Wikibuku idwikibooks https://id.wikibooks.org/wiki/Halaman_Utama MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5 first-letter Media Istimewa Pembicaraan Pengguna Pembicaraan Pengguna Wikibuku Pembicaraan Wikibuku Berkas Pembicaraan Berkas MediaWiki Pembicaraan MediaWiki Templat Pembicaraan Templat Bantuan Pembicaraan Bantuan Kategori Pembicaraan Kategori Resep Pembicaraan Resep Wisata Pembicaraan Wisata TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul 0 23123 100097 99504 2024-12-03T04:24:31Z Akuindo 8654 100097 wikitext text/x-wiki Sifat fungsi yaitu: # Fungsi subjektif (fungsi onto atau fungsi kepada) contoh: A = {1, 2, 3, 4} dan B = {2, 4, 6} maka HP = {(1,2), (2,4), (3,6), (4,6)} # Fungsi injektif (fungsi into atau fungsi ke dalam) contoh: A = {1, 2, 3} dan B = {2, 4, 6, 8} maka HP = {(1,2), (2,4), (3,6)} # Fungsi bijektif (fungsi satu-satu) contoh: A = {1, 2, 3, 4} dan B = {2, 4, 6, 8} maka HP = {(1,2), (2,4), (3,6), (4,8)} Beberapa fungsi-fungsi sebagai berikut: # Fungsi linear contoh soal 1 tentukan daerah asal serta hasil dari y = 5x+2! daerah asal: <math>HP = {x|-\infty<x<\infty, x \in R}</math><br> daerah hasil: <math>HP = {y|-\infty<y<\infty, y \in R}</math> # Fungsi kuadrat contoh soal 1 tentukan daerah asal serta hasil dari y = x²+5x+4! cari sumbu simetri x yaitu -b/2a adalah -5/2(1) = -5/2 serta y yaitu (-5/2)²+5(-5/2)+4 = -9/4. ; Sumbu simetri/titik balik fungsi kuadrat <math>ax^2+bx+c</math> daerah asal: <math>HP = {x|-\infty<x<\infty, x \in R}</math><br> daerah hasil: <math>HP = {y|y \ge -\frac{9}{4}, y \in R}</math> sumbu simetri adalah <math>(-\frac{b}{2a}, -\frac{D}{4a})</math>. contoh soal 1 tentukan sumbu simetri/titik balik dari persamaan y = x²-4x+3! ; cara 1 <div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:550px"><div style="font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;">Jawaban</div> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <math display="block"> \begin{align} y &= x^2-4x+3 \\ x &= -\frac{-4}{2 \cdot 1} = 2 \\ y &= -\frac{(-4)^2-4 \cdot 1 \cdot 3}{4 \cdot 1} \\ &= -\frac{4}{4} = -1 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div> ; cara 2 <div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:550px"><div style="font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;">Jawaban</div> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <math display="block"> \begin{align} y &= x^2-4x+3 \\ x &= -\frac{-4}{2 \cdot 1} = 2 \\ y &= 2^2-4(2)+3 = -1 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div> ; cara 3 <div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:550px"><div style="font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;">Jawaban</div> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <math display="block"> \begin{align} y &= x^2-4x+3 \\ y' &= 0 \\ 2x-4 &= 0 \\ x &= 2 \\ y &= 2^2-4(2)+3 = -1 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div> ; gambar fungsi {| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! !! D > 0<br> Terdapat 2 titik terbuka !! D = 0<br> Terdapat 1 titik terbuka || D < 0<br> Tidak terdapat titik terbuka |- | a > 0 || colspan=3| Melengkung ke atas dari titik balik |- | a < 0 || colspan=3| Melengkung ke bawah dari titik balik |} # Fungsi mutlak contoh soal 1 tentukan daerah asal serta hasil dari y = |2x + 1]! cari batasan sumbu x yaitu 2x + 1 = 0 adalah 0. daerah asal: <math>HP = {x|-\infty<x<\infty, x \in R}</math><br> daerah hasil: <math>HP = {y|y \ge 0, y \in R}</math> # Fungsi akar contoh soal 1 tentukan daerah asal serta hasil dari <math>y = \sqrt{2x + 1}</math>! cari batasan sumbu x yaitu 2x + 1 ≥ 0 adalah x ≥ -1/2. daerah asal: <math>HP = {x|x \ge -\frac{1}{2}, x \in R}</math><br> daerah hasil: <math>HP = {y|y \ge 0, y \in R}</math> # Fungsi pecahan contoh soal 1 tentukan daerah asal serta hasil dari <math>y = \frac{2x+1}{3x-1}</math>! daerah asal: <math>HP = {x|x \neq \frac{1}{3}, x \in R}</math><br> daerah hasil: <math>HP = {y|y \neq \frac{2}{3}, y \in R}</math> 2 tentukan daerah asal serta hasil dari <math>y = \frac{x^2-4x-5}{x^2-x-6}</math>! daerah asal: <math>HP = {x|x \neq {-2, 3} , x \in R}</math><br> daerah hasil: <math>HP = {y|-\infty<y<1 \text{ v } <1<y<\infty , y \in R}</math> 3 tentukan daerah asal serta hasil dari <math>y = \frac{x^2+x-20}{2x+3}</math>! daerah asal: <math>HP = {x|x \neq -\frac{3}{2}, x \in R}</math><br> daerah hasil: <math>HP = {y|-\infty<y<\infty, y \in R}</math> ; Pembuatan grafik ;fungsi pecahan linear <math>\frac{ax+b}{px+q}</math> dengan p≠0. Langkah-langkahnya sebagai berikut: # titik potong sumbu y ((-b/a,0)) # titik potong sumbu x ((0,b/q)) # asymtot tegak (x=-q/p) # asymtot datar (y=a/p) # titik-titik lainnya ;fungsi pecahan kuadrat <math>\frac{ax^2+bx+c}{px^2+qx+r}</math> dengan {a,p}≠0. Langkah-langkahnya sebagai berikut: # titik potong sumbu y (ax²+bx+c=0) # titik potong sumbu x ((0,c/r)) # asymtot tegak (px²+qx+r=0) # asymtot datar (y=a/p) # harga ekstrem/titik balik (cari diskriminan dari persamaan yang bernilai y) # titik potong tegak dengan asymtot datar (cari nilai x dimana y adalah asymtot datar) # titik-titik lainnya ;fungsi pecahan kuadrat linear <math>\frac{ax^2+bx+c}{px+q}</math> dengan {a,p}≠0. Langkah-langkahnya sebagai berikut: # titik potong sumbu y (ax²+bx+c=0) # titik potong sumbu x ((0,c/q)) # asymtot tegak (px+q=0) # asymtot miring (hasil bagi dari pembilang dengan penyebut) # harga ekstrem/titik balik (cari diskriminan dari persamaan yang bernilai y) # titik-titik lainnya ; Tambahan soal * Tentukan hasil nilai dibawah ini! # f(1) jika <math>f(\frac{26}{3^x-1}) = \frac{16}{x^2-1}</math> # f(2) jika <math>f(\sqrt{3^x-5}) = log 5x</math> # f(10) jika f(6) = 61 serta <math>f(6) \cdot f(\frac{5}{6}) = f(6) + 25 f(\frac{5}{6})</math> 1 <div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:550px"><div style="font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;">Jawaban</div> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <math display="block"> \begin{align} f(\frac{26}{3^x-1}) &= \frac{16}{x^2-1} \\ \text{ anggap bahwa } f(1) &= f(\frac{26}{3^x-1}) \\ 1 &= \frac{26}{3^x-1} \\ 3^x-1 &= 26 \\ 3^x &= 27 \\ 3^x &= 3^3 \\ x &= 3 \\ \text { nah x adalah 3 } \\ \frac{16}{x^2-1} &= \frac{16}{3^2-1} \\ &= \frac{16}{8} \\ &= 2 \\ f(1) &= 2 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div> 2 <div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:550px"><div style="font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;">Jawaban</div> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <math display="block"> \begin{align} f(\sqrt{3^x-5}) &= log 5x \\ \text{ anggap bahwa } f(2) &= f(\sqrt{3^x-5}) \\ 2 &= \sqrt{3^x-5} \\ 3^x-5 &= 2^2 \\ 3^x-5 &= 4 \\ 3^x &= 9 \\ 3^x &= 3^2 \\ x &= 2 \\ \text { nah x adalah 2 } \\ log 5x &= log 5(2) \\ &= log 10 \\ &= 1 \\ f(2) &= 1 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div> 3 <div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:550px"><div style="font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;">Jawaban</div> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <math display="block"> \begin{align} f(6) \cdot f(\frac{5}{6}) &= f(6) + 25 f(\frac{5}{6}) \\ 61 f(\frac{5}{6}) &= 61 + 25 f(\frac{5}{6}) \\ 36 f(\frac{5}{6}) &= 61 \\ f(\frac{5}{6}) &= \frac{61}{36} \\ f(\frac{5}{6}) &= 1 + \frac{25}{36} \\ f(\frac{5}{6}) &= 1 + \frac{5^2}{6^2} \\ f(\frac{5}{6}) &= 1 + (\frac{5}{6})^2 \\ f(x) &= 1 + x^2 \\ f(x) &= 1 + x^2 \\ f(10) &= 1 + 10^2 \\ &= 101 \\ \end{align} </math> </div></div> == Fungsi ganjil dan genap == fungsi ganjil apabila f(x) = - f(-x) serta fungsi genap apabila f(x) = f(-x). [[Kategori:Soal-Soal Matematika]] 2xqh5iuhc6aujyjaycav0dvgse1lxyf 0 24552 100096 100095 2024-12-03T01:30:48Z Glorious Engine 9499 100096 wikitext text/x-wiki <center>'''Bab IX'''</center> <center>'''Perang Belanda dan Moro. 1600–1663'''</center> Hilangnya Kekuatan Angkatan Laut Spanyol dan Portugal.—Perebutan Portugal oleh Philip II pada 1580 adalah bencana yang berdampak pada Portugal dan Spanyol. Bagi Portugal, peristiwa tersebut melucuti dan menghilangkan kekuatan kolonial. Spanyol tak sebanding dengan tugas pertahnan kekuasaan Portugis, dan keiriannya trhadap kemakmuran mereka nampak menyebabkan campur tangan kepentingan mereka dan memperkenankan penurunan mereka. Pada suatu hari, Portugal kehilangan kekuasaan angkatan laut yang mula-mula mendapatkan jalan menuju Hindia. Beberapa ratus kapal Portugis, ribuan meriam dan sejumlah besar uang didapatkan oleh Spanyol pada aneksasi Portugal, Kebanyakan kapal yang bernasib buruk datang ke Selat Inggris dengan Armada Besar. Kala kabar mengerikan penghancuran persenjataan kuat tersebut, yang diharapkan oleh Spanyol untuk menaklukan dan melucuti Inggris, datang ke Escorial, istana besar tempat selama bertahun-tahun raja yang telah hengkang, Philip II, agar orang asing, yang tak pernah memutuskan menang atau kalah, singkatnya dilaporkan berujar, “Aku berterima kasih pada Tuhan bahwa aku memiliki kekuasaan untuk menggantikan kehilangan tersebut.” Ia sepenuhnya keliru. Kekalahan tak pernah dapat membuat kebaikan. AL Spanyol dan Portugal tak pernah sepenuhnya terbangun kembali. Pada tahun tersebut (1588), ketangguhan di laut beralih ke Inggris dan Belanda. Belanda Menjadi Negara Merdeka.—Siapa itu Belanda, atau Hollanders? Bagaimana mereka datang untuk merangsek dari Spanyol dan Portugal menajdi kekaisaran kolonial, yang mereka himpun saat ini tanpa kehilangan makmuran atau bukti penurunan? Di utara Eropa, menghadap Laut Utara, adalah dataran rendah kaya yang dilalui oleh sungai-sungai dan terbasuh jauh ke pelosoknya oleh air pasang, yang dikenal sebagai Holland, Negara-negara Dataran Rendah, atau Belanda. Masyarakatnya pernah dikenal akrena industri dan kerja keras mereka. Dalam manufaktur dan perdagangan pada Akhir Abad Pertengahan, mereka jauh berdiri memimpin di Eropa utara.. Kota-kota mereka ulet, sangat makmur dan sangat bersih. Mereka menjelaskan fakta suksusi yang dialami wilayah tersebut kala menjadi wilaayh raja Spanyol, Kaisar Charles Kelima. Negara-negara Dataran Rnedah seringkali sangat dihargai oleh Charles, dan disamping pergesekan kekuasaannya, ia memegang dampak dan kesetiaan mereka sampai kematiannya. Wilaayh tersebut berada di kota Antwerp tempat ia resmi menyerahkan kekuasaannya pada putranya, Philip II, dan, sebagaimana dituturkan oleh sejarawan kontemporer, upacara pemberlakuan dan tunggal tersebut disaksikan dengan setiap tanda kesetiaan oleh majelis. Pemberontakan.—Namun, penekanan dan penindasan masa kekuasaan Philip menggerakkan masyarakat untuk memberontak. Belanda menganut agama Protestan, dan kala, selain penekanan, intimidasi pergesekan prajurit Spanyol, dan pelanggaran janji kedaulatan, Philip memberlakukan agar lembaga mengerikan dan tanpa ampun, Inkuisisi Spanyol, Negara-negara Dataran Rendah menghadapi tiran dalam semangat pemberontakan. Perang, yang dimulai pada 1556, berlangsung selama bertahun-tahun. Terdapat kekejaman, dan penjarahan kota yang disertai oleh penjagalan. Pada 1575, tujuh wilayah Belanda menyatakan kemerdekaan mereka, dan membentuk republik Belanda. Disamping upaya Spanyol untuk menaklukan kembali wilaayh tersebut berlanjut sampai akhir abad, kemerdekaan tersebut diraih beberapa tahun sebelumnya. Perdagangan antara Portugal dan Belanda Dilarang.—Sebagian besar perdagangan Negara-negara Dataran Rendah terjadi dengan Lisbon. Portugis tak mendistribusikan produk-produk yang mereka bawa dari Hindia ke Eropa. Para pedagang asing berjualan di Lisbon dan membangun gudang-gudang di wilayah lain, dan tingkat paling besar jasa tersebut dilakukan oleh Belanda. Namun kala aneksasi Portugal, Philip melarang seluruh perdaagngan dan komerisal antar dua negara tersebut. Dengan tindakan tersebut, Belanda, yang mengambil perdagangan mereka di Lisbon, menghadapi alternatif keruntuhan komersial atau meraih produk-produk Timur untuk diri mereka sendiri. Mereka memilih pilihan terakhir dengan segala resikonya. Ini kemudian dimungkinkan lewat penghancuran Armada. Penjelajahan Belanda ke Hindia.—Pada 1595, penjelajahan perdana mereka, yang dipimpin oleh Cornelius Houtman, berlayar di galleon Portugis, mengitari Tanjung Harapan dan memasuki domain Hindia. Titik tujuannya adalah Jawa, tempat aliansi dibentuk dengan para pangeran pribumi dan mengamankan kargo lada. Dua hal yang ditunjukkan lewat pemulangan aman armada tersebut,—kekayaan besar dan laba perdagangan Hindia, dan ketidakmampuan Spanyol dan Portugal untuk menghimpun monopoli mereka. Pada 1598, para pedagang Amsterdam mengalahkan armada gabungan Spanyol dan Portugis di Timur, dan pemukiman dagang dihimpun di Jawa dan Johore. Pada 1605, mereka menghimpun pabrik-pabrik mereka di Amboina dan Tidor. Dampak Keberhasilan Belanda.—Monopoli eksklusif atas perairan Samudra Pasifik dan Hindia, yang dikuasai Portugal dan Spanyol selama seabad, telah terkoyak. Dengan keterlibatan Takhta Roma, mereka berniat untuk membagi Dunia Baru dan Dunia Timur di antara mereka. Upaya tersebut kini berlalu. Mereka mengklaim hak untuk dikecualikan dari sebagian besar samudra yang mereka temukan dengan kapal-kapal dari setiap bangsa lainnya yang mereka miliki. Doktrin dalam Sejarah Hukum Internasional dikenal sebagai mare clausum, atau “laut tertutup.” Ledakan kematian pada dominasi tersebut diberikan oleh masuknya Belanda ke Hindia, dan ini bukanlah bertepatan dengan kala mereka temukan doktrin laut tertutup itu sendiri yang dilayari secara ilmiah, beberapa tahun kemudian, oleh yuris Belanda besar, Grotius, pendiri sistem hukum internasional dalam karyanya, De Libero Mare. Metode Dagang Belanda.—Belanda tak membuat upaay di Hindia untuk mendirikan koloni besar untuk dominasi politik dan pemindahan agama. Perdagangan adalah tujuan tunggal mereka. Kebijakan mereka adalah untuk membentuk aliansi dengan penguasa pribumi, berjanji membantu mereka melawan kekuasaan Portugis atau Spanyol dengan balasan hak khusus perdagangan. Dengan ini, mereka menjadi lebih sukses. Pada 1602, mereka meminta ijin untuk mendirikan pabrik di Bantam, pulau Jawa. Tempat tersebut kemudian menjadi titik dagang menonjol. “Tionghoa, Arab, Persia, Moor, Turki, Malabar, Peguan, dan pedagang dari seluruh bangsa bergerak disana.” Tujuan utama perdagangan tersebut adalah lada. Karakter perjanjian yang dibuat oleh Belanda dengan raja Bantam dituturkan oleh Raffles. “Belanda mencoba membantunya melawan invasi asing, terutama Spanyol dan Portugis; dan raja tersebut, di pihaknya, sepakat untuk membuat benteng bagus dan kuat kepada Belanda, perdagangan bebas dan keamanan untuk “orang-orang dan harta benda mereka tanpa pembayaran tugas atau pajak apapun, dan tak memperkenankan bangsa Eropa lain untuk berdagang atau bermukim di wilayahnya.” Penjelajahan Spanyol melawan Belanda di Maluku.—Namun, Spanyol tak membiarkan lahan tersebut dikuasai musuh baru tanpa perjuangan, dan konflik mengisi sejarah abad kedelapan belas. Kala Belanda mengusir Portugis dari Amboina dan Tidor pada Februari 1605, sebagian besar Portugis datang ke Filipina dan masuk pasukan Spanyol. Sang gubernur, Don Pedro Bravo de Acuña, mengisinya dengan keuntungan pada kehilangan wilayah penting tersebut, dengan kegiatan besar mengorganisir penjelajahan untuk penaklukan mereka. Pada tahun sebelumnya, delapan ratus pasukan didatangkan dari Spanyol, dua ratus dari mereka adalah pribumi Meksiko. Kemudian, Acuña dapat menghimpun armada kuat yang mengerahkan tujuh puluh lima buah artileri dan mengangkut seribu empat ratus Sapnyol dan seribu enam ratus Indian. Armada tersebut berlayar pada Januari 1606. Tidor direbut tanpa perlawanan dan pabrik Belanda dirampas, dengan sejumlah besar uang, barang dan senjata. Spanyol kemudian menyerang Ternate; benteng dan plaza dibombardir, dan kemudian kota tersebut diterpa oleh badai. Kemudian, pada akhirnya penyertaan pertualangan tersebut yang terjadi selama nyaris eabad telah menginspirasi ambisi Spanyol, yang mengerahkan armada Magellan, yang mengangkut penjelajahan Loyasa dan Villalobos, karena Spanyol di Filipina telah menyiapkan penjelajahan demi penjelajahan, dan karena Gubernur Dasmariñas telah mengorbankan nyawanya. Pada akhirnya, Maluku direbut oleh pasukan Spanyol. Penaklukan Armada Belanda di Mariveles.—Namun, sejauh dari penglihatan musuh mereka, tindakan tersebut membawa Belanda menuju Filipina. Pada 1609, Juan de Silva menjadi guebrnur Kepulauan tersebut. Pada tahun yang sama, laksamana Belanda, Wittert, datang dengan sebuah skuadron. Setelah serangan gagal di Iloilo, armada Belanda berlabuh di lepas Mariveles, untuk merebut kapal-kapal yang datang untuk berdagang di Manila. Di tempat tersebut, pada 25 April 1610, armada Spanyol, yang bersiap sedia di Cavite, menyerang Belanda, menewaskan laksaman dan merebut seluruh kapal kecuali satu, dua ratus lima puluh tahanan, dan sejumlah besar perak dan pernak-pernik. Para tahanan tersebut nampak diperlakukan lebih baik ketimbang tahanan dari armada Van Noort, yang digantung di Cavite. Korban luka dikatakan dirawat, dan para frater dari seluruh ordo keagamaan diundang dengan satu sama lain untuk memindahkan agama “para pembajak Protestan” dari kesesatan mereka. An Expedition against the Dutch in Java.—Spain made a truce of her European wars with Holland in 1609, but this cessation of hostilities was never recognized in the East. The Dutch and Spanish colonists continued to war upon and pillage each other until late in the century. Encouraged by his victory over Wittert, Silva negotiated with the Portuguese allies in Goa, India, to drive the Dutch from Java. A powerful squadron sailed from Cavite in 1616 for this purpose. It was the largest fleet which up to that date had ever been assembled in the Philippines. The expedition, however, failed to unite with [193]their Portuguese allies, and in April, Silva died at Malacca of malignant fever. The Dutch Fleets.—Battles near Corregidor.—The fleet returned to Cavite to find that the city, while stripped of soldiers and artillery, had been in a fever of anxiety and apprehension over the proximity of Dutch vessels. They were those of Admiral Spilbergen, who had arrived by way of the Straits of Magellan and the Pacific. He has left us a chart of the San Bernadino Straits, which is reproduced here. Spilbergen bombarded Ilolio and then sailed for the Moluccas. A year later he returned, met a Spanish fleet of seven galleons and two galleras near Manila and suffered a severe defeat.4 The battle began with cannonading on Friday, April 13, and continued throughout the day. On the following day the vessels came to close quarters, the Spaniards boarded the Dutch vessels, and the battle was fought out with the sword. The Dutch were overwhelmed. Probably their numbers were few. The Relacion states they had fourteen galleons, but other accounts put the number at ten, three vessels of which were destroyed or taken by the Spaniards. One of them, the beautiful ship, “The Sun of Holland,” was burned. This combat is known as the battle of Playa Honda. Another engagement took place in the same waters of Corregidor, late in 1624, when a Dutch fleet was driven away without serious loss to either side. The Dutch Capture Chinese Junks, and Galleons.—But through the intervening years, fleets of the Hollanders [194]were continually arriving, both by the way of the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of Magellan. Those that came across the Pacific almost invariably cruised up the Strait of San Bernadino, securing the fresh provisions so desirable to them after their long voyage. The prizes which they made of Chinese vessels, passing Corregidor for Manila, give us an idea of how considerably the Spaniards in the Philippines relied upon China for their food. Junks, or “champans,” were continually passing Corregidor, laden with chickens, hogs, rice, sugar, and other comestibles.5 The Mexican galleons were frequently destroyed or captured by these lurking fleets of the Dutch, and for a time the route through the Straits of San Bernadino had to be abandoned, the galleons reaching Manila by way of Cape Engano, or sometimes landing in Cagayan, and more than once going ashore on the Pacific side of the island, at Binangonan de Lampon. The Dutch in Formosa.—The Dutch also made repeated efforts to wrest from Portugal her settlement and trade in China. As early as 1557 the Portuguese had established a settlement on the island of Macao, one of these numerous islets that fill the estuary of the river of Canton. This is the oldest European settlement in China and has been held continuously by the Portuguese until the present day, when it remains almost the last vestige of the once mighty Portuguese empire of the East. It was much coveted by the Dutch because of its importance in the trade with Canton and Fukien.[195] In 1622 a fleet from Java brought siege to Macao, and, being repulsed, sailed to the Pescadores Islands, where they built a fort and established a post, which threatened both the Portuguese trade with Japan and the Manila trade with Amoy. Two years later, on the solicitation of the Chinese government, the Dutch removed their settlement to Formosa, where they broke up the Spanish mission stations and held the island for the succeeding thirty-five years. Thus, throughout the century, these European powers harassed and raided one another, but no one of them was sufficiently strong to expel the others from the East. The Portuguese Colonies.—In 1640 the kingdom of Portugal freed itself from the domination of Spain. With the same blow Spain lost the great colonial possessions that came to her with the attachment of the Portuguese. “All the places,” says Zuñiga, “which the Portuguese had in the Indies, separated themselves from the crown of Castile and recognized as king, Don Juan of Portugal.” “This same year,” he adds, “the Dutch took Malacca.”6 The Moros.—Increase of Moro Piracy.—During all these years the raids of the Moros of Maguindanao and Jolo had never ceased. Their piracies were almost continuous. There was no security; churches were looted, priests killed, people borne away for ransom or for slavery. Obviously, this piracy could only be met by destroying it at its source. Defensive fortifications and protective fleets were of no consequence, when compared with the necessity of subduing the Moro in his own lairs. In 1628 and 1630 punitive expeditions were sent against Jolo, Basilan, and Mindanao, which drove the Moros from their forts, burned their towns, and cut down their groves of cocoanut trees. [196]But such expeditions served only to inflame the more the wrathful vengeance of the Moro, and in 1635 the government resolved upon a change of policy and the establishment of a presidio at Zamboanga. Founding of a Spanish Post at Zamboanga.—This brings us to a new phase in the Moro wars. The governor, Juan Cerezo de Salamanca, was determined upon the conquest and the occupation of Mindanao and Jolo. In taking this step, Salamanca, like Corcuera, who succeeded him, acted under the influence of the Jesuits. Their missions in Bohol and northern Mindanao made them ambitious to reserve for the ministrations of their society all lands that were conquered and occupied, south of the Bisayas. The Jesuits were the missionaries on Ternate and Siao and wherever in the Moluccas and Celebes the Spanish and Portuguese had established their power. The Jesuits had accompanied the expedition of Rodriguez de Figueroa in 1595, and from that date they never ceased petitioning the government for a military occupation of these islands and for their own return, as the missionaries of these regions. The Jesuits were brilliant and able administrators. For men of their ambition, Mindanao, with its rich soil, attractive productions, and comparatively numerous populations, was a most enticing field for the establishment of such a theocratic commonwealth as the Jesuits had created and administered in America.7 On the other hand, the occupation of Zamboanga was strenuously opposed by the other religious orders; but the Jesuits, ever remarkable for their ascendancy in affairs of [197]state, were able to effect the establishment of Zamboanga, though they could not prevent its abandonment a quarter of a century later. Erection of the Forts.—The presidio was founded in 1635, by a force under Don Juan de Chaves. His army consisted of three hundred Spaniards and one thousand Bisaya, The end of the peninsula was swept of Moro inhabitants and their towns destroyed by fire. In June the foundations of the stone fort were laid under the direction of the Jesuit, Father Vera, who is described as being experienced in military engineering and architecture. To supply the new site with water, a ditch was built from the river Tumaga, a distance of six or seven miles, which brought a copious stream to the very walls of the fort. The advantage or failure of this expensive fortress is very hard to determine. Its planting was a partisan measure, and it was always subject to partisan praise and partisan blame. Sometimes it seemed to have checked the Moros and sometimes seemed only to be stirring them to fresh anger and aggression. The same year that saw the establishment of Zamboanga, Hortado de Corcuera became governor of the Philippines. He was much under the influence of the Jesuits and confirmed their policy of conquest. Defeat of the Moro Pirate Tagal.—A few months later a notable fleet of pirates, recruited from Mindanao, Jolo, and Borneo, and headed by a chieftain named Tagal, a brother of the notorious Correlat, sultan of Maguindanao, went defiantly past the new presidio and northward through the Mindoro Sea. For more than seven months they cruised the Bisayas. The islands of the Camarines especially felt their ravages. In Cuyo they captured the corregidor and three friars. Finally, with [198]650 captives and rich booty, including the ornaments and services of churches, Tagal turned southward on his return. The presidio of Zamboanga had prepared to intercept him and a fierce battle took place off the Punta de Flechas, thirty leagues to the northeast of Zamboanga. According to the Spanish writers, this point was one held sacred by Moro superstitions. A deity inhabited these waters, whom the Moros were accustomed to propitiate on the departure and arrival of their expeditions, by throwing into the sea lances and arrows. The victory was a notable one for the Spanish arms. Tagal and more than 300 Moros were killed, and 120 Christian captives were released. Moro Helmet and Coat of Mail. Corcuera’s Expedition against the Moros at Lamítan.—Corcuera had meanwhile been preparing an expedition, [199]which had taken on the character of a holy war. Jesuit and soldier mingled in its company and united in its direction. The Jesuit saint, Francis Xavier, was proclaimed patron of the expedition, and mass was celebrated daily on the ships. Corcuera himself accompanied the expedition, and at Zamboanga, where they arrived February 22, 1637, he united a force of 760 Spaniards and many Bisayans and Pampangas. Moro Sword and Scabbard. From Zamboanga the force started for Lamítan, the stronghold of Correlat, and the center of the power of the Maguindanao. It seems to have been situated on the coast, south of the region of Lake Lanao. The fleet encountered rough weather and contrary winds off Punta de Flechas, which they attributed to the influence of the Moro demon. To rid the locality of this unholy influence, Padre Marcello, the Jesuit superior, occupied himself for two days. Padre Combés has left us an account of the ceremony.8 The demon was dispossessed by exorcism. Mass was celebrated. Various articles, representing Moro infidelity, [200]including arrows, were destroyed and burnt. Holy relics were thrown into the waters, and the place was finally sanctified by baptism in the name of Saint Sebastian. Sulu Barong and Sheath. Moro Spear. On the 14th of March the expedition reached Lamítan, fortified and defended by two thousand Moro warriors. The Spanish force, however, was overwhelming, and the city was taken by storm. Here were captured eight bronze cannon, twenty-seven “versos” (a kind of small howitzer), and over a hundred muskets and arquebuses and a great store of Moro weapons. Over one hundred vessels were destroyed, including a fleet of Malay merchant praos from Java. Sixteen villages were burned, [201]and seventy-two Moros were hung. Correlat, though pursued and wounded, was not captured.9 Old Moro Sailing Boat. The Conquest of Jolo.—Corcuera returned to Zamboanga and organized an expedition for the conquest of Jolo. Although defended by four thousand Moro warriors and by allies from Basílan and the Celebes, Corcuera took Jolo after some months of siege. The sultan saved himself by flight, but the sultana was taken prisoner. Corcuera reconstructed the fort, established a garrison of two hundred Spaniards and an equal number of Pampangas, left some Jesuit fathers, and, having nominated [202]Major Almonte chief of all the forces in the south, returned in May, 1638, to Manila, with all the triumph of a conqueror. Almonte continued the work of subjugation. In 1639 he conquered the Moro dato of Buhayen, in the valley of the Rio Grande, where a small presidio was founded. And in the same year the Jesuits prevailed upon him to invade the territory of the Malanao, now known as the Laguna de Lanao. This expedition was made from the north through Iligan, and for a time brought even this warlike and difficult territory under the authority of the governor and the spiritual administration of the Jesuits. Loss of the Spanish Settlement on Formosa.—The full military success of Corcuera’s governorship was marred by the loss of Macao and the capture of the Spanish settlement on the island of Formosa by the Dutch. In the attempt to hold Macao, Corcuera sent over the encomendero of Pasig, Don Juan Claudio. The populace of Macao, however, rose in tumult, assassinated the governor, Sebastian Lobo, and pronounced in favor of Portugal. Later, by decree of the Portuguese governor of Goa, all the Spanish residents and missionaries were expelled. The Dutch seizure of Formosa, a year later, has already been described. The Archipelago and the Religious Orders.—During these decades, conflict was almost incessant between the archbishop of Manila and the regular orders. In the Philippines the regulars were the parish curates, and the archbishop desired that all matters of their curacy, touching the administration of the sacraments and other parish duties, should be subject to the direction of the bishops. This question of the “diocesan visit” was fought over for nearly two hundred years.[203] The Governor and the Archbishop.—Even more serious to the colony were the conflicts that raged between the governor-general and the archbishop. All the points of dissension between Church and State, which vexed the Middle Ages, broke out afresh in the Philippines. The appointment of religious officers; the distribution of revenue; the treatment of the natives; the claim of the church to offer asylum to those fleeing the arm of the law; its claims of jurisdiction, in its ecclesiastical courts, over a large class of civil offenses—these disputes and many others, occasioned almost incessant discord between the heads of civil and ecclesiastical authority. The “Residencia.”—We have seen that the power of the governor was in fact very large. Theoretically, the Audiencia was a limit upon his authority; but in fact the governor was usually the president of this body, and the oidores were frequently his abettors and rarely his opponents. At the end of each governor’s rule there took place a characteristic Spanish institution, called the “Residencia.” This was a court held by the newly elected governor, for an examination into the conduct of his predecessor. Complaints of every description were received, and often, in the history of the Philippines, one who had ruled the archipelago almost as an independent monarch found himself, at the end of his office, ruined, and in chains. It was upon the occasion of the Residencia that the ecclesiastical powers, after a governorship stormy with disputes, exercised their power for revenge. Unquestionably many a governor, despite his actual power, facing, as he did, the Residencia at the termination of his rule, made peace with his enemies and yielded to their demands.[204] Corcuera had continuous troubles with the archbishop and with the religious orders other than the Jesuits. In 1644, when his successor, Fajardo, relieved him, the Franciscans, Augustinians, and Recollects procured his imprisonment and the confiscation of his property. For five years, the conqueror of the Moros lay a prisoner in the fortresses of Santiago and Cavite, when he was pardoned by the Council of the Indies, and appointed governor of the Canaries by the king. Weakening of the Governor’s Power.—This power of private and religious classes to intimidate and overawe the responsible head of the Philippine government was an abuse which continued to the very close of the Spanish rule. This, together with the relatively short term of the governor’s office, his natural desire to avoid trouble, his all too frequent purpose of amassing a fortune rather than maintaining the dignity of his position and advancing the interests of the Islands, combined decade after decade to make the spiritual authority more powerful. In the end the religious orders, with their great body of members, their hold upon the Filipinos, their high influence at the court, and finally their great landed wealth, governed the Islands. The Educational Work of the Religious Orders.—In any criticism of the evils connected with their administration of the Philippines, one must not fail to recognize the many achievements of the missionary friars that were worthy. To the Dominicans and the Jesuits is due the establishment of institutions of learning. The Jesuits in 1601 had planted their College of San José. The Dominicans, here as in Europe, the champions of orthodox learning, had their own institution, the College of Santo Tomas, inaugurated in 1619, and were the rivals of the Jesuits for the privilege of giving higher instruction.[205] In 1645 the pope granted to the Dominicans the right to bestow higher degrees, and their college became the “Royal and Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas.” This splendid name breathes that very spirit of the Middle Ages which the Dominican order strove to perpetuate in the Philippines down to modern days.10 Dominicans also founded the College of San Juan de Letran, as a preparatory school to the University. We should not pass over the educational work of the religious orders without mention of the early printing-plants and their publications. The missionary friars were famous printers, and in the Philippines, as well as in America, some noble volumes were produced by their handicraft. Founding of Hospitals by the Franciscans.—Nor had the Franciscans in the Philippines neglected the fundamental purpose of their foundation,—that of ministration to the sick and unprotected. A narrative of their order, written in 1649, gives a long list of their beneficent foundations.11 Besides the hospital of Manila, they had an infirmary at Cavite for the native mariners and shipbuilders, a hospital at Los Baños, another in the city of Nueva Caceras. Lay brethren were attached to many of the convents as nurses. In 1633 a curious occurrence led to the founding of the leper hospital of San Lazaro. The emperor of Japan, in a probably ironical mood, sent to Manila a shipload of Japanese afflicted with this unfortunate disease. These people were mercifully received by the Franciscans, and [206]cared for in a home, which became the San Lazaro hospital for lepers. Life and Progress of the Filipinos.—Few sources exist that can show us the life and progress of the Filipino people during these decades. Christianity, as introduced by the missionary friars, was wonderfully successful, and yet there were relapses into heathenism. Old religious leaders and priestesses roused up from time to time, and incited the natives to rebellion against their new spiritual masters. The payment of tribute and the labor required for the building of churches often drove the people into the mountains. Religious Revolt at Bohol and Leyte.—In 1621 a somewhat serious revolt took place on Bohol. The Jesuits who administered the island were absent in Cebu, attending the fiestas on the canonization of Saint Francis Xavier. The whisper was raised that the old heathen deity, Diwata, was at hand to assist in the expulsion of the Spaniards. The island rose in revolt, except the two towns of Loboc and Baclayan. Four towns were burned, the churches sacked, and the sacred images speared. The revolt spread to Leyte, where it was headed by the old dato, Bancao of Limasaua, who had sworn friendship with Legaspi. This insurrection was put down by the alcalde mayor of Cebu and the Filipino leaders were hung. On Leyte, Bancao was speared in battle, and one of the heathen priests suffered the penalty, prescribed by the Inquisition for heresy—death by burning. Revolt of the Pampangas.—The heavy drafting of natives to fell trees and build the ships for the Spanish naval expeditions and the Acapulco trade was also a cause for insurrection. In 1660 a thousand Pampangas were kept cutting in the forests of that province alone. [207]Sullen at their heavy labor and at the harshness of their overseers, these natives rose in revolt. The sedition spread to Pangasinan, Zambales, and Ilocos, and it required the utmost efforts of the Spanish forces on land and water to suppress the rebellion. Uprising of the Chinese.—In spite of the terrible massacre, that had been visited upon the Chinese at the beginning of the century, they had almost immediately commenced returning not only as merchants, but as colonists. The early restrictions upon their life must have been relaxed, for in 1639 there were more than thirty thousand living in the Islands, many of them cultivating lands at Calamba and at other points on the Laguna de Bay. In that year a rebellion broke out, in which the Chinese in Manila participated. They seized the church of San Pedro Mecati, on the Pasig, and fortified themselves. From there they were routed by a combined Filipino and Spanish force. The Chinese then broke up into small bands, which scattered through the country, looting and murdering, but being pursued and cut to pieces by the Filipinos. For five months this pillage and massacre went on, until seven thousand Chinese were destroyed. By the loss of these agriculturists and laborers Manila was reduced to great distress. Activity of the Moro Pirates.—The task of the Spaniards in controlling the Moro datos continued to be immensely difficult. During the years following the successes of Corcuera and Almonte, the Moros were continually plotting. Aid was furnished from Borneo and the Celebes, and they were further incited by the Dutch. In spite of the vigilance of Zamboanga, small piratical excursions continually harassed the Bisayas and the Camarines.[208] Continued Conflicts with the Dutch.—The Dutch, too, from time to time showed themselves in Manila. In 1646 a squadron attacked Zamboanga, and then came north to Luzon. The Spanish naval strength was quite unprepared; but two galleons, lately arrived from Acapulco, were fitted with heavy guns, Dominican friars took their places among the gunners, and, under the protection of the Virgin of the Rosary, successfully encountered the enemy. A year later a fleet of twelve vessels entered Manila Bay, and nearly succeeded in taking Cavite. Failing in this, they landed in Bataan province, and for some time held the coast of Manila Bay in the vicinity of Abucay. The narrative of Franciscan missions in 1649, above cited, gives town after town in southern Luzon, where church and convent had been burned by the Moros or the Dutch. The Abandonment of Zamboanga and the Moluccas.—The threat of the Dutch made the maintenance of the presidio of Zamboanga very burdensome. In 1656 the administration of the Moluccas was united with that of Mindanao, and the governor of the former, Don Francisco de Esteybar, was transferred from Ternate to Zamboanga and made lieutenant-governor and captain-general of all the provinces of the south. Six years later, the Moluccas, so long coveted by the Spaniards, and so slowly won by them, together with Zamboanga, were wholly abandoned, and to the Spice Islands the Spaniards were never to return. This sudden retirement from their southern possessions was not, however, occasioned by the incessant restlessness of the Moros nor by the plottings of the Dutch. It was due to a threat of danger from the north. Koxinga the Chinese Adventurer.—In 1644, China was conquered by the Manchus. Pekin capitulated at [209]once and the Ming dynasty was overthrown, but it was only by many years of fighting that the Manchus overcame the Chinese of the central and southern provinces. These were years of turbulence, revolt, and piracy. More than one Chinese adventurer rose to a romantic position during this disturbed time. One of these adventurers, named It Coan, had been a poor fisherman of Chio. He had lived in Macao, where he had been converted to Christianity, and had been a cargador, or cargo-bearer, in Manila. He afterwards went to Japan, and engaged in trade. From these humble and laborious beginnings, like many another of his persistent countrymen, he gained great wealth, which on the conquest of the Manchus he devoted to piracy. His son was the notorious Kue-Sing, or Koxinga, who for years resisted the armies of the Manchus, and maintained an independent power over the coasts of Fukien and Chekiang. About 1660 the forces of the Manchus became too formidable for him to longer resist them upon the mainland, and Koxinga determined upon the capture of Formosa and the transference of his kingdom to that island. For thirty-eight years this island had been dominated by the Dutch, whose fortresses commanded the channel of the Pescadores. The colony was regarded as an important one by the Dutch colonial government at Batavia. The city of Tai-wan, on the west coast, was a considerable center of trade. It was strongly protected by the fortress of Zealand, and had a garrison of twenty-two hundred Dutch soldiers. After months of fighting, Koxinga, with an overpowering force of Chinese, compelled the surrender of the Hollanders and the beautiful island passed into his power.[210] A Threatened Invasion of the Philippines.—Exalted by his success against European arms, Koxinga resolved upon the conquest of the Philippines. He summoned to his service the Italian Dominican missionary, Ricci, who had been living in the province of Fukien, and in the spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago. Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this demand, and indeed no such danger had threatened the Spanish in the Philippines since the invasion of Limahong. The Chinese conqueror had an innumerable army, and his armament, stores, and navy had been greatly augmented by the surrender of the Dutch. The Spaniards, however, were united on resistance. The governor, Don Sabiano Manrique de Lara, returned a defiant answer to Koxinga, and the most radical measures were adopted to place the colony in a state of defense. All Chinese were ordered immediately to leave the Islands. Fearful of massacre, these wretched people again broke out in rebellion, and assaulted the city. Many were slain, and other bands wandered off into the mountains, where they perished at the hands of the natives. Others, escaping by frail boats, joined the Chinese colonists on Formosa. Churches and convents in the suburbs of Manila, which might afford shelter to the assailant, were razed to the ground. More than all this, the Moluccas were forsaken, never again to be recovered by Spaniards; and the presidios of Zamboanga and Cuyo, which served as a kind of bridle on the Moros of Jolo and Mindanao, were abandoned. All Spanish troops were concentrated in Manila, fortifications were rebuilt, and the population waited anxiously for the attack. But the blow never fell. [211]Before Ricci arrived at Tai-wan, Koxinga was dead, and the peril of Chinese invasion had passed. Effects of These Events.—But the Philippines had suffered irretrievable loss. Spanish prestige was gone. Manila was no longer, as she had been at the commencement of the century, the capital of the East. Spanish sovereignty was again confined to Luzon and the Bisayas. The Chinese trade, on which rested the economic prosperity of Manila, had once again been ruined. For a hundred years the history of the Philippines is a dull monotony, quite unrelieved by any heroic activity or the presence of noble character. cg4u2i7lfe326s65ba5o7p7jizgv5gr 100098 100096 2024-12-03T07:09:36Z Glorious Engine 9499 100098 wikitext text/x-wiki <center>'''Bab IX'''</center> <center>'''Perang Belanda dan Moro. 1600–1663'''</center> Hilangnya Kekuatan Angkatan Laut Spanyol dan Portugal.—Perebutan Portugal oleh Philip II pada 1580 adalah bencana yang berdampak pada Portugal dan Spanyol. Bagi Portugal, peristiwa tersebut melucuti dan menghilangkan kekuatan kolonial. Spanyol tak sebanding dengan tugas pertahnan kekuasaan Portugis, dan keiriannya trhadap kemakmuran mereka nampak menyebabkan campur tangan kepentingan mereka dan memperkenankan penurunan mereka. Pada suatu hari, Portugal kehilangan kekuasaan angkatan laut yang mula-mula mendapatkan jalan menuju Hindia. Beberapa ratus kapal Portugis, ribuan meriam dan sejumlah besar uang didapatkan oleh Spanyol pada aneksasi Portugal, Kebanyakan kapal yang bernasib buruk datang ke Selat Inggris dengan Armada Besar. Kala kabar mengerikan penghancuran persenjataan kuat tersebut, yang diharapkan oleh Spanyol untuk menaklukan dan melucuti Inggris, datang ke Escorial, istana besar tempat selama bertahun-tahun raja yang telah hengkang, Philip II, agar orang asing, yang tak pernah memutuskan menang atau kalah, singkatnya dilaporkan berujar, “Aku berterima kasih pada Tuhan bahwa aku memiliki kekuasaan untuk menggantikan kehilangan tersebut.” Ia sepenuhnya keliru. Kekalahan tak pernah dapat membuat kebaikan. AL Spanyol dan Portugal tak pernah sepenuhnya terbangun kembali. Pada tahun tersebut (1588), ketangguhan di laut beralih ke Inggris dan Belanda. Belanda Menjadi Negara Merdeka.—Siapa itu Belanda, atau Hollanders? Bagaimana mereka datang untuk merangsek dari Spanyol dan Portugal menajdi kekaisaran kolonial, yang mereka himpun saat ini tanpa kehilangan makmuran atau bukti penurunan? Di utara Eropa, menghadap Laut Utara, adalah dataran rendah kaya yang dilalui oleh sungai-sungai dan terbasuh jauh ke pelosoknya oleh air pasang, yang dikenal sebagai Holland, Negara-negara Dataran Rendah, atau Belanda. Masyarakatnya pernah dikenal akrena industri dan kerja keras mereka. Dalam manufaktur dan perdagangan pada Akhir Abad Pertengahan, mereka jauh berdiri memimpin di Eropa utara.. Kota-kota mereka ulet, sangat makmur dan sangat bersih. Mereka menjelaskan fakta suksusi yang dialami wilayah tersebut kala menjadi wilaayh raja Spanyol, Kaisar Charles Kelima. Negara-negara Dataran Rnedah seringkali sangat dihargai oleh Charles, dan disamping pergesekan kekuasaannya, ia memegang dampak dan kesetiaan mereka sampai kematiannya. Wilaayh tersebut berada di kota Antwerp tempat ia resmi menyerahkan kekuasaannya pada putranya, Philip II, dan, sebagaimana dituturkan oleh sejarawan kontemporer, upacara pemberlakuan dan tunggal tersebut disaksikan dengan setiap tanda kesetiaan oleh majelis. Pemberontakan.—Namun, penekanan dan penindasan masa kekuasaan Philip menggerakkan masyarakat untuk memberontak. Belanda menganut agama Protestan, dan kala, selain penekanan, intimidasi pergesekan prajurit Spanyol, dan pelanggaran janji kedaulatan, Philip memberlakukan agar lembaga mengerikan dan tanpa ampun, Inkuisisi Spanyol, Negara-negara Dataran Rendah menghadapi tiran dalam semangat pemberontakan. Perang, yang dimulai pada 1556, berlangsung selama bertahun-tahun. Terdapat kekejaman, dan penjarahan kota yang disertai oleh penjagalan. Pada 1575, tujuh wilayah Belanda menyatakan kemerdekaan mereka, dan membentuk republik Belanda. Disamping upaya Spanyol untuk menaklukan kembali wilaayh tersebut berlanjut sampai akhir abad, kemerdekaan tersebut diraih beberapa tahun sebelumnya. Perdagangan antara Portugal dan Belanda Dilarang.—Sebagian besar perdagangan Negara-negara Dataran Rendah terjadi dengan Lisbon. Portugis tak mendistribusikan produk-produk yang mereka bawa dari Hindia ke Eropa. Para pedagang asing berjualan di Lisbon dan membangun gudang-gudang di wilayah lain, dan tingkat paling besar jasa tersebut dilakukan oleh Belanda. Namun kala aneksasi Portugal, Philip melarang seluruh perdaagngan dan komerisal antar dua negara tersebut. Dengan tindakan tersebut, Belanda, yang mengambil perdagangan mereka di Lisbon, menghadapi alternatif keruntuhan komersial atau meraih produk-produk Timur untuk diri mereka sendiri. Mereka memilih pilihan terakhir dengan segala resikonya. Ini kemudian dimungkinkan lewat penghancuran Armada. Penjelajahan Belanda ke Hindia.—Pada 1595, penjelajahan perdana mereka, yang dipimpin oleh Cornelius Houtman, berlayar di galleon Portugis, mengitari Tanjung Harapan dan memasuki domain Hindia. Titik tujuannya adalah Jawa, tempat aliansi dibentuk dengan para pangeran pribumi dan mengamankan kargo lada. Dua hal yang ditunjukkan lewat pemulangan aman armada tersebut,—kekayaan besar dan laba perdagangan Hindia, dan ketidakmampuan Spanyol dan Portugal untuk menghimpun monopoli mereka. Pada 1598, para pedagang Amsterdam mengalahkan armada gabungan Spanyol dan Portugis di Timur, dan pemukiman dagang dihimpun di Jawa dan Johore. Pada 1605, mereka menghimpun pabrik-pabrik mereka di Amboina dan Tidor. Dampak Keberhasilan Belanda.—Monopoli eksklusif atas perairan Samudra Pasifik dan Hindia, yang dikuasai Portugal dan Spanyol selama seabad, telah terkoyak. Dengan keterlibatan Takhta Roma, mereka berniat untuk membagi Dunia Baru dan Dunia Timur di antara mereka. Upaya tersebut kini berlalu. Mereka mengklaim hak untuk dikecualikan dari sebagian besar samudra yang mereka temukan dengan kapal-kapal dari setiap bangsa lainnya yang mereka miliki. Doktrin dalam Sejarah Hukum Internasional dikenal sebagai mare clausum, atau “laut tertutup.” Ledakan kematian pada dominasi tersebut diberikan oleh masuknya Belanda ke Hindia, dan ini bukanlah bertepatan dengan kala mereka temukan doktrin laut tertutup itu sendiri yang dilayari secara ilmiah, beberapa tahun kemudian, oleh yuris Belanda besar, Grotius, pendiri sistem hukum internasional dalam karyanya, De Libero Mare. Metode Dagang Belanda.—Belanda tak membuat upaay di Hindia untuk mendirikan koloni besar untuk dominasi politik dan pemindahan agama. Perdagangan adalah tujuan tunggal mereka. Kebijakan mereka adalah untuk membentuk aliansi dengan penguasa pribumi, berjanji membantu mereka melawan kekuasaan Portugis atau Spanyol dengan balasan hak khusus perdagangan. Dengan ini, mereka menjadi lebih sukses. Pada 1602, mereka meminta ijin untuk mendirikan pabrik di Bantam, pulau Jawa. Tempat tersebut kemudian menjadi titik dagang menonjol. “Tionghoa, Arab, Persia, Moor, Turki, Malabar, Peguan, dan pedagang dari seluruh bangsa bergerak disana.” Tujuan utama perdagangan tersebut adalah lada. Karakter perjanjian yang dibuat oleh Belanda dengan raja Bantam dituturkan oleh Raffles. “Belanda mencoba membantunya melawan invasi asing, terutama Spanyol dan Portugis; dan raja tersebut, di pihaknya, sepakat untuk membuat benteng bagus dan kuat kepada Belanda, perdagangan bebas dan keamanan untuk “orang-orang dan harta benda mereka tanpa pembayaran tugas atau pajak apapun, dan tak memperkenankan bangsa Eropa lain untuk berdagang atau bermukim di wilayahnya.” Penjelajahan Spanyol melawan Belanda di Maluku.—Namun, Spanyol tak membiarkan lahan tersebut dikuasai musuh baru tanpa perjuangan, dan konflik mengisi sejarah abad kedelapan belas. Kala Belanda mengusir Portugis dari Amboina dan Tidor pada Februari 1605, sebagian besar Portugis datang ke Filipina dan masuk pasukan Spanyol. Sang gubernur, Don Pedro Bravo de Acuña, mengisinya dengan keuntungan pada kehilangan wilayah penting tersebut, dengan kegiatan besar mengorganisir penjelajahan untuk penaklukan mereka. Pada tahun sebelumnya, delapan ratus pasukan didatangkan dari Spanyol, dua ratus dari mereka adalah pribumi Meksiko. Kemudian, Acuña dapat menghimpun armada kuat yang mengerahkan tujuh puluh lima buah artileri dan mengangkut seribu empat ratus Sapnyol dan seribu enam ratus Indian. Armada tersebut berlayar pada Januari 1606. Tidor direbut tanpa perlawanan dan pabrik Belanda dirampas, dengan sejumlah besar uang, barang dan senjata. Spanyol kemudian menyerang Ternate; benteng dan plaza dibombardir, dan kemudian kota tersebut diterpa oleh badai. Kemudian, pada akhirnya penyertaan pertualangan tersebut yang terjadi selama nyaris eabad telah menginspirasi ambisi Spanyol, yang mengerahkan armada Magellan, yang mengangkut penjelajahan Loyasa dan Villalobos, karena Spanyol di Filipina telah menyiapkan penjelajahan demi penjelajahan, dan karena Gubernur Dasmariñas telah mengorbankan nyawanya. Pada akhirnya, Maluku direbut oleh pasukan Spanyol. Penaklukan Armada Belanda di Mariveles.—Namun, sejauh dari penglihatan musuh mereka, tindakan tersebut membawa Belanda menuju Filipina. Pada 1609, Juan de Silva menjadi guebrnur Kepulauan tersebut. Pada tahun yang sama, laksamana Belanda, Wittert, datang dengan sebuah skuadron. Setelah serangan gagal di Iloilo, armada Belanda berlabuh di lepas Mariveles, untuk merebut kapal-kapal yang datang untuk berdagang di Manila. Di tempat tersebut, pada 25 April 1610, armada Spanyol, yang bersiap sedia di Cavite, menyerang Belanda, menewaskan laksaman dan merebut seluruh kapal kecuali satu, dua ratus lima puluh tahanan, dan sejumlah besar perak dan pernak-pernik. Para tahanan tersebut nampak diperlakukan lebih baik ketimbang tahanan dari armada Van Noort, yang digantung di Cavite. Korban luka dikatakan dirawat, dan para frater dari seluruh ordo keagamaan diundang dengan satu sama lain untuk memindahkan agama “para pembajak Protestan” dari kesesatan mereka. Sebuah Penjelajahan melawan Belanda di Jawa.—Spanyol membuat jejak perang Eropanya dengan Belanda pada 1609, namun penghentian pertikaian tersebut tak pernah diakui di Timur. Kolonis Belanda dan Sapnyol terus berperang dan bertikai satu sama lain sampai akhir abad tersebut. Didorong oleh kemenangannya atas Wittert, Silva bernegosiasi dengan sekutu Portugis di Goa, India, untuk mengusir Belanda dari Jawa. Skuadron kuat berlayar dari Cavite pada 1616 untuk keperluan tersebut. Ini adalah armada terbesar yang sampai hari ini pernah dikerahkan di Filipina. Namun, penjelajahan tersebut gagal untuk bersatu dengan sekutu Portugis mereka. Pada April, Silva meninggal di Malaka akibat demam malignant. Armada Belanda.—Pertempuran dekat Corregidor.—Armada kembali ke Cavite untuk mendapati kota tersebut, sesambil melucuti prajurit dan artileri, yang telah berada dalam demam kekhawatiran dan penangkapan atas pihak kapal-kapal Belanda. Mereka adalah orang-orang dari Laksamana Spilbergen, yang datang lewat jalan Selat Magellan dan Pasifik. Ia meninggalkan kami catatan Selat San Bernadino, yang direproduksi disini. Spilbergen membombardir Ilolio dan kemudian berlayar ke Maluku. Setahun kemudian, ia kembali, menemui armada Sapnyol dari tujuh galleon dan dua gallera dekat Manila dan mengalami kekalahan besar. Pertempuran demulai dengan penyalaan meriam pada Jumat, 13 April, dan terus terjadi sepanjang hari. Pada keesokan harinya, kapal-kapal datang mendekati wilayah, Spanyol menghampiri kapal-kapal Belanda, dan pertempuran terjadi dengan pedang. Belanda melampaui keadaan. Mungkin jumlah mereka lebih sedikit. Relacion menyatakan bahwa mereka memiliki empat belas galleon, namun catatan lainnya menyebut angka sepuluh, tiga kapal dihancurkan atau direbut oleh Spanyol. Salah satunya, kapal indah, “Surya Belanda,” dibakar. Perlawanan tersebut dikenal sebagai pertempuran Playa Honda. Pertikaian lain terjadi di perairan yang sama dari Corregidor, pada akhir 1624, kala armada Belanda bergerak tanpa kehilangan serius di pihak manapun. Belanda Menaklukan Kapal-kapal Jung Tiongkok, dan Galleon.—Namun meskipun selama bertahun-tahun campur tangan, armada Belanda terus datang, baik lewat Tanjung Harapan maupun lewat Selat Magellan. Pasukan yang datang menyeberangi pasiifik nyaris merangseki Selat San Bernadino, mengamankan tujuan-tujuan segar yang diinginkan untuk mereka usai pelayaran panjang mereka. Penghargaan yang mereka buat dari kapal-kapal Tionghoa, melewati Corregidor menuju Manila, memberikan kami gagasan bagaimana Spanyol di Filipina bergerak ke Tiongkok untuk pasokan pangan mereka. Kapal-kapal jung, atau “champan,” secara berkelanjutan melintasi Corregidor, membawa serta ayam, babi, beras, gula, dan barang lainnya. Galleon Meksiko seringkali dihancurkan atau direbut oleh armada Belanda. pada suatu waktu, rute Selat San Bernadino telah ditinggalkan, galleon-galleon mencapai Manila lewat jalan Tanjung Engano, atau terkadang mendarat di Cagayan, dan lebih dari sekali bergerak ke pesisir sisi Pasifik dari pulau tersebut, di Binangonan de Lampon. Belanda di Formosa.—Belanda juga membuat upaya berulang untuk merangseki pemukiman dan perdagangan Portugal di Tiongkok. Pada awal 1557, Portugis mendirikan pemukiman di pulau Makau, salah satu dari sejumlah islet yang melingkupi wilayah sungai Kanton. Ini adalah pemukiman Eropa tertua di Tiongkok dan terus menerus dikuasai oleh Portugis sampai saat ini, kala tempat tersebut nyaris menjadi persinggahan terakhir yang sempat dipegang kekaisaran Portugis di Timur. Tempat tersebut sebagian besar dirangseki oleh Belanda karena pengaruhnya dalam perdagangan dengan Kanton dan Fukien. Pada 1622, armada dari Jawa bergerak mengepung Makau, dan, dipukul mundur, berlayar ke Kepulauan Pescadores, tempat mereka membangun benteng dan pos, yang mengancam perdagangan Portugis dengan Jepang dan perdagangan Manila dengan Amoy. Dua tahun kemudian, kala pemadatan pemerintah Tiongkok, Belanda melepaskan pemukiman mereka ke Formosa, tempat mereka memecah stasiun-stasiun misi Spanyol dan memegang pulau tersebut selama tiga puluh lima tahun berturut-turut. Kemudian, sepanjang seabad, kekuatan Eropa bertikai dan menyerbu satu sama lain, namun tak ada satupun dari mereka yang kuat untuk mengusir pihak lainnya dari Timur. The Portuguese Colonies.—In 1640 the kingdom of Portugal freed itself from the domination of Spain. With the same blow Spain lost the great colonial possessions that came to her with the attachment of the Portuguese. “All the places,” says Zuñiga, “which the Portuguese had in the Indies, separated themselves from the crown of Castile and recognized as king, Don Juan of Portugal.” “This same year,” he adds, “the Dutch took Malacca.”6 The Moros.—Increase of Moro Piracy.—During all these years the raids of the Moros of Maguindanao and Jolo had never ceased. Their piracies were almost continuous. There was no security; churches were looted, priests killed, people borne away for ransom or for slavery. Obviously, this piracy could only be met by destroying it at its source. Defensive fortifications and protective fleets were of no consequence, when compared with the necessity of subduing the Moro in his own lairs. In 1628 and 1630 punitive expeditions were sent against Jolo, Basilan, and Mindanao, which drove the Moros from their forts, burned their towns, and cut down their groves of cocoanut trees. [196]But such expeditions served only to inflame the more the wrathful vengeance of the Moro, and in 1635 the government resolved upon a change of policy and the establishment of a presidio at Zamboanga. Founding of a Spanish Post at Zamboanga.—This brings us to a new phase in the Moro wars. The governor, Juan Cerezo de Salamanca, was determined upon the conquest and the occupation of Mindanao and Jolo. In taking this step, Salamanca, like Corcuera, who succeeded him, acted under the influence of the Jesuits. Their missions in Bohol and northern Mindanao made them ambitious to reserve for the ministrations of their society all lands that were conquered and occupied, south of the Bisayas. The Jesuits were the missionaries on Ternate and Siao and wherever in the Moluccas and Celebes the Spanish and Portuguese had established their power. The Jesuits had accompanied the expedition of Rodriguez de Figueroa in 1595, and from that date they never ceased petitioning the government for a military occupation of these islands and for their own return, as the missionaries of these regions. The Jesuits were brilliant and able administrators. For men of their ambition, Mindanao, with its rich soil, attractive productions, and comparatively numerous populations, was a most enticing field for the establishment of such a theocratic commonwealth as the Jesuits had created and administered in America.7 On the other hand, the occupation of Zamboanga was strenuously opposed by the other religious orders; but the Jesuits, ever remarkable for their ascendancy in affairs of [197]state, were able to effect the establishment of Zamboanga, though they could not prevent its abandonment a quarter of a century later. Erection of the Forts.—The presidio was founded in 1635, by a force under Don Juan de Chaves. His army consisted of three hundred Spaniards and one thousand Bisaya, The end of the peninsula was swept of Moro inhabitants and their towns destroyed by fire. In June the foundations of the stone fort were laid under the direction of the Jesuit, Father Vera, who is described as being experienced in military engineering and architecture. To supply the new site with water, a ditch was built from the river Tumaga, a distance of six or seven miles, which brought a copious stream to the very walls of the fort. The advantage or failure of this expensive fortress is very hard to determine. Its planting was a partisan measure, and it was always subject to partisan praise and partisan blame. Sometimes it seemed to have checked the Moros and sometimes seemed only to be stirring them to fresh anger and aggression. The same year that saw the establishment of Zamboanga, Hortado de Corcuera became governor of the Philippines. He was much under the influence of the Jesuits and confirmed their policy of conquest. Defeat of the Moro Pirate Tagal.—A few months later a notable fleet of pirates, recruited from Mindanao, Jolo, and Borneo, and headed by a chieftain named Tagal, a brother of the notorious Correlat, sultan of Maguindanao, went defiantly past the new presidio and northward through the Mindoro Sea. For more than seven months they cruised the Bisayas. The islands of the Camarines especially felt their ravages. In Cuyo they captured the corregidor and three friars. Finally, with [198]650 captives and rich booty, including the ornaments and services of churches, Tagal turned southward on his return. The presidio of Zamboanga had prepared to intercept him and a fierce battle took place off the Punta de Flechas, thirty leagues to the northeast of Zamboanga. According to the Spanish writers, this point was one held sacred by Moro superstitions. A deity inhabited these waters, whom the Moros were accustomed to propitiate on the departure and arrival of their expeditions, by throwing into the sea lances and arrows. The victory was a notable one for the Spanish arms. Tagal and more than 300 Moros were killed, and 120 Christian captives were released. Moro Helmet and Coat of Mail. Corcuera’s Expedition against the Moros at Lamítan.—Corcuera had meanwhile been preparing an expedition, [199]which had taken on the character of a holy war. Jesuit and soldier mingled in its company and united in its direction. The Jesuit saint, Francis Xavier, was proclaimed patron of the expedition, and mass was celebrated daily on the ships. Corcuera himself accompanied the expedition, and at Zamboanga, where they arrived February 22, 1637, he united a force of 760 Spaniards and many Bisayans and Pampangas. Moro Sword and Scabbard. From Zamboanga the force started for Lamítan, the stronghold of Correlat, and the center of the power of the Maguindanao. It seems to have been situated on the coast, south of the region of Lake Lanao. The fleet encountered rough weather and contrary winds off Punta de Flechas, which they attributed to the influence of the Moro demon. To rid the locality of this unholy influence, Padre Marcello, the Jesuit superior, occupied himself for two days. Padre Combés has left us an account of the ceremony.8 The demon was dispossessed by exorcism. Mass was celebrated. Various articles, representing Moro infidelity, [200]including arrows, were destroyed and burnt. Holy relics were thrown into the waters, and the place was finally sanctified by baptism in the name of Saint Sebastian. Sulu Barong and Sheath. Moro Spear. On the 14th of March the expedition reached Lamítan, fortified and defended by two thousand Moro warriors. The Spanish force, however, was overwhelming, and the city was taken by storm. Here were captured eight bronze cannon, twenty-seven “versos” (a kind of small howitzer), and over a hundred muskets and arquebuses and a great store of Moro weapons. Over one hundred vessels were destroyed, including a fleet of Malay merchant praos from Java. Sixteen villages were burned, [201]and seventy-two Moros were hung. Correlat, though pursued and wounded, was not captured.9 Old Moro Sailing Boat. The Conquest of Jolo.—Corcuera returned to Zamboanga and organized an expedition for the conquest of Jolo. Although defended by four thousand Moro warriors and by allies from Basílan and the Celebes, Corcuera took Jolo after some months of siege. The sultan saved himself by flight, but the sultana was taken prisoner. Corcuera reconstructed the fort, established a garrison of two hundred Spaniards and an equal number of Pampangas, left some Jesuit fathers, and, having nominated [202]Major Almonte chief of all the forces in the south, returned in May, 1638, to Manila, with all the triumph of a conqueror. Almonte continued the work of subjugation. In 1639 he conquered the Moro dato of Buhayen, in the valley of the Rio Grande, where a small presidio was founded. And in the same year the Jesuits prevailed upon him to invade the territory of the Malanao, now known as the Laguna de Lanao. This expedition was made from the north through Iligan, and for a time brought even this warlike and difficult territory under the authority of the governor and the spiritual administration of the Jesuits. Loss of the Spanish Settlement on Formosa.—The full military success of Corcuera’s governorship was marred by the loss of Macao and the capture of the Spanish settlement on the island of Formosa by the Dutch. In the attempt to hold Macao, Corcuera sent over the encomendero of Pasig, Don Juan Claudio. The populace of Macao, however, rose in tumult, assassinated the governor, Sebastian Lobo, and pronounced in favor of Portugal. Later, by decree of the Portuguese governor of Goa, all the Spanish residents and missionaries were expelled. The Dutch seizure of Formosa, a year later, has already been described. The Archipelago and the Religious Orders.—During these decades, conflict was almost incessant between the archbishop of Manila and the regular orders. In the Philippines the regulars were the parish curates, and the archbishop desired that all matters of their curacy, touching the administration of the sacraments and other parish duties, should be subject to the direction of the bishops. This question of the “diocesan visit” was fought over for nearly two hundred years.[203] The Governor and the Archbishop.—Even more serious to the colony were the conflicts that raged between the governor-general and the archbishop. All the points of dissension between Church and State, which vexed the Middle Ages, broke out afresh in the Philippines. The appointment of religious officers; the distribution of revenue; the treatment of the natives; the claim of the church to offer asylum to those fleeing the arm of the law; its claims of jurisdiction, in its ecclesiastical courts, over a large class of civil offenses—these disputes and many others, occasioned almost incessant discord between the heads of civil and ecclesiastical authority. The “Residencia.”—We have seen that the power of the governor was in fact very large. Theoretically, the Audiencia was a limit upon his authority; but in fact the governor was usually the president of this body, and the oidores were frequently his abettors and rarely his opponents. At the end of each governor’s rule there took place a characteristic Spanish institution, called the “Residencia.” This was a court held by the newly elected governor, for an examination into the conduct of his predecessor. Complaints of every description were received, and often, in the history of the Philippines, one who had ruled the archipelago almost as an independent monarch found himself, at the end of his office, ruined, and in chains. It was upon the occasion of the Residencia that the ecclesiastical powers, after a governorship stormy with disputes, exercised their power for revenge. Unquestionably many a governor, despite his actual power, facing, as he did, the Residencia at the termination of his rule, made peace with his enemies and yielded to their demands.[204] Corcuera had continuous troubles with the archbishop and with the religious orders other than the Jesuits. In 1644, when his successor, Fajardo, relieved him, the Franciscans, Augustinians, and Recollects procured his imprisonment and the confiscation of his property. For five years, the conqueror of the Moros lay a prisoner in the fortresses of Santiago and Cavite, when he was pardoned by the Council of the Indies, and appointed governor of the Canaries by the king. Weakening of the Governor’s Power.—This power of private and religious classes to intimidate and overawe the responsible head of the Philippine government was an abuse which continued to the very close of the Spanish rule. This, together with the relatively short term of the governor’s office, his natural desire to avoid trouble, his all too frequent purpose of amassing a fortune rather than maintaining the dignity of his position and advancing the interests of the Islands, combined decade after decade to make the spiritual authority more powerful. In the end the religious orders, with their great body of members, their hold upon the Filipinos, their high influence at the court, and finally their great landed wealth, governed the Islands. The Educational Work of the Religious Orders.—In any criticism of the evils connected with their administration of the Philippines, one must not fail to recognize the many achievements of the missionary friars that were worthy. To the Dominicans and the Jesuits is due the establishment of institutions of learning. The Jesuits in 1601 had planted their College of San José. The Dominicans, here as in Europe, the champions of orthodox learning, had their own institution, the College of Santo Tomas, inaugurated in 1619, and were the rivals of the Jesuits for the privilege of giving higher instruction.[205] In 1645 the pope granted to the Dominicans the right to bestow higher degrees, and their college became the “Royal and Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas.” This splendid name breathes that very spirit of the Middle Ages which the Dominican order strove to perpetuate in the Philippines down to modern days.10 Dominicans also founded the College of San Juan de Letran, as a preparatory school to the University. We should not pass over the educational work of the religious orders without mention of the early printing-plants and their publications. The missionary friars were famous printers, and in the Philippines, as well as in America, some noble volumes were produced by their handicraft. Founding of Hospitals by the Franciscans.—Nor had the Franciscans in the Philippines neglected the fundamental purpose of their foundation,—that of ministration to the sick and unprotected. A narrative of their order, written in 1649, gives a long list of their beneficent foundations.11 Besides the hospital of Manila, they had an infirmary at Cavite for the native mariners and shipbuilders, a hospital at Los Baños, another in the city of Nueva Caceras. Lay brethren were attached to many of the convents as nurses. In 1633 a curious occurrence led to the founding of the leper hospital of San Lazaro. The emperor of Japan, in a probably ironical mood, sent to Manila a shipload of Japanese afflicted with this unfortunate disease. These people were mercifully received by the Franciscans, and [206]cared for in a home, which became the San Lazaro hospital for lepers. Life and Progress of the Filipinos.—Few sources exist that can show us the life and progress of the Filipino people during these decades. Christianity, as introduced by the missionary friars, was wonderfully successful, and yet there were relapses into heathenism. Old religious leaders and priestesses roused up from time to time, and incited the natives to rebellion against their new spiritual masters. The payment of tribute and the labor required for the building of churches often drove the people into the mountains. Religious Revolt at Bohol and Leyte.—In 1621 a somewhat serious revolt took place on Bohol. The Jesuits who administered the island were absent in Cebu, attending the fiestas on the canonization of Saint Francis Xavier. The whisper was raised that the old heathen deity, Diwata, was at hand to assist in the expulsion of the Spaniards. The island rose in revolt, except the two towns of Loboc and Baclayan. Four towns were burned, the churches sacked, and the sacred images speared. The revolt spread to Leyte, where it was headed by the old dato, Bancao of Limasaua, who had sworn friendship with Legaspi. This insurrection was put down by the alcalde mayor of Cebu and the Filipino leaders were hung. On Leyte, Bancao was speared in battle, and one of the heathen priests suffered the penalty, prescribed by the Inquisition for heresy—death by burning. Revolt of the Pampangas.—The heavy drafting of natives to fell trees and build the ships for the Spanish naval expeditions and the Acapulco trade was also a cause for insurrection. In 1660 a thousand Pampangas were kept cutting in the forests of that province alone. [207]Sullen at their heavy labor and at the harshness of their overseers, these natives rose in revolt. The sedition spread to Pangasinan, Zambales, and Ilocos, and it required the utmost efforts of the Spanish forces on land and water to suppress the rebellion. Uprising of the Chinese.—In spite of the terrible massacre, that had been visited upon the Chinese at the beginning of the century, they had almost immediately commenced returning not only as merchants, but as colonists. The early restrictions upon their life must have been relaxed, for in 1639 there were more than thirty thousand living in the Islands, many of them cultivating lands at Calamba and at other points on the Laguna de Bay. In that year a rebellion broke out, in which the Chinese in Manila participated. They seized the church of San Pedro Mecati, on the Pasig, and fortified themselves. From there they were routed by a combined Filipino and Spanish force. The Chinese then broke up into small bands, which scattered through the country, looting and murdering, but being pursued and cut to pieces by the Filipinos. For five months this pillage and massacre went on, until seven thousand Chinese were destroyed. By the loss of these agriculturists and laborers Manila was reduced to great distress. Activity of the Moro Pirates.—The task of the Spaniards in controlling the Moro datos continued to be immensely difficult. During the years following the successes of Corcuera and Almonte, the Moros were continually plotting. Aid was furnished from Borneo and the Celebes, and they were further incited by the Dutch. In spite of the vigilance of Zamboanga, small piratical excursions continually harassed the Bisayas and the Camarines.[208] Continued Conflicts with the Dutch.—The Dutch, too, from time to time showed themselves in Manila. In 1646 a squadron attacked Zamboanga, and then came north to Luzon. The Spanish naval strength was quite unprepared; but two galleons, lately arrived from Acapulco, were fitted with heavy guns, Dominican friars took their places among the gunners, and, under the protection of the Virgin of the Rosary, successfully encountered the enemy. A year later a fleet of twelve vessels entered Manila Bay, and nearly succeeded in taking Cavite. Failing in this, they landed in Bataan province, and for some time held the coast of Manila Bay in the vicinity of Abucay. The narrative of Franciscan missions in 1649, above cited, gives town after town in southern Luzon, where church and convent had been burned by the Moros or the Dutch. The Abandonment of Zamboanga and the Moluccas.—The threat of the Dutch made the maintenance of the presidio of Zamboanga very burdensome. In 1656 the administration of the Moluccas was united with that of Mindanao, and the governor of the former, Don Francisco de Esteybar, was transferred from Ternate to Zamboanga and made lieutenant-governor and captain-general of all the provinces of the south. Six years later, the Moluccas, so long coveted by the Spaniards, and so slowly won by them, together with Zamboanga, were wholly abandoned, and to the Spice Islands the Spaniards were never to return. This sudden retirement from their southern possessions was not, however, occasioned by the incessant restlessness of the Moros nor by the plottings of the Dutch. It was due to a threat of danger from the north. Koxinga the Chinese Adventurer.—In 1644, China was conquered by the Manchus. Pekin capitulated at [209]once and the Ming dynasty was overthrown, but it was only by many years of fighting that the Manchus overcame the Chinese of the central and southern provinces. These were years of turbulence, revolt, and piracy. More than one Chinese adventurer rose to a romantic position during this disturbed time. One of these adventurers, named It Coan, had been a poor fisherman of Chio. He had lived in Macao, where he had been converted to Christianity, and had been a cargador, or cargo-bearer, in Manila. He afterwards went to Japan, and engaged in trade. From these humble and laborious beginnings, like many another of his persistent countrymen, he gained great wealth, which on the conquest of the Manchus he devoted to piracy. His son was the notorious Kue-Sing, or Koxinga, who for years resisted the armies of the Manchus, and maintained an independent power over the coasts of Fukien and Chekiang. About 1660 the forces of the Manchus became too formidable for him to longer resist them upon the mainland, and Koxinga determined upon the capture of Formosa and the transference of his kingdom to that island. For thirty-eight years this island had been dominated by the Dutch, whose fortresses commanded the channel of the Pescadores. The colony was regarded as an important one by the Dutch colonial government at Batavia. The city of Tai-wan, on the west coast, was a considerable center of trade. It was strongly protected by the fortress of Zealand, and had a garrison of twenty-two hundred Dutch soldiers. After months of fighting, Koxinga, with an overpowering force of Chinese, compelled the surrender of the Hollanders and the beautiful island passed into his power.[210] A Threatened Invasion of the Philippines.—Exalted by his success against European arms, Koxinga resolved upon the conquest of the Philippines. He summoned to his service the Italian Dominican missionary, Ricci, who had been living in the province of Fukien, and in the spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago. Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this demand, and indeed no such danger had threatened the Spanish in the Philippines since the invasion of Limahong. The Chinese conqueror had an innumerable army, and his armament, stores, and navy had been greatly augmented by the surrender of the Dutch. The Spaniards, however, were united on resistance. The governor, Don Sabiano Manrique de Lara, returned a defiant answer to Koxinga, and the most radical measures were adopted to place the colony in a state of defense. All Chinese were ordered immediately to leave the Islands. Fearful of massacre, these wretched people again broke out in rebellion, and assaulted the city. Many were slain, and other bands wandered off into the mountains, where they perished at the hands of the natives. Others, escaping by frail boats, joined the Chinese colonists on Formosa. Churches and convents in the suburbs of Manila, which might afford shelter to the assailant, were razed to the ground. More than all this, the Moluccas were forsaken, never again to be recovered by Spaniards; and the presidios of Zamboanga and Cuyo, which served as a kind of bridle on the Moros of Jolo and Mindanao, were abandoned. All Spanish troops were concentrated in Manila, fortifications were rebuilt, and the population waited anxiously for the attack. But the blow never fell. [211]Before Ricci arrived at Tai-wan, Koxinga was dead, and the peril of Chinese invasion had passed. Effects of These Events.—But the Philippines had suffered irretrievable loss. Spanish prestige was gone. Manila was no longer, as she had been at the commencement of the century, the capital of the East. Spanish sovereignty was again confined to Luzon and the Bisayas. The Chinese trade, on which rested the economic prosperity of Manila, had once again been ruined. For a hundred years the history of the Philippines is a dull monotony, quite unrelieved by any heroic activity or the presence of noble character. 12mdc0qrd343q11rviscuy110z3tk7u 100099 100098 2024-12-03T10:19:59Z Glorious Engine 9499 100099 wikitext text/x-wiki <center>'''Bab IX'''</center> <center>'''Perang Belanda dan Moro. 1600–1663'''</center> Hilangnya Kekuatan Angkatan Laut Spanyol dan Portugal.—Perebutan Portugal oleh Philip II pada 1580 adalah bencana yang berdampak pada Portugal dan Spanyol. Bagi Portugal, peristiwa tersebut melucuti dan menghilangkan kekuatan kolonial. Spanyol tak sebanding dengan tugas pertahnan kekuasaan Portugis, dan keiriannya trhadap kemakmuran mereka nampak menyebabkan campur tangan kepentingan mereka dan memperkenankan penurunan mereka. Pada suatu hari, Portugal kehilangan kekuasaan angkatan laut yang mula-mula mendapatkan jalan menuju Hindia. Beberapa ratus kapal Portugis, ribuan meriam dan sejumlah besar uang didapatkan oleh Spanyol pada aneksasi Portugal, Kebanyakan kapal yang bernasib buruk datang ke Selat Inggris dengan Armada Besar. Kala kabar mengerikan penghancuran persenjataan kuat tersebut, yang diharapkan oleh Spanyol untuk menaklukan dan melucuti Inggris, datang ke Escorial, istana besar tempat selama bertahun-tahun raja yang telah hengkang, Philip II, agar orang asing, yang tak pernah memutuskan menang atau kalah, singkatnya dilaporkan berujar, “Aku berterima kasih pada Tuhan bahwa aku memiliki kekuasaan untuk menggantikan kehilangan tersebut.” Ia sepenuhnya keliru. Kekalahan tak pernah dapat membuat kebaikan. AL Spanyol dan Portugal tak pernah sepenuhnya terbangun kembali. Pada tahun tersebut (1588), ketangguhan di laut beralih ke Inggris dan Belanda. Belanda Menjadi Negara Merdeka.—Siapa itu Belanda, atau Hollanders? Bagaimana mereka datang untuk merangsek dari Spanyol dan Portugal menajdi kekaisaran kolonial, yang mereka himpun saat ini tanpa kehilangan makmuran atau bukti penurunan? Di utara Eropa, menghadap Laut Utara, adalah dataran rendah kaya yang dilalui oleh sungai-sungai dan terbasuh jauh ke pelosoknya oleh air pasang, yang dikenal sebagai Holland, Negara-negara Dataran Rendah, atau Belanda. Masyarakatnya pernah dikenal akrena industri dan kerja keras mereka. Dalam manufaktur dan perdagangan pada Akhir Abad Pertengahan, mereka jauh berdiri memimpin di Eropa utara.. Kota-kota mereka ulet, sangat makmur dan sangat bersih. Mereka menjelaskan fakta suksusi yang dialami wilayah tersebut kala menjadi wilaayh raja Spanyol, Kaisar Charles Kelima. Negara-negara Dataran Rnedah seringkali sangat dihargai oleh Charles, dan disamping pergesekan kekuasaannya, ia memegang dampak dan kesetiaan mereka sampai kematiannya. Wilaayh tersebut berada di kota Antwerp tempat ia resmi menyerahkan kekuasaannya pada putranya, Philip II, dan, sebagaimana dituturkan oleh sejarawan kontemporer, upacara pemberlakuan dan tunggal tersebut disaksikan dengan setiap tanda kesetiaan oleh majelis. Pemberontakan.—Namun, penekanan dan penindasan masa kekuasaan Philip menggerakkan masyarakat untuk memberontak. Belanda menganut agama Protestan, dan kala, selain penekanan, intimidasi pergesekan prajurit Spanyol, dan pelanggaran janji kedaulatan, Philip memberlakukan agar lembaga mengerikan dan tanpa ampun, Inkuisisi Spanyol, Negara-negara Dataran Rendah menghadapi tiran dalam semangat pemberontakan. Perang, yang dimulai pada 1556, berlangsung selama bertahun-tahun. Terdapat kekejaman, dan penjarahan kota yang disertai oleh penjagalan. Pada 1575, tujuh wilayah Belanda menyatakan kemerdekaan mereka, dan membentuk republik Belanda. Disamping upaya Spanyol untuk menaklukan kembali wilaayh tersebut berlanjut sampai akhir abad, kemerdekaan tersebut diraih beberapa tahun sebelumnya. Perdagangan antara Portugal dan Belanda Dilarang.—Sebagian besar perdagangan Negara-negara Dataran Rendah terjadi dengan Lisbon. Portugis tak mendistribusikan produk-produk yang mereka bawa dari Hindia ke Eropa. Para pedagang asing berjualan di Lisbon dan membangun gudang-gudang di wilayah lain, dan tingkat paling besar jasa tersebut dilakukan oleh Belanda. Namun kala aneksasi Portugal, Philip melarang seluruh perdaagngan dan komerisal antar dua negara tersebut. Dengan tindakan tersebut, Belanda, yang mengambil perdagangan mereka di Lisbon, menghadapi alternatif keruntuhan komersial atau meraih produk-produk Timur untuk diri mereka sendiri. Mereka memilih pilihan terakhir dengan segala resikonya. Ini kemudian dimungkinkan lewat penghancuran Armada. Penjelajahan Belanda ke Hindia.—Pada 1595, penjelajahan perdana mereka, yang dipimpin oleh Cornelius Houtman, berlayar di galleon Portugis, mengitari Tanjung Harapan dan memasuki domain Hindia. Titik tujuannya adalah Jawa, tempat aliansi dibentuk dengan para pangeran pribumi dan mengamankan kargo lada. Dua hal yang ditunjukkan lewat pemulangan aman armada tersebut,—kekayaan besar dan laba perdagangan Hindia, dan ketidakmampuan Spanyol dan Portugal untuk menghimpun monopoli mereka. Pada 1598, para pedagang Amsterdam mengalahkan armada gabungan Spanyol dan Portugis di Timur, dan pemukiman dagang dihimpun di Jawa dan Johore. Pada 1605, mereka menghimpun pabrik-pabrik mereka di Amboina dan Tidor. Dampak Keberhasilan Belanda.—Monopoli eksklusif atas perairan Samudra Pasifik dan Hindia, yang dikuasai Portugal dan Spanyol selama seabad, telah terkoyak. Dengan keterlibatan Takhta Roma, mereka berniat untuk membagi Dunia Baru dan Dunia Timur di antara mereka. Upaya tersebut kini berlalu. Mereka mengklaim hak untuk dikecualikan dari sebagian besar samudra yang mereka temukan dengan kapal-kapal dari setiap bangsa lainnya yang mereka miliki. Doktrin dalam Sejarah Hukum Internasional dikenal sebagai mare clausum, atau “laut tertutup.” Ledakan kematian pada dominasi tersebut diberikan oleh masuknya Belanda ke Hindia, dan ini bukanlah bertepatan dengan kala mereka temukan doktrin laut tertutup itu sendiri yang dilayari secara ilmiah, beberapa tahun kemudian, oleh yuris Belanda besar, Grotius, pendiri sistem hukum internasional dalam karyanya, De Libero Mare. Metode Dagang Belanda.—Belanda tak membuat upaay di Hindia untuk mendirikan koloni besar untuk dominasi politik dan pemindahan agama. Perdagangan adalah tujuan tunggal mereka. Kebijakan mereka adalah untuk membentuk aliansi dengan penguasa pribumi, berjanji membantu mereka melawan kekuasaan Portugis atau Spanyol dengan balasan hak khusus perdagangan. Dengan ini, mereka menjadi lebih sukses. Pada 1602, mereka meminta ijin untuk mendirikan pabrik di Bantam, pulau Jawa. Tempat tersebut kemudian menjadi titik dagang menonjol. “Tionghoa, Arab, Persia, Moor, Turki, Malabar, Peguan, dan pedagang dari seluruh bangsa bergerak disana.” Tujuan utama perdagangan tersebut adalah lada. Karakter perjanjian yang dibuat oleh Belanda dengan raja Bantam dituturkan oleh Raffles. “Belanda mencoba membantunya melawan invasi asing, terutama Spanyol dan Portugis; dan raja tersebut, di pihaknya, sepakat untuk membuat benteng bagus dan kuat kepada Belanda, perdagangan bebas dan keamanan untuk “orang-orang dan harta benda mereka tanpa pembayaran tugas atau pajak apapun, dan tak memperkenankan bangsa Eropa lain untuk berdagang atau bermukim di wilayahnya.” Penjelajahan Spanyol melawan Belanda di Maluku.—Namun, Spanyol tak membiarkan lahan tersebut dikuasai musuh baru tanpa perjuangan, dan konflik mengisi sejarah abad kedelapan belas. Kala Belanda mengusir Portugis dari Amboina dan Tidor pada Februari 1605, sebagian besar Portugis datang ke Filipina dan masuk pasukan Spanyol. Sang gubernur, Don Pedro Bravo de Acuña, mengisinya dengan keuntungan pada kehilangan wilayah penting tersebut, dengan kegiatan besar mengorganisir penjelajahan untuk penaklukan mereka. Pada tahun sebelumnya, delapan ratus pasukan didatangkan dari Spanyol, dua ratus dari mereka adalah pribumi Meksiko. Kemudian, Acuña dapat menghimpun armada kuat yang mengerahkan tujuh puluh lima buah artileri dan mengangkut seribu empat ratus Sapnyol dan seribu enam ratus Indian. Armada tersebut berlayar pada Januari 1606. Tidor direbut tanpa perlawanan dan pabrik Belanda dirampas, dengan sejumlah besar uang, barang dan senjata. Spanyol kemudian menyerang Ternate; benteng dan plaza dibombardir, dan kemudian kota tersebut diterpa oleh badai. Kemudian, pada akhirnya penyertaan pertualangan tersebut yang terjadi selama nyaris eabad telah menginspirasi ambisi Spanyol, yang mengerahkan armada Magellan, yang mengangkut penjelajahan Loyasa dan Villalobos, karena Spanyol di Filipina telah menyiapkan penjelajahan demi penjelajahan, dan karena Gubernur Dasmariñas telah mengorbankan nyawanya. Pada akhirnya, Maluku direbut oleh pasukan Spanyol. Penaklukan Armada Belanda di Mariveles.—Namun, sejauh dari penglihatan musuh mereka, tindakan tersebut membawa Belanda menuju Filipina. Pada 1609, Juan de Silva menjadi guebrnur Kepulauan tersebut. Pada tahun yang sama, laksamana Belanda, Wittert, datang dengan sebuah skuadron. Setelah serangan gagal di Iloilo, armada Belanda berlabuh di lepas Mariveles, untuk merebut kapal-kapal yang datang untuk berdagang di Manila. Di tempat tersebut, pada 25 April 1610, armada Spanyol, yang bersiap sedia di Cavite, menyerang Belanda, menewaskan laksaman dan merebut seluruh kapal kecuali satu, dua ratus lima puluh tahanan, dan sejumlah besar perak dan pernak-pernik. Para tahanan tersebut nampak diperlakukan lebih baik ketimbang tahanan dari armada Van Noort, yang digantung di Cavite. Korban luka dikatakan dirawat, dan para frater dari seluruh ordo keagamaan diundang dengan satu sama lain untuk memindahkan agama “para pembajak Protestan” dari kesesatan mereka. Sebuah Penjelajahan melawan Belanda di Jawa.—Spanyol membuat jejak perang Eropanya dengan Belanda pada 1609, namun penghentian pertikaian tersebut tak pernah diakui di Timur. Kolonis Belanda dan Sapnyol terus berperang dan bertikai satu sama lain sampai akhir abad tersebut. Didorong oleh kemenangannya atas Wittert, Silva bernegosiasi dengan sekutu Portugis di Goa, India, untuk mengusir Belanda dari Jawa. Skuadron kuat berlayar dari Cavite pada 1616 untuk keperluan tersebut. Ini adalah armada terbesar yang sampai hari ini pernah dikerahkan di Filipina. Namun, penjelajahan tersebut gagal untuk bersatu dengan sekutu Portugis mereka. Pada April, Silva meninggal di Malaka akibat demam malignant. Armada Belanda.—Pertempuran dekat Corregidor.—Armada kembali ke Cavite untuk mendapati kota tersebut, sesambil melucuti prajurit dan artileri, yang telah berada dalam demam kekhawatiran dan penangkapan atas pihak kapal-kapal Belanda. Mereka adalah orang-orang dari Laksamana Spilbergen, yang datang lewat jalan Selat Magellan dan Pasifik. Ia meninggalkan kami catatan Selat San Bernadino, yang direproduksi disini. Spilbergen membombardir Ilolio dan kemudian berlayar ke Maluku. Setahun kemudian, ia kembali, menemui armada Sapnyol dari tujuh galleon dan dua gallera dekat Manila dan mengalami kekalahan besar. Pertempuran demulai dengan penyalaan meriam pada Jumat, 13 April, dan terus terjadi sepanjang hari. Pada keesokan harinya, kapal-kapal datang mendekati wilayah, Spanyol menghampiri kapal-kapal Belanda, dan pertempuran terjadi dengan pedang. Belanda melampaui keadaan. Mungkin jumlah mereka lebih sedikit. Relacion menyatakan bahwa mereka memiliki empat belas galleon, namun catatan lainnya menyebut angka sepuluh, tiga kapal dihancurkan atau direbut oleh Spanyol. Salah satunya, kapal indah, “Surya Belanda,” dibakar. Perlawanan tersebut dikenal sebagai pertempuran Playa Honda. Pertikaian lain terjadi di perairan yang sama dari Corregidor, pada akhir 1624, kala armada Belanda bergerak tanpa kehilangan serius di pihak manapun. Belanda Menaklukan Kapal-kapal Jung Tiongkok, dan Galleon.—Namun meskipun selama bertahun-tahun campur tangan, armada Belanda terus datang, baik lewat Tanjung Harapan maupun lewat Selat Magellan. Pasukan yang datang menyeberangi pasiifik nyaris merangseki Selat San Bernadino, mengamankan tujuan-tujuan segar yang diinginkan untuk mereka usai pelayaran panjang mereka. Penghargaan yang mereka buat dari kapal-kapal Tionghoa, melewati Corregidor menuju Manila, memberikan kami gagasan bagaimana Spanyol di Filipina bergerak ke Tiongkok untuk pasokan pangan mereka. Kapal-kapal jung, atau “champan,” secara berkelanjutan melintasi Corregidor, membawa serta ayam, babi, beras, gula, dan barang lainnya. Galleon Meksiko seringkali dihancurkan atau direbut oleh armada Belanda. pada suatu waktu, rute Selat San Bernadino telah ditinggalkan, galleon-galleon mencapai Manila lewat jalan Tanjung Engano, atau terkadang mendarat di Cagayan, dan lebih dari sekali bergerak ke pesisir sisi Pasifik dari pulau tersebut, di Binangonan de Lampon. Belanda di Formosa.—Belanda juga membuat upaya berulang untuk merangseki pemukiman dan perdagangan Portugal di Tiongkok. Pada awal 1557, Portugis mendirikan pemukiman di pulau Makau, salah satu dari sejumlah islet yang melingkupi wilayah sungai Kanton. Ini adalah pemukiman Eropa tertua di Tiongkok dan terus menerus dikuasai oleh Portugis sampai saat ini, kala tempat tersebut nyaris menjadi persinggahan terakhir yang sempat dipegang kekaisaran Portugis di Timur. Tempat tersebut sebagian besar dirangseki oleh Belanda karena pengaruhnya dalam perdagangan dengan Kanton dan Fukien. Pada 1622, armada dari Jawa bergerak mengepung Makau, dan, dipukul mundur, berlayar ke Kepulauan Pescadores, tempat mereka membangun benteng dan pos, yang mengancam perdagangan Portugis dengan Jepang dan perdagangan Manila dengan Amoy. Dua tahun kemudian, kala pemadatan pemerintah Tiongkok, Belanda melepaskan pemukiman mereka ke Formosa, tempat mereka memecah stasiun-stasiun misi Spanyol dan memegang pulau tersebut selama tiga puluh lima tahun berturut-turut. Kemudian, sepanjang seabad, kekuatan Eropa bertikai dan menyerbu satu sama lain, namun tak ada satupun dari mereka yang kuat untuk mengusir pihak lainnya dari Timur. Koloni-koloni Portugis.—Pada 1640, kerajaan Portugal membebaskan dirinya dari kekuasaan Spanyol. Dengan ledakan yang sama, Spanyol kehilangan wilayah kolonial besar yang datang padanya dengan perhatian Portugis. “Seluruh tempat,” ujar Zuñiga, “yang dimiliki oleh Portugis di Hindia, memisahkan diri mereka sendiri dari takhta Kastilia dan diakui sebagai raja, Don Juan dari Portugal.” “Pada tahun yang sama,” tambahnya, “Belanda merebut Malaka.” Moro.—Peningkatan Pembajakan Moro.—Pada sepanjang tahun tersebut, penyerbuan Moro dari Maguindanao dan Jolo tak pernah berhenti. Pembajakan mereka nyaris berlanjut. Tidak ada keamanan; gereja-gereja dijarah, para imam dibunuh, masyarakat terjauhkan dari ransum atau perbudakan. Mendadak, pembajakan hanya dapat dipertemukan dengan penghancurannya pada sumbernya. Benteng pertahanan dan armada perlidnungan tak berdampak, kala dibandingkan dengan kebutuhan penundukan Moro di genggamannya sendiri. Pada 1628 dan 1630, penjelajahan punitif dikirim melawan Jolo, Basilan, dan Mindanao, yang mengerahkan Moro dari benteng mereka, membakar kota mereka, dan memotong sejumlah pohon kelapa mereka. Namun, penjalajahan semacam itu hanya dijadikan bara pembalasan yang lebih berkobar dari Moro. Pada 1635, pemerintah memutuskan dakwaan kebijakan dan pendirian presidio di Zamboanga. Pendirian Pos Spanyol di Zamboanga.—Ini mengirimkan kami pada fase baru dalam perang Moro. Sang gubernur, Juan Cerezo de Salamanca, memutuskan untuk menaklukan dan menduduki Mindanao dan Jolo. Dalam mengambil langkah tersebut, Salamanca, seperti Corcuera, yang menggantikannya, bertindak di bawah pengaruh Yesuit. Misi mereka di Bohol dan Mindanao utara membuat mereka menjadi ambisius untuk mengadakan pelayanan terhadap masyarakat mereka di seluruh lahan yang ditaklukan dan diduduki, selatan Bisayas. Yesuit menjadi misionaris di Ternate dan Siao. Di Maluku dan Sulawesi, Sapnyol dan Portugis telah mendirikan kekuatan mereka. Yesuit menyertai penjelajahan Rodriguez de Figueroa pada 1595. Dari saat itu, mereka tak pernah berhenti mengajukan petisi kepada pemerintah untuk pendudukan militer kepulauan tersebut dan sebagai balasannya, mereka mengirim misionaris ke kawasan tersebut. Yesuit menjadi administrator yang handal dan brilian. Bagi sosok ambisi mereka, Mindanao, dengan produksi atraktif dari tanahnya yang kaya, dan sejumlah masyarakat, menjadi lahan paling subur untuk pendirian persemakmuran teokratik semacam itu sebagaimana yang dibuat dan diurus oleh Yesuit di Amerika. Di sisi lain, pendudukan Zamboanga sangat ditentang oelh ordo keagamaan lainnya. Namun Yesuit, yang dikenal karena kenaikan mereka dalam urusan negara, dapat mendampaki pendirian Zamboanga, meskipun mereka tak dapat mencegah pembubarannya serempat abad kemudian. Erection of the Forts.—The presidio was founded in 1635, by a force under Don Juan de Chaves. His army consisted of three hundred Spaniards and one thousand Bisaya, The end of the peninsula was swept of Moro inhabitants and their towns destroyed by fire. In June the foundations of the stone fort were laid under the direction of the Jesuit, Father Vera, who is described as being experienced in military engineering and architecture. To supply the new site with water, a ditch was built from the river Tumaga, a distance of six or seven miles, which brought a copious stream to the very walls of the fort. The advantage or failure of this expensive fortress is very hard to determine. Its planting was a partisan measure, and it was always subject to partisan praise and partisan blame. Sometimes it seemed to have checked the Moros and sometimes seemed only to be stirring them to fresh anger and aggression. The same year that saw the establishment of Zamboanga, Hortado de Corcuera became governor of the Philippines. He was much under the influence of the Jesuits and confirmed their policy of conquest. Defeat of the Moro Pirate Tagal.—A few months later a notable fleet of pirates, recruited from Mindanao, Jolo, and Borneo, and headed by a chieftain named Tagal, a brother of the notorious Correlat, sultan of Maguindanao, went defiantly past the new presidio and northward through the Mindoro Sea. For more than seven months they cruised the Bisayas. The islands of the Camarines especially felt their ravages. In Cuyo they captured the corregidor and three friars. Finally, with [198]650 captives and rich booty, including the ornaments and services of churches, Tagal turned southward on his return. The presidio of Zamboanga had prepared to intercept him and a fierce battle took place off the Punta de Flechas, thirty leagues to the northeast of Zamboanga. According to the Spanish writers, this point was one held sacred by Moro superstitions. A deity inhabited these waters, whom the Moros were accustomed to propitiate on the departure and arrival of their expeditions, by throwing into the sea lances and arrows. The victory was a notable one for the Spanish arms. Tagal and more than 300 Moros were killed, and 120 Christian captives were released. Moro Helmet and Coat of Mail. Corcuera’s Expedition against the Moros at Lamítan.—Corcuera had meanwhile been preparing an expedition, [199]which had taken on the character of a holy war. Jesuit and soldier mingled in its company and united in its direction. The Jesuit saint, Francis Xavier, was proclaimed patron of the expedition, and mass was celebrated daily on the ships. Corcuera himself accompanied the expedition, and at Zamboanga, where they arrived February 22, 1637, he united a force of 760 Spaniards and many Bisayans and Pampangas. Moro Sword and Scabbard. From Zamboanga the force started for Lamítan, the stronghold of Correlat, and the center of the power of the Maguindanao. It seems to have been situated on the coast, south of the region of Lake Lanao. The fleet encountered rough weather and contrary winds off Punta de Flechas, which they attributed to the influence of the Moro demon. To rid the locality of this unholy influence, Padre Marcello, the Jesuit superior, occupied himself for two days. Padre Combés has left us an account of the ceremony.8 The demon was dispossessed by exorcism. Mass was celebrated. Various articles, representing Moro infidelity, [200]including arrows, were destroyed and burnt. Holy relics were thrown into the waters, and the place was finally sanctified by baptism in the name of Saint Sebastian. Sulu Barong and Sheath. Moro Spear. On the 14th of March the expedition reached Lamítan, fortified and defended by two thousand Moro warriors. The Spanish force, however, was overwhelming, and the city was taken by storm. Here were captured eight bronze cannon, twenty-seven “versos” (a kind of small howitzer), and over a hundred muskets and arquebuses and a great store of Moro weapons. Over one hundred vessels were destroyed, including a fleet of Malay merchant praos from Java. Sixteen villages were burned, [201]and seventy-two Moros were hung. Correlat, though pursued and wounded, was not captured.9 Old Moro Sailing Boat. The Conquest of Jolo.—Corcuera returned to Zamboanga and organized an expedition for the conquest of Jolo. Although defended by four thousand Moro warriors and by allies from Basílan and the Celebes, Corcuera took Jolo after some months of siege. The sultan saved himself by flight, but the sultana was taken prisoner. Corcuera reconstructed the fort, established a garrison of two hundred Spaniards and an equal number of Pampangas, left some Jesuit fathers, and, having nominated [202]Major Almonte chief of all the forces in the south, returned in May, 1638, to Manila, with all the triumph of a conqueror. Almonte continued the work of subjugation. In 1639 he conquered the Moro dato of Buhayen, in the valley of the Rio Grande, where a small presidio was founded. And in the same year the Jesuits prevailed upon him to invade the territory of the Malanao, now known as the Laguna de Lanao. This expedition was made from the north through Iligan, and for a time brought even this warlike and difficult territory under the authority of the governor and the spiritual administration of the Jesuits. Loss of the Spanish Settlement on Formosa.—The full military success of Corcuera’s governorship was marred by the loss of Macao and the capture of the Spanish settlement on the island of Formosa by the Dutch. In the attempt to hold Macao, Corcuera sent over the encomendero of Pasig, Don Juan Claudio. The populace of Macao, however, rose in tumult, assassinated the governor, Sebastian Lobo, and pronounced in favor of Portugal. Later, by decree of the Portuguese governor of Goa, all the Spanish residents and missionaries were expelled. The Dutch seizure of Formosa, a year later, has already been described. The Archipelago and the Religious Orders.—During these decades, conflict was almost incessant between the archbishop of Manila and the regular orders. In the Philippines the regulars were the parish curates, and the archbishop desired that all matters of their curacy, touching the administration of the sacraments and other parish duties, should be subject to the direction of the bishops. This question of the “diocesan visit” was fought over for nearly two hundred years.[203] The Governor and the Archbishop.—Even more serious to the colony were the conflicts that raged between the governor-general and the archbishop. All the points of dissension between Church and State, which vexed the Middle Ages, broke out afresh in the Philippines. The appointment of religious officers; the distribution of revenue; the treatment of the natives; the claim of the church to offer asylum to those fleeing the arm of the law; its claims of jurisdiction, in its ecclesiastical courts, over a large class of civil offenses—these disputes and many others, occasioned almost incessant discord between the heads of civil and ecclesiastical authority. The “Residencia.”—We have seen that the power of the governor was in fact very large. Theoretically, the Audiencia was a limit upon his authority; but in fact the governor was usually the president of this body, and the oidores were frequently his abettors and rarely his opponents. At the end of each governor’s rule there took place a characteristic Spanish institution, called the “Residencia.” This was a court held by the newly elected governor, for an examination into the conduct of his predecessor. Complaints of every description were received, and often, in the history of the Philippines, one who had ruled the archipelago almost as an independent monarch found himself, at the end of his office, ruined, and in chains. It was upon the occasion of the Residencia that the ecclesiastical powers, after a governorship stormy with disputes, exercised their power for revenge. Unquestionably many a governor, despite his actual power, facing, as he did, the Residencia at the termination of his rule, made peace with his enemies and yielded to their demands.[204] Corcuera had continuous troubles with the archbishop and with the religious orders other than the Jesuits. In 1644, when his successor, Fajardo, relieved him, the Franciscans, Augustinians, and Recollects procured his imprisonment and the confiscation of his property. For five years, the conqueror of the Moros lay a prisoner in the fortresses of Santiago and Cavite, when he was pardoned by the Council of the Indies, and appointed governor of the Canaries by the king. Weakening of the Governor’s Power.—This power of private and religious classes to intimidate and overawe the responsible head of the Philippine government was an abuse which continued to the very close of the Spanish rule. This, together with the relatively short term of the governor’s office, his natural desire to avoid trouble, his all too frequent purpose of amassing a fortune rather than maintaining the dignity of his position and advancing the interests of the Islands, combined decade after decade to make the spiritual authority more powerful. In the end the religious orders, with their great body of members, their hold upon the Filipinos, their high influence at the court, and finally their great landed wealth, governed the Islands. The Educational Work of the Religious Orders.—In any criticism of the evils connected with their administration of the Philippines, one must not fail to recognize the many achievements of the missionary friars that were worthy. To the Dominicans and the Jesuits is due the establishment of institutions of learning. The Jesuits in 1601 had planted their College of San José. The Dominicans, here as in Europe, the champions of orthodox learning, had their own institution, the College of Santo Tomas, inaugurated in 1619, and were the rivals of the Jesuits for the privilege of giving higher instruction.[205] In 1645 the pope granted to the Dominicans the right to bestow higher degrees, and their college became the “Royal and Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas.” This splendid name breathes that very spirit of the Middle Ages which the Dominican order strove to perpetuate in the Philippines down to modern days.10 Dominicans also founded the College of San Juan de Letran, as a preparatory school to the University. We should not pass over the educational work of the religious orders without mention of the early printing-plants and their publications. The missionary friars were famous printers, and in the Philippines, as well as in America, some noble volumes were produced by their handicraft. Founding of Hospitals by the Franciscans.—Nor had the Franciscans in the Philippines neglected the fundamental purpose of their foundation,—that of ministration to the sick and unprotected. A narrative of their order, written in 1649, gives a long list of their beneficent foundations.11 Besides the hospital of Manila, they had an infirmary at Cavite for the native mariners and shipbuilders, a hospital at Los Baños, another in the city of Nueva Caceras. Lay brethren were attached to many of the convents as nurses. In 1633 a curious occurrence led to the founding of the leper hospital of San Lazaro. The emperor of Japan, in a probably ironical mood, sent to Manila a shipload of Japanese afflicted with this unfortunate disease. These people were mercifully received by the Franciscans, and [206]cared for in a home, which became the San Lazaro hospital for lepers. Life and Progress of the Filipinos.—Few sources exist that can show us the life and progress of the Filipino people during these decades. Christianity, as introduced by the missionary friars, was wonderfully successful, and yet there were relapses into heathenism. Old religious leaders and priestesses roused up from time to time, and incited the natives to rebellion against their new spiritual masters. The payment of tribute and the labor required for the building of churches often drove the people into the mountains. Religious Revolt at Bohol and Leyte.—In 1621 a somewhat serious revolt took place on Bohol. The Jesuits who administered the island were absent in Cebu, attending the fiestas on the canonization of Saint Francis Xavier. The whisper was raised that the old heathen deity, Diwata, was at hand to assist in the expulsion of the Spaniards. The island rose in revolt, except the two towns of Loboc and Baclayan. Four towns were burned, the churches sacked, and the sacred images speared. The revolt spread to Leyte, where it was headed by the old dato, Bancao of Limasaua, who had sworn friendship with Legaspi. This insurrection was put down by the alcalde mayor of Cebu and the Filipino leaders were hung. On Leyte, Bancao was speared in battle, and one of the heathen priests suffered the penalty, prescribed by the Inquisition for heresy—death by burning. Revolt of the Pampangas.—The heavy drafting of natives to fell trees and build the ships for the Spanish naval expeditions and the Acapulco trade was also a cause for insurrection. In 1660 a thousand Pampangas were kept cutting in the forests of that province alone. [207]Sullen at their heavy labor and at the harshness of their overseers, these natives rose in revolt. The sedition spread to Pangasinan, Zambales, and Ilocos, and it required the utmost efforts of the Spanish forces on land and water to suppress the rebellion. Uprising of the Chinese.—In spite of the terrible massacre, that had been visited upon the Chinese at the beginning of the century, they had almost immediately commenced returning not only as merchants, but as colonists. The early restrictions upon their life must have been relaxed, for in 1639 there were more than thirty thousand living in the Islands, many of them cultivating lands at Calamba and at other points on the Laguna de Bay. In that year a rebellion broke out, in which the Chinese in Manila participated. They seized the church of San Pedro Mecati, on the Pasig, and fortified themselves. From there they were routed by a combined Filipino and Spanish force. The Chinese then broke up into small bands, which scattered through the country, looting and murdering, but being pursued and cut to pieces by the Filipinos. For five months this pillage and massacre went on, until seven thousand Chinese were destroyed. By the loss of these agriculturists and laborers Manila was reduced to great distress. Activity of the Moro Pirates.—The task of the Spaniards in controlling the Moro datos continued to be immensely difficult. During the years following the successes of Corcuera and Almonte, the Moros were continually plotting. Aid was furnished from Borneo and the Celebes, and they were further incited by the Dutch. In spite of the vigilance of Zamboanga, small piratical excursions continually harassed the Bisayas and the Camarines.[208] Continued Conflicts with the Dutch.—The Dutch, too, from time to time showed themselves in Manila. In 1646 a squadron attacked Zamboanga, and then came north to Luzon. The Spanish naval strength was quite unprepared; but two galleons, lately arrived from Acapulco, were fitted with heavy guns, Dominican friars took their places among the gunners, and, under the protection of the Virgin of the Rosary, successfully encountered the enemy. A year later a fleet of twelve vessels entered Manila Bay, and nearly succeeded in taking Cavite. Failing in this, they landed in Bataan province, and for some time held the coast of Manila Bay in the vicinity of Abucay. The narrative of Franciscan missions in 1649, above cited, gives town after town in southern Luzon, where church and convent had been burned by the Moros or the Dutch. The Abandonment of Zamboanga and the Moluccas.—The threat of the Dutch made the maintenance of the presidio of Zamboanga very burdensome. In 1656 the administration of the Moluccas was united with that of Mindanao, and the governor of the former, Don Francisco de Esteybar, was transferred from Ternate to Zamboanga and made lieutenant-governor and captain-general of all the provinces of the south. Six years later, the Moluccas, so long coveted by the Spaniards, and so slowly won by them, together with Zamboanga, were wholly abandoned, and to the Spice Islands the Spaniards were never to return. This sudden retirement from their southern possessions was not, however, occasioned by the incessant restlessness of the Moros nor by the plottings of the Dutch. It was due to a threat of danger from the north. Koxinga the Chinese Adventurer.—In 1644, China was conquered by the Manchus. Pekin capitulated at [209]once and the Ming dynasty was overthrown, but it was only by many years of fighting that the Manchus overcame the Chinese of the central and southern provinces. These were years of turbulence, revolt, and piracy. More than one Chinese adventurer rose to a romantic position during this disturbed time. One of these adventurers, named It Coan, had been a poor fisherman of Chio. He had lived in Macao, where he had been converted to Christianity, and had been a cargador, or cargo-bearer, in Manila. He afterwards went to Japan, and engaged in trade. From these humble and laborious beginnings, like many another of his persistent countrymen, he gained great wealth, which on the conquest of the Manchus he devoted to piracy. His son was the notorious Kue-Sing, or Koxinga, who for years resisted the armies of the Manchus, and maintained an independent power over the coasts of Fukien and Chekiang. About 1660 the forces of the Manchus became too formidable for him to longer resist them upon the mainland, and Koxinga determined upon the capture of Formosa and the transference of his kingdom to that island. For thirty-eight years this island had been dominated by the Dutch, whose fortresses commanded the channel of the Pescadores. The colony was regarded as an important one by the Dutch colonial government at Batavia. The city of Tai-wan, on the west coast, was a considerable center of trade. It was strongly protected by the fortress of Zealand, and had a garrison of twenty-two hundred Dutch soldiers. After months of fighting, Koxinga, with an overpowering force of Chinese, compelled the surrender of the Hollanders and the beautiful island passed into his power.[210] A Threatened Invasion of the Philippines.—Exalted by his success against European arms, Koxinga resolved upon the conquest of the Philippines. He summoned to his service the Italian Dominican missionary, Ricci, who had been living in the province of Fukien, and in the spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago. Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this demand, and indeed no such danger had threatened the Spanish in the Philippines since the invasion of Limahong. The Chinese conqueror had an innumerable army, and his armament, stores, and navy had been greatly augmented by the surrender of the Dutch. The Spaniards, however, were united on resistance. The governor, Don Sabiano Manrique de Lara, returned a defiant answer to Koxinga, and the most radical measures were adopted to place the colony in a state of defense. All Chinese were ordered immediately to leave the Islands. Fearful of massacre, these wretched people again broke out in rebellion, and assaulted the city. Many were slain, and other bands wandered off into the mountains, where they perished at the hands of the natives. Others, escaping by frail boats, joined the Chinese colonists on Formosa. Churches and convents in the suburbs of Manila, which might afford shelter to the assailant, were razed to the ground. More than all this, the Moluccas were forsaken, never again to be recovered by Spaniards; and the presidios of Zamboanga and Cuyo, which served as a kind of bridle on the Moros of Jolo and Mindanao, were abandoned. All Spanish troops were concentrated in Manila, fortifications were rebuilt, and the population waited anxiously for the attack. But the blow never fell. [211]Before Ricci arrived at Tai-wan, Koxinga was dead, and the peril of Chinese invasion had passed. Effects of These Events.—But the Philippines had suffered irretrievable loss. Spanish prestige was gone. Manila was no longer, as she had been at the commencement of the century, the capital of the East. Spanish sovereignty was again confined to Luzon and the Bisayas. The Chinese trade, on which rested the economic prosperity of Manila, had once again been ruined. For a hundred years the history of the Philippines is a dull monotony, quite unrelieved by any heroic activity or the presence of noble character. h30tsmj4wxpr9snwbd4fbstfr52mhkw