for harm. Determining when the benefits of antibiotic use outweigh the risks requires a more personalized approach, considering factors such as cancer type, treatment regimen, and individual patient health (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018). Without careful stewardship, the life-saving potential of antibiotics could be undermined by the very risks they pose, turning a safety net into a liability.

== Cancer and Infection Risk ==
Patients with cancer are frequently more susceptible to infections because of the illness itself as well as the therapies they receive, such as radiation and chemotherapy. Immunosuppression, neutropenia (a decrease in white blood cells), and disruption of mucosal barriers that often guard against infections are the main causes of this elevated risk.

Patients undergoing cancer therapies, such as radiation and chemotherapy, frequently experience immunosuppression, which leaves them extremely vulnerable to infections. Particularly, a higher risk of bacterial infections is linked to chemotherapy-induced neutropenia, a condition in which white blood cell numbers drastically decrease (Kuderer NM. ''et al.,'' 2006). Antibiotics are essential in preventing potentially fatal infections in this immunosuppressed state, which calls for strict infection control measures.

=== Immunosuppression in Cancer Patients ===
Cancer and its therapies might weaken the immune system in several ways. For instance, chemotherapy can harm cells that divide quickly, such as those in the bone marrow, which lowers the generation of immune cells like neutrophils, which are essential for battling infections. By changing bone marrow and immune cell synthesis, radiation therapy can also compromise immunological function.

Individuals, who suffer from haematological malignancies, including lymphoma or leukaemia, are more vulnerable because these illnesses affect blood cells, including immunological cells. Further suppression of immune function can result from treatments such as corticosteroids and some biologic medicines (e.g., rituximab, which targets B cells), leaving patients more vulnerable to infections by bacteria, fungi, and viruses (Nates JL. ''et al.,'' 2024; Sharma A. ''et al.,'' 2024).

=== Common Infections in People with Cancer ===
Common bacteria like ''Escherichia coli'', ''Staphylococcus aureus'', and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' are frequently involved in infections in cancer patients (Kuderer NM. ''et al.,'' 2006). Bloodstream infections are very deadly because of their quick progression and high fatality rates. These infections can range in severity from moderate to severe.

Neutropenia, a common side effect of chemotherapy, raises the risk of bacterial infections, particularly bloodstream infections that can result in sepsis. This increases the likelihood of bacterial infections. If these infections are not treated right away, they may become fatal. Fungal infections are the result of immunosuppression, and individuals who have chronic neutropenia are more susceptible to opportunistic fungal infections. Immunosuppressed patients, particularly those receiving bone marrow or stem cell transplants, are susceptible to serious consequences from viruses including ''cytomegalovirus'' and ''herpes simplex virus'' (Nates JL ''et al.,'' 2024).

Treatment is made more difficult by the existence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) organisms, which emphasizes the significance of efficient preventative measures (Gudiol C. ''et al.,'' 2010).

=== Methods for Lowering the Risk of Infection ===
Prophylactic antibiotics, antifungals, and antiviral drugs are common preventive strategies used by high-risk individuals to reduce their chance of infection. Growth factors, such as granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), can be given to increase the production of white blood cells and shorten the period of neutropenia, which lowers the risk of infection (Nates JL. ''et al.,'' 2024). 

A complicated interaction between the disease's effects, treatment plans, and unique patient characteristics results in the immunological suppression seen in cancer patients. Monitoring closely, taking preventative measures, and using specialized treatment plans to strengthen the immune system when appropriate are all necessary to manage these risks.

== '''Antibiotic prophylaxis in oncology''' ==
In oncology, prophylactic antibiotics are mainly used to avoid infections in patients who are more vulnerable as a result of cancer treatments like radiation or chemotherapy, which can cause neutropenia, or a marked decrease in neutrophils, a subset of white blood cells. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), this elevated risk of infections might result in serious side effects including ''febrile neutropenia'', which can postpone therapy and raise mortality.

=== Present Recommendations ===
Prophylactic antibiotic treatment is advised in patients at high risk of ''febrile neutropenia'', according to current guidelines from prominent health organizations including the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) (Flowers CR, ''et al.,'' 2013). According to (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018), the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) has guidelines that suggest prophylactic antibiotic usage in high-risk cancer patients. The guidelines highlight the necessity to weigh the advantages of infection prevention against the risks of resistance and undesirable effects.

These recommendations however do also highlight the necessity of weighing the advantages of infection control against the dangers of acquiring AMR.

=== Types and Indications of Prophylactic Antibiotic Use ===
Patients who experience prolonged and severe neutropenia (absolute neutrophil count &lt; 500 cells/µL), which is frequently observed in patients receiving chemotherapy for solid tumours or hematologic malignancies, as well as those receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), are generally advised to take prophylactic antibiotics (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Due to their broad-spectrum activity against both grammeme-positive and grammeme-negative bacteria, fluoroquinolones—such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin—are the most often used preventive antibiotics in cancer therapy (Gafter–Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007). Because fluoroquinolones, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, are effective against Gramme-negative bacteria, which are frequently linked to infections in patients with neutropenia, they are frequently used for bacterial prophylaxis (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007).

To avoid infections, some pathogens, such as ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', employ alternative medicines, like ''sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim''. Its use is also beneficial for patients receiving other immunosuppressive therapy or high-dose corticosteroids (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).  The use of antifungal (''fluconazole,'' for example) and antiviral (''acyclovir,'' for example) prophylaxis may also be restricted by specific risk factors and institutional procedures (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

=== Risks and Considerations ===
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant organisms as a result of extended and widespread use is a significant worry and is becoming a bigger problem in the field of oncology. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), side effects from prophylactic antibiotics include gastrointestinal distress, ''Clostridium difficile'' infection, and allergic responses.

There are a few things to think about when using preventative antibiotics including; practices for infection control and cross-infection, behaviour and psychological aspects, and Low-Resource and Global Configurations.

==== Practices for Infection Control and Cross-Infection ====
In oncology settings, infection control methods should be viewed more broadly when considering the inclusion of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer care. Antibiotics used prophylactically are one part of a comprehensive strategy to avoid infections, especially in people with impaired immune systems. To avoid unforeseen outcomes like cross-infection and the emergence of resistant organisms, we must carefully balance their use with other infection control strategies.

==== Protocols for isolation and environmental controls ====
Reducing infection risks in cancer wards is mostly dependent on infection control strategies like stringent environmental cleaning, frequent screening for multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), and the application of isolation techniques (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).  Prophylactic antibiotic use ought to supplement these methods rather than take their place, since depending just on: antibiotics can cause complacency in other crucial areas of infection control (Wilson BE, ''et al.,'' 2020).

==== Handwashing practices and staff training ====
Reducing hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) in cancer patients requires ongoing staff education and a focus on hand hygiene. Improved hand hygiene compliance among healthcare workers has been demonstrated in studies to considerably lower the incidence of HAIs, particularly those brought on by bacteria resistant to antibiotics (Allegranzi B, ''et al.,'' 2013). Prophylactic antibiotic use must be carefully managed to avoid compromising these efforts by giving rise to a false sense of security.

==== Risk of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) ====
Antibiotics used prophylactically may raise the risk of CDI, which is a serious issue in oncology units. By putting in place strict infection control procedures and antibiotic stewardship programs, oncology facilities can reduce this risk. Antibiotics should only be used when necessary (Tamma PD, ''et al.,'' 2014).

==== Behaviour and psychological aspects to take into account ====
Prophylactic antibiotic use has the potential to change patient attitudes and behaviour, which can influence compliance with more comprehensive infection prevention measures. It is essential to comprehend these behavioural and psychological factors in order to maximize patient outcomes when receiving cancer treatment.

===== The sense of security =====
Prophylactic antibiotic recipients may believe they are immune to infections, which could result in less adherence to other preventive measures such eating a restricted diet or practicing good personal hygiene (Lederberg J., 2000). Healthcare professionals should inform patients about the drawbacks of antibiotics, as well as the value of a thorough infection prevention strategy.

===== Antibiotic Dependency and Perception of Resistance =====
Patients run the danger of becoming dependent on antibiotics, which could raise demand for the drugs even in situations where they are not medically necessary. The larger problem of antibiotic resistance may be exacerbated by this behaviour (Davis ME, ''et al.,'' 2017). Teaching patients about the responsible use of antibiotics and the worldwide effects of antibiotic resistance can reduce these dangers.

===== Effect on Life Quality =====
Prophylactic antibiotic side effects, like gastrointestinal problems or allergic responses, can seriously impair a patient's quality of life. Additionally, the psychological weight of possible side effects may cause worry or worsen treatment compliance. Managing patient expectations and encouraging adherence to other protective behaviours need addressing these issues through counselling and clear communication.

==== Low-Resource and Global Configurations ====
In global and low-resource contexts, where the balance of benefits and dangers may fluctuate dramatically due to variations in healthcare infrastructure, antibiotic availability, and local resistance patterns, the use of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer therapy poses distinct problems.

===== Problems in Low-Resource Environments =====
Implementing preventive antibiotic treatments can be challenging in low-resource settings due to restricted access to medical facilities, diagnostic equipment, and medications. Furthermore, because of over-the-counter sales and a lack of regulatory control, these areas frequently have high rates of antibiotic resistance (Laxminarayan R, ''et al.,'' 2013). When preventive antibiotics are used indiscriminately in certain conditions, resistance problems may worsen and the medications' effectiveness may be diminished when they are actually needed.

===== Customized Approaches =====
It is imperative to implement customized preventive interventions that take into account local resistance trends and epidemiology. To lessen dependency on broad-spectrum medications that fuel resistance, guidelines for instance, might advise using probiotics or immunomodulators as an alternative to antibiotic prophylaxis.

===== Issues of equity and access =====
In low-resource contexts, fairness in access to preventive measures such as prophylactic antibiotics is a major concern. Without worsening already-existing disparities, we should work to guarantee that cancer patients in these areas receive sufficient care for infection prevention. Collaborations with foreign organizations and regional administrations can assist in supplying the tools and instruction required to put into practice efficient infection control procedures.

===== Budgetary efficiency and resource distribution =====
In environments with limited resources, cost-effectiveness needs to be taken into account. Invest resources in regions where they can have the biggest impact, concentrating on patients who are most at risk of infection and who stand to gain the most from prophylaxis. We must make sure that healthcare resources and available antibiotics are used fairly and efficiently in order to provide the best results for patients (Bodey GP, ''et al.,'' 1983).

== '''Advantages of Preventive Antibiotic Use''' ==
Preventive antibiotics, on the one hand, have been shown to dramatically cut the occurrence of infections, which lowers hospitalization rates and improves quality of life for cancer patients. Patients with severe neutropenia or those receiving bone marrow transplants, when there is a significant danger of infection, benefit most from them. Research has indicated that prompt use of antibiotics might avert potentially fatal consequences, making it an essential part of supportive cancer treatment.

=== Preventing infections ===
Patients with cancer, particularly those receiving chemotherapy, are more vulnerable to infections because of neutropenia. Prophylactic antibiotics help these patients avoid bacterial infections; examples are ''trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole'', ''macrolides'', and ''fluoroquinolones''. Prophylactic fluoroquinolones decreased the risk of ''febrile'' episodes, recorded infections, and infection-related mortality in patients with neutropenia, according to a meta-analysis by (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007). These results highlight the critical role that antibiotics play in protecting susceptible cancer patients from potentially fatal infections. Prophylactic usage of certain antibiotics is advised for patients with haematological malignancies in order to prevent certain infections, such as ''pneumocystis pneumonia'' (PCP). To avoid PCP, for example, these patients frequently take ''trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole''.

=== Decreased Chance of Sepsis ===
One frequent and dangerous side effect of chemotherapy is ''febrile neutropenia'', which can result in infections that could be fatal. According to (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005), preventive antibiotics can reduce the frequency of ''febrile neutropenia'', enabling continuous cancer treatment regimens.

=== Decreased Death and Morbidity ===
Prophylactic antibiotics lower hospital admissions, intensive care unit stays, and overall death rates in cancer patients by preventing infections. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), this can greatly enhance both the overall results of treatment and quality of life. Fluoroquinolone prophylaxis in neutropenic individuals was shown to significantly reduce all-cause mortality, according to a study by (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005). Patients receiving intense chemotherapy gain the most from this, as they are at the biggest risk of developing deadly infections.

=== Life Quality ===
By lowering the frequency of hospital stays, fever episodes, and the need for further therapies, infection prevention by preventive antibiotic use can also enhance the quality of life for cancer patients. Patients can stick to their treatment plans and avoid the mental and physical effects of serious diseases by avoiding infections.

== Use of Prophylactic Antibiotics: Drawbacks and Hazards ==
However, frequent use of antibiotics carries a number of hazards, such as the development of organisms resistant to several drugs, which can make future treatments more difficult to implement and worsen the prognosis for patients. Antibiotic resistance is a global public health concern that is exacerbated by the careless use of antibiotics, thus its use in cancer treatment must be more tailored and prudent.

=== Development of Antimicrobial Resistance ===
Prophylactic antibiotic treatment carries a number of major dangers, one of which is antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The selective pressure that promotes the emergence of resistant strains, especially in Gramme-negative bacteria, is exacerbated by the extensive use of antibiotics in cancer treatment (Paterson DL. ''Et al.,'' 2006). Multidrug-resistant organisms can colonize and infect cancer patients receiving preventive antibiotic treatment, according to studies (Gudiol C. et al., 2010).

Antibiotic overuse and misuse can result in the formation of multidrug-resistant organisms, which are dangerous for patient health and the public since they are difficult to treat (Lode HM. ''et al.,'' 2010).

=== Adverse Reactions to Drugs ===
Antibiotics can bring on side effects from mild (such gastrointestinal distress and allergic responses) to severe (like a Clostridium difficile infection, which can result in severe diarrhoea and colitis). These responses may impair the health of the patient and make cancer treatment more difficult (Bartlett JG, ''et al.,'' 2002).

Antibiotic side effects in cancer patients who use them frequently or for an extended period can range from minor gastrointestinal issues to serious, life-threatening illnesses like Stevens-Johnson syndrome (Arora R. ''et al.,'' 2021). These adverse effects may make managing cancer more difficult and lower patients' tolerance to treatment as a whole.

=== The Microbiome Is Disrupted ===
Preventive antibiotics have the potential to upset the balance of the microbiome, leading to dysbiosis and a host of unfavourable consequences, including ''Clostridium difficile'' infections (Alexander JL, ''et al.,'' 2017). This may weaken the immune system, make one more vulnerable to infections, and even affect how well cancer treatments work (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015).

Since there is growing evidence that a healthy microbiome influences how the body reacts to treatments like immunotherapy, alteration of the gut ''microbiota'' may also impact the effectiveness of cancer medicines (Gopalakrishnan V, ''et al.,'' 2018).

=== Price and Utilization of Resources ===
Due to the cost of the medications themselves, side effect monitoring, and addressing issues resulting from antibiotic resistance or bad effects, the use of prophylactic antibiotics can result in higher healthcare expenses.

== Juggling the Benefits and Risks ==
A thorough evaluation of each patient's risk for infection, the possibility of side effects, and the possibility of antibiotic resistance is necessary to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of prophylactic antibiotic use in cancer treatment. The decision to take prophylactic antibiotics should be guided by clinical guidelines, patient-specific considerations, and a multidisciplinary approach comprising infectious disease specialists, pharmacists, and oncologists.

=== Stratification of Risk ===
It is essential to stratify patients according to their unique infection and AMR risk factors in order to optimize the advantages of prophylactic antibiotics while reducing the hazards. Patients with high-risk factors—such as those experiencing prolonged and profound neutropenia (absolute neutrophil count &lt; 100 cells/µL for more than seven days), which is commonly observed in patients receiving intense chemotherapy for acute leukaemia or undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation—are generally advised to take prophylactic antibiotics; low-risk patients, on the other hand, may be treated with different approaches.

According to (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018), patients with solid tumours undergoing less rigorous chemotherapy may not require routine prophylactic antibiotics due to their decreased likelihood of severe neutropenia. This could minimize unnecessary exposure and the potential for resistance.

Patients receiving high-intensity chemotherapy or those with haematological malignancies are more susceptible to infections and may benefit more from taking preventive antibiotics. Individuals with severe neutropenia, such as an absolute neutrophil count below 500 cells/µL, may need to take preventative antibiotics (Klastersky J, ''et al.,'' 2006).

=== Selecting the Appropriate Antibiotic ===
The local epidemiology of infections and patterns of resistance should be taken into consideration while choosing antibiotics. Given that fluoroquinolones are frequently used to treat Gram-negative bacteria, it is important to take the patient's history of colonization or infection into account (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007).

To reduce the likelihood of selecting for resistant organisms and to prevent disruption of the patient's normal flora, utilize narrow-spectrum antibiotics whenever possible (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Prophylactic use of narrow-spectrum antibiotics can help reduce the likelihood of resistance. Compared to broad-spectrum antibiotics, narrow-spectrum drugs focus on particular pathogens and have less of an effect on the microbial ecology as a whole.

=== Monitoring for Adverse Effects ===
In order to identify and treat any side effects, such as gastrointestinal disorders, allergic responses, or ''Clostridium difficile'' infection, patients using prophylactic antibiotics must be regularly monitored. If side effects outweigh the advantages, this diligence aids in quickly stopping or switching antibiotics (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

=== Restricting the Prophylactic Duration ===
Restrict prophylaxis to times when there is a high risk, like during a period of acute neutropenia. Steer clear of extended use to reduce the possibility of resistance and other negative effects (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

A more individualized strategy may be possible in certain situations where the length of prophylaxis is modified in response to the patient's clinical status and neutrophil count recovery (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018).

=== Personalized Medicine Approach ===
Tailored prophylaxis based on patient-specific characteristics, including the type of cancer, the chemotherapy regimen, and the patient's overall health status. This tailored strategy minimizes potential side effects, such as the possibility of bacterial strains becoming resistant, while maximizing the advantages of prophylaxis. Prophylactic techniques can be optimized with a tailored strategy to antibiotic use that takes the patient's immunological condition, treatment regimen, and microbiome into account. While still offering sufficient defence against infections, personalized medication may lessen needless antibiotic exposure and lessen the dangers associated with antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

=== Antimicrobial Stewardship Integration ===
Antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASP) are essential for maximizing the use of preventive antibiotics in oncology settings. These initiatives keep an eye on patterns of antibiotic resistance inside the facility and guarantee that prophylaxis is used appropriately, considering patient-specific risks as well as current guidelines (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

The creation of regional policies ought to be aided by the stewardship program. The incidence of resistant organisms and the unique requirements of the patient group should be considered when developing evidence-based, regionally tailored guidelines for the use of antibiotics. The concepts of antimicrobial stewardship, which include knowing the importance of using antibiotics appropriately and the hazards associated with resistance, are taught to healthcare practitioners. In order to guarantee adherence to standards and make necessary adjustments to practices, ASPs put in place systems for tracking the use of antibiotics and giving feedback to healthcare practitioners (Bodey GP, ''et al.,'' 1983).

=== Shared Decision-Making and Patient Education ===
Talking with patients about the advantages and disadvantages of preventive antibiotics might help customize the treatment to their unique needs and preferences. A collaborative approach to therapy is facilitated by educating patients about potential side effects, the significance of adhering to prescribed medications, and infection signs (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018).

== '''Alternative Strategies to Avoid Infections''' ==
By utilizing the body's immune system, advantageous microbes, or compounds that directly inhibit dangerous bacteria without causing antibiotic resistance, these tactics provide alternatives to antibiotics. Given the rise in antibiotic resistance, other approaches to antibiotic prophylaxis warrant consideration.

=== Non-Antibiotic Prophylaxis ===
Granulocyte-colony stimulating factors (G-CSFs), which increase the formation of white blood cells and shorten the duration of neutropenia, are an alternative strategy for preventing infections in cancer patients (Smith TJ, ''et al.,'' 2015). Antibiotic prophylaxis would otherwise be necessary to prevent infections that can be prevented by vaccination. As an illustration, vaccinations against ''influenza'', ''meningococcus'', and ''pneumococcus'' lower the incidence of illnesses (Plotkin SA, ''et al.,'' 2014).

Other approaches to preventing infections without antibiotics include:

==== Hygiene and Infection Control Measures ====
To lower the risk of infections, strict hygiene measures such as handwashing and sterile procedures must be followed. Infection control techniques should be taught to patients and healthcare professionals (Pizzo PA. ''et al.,'' 1984).

==== Assistive Healthcare ====
To improve patients' general health and resistance to infections, improve supportive care strategies include treating comorbidities and offering nutritional support.

=== The Microbiome's Function ===
Without the use of antibiotics, maintaining and repairing the gut ''microbiota'' is showing promise as a means of preventing infections. Probiotics, faecal ''microbiota'' transplantation, and dietary modifications are being investigated by researchers as ways to help cancer patients maintain a healthy microbiome and lower their risk of infection. Probiotics, or good bacteria, can aid in the prevention of infections by strengthening the immune system, creating antimicrobial compounds, and competing with pathogens for resources and adhesion sites (Ouwehand AC, ''et al.,'' 2016).

=== Immunotherapy ===
The development of immunotherapy has created new opportunities for preventing infections. Therapies such checkpoint inhibitors, which strengthen the patient's immune system, may lessen the need for preventative antibiotics. Immunomodulatory treatments strengthen the immune system's ability to fend against infections without going after the bacteria directly. Furthermore, continuing studies into cutting-edge antimicrobial agents, including antimicrobial peptides and ''bacteriophages'', may offer substitutes for conventional infection management strategies in cancer settings (Czaplewski L, ''et al.,'' 2016). Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a component of the innate immune system that damage bacterial membranes to stop infections (Zasloff M, ''et al.,'' 2002).

Viral agents known as &quot;''bacteriophages''&quot; target only bacteria, providing a focused method of preventing infections without interfering with the body's natural flora (Abedon ST, ''et al.,'' 2017).

=== Silver Nanoparticles ===
Silver nanoparticles offer broad-spectrum antibacterial characteristics that can be used in medical device coatings to prevent infections (Rai M, ''et al.,'' 2009).

=== Plant-Derived Compounds ===
Plant extracts and essential oils are examples of compounds with antibacterial qualities that can operate as substitute preventive measures (Burt S, ''et al.,'' 2004).

By inhibiting bacterial adhesion to the urinary system lining, cranberry extracts are used by researchers to prevent urinary tract infections (Jepson RG, ''et al.,'' 2012). Prebiotics strengthen the body's defences against infections by encouraging the growth of good bacteria (Slavin J, ''et al.,'' 2013).

== '''Policy and Practice Implications''' ==
In cancer care, antibiotic prophylaxis is essential for preventing infections, particularly in patients with impaired immune systems. The approach however does, also bring up issues with patient safety, antibiotic resistance, and the requirement for evidence-based practices, policies, and standards.

=== Guidelines Updates ===
Clinical guidelines need to be reviewed and maybe revised in light of the dangers associated with prophylactic antibiotic usage. This will allow them to incorporate the most recent findings on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and infection control measures in cancer care. According to (Paul M, ''et al.,'' 2014), guidelines ought to prioritise the prudent use of antibiotics and promote the incorporation of non-antibiotic prophylactic techniques when applicable.

Specific antibiotic prophylaxis regimens are recommended based on the patient's risk of infection and the type of cancer treatment, according to guidelines such as those from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), these recommendations aid in standardizing care and lowering the overuse of antibiotics.

=== Antibiotics Stewardship in Oncology ===
Fighting antimicrobial resistance (AMR) requires the implementation of antibiotic stewardship programs designed especially for oncology settings. The goals of these initiatives ought to be to monitor patterns of resistance, optimize the use of antibiotics, and inform medical professionals about the dangers of misuse (MacDougall C, ''et al.,'' 2005).

=== Global Health Perspective ===
The obstacles associated with the proactive use of antibiotics in cancer treatment are especially severe in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where there is restricted access to both effective antibiotics and cancer treatment. Global health programs in these environments need to give top priority to creating context-specific infection and antimicrobial resistance management plans for cancer patients (Pramesh CS, ''et al.,'' 2022).

A one-size-fits-all strategy for prophylactic antibiotics might not be practical in environments with limited resources. Rather, healthcare professionals to identify the patients who stand the best chance of benefiting from prophylaxis should use risk stratification.

=== Infection Surveillance and Frequent Evaluations ===
Early identification of infection trends and resistance patterns is facilitated by the deployment of surveillance systems to track infections and antibiotic use in cancer patients. Clinical results can be enhanced and policy changes can be informed by consistent reporting and feedback. We should routinely evaluate and update preventative procedures in light of new therapeutic choices, changing clinical practices, and emerging evidence on resistance patterns in order to maintain their efficacy and relevance.

=== Education of Patients and Healthcare Providers ===
Guidelines compliance and stewardship initiatives can be strengthened by educating patients and healthcare professionals on the proper use of prophylactic antibiotics and the dangers of overusing them. When appropriate, policies should promote the use of narrow-spectrum antibiotics to lower the likelihood of resistance development. Broad-spectrum antibiotics only should be used in high-risk situations, or when the pathogen is unclear (Pizzo PA, ''et al.,'' 1993).

== '''Future Research Directions''' ==
Since cancer, patients frequently have weakened immune systems because of their illness or therapies like chemotherapy, prophylactic antibiotics are used in cancer care to prevent infections. Subsequent investigations in this field need to focus on optimizing the application of these antibiotics to enhance patient results, diminish the incidence of infections during cancer treatment, and tackle the worldwide predicament of antibiotic resistance. The long-term effects of prophylactic antibiotic usage on cancer recurrence and the function of the microbiome in modifying cancer outcomes are two areas of the existing literature that need more research. To create and validate risk classification instruments that can direct individualized preventative measures, more study is required.

Subsequent investigations ought to delve into inventive methods of averting infections, like employing nanotechnology to administer specific antibacterial treatments or creating immunizations against germs that are resistant to several drugs. Research on the impact of incorporating antibiotic stewardship into standard cancer therapy, and how it affects patient outcomes might also be beneficial (Willyard C, ''et al.,'' 2017).

=== Tailored Prevention ===
Based on the unique risk variables of each patient, such as their microbiome, treatment plan, cancer kind, and genetic susceptibility, creating more personalized ways to antibiotic prophylaxis is a way forward. This is because patients with cancer who get prophylactic antibiotics may have altered gut microbiomes, which may have an impact on treatment response, infection risk, and cancer progression (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015).

=== Long-Term Outcomes ===
To give a thorough picture of the advantages and disadvantages, the long-term effects of antibiotic prophylaxis, including the influence on cancer recurrence, survival, and quality of life has to be thoroughly examined.

=== Novel Antibiotics and their substitutes ===
Investigating non-antibiotic options, such as ''bacteriophages'', probiotics, or immunomodulatory treatments, to avoid infections, or investigating novel antibiotics that are efficient against resistant organisms (Schooley RT, ''et al.,'' 2017). In order to improve patient selection criteria, researchers are finding biomarkers that can detect which patients are most likely to become infected and would benefit most from preventive antibiotics.

=== Mitigating Infections in Particular Populations ===
Prophylactic techniques unique to cancer populations are also a way forward in oncology care especially for patients receiving immunotherapy, those having bone marrow transplants, and those with solid tumours as opposed to haematological malignancies (Baden LR, ''et al.,'' 2016). 

=== Clinical Trials and Empirical Data ===
In addition to gathering real-world data to inform clinical practice, carrying out extensive clinical trials to assess the safety and effectiveness of various preventive regimens is a vital recommendation that should be looked at (Gudiol C. et al., 2010).

=== Economic Efficiency Studies ===
To make sure that the advantages of antibiotic prophylaxis exceed the dangers and expenses related to its usage, evaluating the cost-effectiveness of different preventative measures is crucial especially for patients with cancer (Flowers CR, ''et al.,'' 2013).

== '''Conclusion''' ==
In the treatment of cancer, preventive antibiotics are both a lifesaver and a liability. Although they are essential for preventing infections and enhancing patient outcomes, abuse of them exacerbates the issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and may have unfavourable effects on other aspects of health. Optimizing prophylactic antibiotic benefits while minimizing hazards requires a well-rounded strategy that incorporates risk classification, personalized therapy, and the incorporation of alternative infection prevention techniques. Ongoing research and policy revisions will be essential to guarantee that prophylactic antibiotic use remains a useful tool in oncology care as the landscape of cancer treatment continues to change.

==Additional information==

=== Author Contributions ===
Alhamdu Dawa Bulus made significant contributions to the planning, coordination, critically reviewing, and supervising of this review. Ritji Victor Goldim took the responsibility of literature search, gathering of relevant informations, and drafting the work. Esther Chidinma Ezeh critically revised, and edited the work as the corresponding author. Odinaka Kingsley Obeta, Myaltong Datok, Uchechukwu Cynthia Ofoma proofread the work and final approval of the version to be published. All authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of this work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of this work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

=== Competing interests ===
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest to disclose.

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Schooley RT, Biswas B, Gill JJ, et al. Development and use of personalized ''bacteriophage''-based therapeutic cocktails to treat a patient with a disseminated resistant Acinetobacter baumannii infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2017; 61(10).

Baden LR, Swaminathan S, Angarone M, Blouin G, Camins BC, Casper C, et al. Prevention and treatment of cancer-related infections: version 2.2016 NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2016; 14(7): 882-913.

Flowers CR, Seidenfeld J, Bow EJ, Karten C, Gleason C, Hawley DK, et al. Antimicrobial prophylaxis and outpatient management of fever and neutropenia in adults treated for malignancy: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2013; 31(6): 794-810.</text>
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      <text bytes="56960" sha1="1e1l3b9epbq4aypclt4fwgurrvoyh9k" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| last1 = Bulus
| orcid1 = 0009-0001-9503-2448
| first1 = Alhamdu Dawa
| last2 = Ezeh
| orcid2 = 0009-0008-8242-8292
| first2 = Esther Chidinma
| last3 = Goldim
| orcid3 = 0009-0008-0608-9890
| affiliation2 = Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University Gashua Yobe State, Nigeria
| first3 = Ritji Victor
| last4 = Obeta
| affiliation4 = Department of Health Policy, Planning and Financing Global Health and Infectious Diseases Institute (GHIDI), Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.
| first5 = Myaltong
| last5 = Datok
| affiliation5 = Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Distance Learning Centre Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| first6 = Uchechukwu Cynthia
| last6 = Ofoma
| affiliation6 = Polymer Chemistry; Department of Chemistry in Education, University of Jos Plateau State, Nigeria.
| affiliation3 = Laboratory Department, Edoch Medical Services, Jos-South Plateau State, Nigeria
| first4 = Odinaka Kingsley
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| affiliation1 = Department of Molecular Biology and Genomics, Global Health and Infectious Diseases Control Institute, Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria
| correspondence1 = ezehestherchidinma@gmail.com
| affiliations = 'affiliation1' Department of Molecular Biology and Genomics, Global Health and Infectious Diseases Control Institute, Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.    'affiliation2' Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University Gashua Yobe State, Nigeria.                                                                        'affiliation3' Laboratory Department, Edoch Medical Services, Jos-South Plateau State, Nigeria.                                                                                                   'affiliation4' Department of Health Policy, Planning and Financing Global Health and Infectious Diseases Institute (GHIDI), Nassarawa State University Keffi, Nigeria.                                                                                                   'affiliation5' Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Distance Learning Centre Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.  'affiliation6' Polymer Chemistry; Department of Chemistry in Education, University of Jos Plateau State, Nigeria.
| correspondence = ezehestherchidinma@gmail.com
| keywords = antimicrobial resistance, cancer care, chemotherapy, immunocompromised
patients, infection prevention, prophylactic antibiotics
| submitted = 12th October, 2024
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = The use of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer treatment has been fraught with dangers in addition to advantages. Prophylactic antibiotic usage has emerged as a critical tactic in cancer care to avoid infections in immunocompromised patients receiving severe treatments such as chemotherapy. Antibiotics help prevent infections in cancer patients with impaired immune systems, but overuse of them adds to the increasing global problem of antimicrobial resistance. The significance of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer are critically examined in this review, which also discusses the hazards associated with them, such as the development of antimicrobial resistance, alteration of the microbiome, and adverse drug reactions, as well as their advantages in preventing infections and lowering mortality. This review makes the case that, despite the fact that prophylactic antibiotics can be a lifesaver for many cancer patients, we must carefully weigh the risks associated with using them. It asks for a more detailed recommendation that take into account the risk factors, cancer kinds, and treatment plans unique to each patient. The report concludes with policy implications and ideas for future research. It also addresses alternate tactics for infection prevention and the need for a personalized approach to antibiotic use in cancer care. Moreover, it underscores the necessity of continued investigation into substitute preventive approaches, such immunomodulatory treatments and microbiome-based interventions, in order to lessen the dependence on antibiotics. We may better manage the intricacies of prophylactic antibiotic usage in cancer
care by re-evaluating present methods and embracing a more individualized approach, ensuring that it continues to be an advantageous tool rather than a liability.
}}

== Introduction ==

=== Overview of Infection Risk and Cancer Care ===
Patients with cancer, especially those undergoing rigorous treatments like radiation or chemotherapy, have weakened immune systems, which puts them at higher risk of infection. As a preventative step to lessen this risk, prophylactic antibiotics are frequently used (Tartari E. ''et al.,'' 2017). Nevertheless, with antibiotic use growing, questions have been raised concerning the long-term safety and effectiveness of these drugs, particularly in light of the global increase in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (WHO, 2020). The purpose of this study is to objectively examine whether preventive antibiotics in cancer care are a necessary precautionary measure or if they represent a serious risk that could ultimately jeopardize patient outcomes and public health. It aims to give a thorough knowledge of whether prophylactic antibiotics are a lifeline or liability in the context of cancer treatment by examining existing guidelines, clinical outcomes, and developing issues. Hence, the focus of this review is to assess prophylactic antibiotics' function in cancer care critically by weighing the dangers involved with using them against their potential to save lives.

=== Rationale for Prophylactic Antibiotics in Cancer Care ===
Due to immune system weakness brought on by chemotherapy, radiation, or surgery, cancer patients are more vulnerable to infections (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010). Prophylactic antibiotics are used as a preventive measure since infections are a major source of morbidity and mortality among cancer patients (Rubenstein EB. ''et al.,'' 2004). The goal of prophylactic antibiotics is to lower the risk of infection, especially in high-risk patients who are neutropenic (Bucaneve G. ''et al.,'' 2005). Common antibiotics called fluoroquinolones have been shown to lower the frequency of ''febrile neutropenia'' (Gafter-Gvili A. ''et al.,'' 2012). Prophylactic antibiotics have been demonstrated in studies to benefit patients with acute myeloid leukaemia, that receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and certain cancer populations by significantly reducing infection rates and improving overall survival (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005; Pohlen M. ''et al.,'' 2016).

A significant contributor to morbidity and mortality in cancer patients, especially those receiving intense chemotherapy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), are infection-related problems. By concentrating on common bacteria, before they have a chance to cause infections, prophylactic antibiotics can reduce these dangers. Studies have indicated that this strategy lowers morbidity and death associated with infections (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Preventive antibiotics can lessen the frequency and severity of infections, which can enhance the quality of life for cancer patients. Patients' overall quality of life is improved by preventing infections because it saves money on further treatments, hospital stays, and the discomfort that goes along with them (Pizzo PA. ''et al.,'' 1984). Nonetheless, a major obstacle to the treatment of cancer is the emergence of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics, which is associated with antibiotic overuse (Tacconelli E. ''et al.,'' 2018; Kelly CR. ''et al.,'' 2021); antibiotics can also disturb the normal microbiome, which might result in further issues such Clostridium difficile infections.

=== The Debate: Lifeline or Liability? ===
The use of preventive antibiotics in cancer therapy presents a double-edged sword. On one hand, they serve as a critical safety net for immunocompromised patients, reducing the risk of life-threatening infections. For cancer patients undergoing treatments like chemotherapy or radiation, where immune function is severely weakened, antibiotics play a life-saving role by preventing bacterial infections, such as ''febrile neutropenia'', which can significantly improve survival rates and treatment outcomes (Gafter-Gvili A. ''et al.,'' 2012; Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005). This is especially true for high-risk populations, such as those receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplants or intensive chemotherapy regimens, where infection risks are elevated (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

However, the benefits of prophylactic antibiotics are countered by significant risks. One major concern is the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a global public health crisis exacerbated by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics (Tacconelli E. ''et al.,'' 2018). Frequent use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones, can lead to the emergence of resistant bacterial strains, which complicates future treatments and reduces antibiotic efficacy (Paterson DL. ''Et al.,'' 2006; Gudiol C. ''et al.,'' 2010). This issue not only threatens individual patient outcomes but also presents a broader risk to public health, as resistant infections are becoming increasingly difficult to treat (Lode HM. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Additionally, the use of antibiotics can disrupt the patient's microbiome, leading to complications such as Clostridium difficile infections, which have been linked to the overuse of antibiotics (Kelly CR. ''et al.,'' 2021). Such disruptions to the microbiome can weaken immune defences, making patients more vulnerable to other infections and potentially affecting the effectiveness of cancer treatments (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015). Furthermore, antibiotics can cause adverse drug reactions, ranging from mild gastrointestinal issues to severe allergic responses and life-threatening conditions like Stevens-Johnson syndrome (Arora R. ''et al.,'' 2021).

Thus, while prophylactic antibiotics are indispensable in managing infection risks for cancer patients, their use must be carefully balanced against the potential for harm. Determining when the benefits of antibiotic use outweigh the risks requires a more personalized approach, considering factors such as cancer type, treatment regimen, and individual patient health (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018). Without careful stewardship, the life-saving potential of antibiotics could be undermined by the very risks they pose, turning a safety net into a liability.

== Cancer and Infection Risk ==
Patients with cancer are frequently more susceptible to infections because of the illness itself as well as the therapies they receive, such as radiation and chemotherapy. Immunosuppression, neutropenia (a decrease in white blood cells), and disruption of mucosal barriers that often guard against infections are the main causes of this elevated risk.

Patients undergoing cancer therapies, such as radiation and chemotherapy, frequently experience immunosuppression, which leaves them extremely vulnerable to infections. Particularly, a higher risk of bacterial infections is linked to chemotherapy-induced neutropenia, a condition in which white blood cell numbers drastically decrease (Kuderer NM. ''et al.,'' 2006). Antibiotics are essential in preventing potentially fatal infections in this immunosuppressed state, which calls for strict infection control measures.

=== Immunosuppression in Cancer Patients ===
Cancer and its therapies might weaken the immune system in several ways. For instance, chemotherapy can harm cells that divide quickly, such as those in the bone marrow, which lowers the generation of immune cells like neutrophils, which are essential for battling infections. By changing bone marrow and immune cell synthesis, radiation therapy can also compromise immunological function.

Individuals, who suffer from haematological malignancies, including lymphoma or leukaemia, are more vulnerable because these illnesses affect blood cells, including immunological cells. Further suppression of immune function can result from treatments such as corticosteroids and some biologic medicines (e.g., rituximab, which targets B cells), leaving patients more vulnerable to infections by bacteria, fungi, and viruses (Nates JL. ''et al.,'' 2024; Sharma A. ''et al.,'' 2024).

=== Common Infections in People with Cancer ===
Common bacteria like ''Escherichia coli'', ''Staphylococcus aureus'', and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' are frequently involved in infections in cancer patients (Kuderer NM. ''et al.,'' 2006). Bloodstream infections are very deadly because of their quick progression and high fatality rates. These infections can range in severity from moderate to severe.

Neutropenia, a common side effect of chemotherapy, raises the risk of bacterial infections, particularly bloodstream infections that can result in sepsis. This increases the likelihood of bacterial infections. If these infections are not treated right away, they may become fatal. Fungal infections are the result of immunosuppression, and individuals who have chronic neutropenia are more susceptible to opportunistic fungal infections. Immunosuppressed patients, particularly those receiving bone marrow or stem cell transplants, are susceptible to serious consequences from viruses including ''cytomegalovirus'' and ''herpes simplex virus'' (Nates JL ''et al.,'' 2024).

Treatment is made more difficult by the existence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) organisms, which emphasizes the significance of efficient preventative measures (Gudiol C. ''et al.,'' 2010).

=== Methods for Lowering the Risk of Infection ===
Prophylactic antibiotics, antifungals, and antiviral drugs are common preventive strategies used by high-risk individuals to reduce their chance of infection. Growth factors, such as granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), can be given to increase the production of white blood cells and shorten the period of neutropenia, which lowers the risk of infection (Nates JL. ''et al.,'' 2024). 

A complicated interaction between the disease's effects, treatment plans, and unique patient characteristics results in the immunological suppression seen in cancer patients. Monitoring closely, taking preventative measures, and using specialized treatment plans to strengthen the immune system when appropriate are all necessary to manage these risks.

== '''Antibiotic prophylaxis in oncology''' ==
In oncology, prophylactic antibiotics are mainly used to avoid infections in patients who are more vulnerable as a result of cancer treatments like radiation or chemotherapy, which can cause neutropenia, or a marked decrease in neutrophils, a subset of white blood cells. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), this elevated risk of infections might result in serious side effects including ''febrile neutropenia'', which can postpone therapy and raise mortality.

=== Present Recommendations ===
Prophylactic antibiotic treatment is advised in patients at high risk of ''febrile neutropenia'', according to current guidelines from prominent health organizations including the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) (Flowers CR, ''et al.,'' 2013). According to (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018), the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) has guidelines that suggest prophylactic antibiotic usage in high-risk cancer patients. The guidelines highlight the necessity to weigh the advantages of infection prevention against the risks of resistance and undesirable effects.

These recommendations however do also highlight the necessity of weighing the advantages of infection control against the dangers of acquiring AMR.

=== Types and Indications of Prophylactic Antibiotic Use ===
Patients who experience prolonged and severe neutropenia (absolute neutrophil count &lt; 500 cells/µL), which is frequently observed in patients receiving chemotherapy for solid tumours or hematologic malignancies, as well as those receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), are generally advised to take prophylactic antibiotics (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Due to their broad-spectrum activity against both grammeme-positive and grammeme-negative bacteria, fluoroquinolones—such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin—are the most often used preventive antibiotics in cancer therapy (Gafter–Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007). Because fluoroquinolones, such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, are effective against Gramme-negative bacteria, which are frequently linked to infections in patients with neutropenia, they are frequently used for bacterial prophylaxis (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007).

To avoid infections, some pathogens, such as ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', employ alternative medicines, like ''sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim''. Its use is also beneficial for patients receiving other immunosuppressive therapy or high-dose corticosteroids (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).  The use of antifungal (''fluconazole,'' for example) and antiviral (''acyclovir,'' for example) prophylaxis may also be restricted by specific risk factors and institutional procedures (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

=== Risks and Considerations ===
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant organisms as a result of extended and widespread use is a significant worry and is becoming a bigger problem in the field of oncology. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), side effects from prophylactic antibiotics include gastrointestinal distress, ''Clostridium difficile'' infection, and allergic responses.

There are a few things to think about when using preventative antibiotics including; practices for infection control and cross-infection, behaviour and psychological aspects, and Low-Resource and Global Configurations.

==== Practices for Infection Control and Cross-Infection ====
In oncology settings, infection control methods should be viewed more broadly when considering the inclusion of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer care. Antibiotics used prophylactically are one part of a comprehensive strategy to avoid infections, especially in people with impaired immune systems. To avoid unforeseen outcomes like cross-infection and the emergence of resistant organisms, we must carefully balance their use with other infection control strategies.

==== Protocols for isolation and environmental controls ====
Reducing infection risks in cancer wards is mostly dependent on infection control strategies like stringent environmental cleaning, frequent screening for multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), and the application of isolation techniques (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).  Prophylactic antibiotic use ought to supplement these methods rather than take their place, since depending just on: antibiotics can cause complacency in other crucial areas of infection control (Wilson BE, ''et al.,'' 2020).

==== Handwashing practices and staff training ====
Reducing hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) in cancer patients requires ongoing staff education and a focus on hand hygiene. Improved hand hygiene compliance among healthcare workers has been demonstrated in studies to considerably lower the incidence of HAIs, particularly those brought on by bacteria resistant to antibiotics (Allegranzi B, ''et al.,'' 2013). Prophylactic antibiotic use must be carefully managed to avoid compromising these efforts by giving rise to a false sense of security.

==== Risk of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) ====
Antibiotics used prophylactically may raise the risk of CDI, which is a serious issue in oncology units. By putting in place strict infection control procedures and antibiotic stewardship programs, oncology facilities can reduce this risk. Antibiotics should only be used when necessary (Tamma PD, ''et al.,'' 2014).

==== Behaviour and psychological aspects to take into account ====
Prophylactic antibiotic use has the potential to change patient attitudes and behaviour, which can influence compliance with more comprehensive infection prevention measures. It is essential to comprehend these behavioural and psychological factors in order to maximize patient outcomes when receiving cancer treatment.

===== The sense of security =====
Prophylactic antibiotic recipients may believe they are immune to infections, which could result in less adherence to other preventive measures such eating a restricted diet or practicing good personal hygiene (Lederberg J., 2000). Healthcare professionals should inform patients about the drawbacks of antibiotics, as well as the value of a thorough infection prevention strategy.

===== Antibiotic Dependency and Perception of Resistance =====
Patients run the danger of becoming dependent on antibiotics, which could raise demand for the drugs even in situations where they are not medically necessary. The larger problem of antibiotic resistance may be exacerbated by this behaviour (Davis ME, ''et al.,'' 2017). Teaching patients about the responsible use of antibiotics and the worldwide effects of antibiotic resistance can reduce these dangers.

===== Effect on Life Quality =====
Prophylactic antibiotic side effects, like gastrointestinal problems or allergic responses, can seriously impair a patient's quality of life. Additionally, the psychological weight of possible side effects may cause worry or worsen treatment compliance. Managing patient expectations and encouraging adherence to other protective behaviours need addressing these issues through counselling and clear communication.

==== Low-Resource and Global Configurations ====
In global and low-resource contexts, where the balance of benefits and dangers may fluctuate dramatically due to variations in healthcare infrastructure, antibiotic availability, and local resistance patterns, the use of prophylactic antibiotics in cancer therapy poses distinct problems.

===== Problems in Low-Resource Environments =====
Implementing preventive antibiotic treatments can be challenging in low-resource settings due to restricted access to medical facilities, diagnostic equipment, and medications. Furthermore, because of over-the-counter sales and a lack of regulatory control, these areas frequently have high rates of antibiotic resistance (Laxminarayan R, ''et al.,'' 2013). When preventive antibiotics are used indiscriminately in certain conditions, resistance problems may worsen and the medications' effectiveness may be diminished when they are actually needed.

===== Customized Approaches =====
It is imperative to implement customized preventive interventions that take into account local resistance trends and epidemiology. To lessen dependency on broad-spectrum medications that fuel resistance, guidelines for instance, might advise using probiotics or immunomodulators as an alternative to antibiotic prophylaxis.

===== Issues of equity and access =====
In low-resource contexts, fairness in access to preventive measures such as prophylactic antibiotics is a major concern. Without worsening already-existing disparities, we should work to guarantee that cancer patients in these areas receive sufficient care for infection prevention. Collaborations with foreign organizations and regional administrations can assist in supplying the tools and instruction required to put into practice efficient infection control procedures.

===== Budgetary efficiency and resource distribution =====
In environments with limited resources, cost-effectiveness needs to be taken into account. Invest resources in regions where they can have the biggest impact, concentrating on patients who are most at risk of infection and who stand to gain the most from prophylaxis. We must make sure that healthcare resources and available antibiotics are used fairly and efficiently in order to provide the best results for patients (Bodey GP, ''et al.,'' 1983).

== '''Advantages of Preventive Antibiotic Use''' ==
Preventive antibiotics, on the one hand, have been shown to dramatically cut the occurrence of infections, which lowers hospitalization rates and improves quality of life for cancer patients. Patients with severe neutropenia or those receiving bone marrow transplants, when there is a significant danger of infection, benefit most from them. Research has indicated that prompt use of antibiotics might avert potentially fatal consequences, making it an essential part of supportive cancer treatment.

=== Preventing infections ===
Patients with cancer, particularly those receiving chemotherapy, are more vulnerable to infections because of neutropenia. Prophylactic antibiotics help these patients avoid bacterial infections; examples are ''trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole'', ''macrolides'', and ''fluoroquinolones''. Prophylactic fluoroquinolones decreased the risk of ''febrile'' episodes, recorded infections, and infection-related mortality in patients with neutropenia, according to a meta-analysis by (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007). These results highlight the critical role that antibiotics play in protecting susceptible cancer patients from potentially fatal infections. Prophylactic usage of certain antibiotics is advised for patients with haematological malignancies in order to prevent certain infections, such as ''pneumocystis pneumonia'' (PCP). To avoid PCP, for example, these patients frequently take ''trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole''.

=== Decreased Chance of Sepsis ===
One frequent and dangerous side effect of chemotherapy is ''febrile neutropenia'', which can result in infections that could be fatal. According to (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005), preventive antibiotics can reduce the frequency of ''febrile neutropenia'', enabling continuous cancer treatment regimens.

=== Decreased Death and Morbidity ===
Prophylactic antibiotics lower hospital admissions, intensive care unit stays, and overall death rates in cancer patients by preventing infections. According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), this can greatly enhance both the overall results of treatment and quality of life. Fluoroquinolone prophylaxis in neutropenic individuals was shown to significantly reduce all-cause mortality, according to a study by (Cullen M. ''et al.,'' 2005). Patients receiving intense chemotherapy gain the most from this, as they are at the biggest risk of developing deadly infections.

=== Life Quality ===
By lowering the frequency of hospital stays, fever episodes, and the need for further therapies, infection prevention by preventive antibiotic use can also enhance the quality of life for cancer patients. Patients can stick to their treatment plans and avoid the mental and physical effects of serious diseases by avoiding infections.

== Use of Prophylactic Antibiotics: Drawbacks and Hazards ==
However, frequent use of antibiotics carries a number of hazards, such as the development of organisms resistant to several drugs, which can make future treatments more difficult to implement and worsen the prognosis for patients. Antibiotic resistance is a global public health concern that is exacerbated by the careless use of antibiotics, thus its use in cancer treatment must be more tailored and prudent.

=== Development of Antimicrobial Resistance ===
Prophylactic antibiotic treatment carries a number of major dangers, one of which is antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The selective pressure that promotes the emergence of resistant strains, especially in Gramme-negative bacteria, is exacerbated by the extensive use of antibiotics in cancer treatment (Paterson DL. ''Et al.,'' 2006). Multidrug-resistant organisms can colonize and infect cancer patients receiving preventive antibiotic treatment, according to studies (Gudiol C. et al., 2010).

Antibiotic overuse and misuse can result in the formation of multidrug-resistant organisms, which are dangerous for patient health and the public since they are difficult to treat (Lode HM. ''et al.,'' 2010).

=== Adverse Reactions to Drugs ===
Antibiotics can bring on side effects from mild (such gastrointestinal distress and allergic responses) to severe (like a Clostridium difficile infection, which can result in severe diarrhoea and colitis). These responses may impair the health of the patient and make cancer treatment more difficult (Bartlett JG, ''et al.,'' 2002).

Antibiotic side effects in cancer patients who use them frequently or for an extended period can range from minor gastrointestinal issues to serious, life-threatening illnesses like Stevens-Johnson syndrome (Arora R. ''et al.,'' 2021). These adverse effects may make managing cancer more difficult and lower patients' tolerance to treatment as a whole.

=== The Microbiome Is Disrupted ===
Preventive antibiotics have the potential to upset the balance of the microbiome, leading to dysbiosis and a host of unfavourable consequences, including ''Clostridium difficile'' infections (Alexander JL, ''et al.,'' 2017). This may weaken the immune system, make one more vulnerable to infections, and even affect how well cancer treatments work (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015).

Since there is growing evidence that a healthy microbiome influences how the body reacts to treatments like immunotherapy, alteration of the gut ''microbiota'' may also impact the effectiveness of cancer medicines (Gopalakrishnan V, ''et al.,'' 2018).

=== Price and Utilization of Resources ===
Due to the cost of the medications themselves, side effect monitoring, and addressing issues resulting from antibiotic resistance or bad effects, the use of prophylactic antibiotics can result in higher healthcare expenses.

== Juggling the Benefits and Risks ==
A thorough evaluation of each patient's risk for infection, the possibility of side effects, and the possibility of antibiotic resistance is necessary to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of prophylactic antibiotic use in cancer treatment. The decision to take prophylactic antibiotics should be guided by clinical guidelines, patient-specific considerations, and a multidisciplinary approach comprising infectious disease specialists, pharmacists, and oncologists.

=== Stratification of Risk ===
It is essential to stratify patients according to their unique infection and AMR risk factors in order to optimize the advantages of prophylactic antibiotics while reducing the hazards. Patients with high-risk factors—such as those experiencing prolonged and profound neutropenia (absolute neutrophil count &lt; 100 cells/µL for more than seven days), which is commonly observed in patients receiving intense chemotherapy for acute leukaemia or undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation—are generally advised to take prophylactic antibiotics; low-risk patients, on the other hand, may be treated with different approaches.

According to (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018), patients with solid tumours undergoing less rigorous chemotherapy may not require routine prophylactic antibiotics due to their decreased likelihood of severe neutropenia. This could minimize unnecessary exposure and the potential for resistance.

Patients receiving high-intensity chemotherapy or those with haematological malignancies are more susceptible to infections and may benefit more from taking preventive antibiotics. Individuals with severe neutropenia, such as an absolute neutrophil count below 500 cells/µL, may need to take preventative antibiotics (Klastersky J, ''et al.,'' 2006).

=== Selecting the Appropriate Antibiotic ===
The local epidemiology of infections and patterns of resistance should be taken into consideration while choosing antibiotics. Given that fluoroquinolones are frequently used to treat Gram-negative bacteria, it is important to take the patient's history of colonization or infection into account (Gafter – Gvili A, ''et al.,'' 2007).

To reduce the likelihood of selecting for resistant organisms and to prevent disruption of the patient's normal flora, utilize narrow-spectrum antibiotics whenever possible (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

Prophylactic use of narrow-spectrum antibiotics can help reduce the likelihood of resistance. Compared to broad-spectrum antibiotics, narrow-spectrum drugs focus on particular pathogens and have less of an effect on the microbial ecology as a whole.

=== Monitoring for Adverse Effects ===
In order to identify and treat any side effects, such as gastrointestinal disorders, allergic responses, or ''Clostridium difficile'' infection, patients using prophylactic antibiotics must be regularly monitored. If side effects outweigh the advantages, this diligence aids in quickly stopping or switching antibiotics (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

=== Restricting the Prophylactic Duration ===
Restrict prophylaxis to times when there is a high risk, like during a period of acute neutropenia. Steer clear of extended use to reduce the possibility of resistance and other negative effects (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

A more individualized strategy may be possible in certain situations where the length of prophylaxis is modified in response to the patient's clinical status and neutrophil count recovery (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018).

=== Personalized Medicine Approach ===
Tailored prophylaxis based on patient-specific characteristics, including the type of cancer, the chemotherapy regimen, and the patient's overall health status. This tailored strategy minimizes potential side effects, such as the possibility of bacterial strains becoming resistant, while maximizing the advantages of prophylaxis. Prophylactic techniques can be optimized with a tailored strategy to antibiotic use that takes the patient's immunological condition, treatment regimen, and microbiome into account. While still offering sufficient defence against infections, personalized medication may lessen needless antibiotic exposure and lessen the dangers associated with antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

=== Antimicrobial Stewardship Integration ===
Antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASP) are essential for maximizing the use of preventive antibiotics in oncology settings. These initiatives keep an eye on patterns of antibiotic resistance inside the facility and guarantee that prophylaxis is used appropriately, considering patient-specific risks as well as current guidelines (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010).

The creation of regional policies ought to be aided by the stewardship program. The incidence of resistant organisms and the unique requirements of the patient group should be considered when developing evidence-based, regionally tailored guidelines for the use of antibiotics. The concepts of antimicrobial stewardship, which include knowing the importance of using antibiotics appropriately and the hazards associated with resistance, are taught to healthcare practitioners. In order to guarantee adherence to standards and make necessary adjustments to practices, ASPs put in place systems for tracking the use of antibiotics and giving feedback to healthcare practitioners (Bodey GP, ''et al.,'' 1983).

=== Shared Decision-Making and Patient Education ===
Talking with patients about the advantages and disadvantages of preventive antibiotics might help customize the treatment to their unique needs and preferences. A collaborative approach to therapy is facilitated by educating patients about potential side effects, the significance of adhering to prescribed medications, and infection signs (Taplitz RA. ''et al.,'' 2018).

== '''Alternative Strategies to Avoid Infections''' ==
By utilizing the body's immune system, advantageous microbes, or compounds that directly inhibit dangerous bacteria without causing antibiotic resistance, these tactics provide alternatives to antibiotics. Given the rise in antibiotic resistance, other approaches to antibiotic prophylaxis warrant consideration.

=== Non-Antibiotic Prophylaxis ===
Granulocyte-colony stimulating factors (G-CSFs), which increase the formation of white blood cells and shorten the duration of neutropenia, are an alternative strategy for preventing infections in cancer patients (Smith TJ, ''et al.,'' 2015). Antibiotic prophylaxis would otherwise be necessary to prevent infections that can be prevented by vaccination. As an illustration, vaccinations against ''influenza'', ''meningococcus'', and ''pneumococcus'' lower the incidence of illnesses (Plotkin SA, ''et al.,'' 2014).

Other approaches to preventing infections without antibiotics include:

==== Hygiene and Infection Control Measures ====
To lower the risk of infections, strict hygiene measures such as handwashing and sterile procedures must be followed. Infection control techniques should be taught to patients and healthcare professionals (Pizzo PA. ''et al.,'' 1984).

==== Assistive Healthcare ====
To improve patients' general health and resistance to infections, improve supportive care strategies include treating comorbidities and offering nutritional support.

=== The Microbiome's Function ===
Without the use of antibiotics, maintaining and repairing the gut ''microbiota'' is showing promise as a means of preventing infections. Probiotics, faecal ''microbiota'' transplantation, and dietary modifications are being investigated by researchers as ways to help cancer patients maintain a healthy microbiome and lower their risk of infection. Probiotics, or good bacteria, can aid in the prevention of infections by strengthening the immune system, creating antimicrobial compounds, and competing with pathogens for resources and adhesion sites (Ouwehand AC, ''et al.,'' 2016).

=== Immunotherapy ===
The development of immunotherapy has created new opportunities for preventing infections. Therapies such checkpoint inhibitors, which strengthen the patient's immune system, may lessen the need for preventative antibiotics. Immunomodulatory treatments strengthen the immune system's ability to fend against infections without going after the bacteria directly. Furthermore, continuing studies into cutting-edge antimicrobial agents, including antimicrobial peptides and ''bacteriophages'', may offer substitutes for conventional infection management strategies in cancer settings (Czaplewski L, ''et al.,'' 2016). Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a component of the innate immune system that damage bacterial membranes to stop infections (Zasloff M, ''et al.,'' 2002).

Viral agents known as &quot;''bacteriophages''&quot; target only bacteria, providing a focused method of preventing infections without interfering with the body's natural flora (Abedon ST, ''et al.,'' 2017).

=== Silver Nanoparticles ===
Silver nanoparticles offer broad-spectrum antibacterial characteristics that can be used in medical device coatings to prevent infections (Rai M, ''et al.,'' 2009).

=== Plant-Derived Compounds ===
Plant extracts and essential oils are examples of compounds with antibacterial qualities that can operate as substitute preventive measures (Burt S, ''et al.,'' 2004).

By inhibiting bacterial adhesion to the urinary system lining, cranberry extracts are used by researchers to prevent urinary tract infections (Jepson RG, ''et al.,'' 2012). Prebiotics strengthen the body's defences against infections by encouraging the growth of good bacteria (Slavin J, ''et al.,'' 2013).

== '''Policy and Practice Implications''' ==
In cancer care, antibiotic prophylaxis is essential for preventing infections, particularly in patients with impaired immune systems. The approach however does, also bring up issues with patient safety, antibiotic resistance, and the requirement for evidence-based practices, policies, and standards.

=== Guidelines Updates ===
Clinical guidelines need to be reviewed and maybe revised in light of the dangers associated with prophylactic antibiotic usage. This will allow them to incorporate the most recent findings on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and infection control measures in cancer care. According to (Paul M, ''et al.,'' 2014), guidelines ought to prioritise the prudent use of antibiotics and promote the incorporation of non-antibiotic prophylactic techniques when applicable.

Specific antibiotic prophylaxis regimens are recommended based on the patient's risk of infection and the type of cancer treatment, according to guidelines such as those from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). According to (Freifeld AG. ''et al.,'' 2010), these recommendations aid in standardizing care and lowering the overuse of antibiotics.

=== Antibiotics Stewardship in Oncology ===
Fighting antimicrobial resistance (AMR) requires the implementation of antibiotic stewardship programs designed especially for oncology settings. The goals of these initiatives ought to be to monitor patterns of resistance, optimize the use of antibiotics, and inform medical professionals about the dangers of misuse (MacDougall C, ''et al.,'' 2005).

=== Global Health Perspective ===
The obstacles associated with the proactive use of antibiotics in cancer treatment are especially severe in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where there is restricted access to both effective antibiotics and cancer treatment. Global health programs in these environments need to give top priority to creating context-specific infection and antimicrobial resistance management plans for cancer patients (Pramesh CS, ''et al.,'' 2022).

A one-size-fits-all strategy for prophylactic antibiotics might not be practical in environments with limited resources. Rather, healthcare professionals to identify the patients who stand the best chance of benefiting from prophylaxis should use risk stratification.

=== Infection Surveillance and Frequent Evaluations ===
Early identification of infection trends and resistance patterns is facilitated by the deployment of surveillance systems to track infections and antibiotic use in cancer patients. Clinical results can be enhanced and policy changes can be informed by consistent reporting and feedback. We should routinely evaluate and update preventative procedures in light of new therapeutic choices, changing clinical practices, and emerging evidence on resistance patterns in order to maintain their efficacy and relevance.

=== Education of Patients and Healthcare Providers ===
Guidelines compliance and stewardship initiatives can be strengthened by educating patients and healthcare professionals on the proper use of prophylactic antibiotics and the dangers of overusing them. When appropriate, policies should promote the use of narrow-spectrum antibiotics to lower the likelihood of resistance development. Broad-spectrum antibiotics only should be used in high-risk situations, or when the pathogen is unclear (Pizzo PA, ''et al.,'' 1993).

== '''Future Research Directions''' ==
Since cancer, patients frequently have weakened immune systems because of their illness or therapies like chemotherapy, prophylactic antibiotics are used in cancer care to prevent infections. Subsequent investigations in this field need to focus on optimizing the application of these antibiotics to enhance patient results, diminish the incidence of infections during cancer treatment, and tackle the worldwide predicament of antibiotic resistance. The long-term effects of prophylactic antibiotic usage on cancer recurrence and the function of the microbiome in modifying cancer outcomes are two areas of the existing literature that need more research. To create and validate risk classification instruments that can direct individualized preventative measures, more study is required.

Subsequent investigations ought to delve into inventive methods of averting infections, like employing nanotechnology to administer specific antibacterial treatments or creating immunizations against germs that are resistant to several drugs. Research on the impact of incorporating antibiotic stewardship into standard cancer therapy, and how it affects patient outcomes might also be beneficial (Willyard C, ''et al.,'' 2017).

=== Tailored Prevention ===
Based on the unique risk variables of each patient, such as their microbiome, treatment plan, cancer kind, and genetic susceptibility, creating more personalized ways to antibiotic prophylaxis is a way forward. This is because patients with cancer who get prophylactic antibiotics may have altered gut microbiomes, which may have an impact on treatment response, infection risk, and cancer progression (Montassier E. ''et al.,'' 2015).

=== Long-Term Outcomes ===
To give a thorough picture of the advantages and disadvantages, the long-term effects of antibiotic prophylaxis, including the influence on cancer recurrence, survival, and quality of life has to be thoroughly examined.

=== Novel Antibiotics and their substitutes ===
Investigating non-antibiotic options, such as ''bacteriophages'', probiotics, or immunomodulatory treatments, to avoid infections, or investigating novel antibiotics that are efficient against resistant organisms (Schooley RT, ''et al.,'' 2017). In order to improve patient selection criteria, researchers are finding biomarkers that can detect which patients are most likely to become infected and would benefit most from preventive antibiotics.

=== Mitigating Infections in Particular Populations ===
Prophylactic techniques unique to cancer populations are also a way forward in oncology care especially for patients receiving immunotherapy, those having bone marrow transplants, and those with solid tumours as opposed to haematological malignancies (Baden LR, ''et al.,'' 2016). 

=== Clinical Trials and Empirical Data ===
In addition to gathering real-world data to inform clinical practice, carrying out extensive clinical trials to assess the safety and effectiveness of various preventive regimens is a vital recommendation that should be looked at (Gudiol C. et al., 2010).

=== Economic Efficiency Studies ===
To make sure that the advantages of antibiotic prophylaxis exceed the dangers and expenses related to its usage, evaluating the cost-effectiveness of different preventative measures is crucial especially for patients with cancer (Flowers CR, ''et al.,'' 2013).

== '''Conclusion''' ==
In the treatment of cancer, preventive antibiotics are both a lifesaver and a liability. Although they are essential for preventing infections and enhancing patient outcomes, abuse of them exacerbates the issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and may have unfavourable effects on other aspects of health. Optimizing prophylactic antibiotic benefits while minimizing hazards requires a well-rounded strategy that incorporates risk classification, personalized therapy, and the incorporation of alternative infection prevention techniques. Ongoing research and policy revisions will be essential to guarantee that prophylactic antibiotic use remains a useful tool in oncology care as the landscape of cancer treatment continues to change.

==Additional information==

=== Author Contributions ===
Alhamdu Dawa Bulus made significant contributions to the planning, coordination, critically reviewing, and supervising of this review. Ritji Victor Goldim took the responsibility of literature search, gathering of relevant informations, and drafting the work. Esther Chidinma Ezeh critically revised, and edited the work as the corresponding author. Odinaka Kingsley Obeta, Myaltong Datok, Uchechukwu Cynthia Ofoma proofread the work and final approval of the version to be published. All authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of this work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of this work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

=== Competing interests ===
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest to disclose.

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MacDougall C, Polk RE. Antimicrobial stewardship programs in health care systems. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2005; 18(4): 638-56.

Pramesh CS, Badwe RA, Bhoo-Pathy N, Booth CM, Chinnaswamy G, Dare AJ, et al. Priorities for cancer research in low-and middle-income countries: a global perspective. Nat Med. 2022; 28(4): 649-57.

Pizzo PA. Management of fever in patients with cancer and treatment-induced neutropenia. N Engl J Med. 1993; 328(18): 1323-32.

Willyard C. The drug-resistant bacteria that pose the greatest health threats. Nature. 2017; 543(7643): 15-6.

Schooley RT, Biswas B, Gill JJ, et al. Development and use of personalized ''bacteriophage''-based therapeutic cocktails to treat a patient with a disseminated resistant Acinetobacter baumannii infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2017; 61(10).

Baden LR, Swaminathan S, Angarone M, Blouin G, Camins BC, Casper C, et al. Prevention and treatment of cancer-related infections: version 2.2016 NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2016; 14(7): 882-913.

Flowers CR, Seidenfeld J, Bow EJ, Karten C, Gleason C, Hawley DK, et al. Antimicrobial prophylaxis and outpatient management of fever and neutropenia in adults treated for malignancy: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2013; 31(6): 794-810.</text>
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== Editorial comment ==

{{editor's comment
|name=Andrew Leung
|date = 19 November 2024
|The manuscript was declined for further consideration in our journal at this time. Specifically the editors agreed that it was presented like a research proposal than a research paper. While it is already on Zenodo website, this appears to be the appropriate avenue for the state of the research. The manuscript uses a very verbose example to explain the better run-time complexity of Grover's algorithm without discussing that the number of qbits in current quantum computers is limited. Also, the number of references stated in your submission is quite limited.
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;Working every day is possible. Keeping a job is possible.  It requires drinking water, eating snacks, and grace.  It requires eating food before and after work.  It requires acknowledging God, but acknowledging God requires finance, which requires a job.&quot;</comment>
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It requires drinking water, eating snacks, and grace.

It requires eating food before and after work.

It requires acknowledging God, but acknowledging God requires finance, which requires a job.</text>
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It requires drinking water, eating snacks, and grace.

It requires eating food before and after work.

It requires acknowledging God, but acknowledging God requires finance, which requires a job.


I have taken one break in a six hour shift, and now I am taking two breaks.</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{Original research}} This small article by Dan Polansky looks into the acceptability of the use of Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs.  The initial consideration or complaint is this. The Church-Turing Thesis is not a mathematical theorem. It is an empirical hypothesis. There is a strict separation of the epistemology of mathematics and the epistemology of empirical sciences, such as physics. The universal physical laws are never certain; they are open to refut...&quot;</comment>
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This small article by Dan Polansky looks into the acceptability of the use of Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs.

The initial consideration or complaint is this. The Church-Turing Thesis is not a mathematical theorem. It is an empirical hypothesis. There is a strict separation of the epistemology of mathematics and the epistemology of empirical sciences, such as physics. The universal physical laws are never certain; they are open to refutation/falsification by a later experiment. By contrast, mathematical theorems are conclusively proven to be true. To incorporate the Church-Turing thesis into a mathematical proof as if it was a lemma is to disrupt the purely mathematical character of the proof. It opens the proof to a risk of later refutation: should someone succeed to refute the Church-Turing thesis (and why should not they, given it is an empirical hypothesis), the refutation is going to impact all the putatively mathematical proofs that depend on it. Formally, this is an unacceptable state of affairs. The resulting enterprise cannot be certified as mathematical; the proofs are not math-worthy.

That is all fair and nice. But it is extremely impractical. Let us consider the theorem that a set that is recursively enumerable and whose complement is also recursively enumerable is thereby actually recusrive (fully decidable rather than merely semidecidable). The proof is straightforward: there must be a program generating the set and a program generating the complement and all one has to do to obtain the decision procedure is to run them in parallel and soon enough, the input is going to be found either in the input of the first program or the second program. We get that the set is recursive. This tacitly assumes the Church-Turing thesis or something similar. Without it, one would have to proceed as follows. The set is recursively enumerable. Therefore, there exists turing machine T1; and for the complement, there exists Turing machine T2. We will now construct Turing machine T3, including its states, transition rules, etc. It would be extremely laborious. And it is very likely to fail to illuminate anything of interest.

The initial complaint is what I raised with my teachers when I studied computer science at a university. The response to it is what I now think is quite reasonable. But the response points to the distinction between the empirical physics and the allegedly non-empirical mathematics being perhaps not as deep as one thinks, on some level. The statement that, say, theorem T1 was correctly proven by means of proof P1 has in principle certain degree of tentativeness. P1 was verified by mathematicians M1 through Mk, but they could all have been wrong. There some kind of cognitive empirical element even in mathematics. A similar point was made in Imre Lakatos in his ''Proofs and Refutations''. That said, the initially highlihgted epistemic distinction between mathematics and empirical sciences is not to be abolished. Rather, one has to explain why the quasi-empirical character of mathematics does not abolish the distinction. That story should also be told. (End of the movie, music by Basil Poseldouris playing.)

== Further reading ==
* https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1255803/whats-the-significance-of-the-church-turing-thesis
* https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/</text>
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This small article by Dan Polansky looks into the acceptability of the use of Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs.

The initial consideration or complaint is this. The Church-Turing Thesis is not a mathematical theorem. It is an empirical hypothesis. There is a strict separation of the epistemology of mathematics and the epistemology of empirical sciences, such as physics. The universal physical laws are never certain; they are open to refutation/falsification by a later experiment. By contrast, mathematical theorems are conclusively proven to be true. To incorporate the Church-Turing thesis into a mathematical proof as if it was a lemma is to disrupt the purely mathematical character of the proof. It opens the proof to a risk of later refutation: should someone succeed to refute the Church-Turing thesis (and why should not they, given it is an empirical hypothesis), the refutation is going to impact all the putatively mathematical proofs that depend on it. Formally, this is an unacceptable state of affairs. The resulting enterprise cannot be certified as mathematical; the proofs are not math-worthy.

That is all fair and nice. But it is extremely impractical. Let us consider the theorem that a set that is recursively enumerable and whose complement is also recursively enumerable is thereby actually recusrive (fully decidable rather than merely semidecidable). The proof is straightforward: there must be a program generating the set and a program generating the complement and all one has to do to obtain the decision procedure is to run them in parallel and soon enough, the input is going to be found either in the input of the first program or the second program. We get that the set is recursive. This tacitly assumes the Church-Turing thesis or something similar. Without it, one would have to proceed as follows. The set is recursively enumerable. Therefore, there exists turing machine T1; and for the complement, there exists Turing machine T2. We will now construct Turing machine T3, including its states, transition rules, etc. It would be extremely laborious. And it is very likely to fail to illuminate anything of interest.

The initial complaint is what I raised with my teachers when I studied computer science at a university. The response to it is what I now think is quite reasonable. But the response points to the distinction between the empirical physics and the allegedly non-empirical mathematics being perhaps not as deep as one thinks, on some level. The statement that, say, theorem T1 was correctly proven by means of proof P1 has in principle certain degree of tentativeness. P1 was verified by mathematicians M1 through Mk, but they could all have been wrong. There some kind of cognitive empirical element even in mathematics. A similar point was made in Imre Lakatos in his ''Proofs and Refutations''. That said, the initially highlihgted epistemic distinction between mathematics and empirical sciences is not to be abolished. Rather, one has to explain why the quasi-empirical character of mathematics does not abolish the distinction. That story should also be told. (End of the movie, music by Basil Poledouris playing.)

== Further reading ==
* https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1255803/whats-the-significance-of-the-church-turing-thesis
* https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/</text>
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This small article by Dan Polansky looks into the acceptability of the use of Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs.

The initial consideration or complaint is this. The Church-Turing Thesis is not a mathematical theorem. It is an empirical hypothesis. There is a strict separation of the epistemology of mathematics and the epistemology of empirical sciences, such as physics. The universal physical laws are never certain; they are open to refutation/falsification by a later experiment. By contrast, mathematical theorems are conclusively proven to be true. To incorporate the Church-Turing thesis into a mathematical proof as if it was a lemma is to disrupt the purely mathematical character of the proof. It opens the proof to a risk of later refutation: should someone succeed to refute the Church-Turing thesis (and why should not they, given it is an empirical hypothesis), the refutation is going to impact all the putatively mathematical proofs that depend on it. Formally, this is an unacceptable state of affairs. The resulting enterprise cannot be certified as mathematical; the proofs are not math-worthy.

That is all fair and nice. But it is extremely impractical. Let us consider the theorem that a set that is recursively enumerable and whose complement is also recursively enumerable is thereby actually recusrive (fully decidable rather than merely semidecidable). The proof is straightforward: there must be a program generating the set and a program generating the complement and all one has to do to obtain the decision procedure is to run them in parallel and soon enough, the input is going to be found either in the input of the first program or the second program. We get that the set is recursive. This tacitly assumes the Church-Turing thesis or something similar. Without it, one would have to proceed as follows. The set is recursively enumerable. Therefore, there exists turing machine T1; and for the complement, there exists Turing machine T2. We will now construct Turing machine T3, including its states, transition rules, etc. It would be extremely laborious. And it is very likely to fail to illuminate anything of interest.

The initial complaint is what I raised with my teachers when I studied computer science at a university. The response to it is what I now think is quite reasonable. But the response points to the distinction between the empirical physics and the allegedly non-empirical mathematics being perhaps not as deep as one thinks, on some level. The statement that, say, theorem T1 was correctly proven by means of proof P1 has in principle certain degree of tentativeness. P1 was verified by mathematicians M1 through Mk, but they could all have been wrong. There some kind of cognitive empirical element even in mathematics. A similar point was made in Imre Lakatos in his ''Proofs and Refutations''. That said, the initially highlihgted epistemic distinction between mathematics and empirical sciences is not to be abolished. Rather, one has to explain why the quasi-empirical character of mathematics does not abolish the distinction. That story should also be told. (End of the movie, music by Basil Poledouris playing.)

== Further reading ==
* https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1255803/whats-the-significance-of-the-church-turing-thesis
* https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/</text>
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This small article by Dan Polansky looks into the acceptability of the use of the Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs.

The initial consideration or complaint is this. The Church-Turing thesis is not a mathematical theorem. It is an empirical hypothesis. There is a strict separation of the epistemology of mathematics and the epistemology of empirical sciences, such as physics. The universal physical laws are never certain; they are open to refutation/falsification by a later experiment. By contrast, mathematical theorems are conclusively proven to be true. To incorporate the the Church-Turing thesis into a mathematical proof as if it was a lemma is to disrupt the purely mathematical character of the proof. It opens the proof to a risk of later refutation: should someone succeed to refute the Church-Turing thesis (and why should not they, given it is an empirical hypothesis), the refutation is going to impact all the putatively mathematical proofs that depend on it. Formally, this is an unacceptable state of affairs. The resulting enterprise cannot be certified as mathematical; the proofs are not math-worthy.

That is all fair and nice. But it is extremely impractical. Let us consider the theorem that a set that is recursively enumerable and whose complement is also recursively enumerable is thereby actually recusrive (fully decidable rather than merely semidecidable). The proof is straightforward: there must be a program generating the set and a program generating the complement and all one has to do to obtain the decision procedure is to run them in parallel and soon enough, the input is going to be found either in the input of the first program or the second program. We get that the set is recursive. This tacitly assumes the Church-Turing thesis or something similar. Without it, one would have to proceed as follows. The set is recursively enumerable. Therefore, there exists turing machine T1; and for the complement, there exists Turing machine T2. We will now construct Turing machine T3, including its states, transition rules, etc. It would be extremely laborious. And it is very likely to fail to illuminate anything of interest.

The initial complaint is what I raised with my teachers when I studied computer science at a university. The response to it is what I now think is quite reasonable. But the response points to the distinction between the empirical physics and the allegedly non-empirical mathematics being perhaps not as deep as one thinks, on some level. The statement that, say, theorem T1 was correctly proven by means of proof P1 has in principle certain degree of tentativeness. P1 was verified by mathematicians M1 through Mk, but they could all have been wrong. There some kind of cognitive empirical element even in mathematics. A similar point was made in Imre Lakatos in his ''Proofs and Refutations''. That said, the initially highlihgted epistemic distinction between mathematics and empirical sciences is not to be abolished. Rather, one has to explain why the quasi-empirical character of mathematics does not abolish the distinction. That story should also be told. (End of the movie, music by Basil Poledouris playing.)

== Further reading ==
* https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1255803/whats-the-significance-of-the-church-turing-thesis
* https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/</text>
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This small article by Dan Polansky looks into the acceptability of the use of the Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs.

The initial consideration or complaint is this. The Church-Turing thesis is not a mathematical theorem. It is an empirical hypothesis. There is a strict separation of the epistemology of mathematics and the epistemology of empirical sciences, such as physics. The universal physical laws are never certain; they are open to refutation/falsification by a later experiment. By contrast, mathematical theorems are conclusively proven to be true. To incorporate the the Church-Turing thesis into a mathematical proof as if it was a lemma is to disrupt the purely mathematical character of the proof. It opens the proof to a risk of later refutation: should someone succeed to refute the Church-Turing thesis (and why should not they, given it is an empirical hypothesis), the refutation is going to impact all the putatively mathematical proofs that depend on it. Formally, this is an unacceptable state of affairs. The resulting enterprise cannot be certified as mathematical; the proofs are not math-worthy.

That is all fair and nice. But it is extremely impractical. Let us consider the theorem that a set that is recursively enumerable and whose complement is also recursively enumerable is thereby actually recusrive (fully decidable rather than merely semidecidable). The proof is straightforward: there must be a program generating the set and a program generating the complement and all one has to do to obtain the decision procedure is to run them in parallel and soon enough, the input is going to be found either in the output of the first program or the second program. We get that the set is recursive (fully decidable). This tacitly assumes the Church-Turing thesis or something similar. Without it, one would have to proceed as follows. The set is recursively enumerable. Therefore, there exists turing machine T1; and for the complement, there exists Turing machine T2. We will now construct Turing machine T3, including its states, transition rules, etc. It would be extremely laborious. And it is very likely to fail to illuminate anything of interest.

The initial complaint is what I raised with my teachers when I studied computer science at a university. The response to it is what I now think is quite reasonable. But the response points to the distinction between the empirical physics and the allegedly non-empirical mathematics being perhaps not as deep as one thinks, on some level. The statement that, say, theorem T1 was correctly proven by means of proof P1 has in principle certain degree of tentativeness. P1 was verified by mathematicians M1 through Mk, but they could all have been wrong. There some kind of cognitive empirical element even in mathematics. A similar point was made in Imre Lakatos in his ''Proofs and Refutations''. That said, the initially highlihgted epistemic distinction between mathematics and empirical sciences is not to be abolished. Rather, one has to explain why the quasi-empirical character of mathematics does not abolish the distinction. That story should also be told. (End of the movie, music by Basil Poledouris playing.)

== Further reading ==
* https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1255803/whats-the-significance-of-the-church-turing-thesis
* https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/</text>
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This small article by Dan Polansky looks into the acceptability of the use of the Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs in theoretical computer science.

The initial consideration or complaint is this. The Church-Turing thesis is not a mathematical theorem. It is an empirical hypothesis. There is a strict separation of the epistemology of mathematics and the epistemology of empirical sciences, such as physics. The universal physical laws are never certain; they are open to refutation/falsification by a later experiment. By contrast, mathematical theorems are conclusively proven to be true. To incorporate the the Church-Turing thesis into a mathematical proof as if it was a lemma is to disrupt the purely mathematical character of the proof. It opens the proof to a risk of later refutation: should someone succeed to refute the Church-Turing thesis (and why should not they, given it is an empirical hypothesis), the refutation is going to impact all the putatively mathematical proofs that depend on it. Formally, this is an unacceptable state of affairs. The resulting enterprise cannot be certified as mathematical; the proofs are not math-worthy.

That is all fair and nice. But it is extremely impractical. Let us consider the theorem that a set that is recursively enumerable and whose complement is also recursively enumerable is thereby actually recusrive (fully decidable rather than merely semidecidable). The proof is straightforward: there must be a program generating the set and a program generating the complement and all one has to do to obtain the decision procedure is to run them in parallel and soon enough, the input is going to be found either in the output of the first program or the second program. We get that the set is recursive (fully decidable). This tacitly assumes the Church-Turing thesis or something similar. Without it, one would have to proceed as follows. The set is recursively enumerable. Therefore, there exists turing machine T1; and for the complement, there exists Turing machine T2. We will now construct Turing machine T3, including its states, transition rules, etc. It would be extremely laborious. And it is very likely to fail to illuminate anything of interest.

The initial complaint is what I raised with my teachers when I studied computer science at a university. The response to it is what I now think is quite reasonable. But the response points to the distinction between the empirical physics and the allegedly non-empirical mathematics being perhaps not as deep as one thinks, on some level. The statement that, say, theorem T1 was correctly proven by means of proof P1 has in principle certain degree of tentativeness. P1 was verified by mathematicians M1 through Mk, but they could all have been wrong. There some kind of cognitive empirical element even in mathematics. A similar point was made in Imre Lakatos in his ''Proofs and Refutations''. That said, the initially highlihgted epistemic distinction between mathematics and empirical sciences is not to be abolished. Rather, one has to explain why the quasi-empirical character of mathematics does not abolish the distinction. That story should also be told. (End of the movie, music by Basil Poledouris playing.)

== Further reading ==
* https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1255803/whats-the-significance-of-the-church-turing-thesis
* https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/

[[Category:Computer science]]</text>
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This small article by Dan Polansky looks into the acceptability of the use of the Church-Turing thesis in mathematical proofs in theoretical computer science.

The initial consideration or complaint is this. The Church-Turing thesis is not a mathematical theorem. It is an empirical hypothesis. There is a strict separation of the epistemology of mathematics and the epistemology of empirical sciences, such as physics. The universal physical laws are never certain; they are open to refutation/falsification by a later experiment. By contrast, mathematical theorems are conclusively proven to be true. To incorporate the the Church-Turing thesis into a mathematical proof as if it was a lemma is to disrupt the purely mathematical character of the proof. It opens the proof to a risk of later refutation: should someone succeed to refute the Church-Turing thesis (and why should not they, given it is an empirical hypothesis), the refutation is going to impact all the putatively mathematical proofs that depend on it. Formally, this is an unacceptable state of affairs. The resulting enterprise cannot be certified as mathematical; the proofs are not math-worthy.

That is all fair and nice. But it is extremely impractical. Let us consider the theorem that a set that is recursively enumerable and whose complement is also recursively enumerable is thereby actually recusrive (fully decidable rather than merely semidecidable). The proof is straightforward: there must be a program generating the set and a program generating the complement and all one has to do to obtain the decision procedure is to run them in parallel and soon enough, the input is going to be found either in the output of the first program or the second program. We get that the set is recursive (fully decidable). This tacitly assumes the Church-Turing thesis or something similar. Without it, one would have to proceed as follows. The set is recursively enumerable. Therefore, there exists turing machine T1; and for the complement, there exists Turing machine T2. We will now construct Turing machine T3, including its states, transition rules, etc. It would be extremely laborious. And it is very likely to fail to illuminate anything of interest.

The initial complaint is what I raised with my teachers when I studied computer science at a university. The response to it is what I now think is quite reasonable. But the response points to the distinction between the empirical physics and the allegedly non-empirical mathematics being perhaps not as deep as one thinks, on some level. The statement that, say, theorem T1 was correctly proven by means of proof P1 has in principle certain degree of tentativeness. P1 was verified by mathematicians M1 through Mk, but they could all have been wrong. There some kind of cognitive empirical element even in mathematics. A similar point was made in Imre Lakatos in his ''Proofs and Refutations''. That said, the initially highlihgted epistemic distinction between mathematics and empirical sciences is not to be abolished. Rather, one has to explain why the quasi-empirical character of mathematics does not abolish the distinction. And this story shall also be told. (End of the movie, music by Basil Poledouris playing.)

== Further reading ==
* https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1255803/whats-the-significance-of-the-church-turing-thesis
* https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/

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