Wikipedia swwiki https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwanzo MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.2 first-letter Media Maalum Majadiliano Mtumiaji Majadiliano ya mtumiaji Wikipedia Majadiliano ya Wikipedia Faili Majadiliano ya faili MediaWiki Majadiliano ya MediaWiki Kigezo Majadiliano ya kigezo Msaada Majadiliano ya msaada Jamii Majadiliano ya jamii Lango Majadiliano ya lango Wikichanzo Majadiliano ya Wikichanzo TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 72 1361781 1351560 2024-11-08T10:47:03Z ~2024-9333 71005 Law 1361781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} [[Picha:JMR-Memphis1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Mwanamke wa Haki]] ni ishara ya idara ya sheria.<ref>Hamilton, Marci. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Ox4_vqFCjcEC&pg=PA296&dq=%22lady+justice%22+symbol&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=uXb8Se-IC4GuyATlm5SPBg God vs. the Gavel]'', page 296 (Cambridge University Press 2005): “The symbol of the judicial system, seen in courtrooms throughout the United States, is blindfolded Lady Justice.”</ref><ref>Fabri, Marco. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=AwwH0F8iC9QC&pg=PA137&dq=%22lady+justice%22+symbol&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=uXb8Se-IC4GuyATlm5SPBg The challenge of change for judicial systems]'', page 137 (IOS Press 2000): “the judicial system is intended to be apolitical, its symbol being that of a blindfolded Lady Justice holding balanced scales.”</ref> [[Haki]] inaonyeshwa kama [[mungu jike]] ambaye anabeba ishara [[tatu]] za [[utawala wa kisheria]]: [[upanga]] unaoashiria nguvu ya mahakama; [[mizani]] zinazoashiria upimaji wa madai yanayoshindana; na [[kitambaa]] kinachofunika macho kuashiria kutofanya upendeleo.<ref>Luban, ''Law's Blindfold'', 23</ref>]] '''Sheria(LAW)''' (kutoka [[neno]] la [[Kiarabu]]; kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''law'' <ref>from [[Old English]] ''lagu'' "Words of Mel"; ''legal'' comes from [[Latin]] ''legalis'', from ''[[Translating "law" to other European languages|lex]]'' "law", "statute" ([http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none Law], Online Etymology Dictionary; [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legal Legal], Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary)</ref>) ni [[mfumo]] wa [[kanuni]], ambazo kwa kawaida hutekelezwa kupitia seti ya [[taasisi]] maalumu.<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90; see "[[analytical jurisprudence]]" for extensive debate on what law is; in ''[[The Concept of Law]]'' Hart argued law is a "system of rules" (Campbell, ''The Contribution of Legal Studies'', 184); Austin said law was "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction" (Bix, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/#3 John Austin]); Dworkin describes law as an "interpretive concept" to achieve [[justice]] (Dworkin, ''Law's Empire'', 410); and Raz argues law is an "authority" to mediate people's interests (Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 3–36).</ref> Inaunda [[siasa]], [[uchumi]] na [[jamii]] kwa njia mbalimbali na huratibu mahusiano baina ya [[watu]]. [[Sheria ya mkataba]] huongoza kila kitu, kuanzia kununua [[tiketi]] ya [[basi]] hadi [[biashara]] katika [[Soko|masoko]]. [[Sheria ya mali]] inafafanua [[haki]] na [[wajibu]] unaohusiana na uhamisho wa jina la mali ya binafsi na [[mali ya kweli]]. [[Sheria ya hifadhi]] inatumika kwa mali yanayotumika kwa uwekezaji na usalama wa kifedha, huku [[sheria ya kukiuka wajibu]] inaruhusu madai ya [[fidia]] ikiwa haki au mali za mtu zinafanyiwa madhara. Ikiwa madhara ni kinyume cha sheria, [[sheria ya jinai]] inatoa mbinu zinazoweza kutumiwa na [[taifa]] ili kumshtaki mhusika. [[Sheria ya kikatiba]] inatoa utaratibu wa utungaji wa sheria, ulinzi wa [[haki za kibinadamu]] na [[uchaguzi]] wa wawakilishi wa kisiasa. [[Sheria ya utawala]] inatumika kuangalia upya maamuzi ya [[vyombo vya serikali]], huku [[sheria ya kimataifa]] inatawala shughuli baina ya [[nchi]] huru zinazohusu mambo kama vile [[biashara]], vikwazo vya kimazingira na hatua za [[Jeshi|kijeshi]]. Akiandika mnamo [[350 K.K.]], [[mwanafalsafa]] wa [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[Aristotle]] alisema, "[[Utawala wa sheria]] ni bora kuliko utawala wa mtu yeyote binafsi."<ref>"it is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens: upon the same principle, if it is advantageous to place the supreme power in some particular persons, they should be appointed to be only guardians, and the servants of the laws." (Aristotle, ''Politics'' [[s:Politics (Aristotle)/Book 3#3:16|3.16]]).</ref> Mifumo ya sheria inaelezea [[haki]] na majukumu kwa njia mbalimbali. Tofauti ya jumla inaweza kufanywa kati ya maeneo yanayotawaliwa na [[mfumo wa sheria ya kiraia]], ambayo huandika sheria zao, na yale yanayofuata [[sheria za kawaida]], ambapo sheria haijaundwa kwa utaratibu maalumu. Katika baadhi ya nchi, [[sheria ya dini]] bado hutumika kama sheria maalum. Sheria ni chanzo kikuu cha uchunguzi wa kitaalam, wa [[historia ya sheria]], [[falsafa ya sheria]], [[uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria]] au [[somo la kijamii kuhusu sheria]]. Sheria pia huibua masuala muhimu na magumu kuhusu [[usawa]], [[uadilifu]] na [[haki]]. "Katika usawa wake wa ajabu", alisema mwandishi [[Anatole France]] mnamo mwaka [[1894]], "sheria inakataza matajiri na mafukura kulala chini ya madaraja, kuombaomba barabarani na kuiba mikate."<ref>The original French is: "La loi, dans un grand souci d'égalité, interdit aux riches comme aux pauvres de coucher sous les ponts, de mendier dans les rues et de voler du pain" (France, ''The Red Lily'', [http://www.online-literature.com/anatole-france/red-lily/8/ Chapter VII]).</ref> Katika [[demokrasia]] ya kawaida, taasisi za msingi za kutafsiri na kuunda sheria ni matawi matatu makuu ya [[utawala]], ambayo ni [[mahakama]] isiyo na upendeleo, [[bunge]] na [[serikali]] yenye kuwajibika. Ili kutekeleza na kutumia nguvu za kufanya sheria ifuatwe na kutoa huduma kwa umma, urasimu wa serikali, [[jeshi]] na [[polisi]] ni muhimu. Vyombo hivyo vyote vya dola viliundwa na kutawaliwa na sheria, [[taaluma ya kisheria]] iliyo huru na [[jamii]] yenye bidii zinajulisha na kusaidia maendeleo. == Masomo ya sheria == Mifumo yote ya kisheria inahusu na masuala ya msingi, lakini kila taifa inaainisha na kubainisha masomo yake ya kisheria kwa njia mbalimbali. Tofauti ya kawaida ni kuwa "[[sheria ya umma]]" (maneno yanayohusika kwa karibu na [[taifa]], na kuhusisha sheria ya kikatiba, kitawala na ya jinai), na "[[sheria ya kibinafsi]]" (inayohusisha mkataba, [[sheria ya kukiuka wajibu]] na mali).<ref>Although many scholars argue that "the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred", and that this distinction has become mere "folklore" (Bergkamp, ''Liability and Environment'', 1–2).</ref> Katikamifumo ya [[sheria ya kirai(mfumo wa sheria)|sheria ya kirai]] , mkataba na kukiuka wajibu zinapatikana chini ya [[sheria ya majukumu]] huku sheria ya hifadhi inapatikana chini ya serkali za halali au [[Mkataba wa Hague wa Sheria inayotumika kwa Hifadhi na kwa jinsi ya Kuzijua|mikataba ya kimataifa]]. Sheria ya Kimataifa, kikatiba, kitawala, jinai, mkataba, kukiuka wajibu na mali na [[sheria ya hifadhi|hifadhi]] zinatambulika kama "masomo msingi ya jadi",<ref>E.g. in England these seven subjects, with EU law substituted for international law, make up a "qualifying law degree". For criticism, see [[Peter Birks]]' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the [http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/articles1/birks1.html#appendix Notice to Law Schools].</ref> ingawa kuna [[Sheria#Masomo zaidi|masomo zaidi]] ambayo yanaweza kuwa na umuhimu mkubwa zaidi wa kiutendaji. === Sheria ya Kimataifa === {{Main|Sheria ya umma ya kimataifa|Mgongano wa sheria|Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya}} [[Picha:Naciones Unidas 3.jpg|right|thumb|Ikitoa katiba ya sheria ya kimataifa ya umaa, mfumo wa [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] ulikubaliwa wakati wa [[Vita Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia]]]] Sheria ya kimataifa inaweza kuashiria mambo matatu: sheria ya umma ya kimataifa, sheria ya kibinafsi ya kimataifa au mgongano wa sheria na sheria ya mashirika makubwa ya kimataifa. * '''[[Sheria ya Umma ya Kimataifa]]''' inajihusisha na uhusiano kati ya mataifa uhuru. [[Vyanzo vya sheria ya kimataifa|Vyanzo]] vya maendeleo ya sheria ya umma ya kimataifa ni [[Desturi(sheria)|desturi]], mwenendo na mikataba kati ya nchi huru [[Mikataba ya Geneva]]. Sheria ya umma ya kimataifa inaweza kutengezwa na [[mashirika ya kimataifa]], kama vile [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] (ambao ilianzishwa baada ya kushindwa kwa [[Shirikisho la Kimataifa]] kuzuia [[Vita vya Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia]]),<ref>[http://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm History of the UN], United Nations. [[Winston Churchill]] (''The Hinge of Fate'', 719) comments on the League of Nations' failure: "It was wrong to say that the League failed. It was rather the member states who had failed the League."</ref> [[Shirika la Kimataifa la Ajira]], [[Shirika la Kimataifa la Biashara]], au [[Shirika la Fedha la Kimataifa]]. Sheria ya kimatifa ya umma ina hadhi maalum kama sheria kwa sababu hakuna kikozi cha kimataifa cha polisi, na mahakama (kama vile [[Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Haki]] kama tawi la kimsingi la Umoja wa Mataifa la mahakama) halina uwezo wa kuadhibu kutokutii.<ref>The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially "self help"; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states (Robertson, ''Crimes against Humanity'', 90; Schermers-Blokker, ''International Institutional Law'', 900–901).</ref> Hata hivyo, miili michache, kama vile WTO, ina mifumo yenye ufanisi ya utatuzi wa kudumu na utatuzi wa mogogoro inayoambatana na vikwazo vya kibiashara.<ref>Petersmann, ''The GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement System'', 32</ref> * '''[[Mgongano wa sheria]]''' (au "sheria ya kibinafsi ya kimataifa" katika nchi za [[sheria ya kiraia]]) unahusisha [[maeneo ya kimamlaka ya kisheria]] ya mgogoro wa kisheria baina ya watu wa kibinafsi unafaa kusikizwa na sheria za maeneo gani ya kimamlaka ya kisheria ndiyo inayofaa kutumika. Leo, biashra zinazidi kuwa na uwezo wa kusongeza minyororo ya ugavi ya [[mtaji]] na [[ajira]] kuvuka mipaka, na pia kufanya biashara na kampuni za nchi za ng'ambo, hivyo kulifanya swali kuhusu nchi ipi ndiyo inayomamlaka ya kisheria kuwa muhimu zaidi. Idadi kubwa zaidi ya biashara zinachagua usuluhishi wa kibiashara chini ya [[Tuzo la Mkataba wa Utambuzi na Utendaji wa Masuluhisho ya Kimataifa|Mkataba wa New York wa mnamo mwaka1958]].<ref>Redfem, ''International Commercial Arbitration'', 68–69</ref> * '''[[Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya]]''' ndiyo ya kwanza, kufikia sasa, ambayo ni mfano wa [[sheria kuu ya kimataifa]]. Kutokana na mwenendo wa kuongezeka kwa ushirikiano wa kiuchumi Duniani, mikataba mingi ya kikanda — hasa ya [[Umoja wa Nchi za Amerika Kusini]] — zimeanza kuufuata mfano kama huu. Katika Umoja wa Ulaya, nchi huru zimekusanya mamlaka yao katika mfumo wa mahakama na [[Bunge la Ulaya|taasisi za kisiasa]]. Taasisi hizi zinapewa uwezo wa kutekeleza kanuni za kisheria dhidi ya au kwa nchi wanachama na raia katika namna ambayo haiwezekani kupitia sheria ya umma ya kimataifa.<ref>Schermers–Blokker, ''International Institutional Law'', 943</ref> Kama [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki]] yalivyosema katika miaka ya 1960, sheria ya Umoja wa Umoja wa Ulaya hujumiusha "muundo mpya wa sheria ya kimataifa" kwa ajili ya faida inayotegemeana ya kijamii na kiuchumi wa nchi zote wanachama.<ref>See the [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:HTML C-26/62 ''Van Gend en Loos v Nederlanse Administratie Der Belastingen''], and [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61964J0006:EN:HTML ''Flaminio Costa v E.N.E.L.''] decisions of the European Court.</ref> === Sheria ya kikatiba na ya kiutawala === {{Main|Sheria ya kikatiba|Sheria ya kiutawala}} [[Picha:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|[[Azimio la Haki za Kibinadamu na za Raia]], ambalo kanuni zake bado zini thamani ya kikatiba]] Sheria ya kikatiba na kiutawala zinasimamia mambo ya nchi. [[Sheria ya kikatiba]] inahusisha uhusiano baina ya serikali, bunge na mahakama na [[haki za kibinadamu]] au [[uhuru wa kiraia]] wa watu binafsi dhidi ya nchi. Maeneo mengi ya kisheria, kama vile [[Sheria ya Marekani|Marekani]] na [[Sheria ya Ufaransa|Ufaransa]], zina katiba moja iliyoandikwa kwa makini, iliyo na [[Muswada wa Haki]]. Katiba chache kama vile [[Sheria la Uingereza|Uingereza]], hazina hati kama hiyo."Katiba" kwa ufupi ni zile sheria ambazo zinajumuisha [[mwili wa kisiasa]], kutoka [[kanuni]], [[sheria za uamuzi]] na [[Mkataba wa kikatiba(utamaduni wa kisiasa)|mkataba]]. Kesi kwa jina ''[[Entick dhidi ya Carrington]]''<ref>''[[Entick v Carrington]]'' (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030; [1765] [http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1765/J98.html 95 ER 807]</ref> ilionyesha wazi kanuni ya kikatiba inayotokana na sheria ya kawaifa. Nyumba ya Bwana Entick ilifanyiwa upekekuzi na Afisa mmoja wa polisi aliyeitwa Carrington. Wakati Bwana Entick alipolalamika mbele ya mahakama, Afisa Carrington alidokeza kwamba kibali kutoka waziri wa Serikali, [[George Montague-Dunk, ali wa pili wa Halifax|Ali wa Halifax]], kilikuwa na mamlaka halali. Hata hivyo, hakukuwa na sheria iliyoandikwa au mamlaka ya kimahakama ambayo yalitoa uwezo huo.Hakimu mkuu, [[Charles Pratt, Ali wa kwanza wa Camden|Bwana Camden]], alisema, <blockquote>Mwisho mkubwa, ambao ulifanya watu kuingia katika jamii, ilikuwa kupata mali. Haki hiyo imetunzwa na ni takatifu na haiwezi kuondolewa wakati wowote, ambapo haijaondolewa au kufupishwa na sheria fulani ya umma kwa manufaa ya wote...Hakuna sababau inayoweza kupatikana au kutolewa, kimya cha vitabu ni mamlaka dhidi ya mshtakiwa, na aliyeathiriwa lazima atendewe haki.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.constitution.org/trials/entick/entick_v_carrington.htm | title=Entick v Carrington | work=19 Howell’s State Trials 1029 (1765) | publisher=Constitution Society | location=[[Marekani|US]] | accessdate=2008-11-13}}</ref></blockquote> Kanuni ya kimsingi ya kikatiba, ilitokana na [[Citabu viwili mbili kuhusu Serikali|John Locke]], inadokeza ya kwamba mtu binafsi anaweza kufanya isipokuwa kile ambacho kimekataliwa kisheria.<ref>Locke, ''The Second Treatise'', [[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government#2:9|Chapter 9, section 124]]</ref><ref>Tamanaha, ''On the Rule of Law'', 47</ref> Sheria ya utawala ndiyo mbinu msingi ya kufanya mashirika ya umma yawajibike. Watu wanaweza kutumia [[mapitio ya kimahakama]] kwa matendo au uamuzi uliofanywa na za halmashauri za mitaa, huduma za umma au wizara za serikali, kuhakikisha kuwa zinazingatia sheria. Mahakama ya kwanza ya maalum ya kiutawala yalikuwa mahakama ya ''[[Council of State (France)|Conseil d'État]]'' yaliyoundwa mnamo mwaka wa 1799, wakati [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] alipochukua mamlaka nchini Ufaransa.<ref name="A75">Auby, ''Administrative Law in France'', 75</ref> === Sheria ya jinai === {{Main|Sheria ya jinai}} Sheria ya jinai, inayojulikana pia kama sheria ya kuadhibu, inahusisha makosa na adhabu.<ref>[[Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria|Cesare Beccaria]]'s seminal treatise of 1763–1764 is titled ''On Crimes and Punishments'' (''[[Dei delitti e delle pene]]'').</ref> Kwa hivyo inapima ufafanuzi wa adhabu ya makosa yaliyopatikana kuwa na madhara yanaonekana kuwa na uwezo wa kusababisha uharibifu lakini, kwa undani, haifanyi uamuzi wa kimaadili kumhusu mkosaji wala kuwekea jamii vikwazo ambavyo vinakataza watu kimwili wasifanye makoa mwanzoni.<ref name="W2">Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 2; Wilson, ''Criminal Law'', 2</ref> Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of [[criminal procedure]].<ref name="Br2">Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 2</ref> Kesi ya kidhana ya uhalifu inatokana na ushahidi, [[Mzigo wa Ushahidi|kuzidi shaka ya kuridhisha]], kuwa mtu ana hatia ya mambo mawili. Kwanza, mshtakiwa lazima awe amefanya kitendo ambacho kinatazamwa na jamii kuwa hatia, au ''[[actus reus]]'' (kitendo cha hatia).<ref>See e.g. Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 205 about ''[[Robinson v California]]'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962).</ref> Pili, lazima mshtakiwa awe na [[dhamira (jinai)|dhamira ya kufanya uharibifu]] ya kufanya kitendoo fulani cha jinai, au ''[[mens rea]]'' (akili ya hatia). Hata hivyo, kwa kile kinachojulikana kama hatia za "[[Dhima kali (jinai)|dhima kali]]", ''actus reus'' haitoshi.<ref>See e.g. Feinman, ''Law 111'', 260–261 about ''[[Powell v Texas]]'', 392 U.S. 514 (1968).</ref> Mifumo ya jinai ya utamaduni wa sheria ya raia zinatofautisha kati ya nia katika dhana pana (''dolus directus'' na ''dolus eventualis''), na uzembe. Uzembe hauna jukumu la jinai isipokuwa ambapo hatia fulani una adhabu yake maalum.<ref>Dörmann, Doswald-Beck and Kolb, ''Elements of War Crimes'', 491</ref><ref>Kaiser, ''Leistungsstörungen'', 333</ref> [[Picha:SalemWitchcraftTrial.jpg|thumb|left|Picha inayoonyesha [[kesi]] ya uhalifu, kwa sababu ya [[uchawi]] katika eneo la [[Kesi za wachawi za Salem|Salem]]]] Mifano ya uhalifu ni [[mauaji]], [[kushambulia]], [[udanganyifu]] na [[wizi]]. Katika mifano maalum utetezi unaweza kutumika kwa vitendo maalum, kama zile kuuwa ili [[nadharia ya utetezi wa kibinafsi|utetezi wa kibinafasi]], au katika nyakati maalum kujitetea kuwa [[utetezi wa wazimi|wazimu]]. Mfano mwingine ni katika kesi ya karne ya 19 ya ''[[Jamhuri dhidi ya Dudley na Stephens]]'', iliyopima utetezi wa "[[kimahitaji]]". Meli ya ''Mignonette'', iliyokuwa ikisafiri kutoka mji wa [[Southampton]] kuelekea mji wa [[Sydney]], ilizama. Wafanyikazi watatu wa meli hiyo na Richard Parker, kijana aliyekuwa na umri wa miaka 17, walibaki katika meli iliyoundwa na vijiti. Walikuwa na njaa na kijana yule alikuwa karibu kufa. Kwa sababu ya kuwa na njaa iliyokithiri, wafanyikazi hao walimuuwa kijana yule na kumla. Wafanyikazi hao waliokolewa, lakini wakafikishwa mahakamani huku wakiwa na hatia ya mauaji. Walijitetea kwa kusema kwamba ilihitajika kwa lazima kwa wao kumuuwa kijana yule ili kuyaokoa maisha yao. [[John Coleridge, Baroni wa Kwanza Coleridge|Bwana Coleridge]], akieleza kukataa kukubwa, aliamua, "kuhifadhi maisha ya kibinafsi ni, kwa kuzungumza kijumla, wajibu, lakini inaweza kuwa jukumu kuu kuyatoa maisha hayo kama kafara." Wanaume hao walihukumiwa [[kunyongwa|nyonga]], lakini maoni ya umma uliunga mkono haki ya wafanyikazi wale wa meli kuyaokoa maisha yao. Mwishowe, [[Ufalme]] ulipunguza hukumu zao hadi miezi sita gerezani.<ref>About ''[[R v Dudley and Stephens]]'' [1884] [http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html 14 QBD 273 DC] {{Wayback|url=http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html|date=20050228224504}}, see Simpson, ''Cannibalism and the Common Law'', 212–217, 229–237</ref> Makosa ya jinai yanatambulika si tu kama makosa dhidi ya waathirika binafsi, lakini jamii pia.<ref name="W2" /> Taifa, kawaida likisaidiwa na polisi, huongoza mashitaka, basi hiyo ndiyo sababu mbona katika nchi zenye sheria ya kawaida kesi hutajwa kama "''Watu'' dhidi ya..." au "''Jamhuri'' (kwa [[Ufalme|"Rex"]] au [[Malkia reginanti|Regina]]) dhidi ya..." Pia, [[jopo la waamuzi]] ambao hutokana na raia wa kawaida hutumika kuamua hatia ya washitakiwa kutokna na pointi zinazoweza kubainika ukweli: jopo la waamuzi haliwezi kubadilisha kanuni za kisheria. Baadhi ya nchi zilizostawi bado hutumia [[adhabu ya kifo]] kwa matendo ya jinai lakini adhabu ya kawaida ya uhalifu itakuwa ni [[gereza|kufungwa gereza]], [[faini]] usimamizi wa taifa (kama vile probesheni), au [[huduma ya kijamii]]. Sheria ya kisasa ya jinai imeathiriwa vilivyo na sayansi ya jamii, hasa kuhusu [[hukumu(sheria)|kuhukumu]], utafiti wa kisheria, kuunda sheria, na [[kuwasaidia wahalifu kurekesha mwenedo wao]].<ref>Pelser, ''Criminal Legislation'', 198</ref> Katika ngazi ya kimataifa, nchi 108 [[Mktaba wa Sheria ya Roma ya Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai|wanachama]] wa [[Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai]], ambayo ilianzishwa kuwahukumu watu kwa [[hatia dhidi ya ubinadamu]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040605155639/http://www.icc-cpi.int/statesparties.html The States Parties to the Rome Statute], International Criminal Court</ref> === Sheria ya mkataba === {{Main|Mkataba}} [[Picha:carbolic smoke ball co.jpg|thumb|Tangazo maarufu la kampuni ya Carbolic Smoke Ball lidai kuwa lingeweza kutibu [[homa]]. Mahakama yaliamua kuwa tangazo hilo lilikuwa [[mkataba wa mtu yeyote]]]] Sheria ya mkataba inahusu ahadi zinazowezwa kutendwa, na inaweza kuandikwa kwa ufupi katika maneno ya Kilatini''[[pacta sunt servanda]]'' (ahadi lazima zitimizwe).<ref>Wenberg, ''Pacta Sunt Servanda'', 775</ref> Katika maeneo ya kimamlaka ya sheria ya kawaida, vipengele vitatu muhimu kuhusu utengenezaji wa mkataba vinahitajika: [[kutoa na kukubali]], [[kutilia maanani]] na nia ya kutengeneza uhusiano wa kisheria.Katika kesi ya ''[[Carlill shisi ya Kampuni ya Carbolic Smoke Ball]]'' kampuni ya matibabu ilitangaza kuwa dawa yake mpya ya ajabu, smokeball, ingewatibu watu kutokana na mafua, na ikiwa haingefaulu kuwatibu, wanunuzi wangepata [[paundi za Kistaling'i|£]] 100. Watu wengi waliwasilisha kesi mahakamani ili wapate £100 zao wakati dawa hiyo iliposhindwa kuwatibu. Ikiogopa [[kufilisika]], Kampuni ya Carbolic ilijitetea kwa kusema kuwa tangazo lile lilikuwa mzaha tu, na kwa hivyo halikuwa toleo lenye nguvu za kisheria. Lilikuwa [[karibisho]], mchezo tu. Lakini mahakama ya rufaa yaliamua kuwa kwa [[mtu mwenye kufikiria kwa kawaida]] kampuni ya Carbolic ilikuwa imefanya toleo. Watu walikuwa wametoa kusudi la kununua bidhaa ile kwa kupitia "shida bayana" ya kutumia bidhaa yenye hitilafu. "Soma tangazo vile utakavyo, na ulibadilishe tangazo hilo vile utakavyo", alisema [[Nathaniel Lindley, Baroni Lindley|Hakimu Lindley]], "haa kuna ahadi maalum ilitajwa katika lugha isyokuwa na utata wowote".<ref name="CCSBCE">About ''[http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_r9321042.html Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company] {{Wayback|url=http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_r9321042.html|date=20041205104916}}'' [[Case citation|[1893] 1 QB 256]], and the element of consideration, see Beale and Tallon, ''Contract Law'', 142–143</ref> "Kutilia maanani" knaonyesha ukweli kwamba vyama vyote katika mkataba vimebadilisha kitu fulani chenye maana. Baadhi ya mifumo ya sheria ya kawaida, ikiwemo Australi, zinasonga mbali kutoka dhana ya kutilia maanani kama mojawapo ya mahitaji ya mkataba. Dhana ya "[[estoppel]]" au ''culpa in contrahendo'', inaweza kutumika kuunda wajibu wakati mazungumzo kabla ya kuingia mkataba<ref>''[[Austotel v Franklins]]'' (1989) 16 NSWLR 582</ref> Katika maeneo ya kisheria ya kiraia, kutilia maanani si lazima kwa mkataba kuwa na nguvu ya kisheria.<ref>e.g. In Germany, [http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/311.html § 311 Abs. II] [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|BGB]]</ref> Nchini Ufaransa, mkataba wa kawaida unasemekana kutokea ambapo "kukutana kwa akili" au kwa "kuwa na nia zinazowiana". [[Sheria ya Ujerumani|Ujerumani]] ina mtazamio maalum kuhusu mikataba, ambayo inayusisha sheria ya mali. [[Kanuni ya dhana ya kiakili]] (''Abstraktionsprinzip'' wanayoitumia, inamaanisha kuwa wajibu wa kibinafsi wa mkataba unaundwa kando na jina la mwenye mali yanayokabidhiwa. Wakati ambapo mikataba inavunjwa kwa sababu fulani (kwa mfano mnunuzi wa gari amelewa kiasi kwamba hana uwezo wa kisheria wa kufanya mkataba)<ref>[http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/105.html § 105 Abs. II] [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|BGB]]</ref> Wajibu wa kimkataba wa kulipa unaweza kuvunjwa tofauti na jina la mwenye gari. Sheria ya [[kutajirika kusio kwa haki]], badala ya sheria tya mkataba, basi inatumika kurudisha jina kwa mmiliki halali.<ref>Smith, ''The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law'', 1037</ref> === Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu === {{Main|Ukiukaji wa wajibu}} Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu, ambayo wakati mwingine huitwa [[kosa la jinai]], ni makosa ya raia. Kuwa na kosa la ukiukaji wa wajibu, mtu lazima awe amekiuka wajibu aliukwa anafaa kumtendea mty mwingine, au kukiuka haki fulani ya awali ya kisheria. [[Bolton dhidi ya Stone|mfano]] unaweza kuwa kumgonga mtu kimakosa na mpira wa mchezo wa kriketi.<ref>''[[Bolton v Stone]]'' [1951] AC 850</ref> Chini ya sheria ya [[uzembe]], ambayo ndiyo aina ya ukiukaji wa wajibu maarufu zaidi, mtu aliyepatwa na madhara anaweza kuomba fidia kwa ya majeraha yake kutoka kwa mtu mwenye uwajibikaji. Kanuni za uzembe zinaonyeshwa na kesi ya ''[[Donoghue dhidi ya Stevenson]]''.<ref name="DvS">''[[Donoghue v Stevenson]]'' ([[Case citation#England and Wales|[1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1]]). See the original text of the case in [http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm UK Law Online] {{Wayback|url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm|date=20070216044953}}.</ref> Rafiki mmoja wa Bi. Donoghue aliagiza chupa isiyopenyeka nuru la [[pombe ya tangawizi]] (iliyokusudiwa kutumika na Bi. Donoghue) katika mkahawa katika eneo la [[Paisley]]. Baada ya kunya kunya nusu ya bia ile , Bi, Donoghue alimimina iliyosalia katika bilauri. Mabaki yaliyooza ya konokono yalielea juu ya pombe. Alidai kuwa alipigwa na bumbuwazi, na kupata ugonjwa wa kuchomeka ndani ya matumbo, na ilimbidi kumpeleka mtengenezaji pombe kwa kuruhusu kinywaji kuchafuka ovyo. [[Nyumba ya Mabwana]] iliamua kwamba mtengezaji pombe aliwajibika kwa ugonjwa wa Bi. Donoghue. [[Bwana Atkin]] alikuwa na mtazamo maalum wa kimaadili, na akasema, <blockquote>Dhima ya upuuzaji ... bila shaka ina msingi wake katika mawazo ya kijumla ya umma kuhusu makosa ya kimaadili amabyo mkosaji lazima alipe ... Kanuni ya kuwa unafaa kumpenda adui yako, kisheria inakuwa, haufai kumjeruhi jirani yako; na swali la wakili, nani ndiye jirani yangu? linapokea jibu lenye vikwazo. Lazima uwe na uwangalifu wa kuepuka na vitendo au visa ambapo hautendi lolote inapofaa, ambavyo unaweza kutazamia kuwa vikamjeruhi jirani yako.<ref>''[[Donoghue v Stevenson]]'' [1932] AC 532, 580</ref></blockquote> Huu ulikuwa msingi wa kanuni nne za upuuzaji; (1) Bwana Stevenson alimdai Bi. Donoghue [[wajibu wa kujali]] wa kuuza vinywaji salama (2) yeye [[Kuvuna kwa jukumu katika Sheria ya Kiingereza|alivunja]] wajibu wake wa kujali (3) madhara hayangefanyika [[usababishaji (sheria)|isipokuwa kwa]] kuvunja kwake kwa wajibu wa kujali na (4) tendo lake lilikuwa [[sababau ya karibu]], au haikuwa tokeo la [[Umbali katika Sheria ya Kiingereza|mbali]], la madhara yaliyompata mtu fulani.<ref name="DvS" /> Mfano mwingine wa ukikaji wa wajibu unaweza kuwa wa jirani ambaye anapiga kelele nyingi sana na na mashine katika nyumbani kwake.<ref name="Sturges">''[[Sturges v Bridgman]]'' (1879) 11 Ch D 852</ref> Chini ya dai la [[kero]] kelele hiyo inaweza kukomeshwa. Ukiukaji wa wajibu pia inaweza kuhusisha vitendo vya kimakusudi, kama vile [[ushambulizi (ukiukaji wa wajibu)|ushambulizi]], [[vita(ukiukaji wa wajibu)|vita]] au [[kuvuka na kuingia katka maeneo yaliyopigwa marufuku]]. Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu inayofahamika vyema ni ile ya [[kumharibia mtu jina]], ambayo inafanyika, kwa mfano, wakati gazeti linapochapisha madai yasiyokuwa na msingi ambayo yanaharibu sifa ya mwanasiasa fulani.<ref>e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, ''[[George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd]]'' [2004] EWHC 2786</ref> Ukiukaji wa wajibu ambao ni mbaya zaidi ni zile wa kiuchumi, ambao huwa msingi wa [[sheria ya ajira]] katika baadhi ya nchi kwa kufanya vyama vya kibiashara kuwa na dhima kwa sababu ya migomo,<ref>''[[Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants]]'' [1901] AC 426</ref> Wakati ambapo amri ya kisheria haipatiani kinga.<ref>In the UK, [[Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992]]; c.f. in the U.S., [[National Labor Relations Act]]</ref> === Sheria ya mali === {{Main|Sheria ya mali}} [[Picha:South Sea Bubble.jpg|thumb|Picha ya [[Bubujiko la Bahari ya Kusini]], mojawapo ya majanga ya kiuchumi yalilotokana na [[uvumi]]. Janga hilo la kiuchumi lilisababisha kuundwa kwa kanuni kali kuhusu uuzaji wa hisa.<ref>Harris, ''The Bubble Act'', 610-627</ref>]] Sheria ya [[mali]] inatawala vitu vya thamani ambavyo watu huvitambua kama 'vyao'. [[Mali ya kweli]] wakati mwingine huitwa 'mali isiyohamishika' inahusu umiliki wa ardhi na vitu vilivyojikita katika ardhi hiyo.<ref>eg ''[[Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd]]'' [1997] [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm 2 All ER 426]</ref> [[Mali ya kibinafsi]], inaashiria mambo mengineyo; vyombo vinavyowezwa kusongeshwa, kama vile tarakilishi, magari, mapambo na mikate au turathi haki, kama vile [[hisa (fedha)|akiba na hisa]]. Haki ya ''[[in rem]]'' ni haki ya kipande maalum cha mali, ikitofautishwa na haki ''[[in personam]]'' ambayo inaruhusu fidia kwa hasara, lakini si kwa kurudishiwa kitu fulani. Sheria ya ardhi inajumuisha msingi wa aina nyingi za sheria za mali, na ndiyo ngumu zaidi. Inahusisha [[mogeji]], [[mikataba ya kukodisha]], [[leseni]], [[maagano]], [[ruhusa]] na mifumo ya kisheria kwa usajili wa ardhi. Kanuni kuhusu [[matumizi ya ardhi]] ya kibinafsi chini ya [[haki miliki]], [[kampuni (law)|sheria ya kampuni]], [[sheria ya hifadhi|hifadhi]] na [[sheria ya biashara]]. Mfano wa kesi msingi ya ya sheria nyingii za mali ni ''[[Armory v Delamirie]]''.<ref>''[[Armory v Delamirie]]'' (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505</ref> Kijana wa [[kufagia chimni]] alipata pambo lenye mawe ya thamani. Alichukua pambo lile kwa muundaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu ili thamani yake ikadiriwe. Mwanafunzi wa muundaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu aliangalia pambo lile, akaiba mawe yale ya thamani, ma kumuambia kijana yule kuwa thamani yake ilkuwa [[Nusu peni (Pesa ya Uingereza)|nusu peni]] tatu na kuwa angeinunua. Kijana yule alimwambia kuwa angepenga arudishiwe pambo lile, kwa hivyo mwanafunzi wa muundaji vifaa alimrudishia pambo, lakini bila mawe yale ya thamani. Kijana yule alimpeleka mtengenezaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu kotini kwa jaribio la mwanafunzi wake kumdanganya. [[Bwana Hakimu Mkuu Pratt]] aliamua kuwa ingawa kijana hangesemekana kuwa mumiliki wa pambo lile, angefaa kutazamwa kama mpataji aliyefaa ("mpataji muwekaji") hadi mumiliki wa kiasili anapopatikana. Kwa kweli mwanafunzi na kijana yule wote walikuwa na haki ya ''[[Umiliki (sheria)|umiliki]]'' wa pambo lile (dhana ya kiufundi, inayomaanisha kuwa kitu fulani ''kingeweza'' kumilikiwa na mtu fulani), lakini nia ya kijana yule ya kumiliki ilitazamiwa kuwa bora zaidi, kwa sababu ingeweza kudhihirishwa kuwa ya kwanza katika wakati. Umiliki unaweza kuwa sehemu tisa kwa kumi ya sheria, lakini si yote. Kesi hii hutumika kudhihirisha mtazamo wa mali katika maeneo ya kisheria ya kawaida, kuwa mtu anayeweza kuonyesha dai bora zaidi la kipande cha mali, dhidi ya chama kingine, ndiye mumiliki.<ref>Matthews, ''The Man of Property'', 251–274</ref> Kwa kulinganisha, mbinu ya kiklasiki ya sheria ya raia kuhusu mali, iliendelezwa na [[Friedrich Carl von Savigny]], ni kuwa ni haki nzuri dhidi ya Ulimwengu. Wajibu, kama mkataba na ukiukaji wa wajibu hutazamwa kama haki nzuri dhidi ya watu binafsi.<ref>Savigny, ''Das Recht des Besitzes'', [http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/bigpage/%22235083_00000057%22 25] {{Wayback|url=http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/bigpage/%22235083_00000057%22 |date=20080418181513 }}</ref> Dhana ya mali inaibua maswala mengi zaidi ya kifalsafa na kisiasa. Locke alidokeza kwamba "maisha, uhuru na nyumba" zetu ni mali yetu kwa sababu tunamiliki mali yetu na [[Nadharia ya ajira ya mali|tunachangayana ajira yetu]] na mazingira yetu.<ref>Locke, ''[[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government|Second Treatise on Civil Government]]'', Chap. IX. Of the Ends of Political Society and Government. Chapter 9, section 123.</ref> === Usawa na amana === {{Main|Usawa (sheria)|sheria ya amana}} [[Picha:Microcosm of London Plate 022 - Court of Chancery, Lincoln's Inn Hall edited.jpg|thumb|[[Mahakama ya Chancery]], London, mwanzoni mwa karne ya 19]] Usawa na amana ni mwili wa sheria ulioibuka nchini Uingereza kando na "shera ya kawaida". Sheria ya kawaida ilisimamiwa na mahakimu. [[Bwana Chansela]] kwa upnade mwingine, kama muwekaji dhamiri wa mfalme, angeweza kupuuza sheria iliyotengenezwa na hakimu ikiwa alifikiria kuwa ilikuwa sawa kufanya hivyo.<ref>McGhee, ''Snell's Equity'', 7</ref> Hili lilimaanisha kuwa usawa ulianza kufanya kazi zaidi kupitia [[Malengo ya usawa|kanuni]] bali si sheria ambazo hazikubadilika. Kwa mfano, ambapo mifumo ya sheria ya kawaida au sheria ya raia haiwaruhusu watu kugawa umiliki wa kutoka kwa udhibiti wa kipande kimoja cha mali, usawa unaruhusu hili kupitia mpango unaoitwa 'amana'. Kudhibitiwa kwa mali na 'wenye amana' ambapo kwa upande mwingine umiliki 'wenye manufaa' (au 'yenye usawa') wa mali ya amana inashikiliwa na watu wanojulikana kama 'wadhamini'. Wadhamini wana wajibu kwa walengwa wao wa kuyachuna vyema mali waliyokabidhiwa.<ref>c.f. ''[[Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew]]'' [1998] Ch 1</ref> Katika kesi ya awali ya ''[[Keech dhidi ya Sandford]]''<ref>''[[Keech v Sandford]]'' (1726) Sel Cas Ch 61</ref> mtoto alirithi haki ya [[kokodisha]] katika [[Soko la Romford|soko]] katika eneo la [[Ramford]], mjini London. Bw, Sandford alikabidhiwa mali hayo hadi wakati ambapo mtoto angekomaa. Lakini kabla ya hapo, kipindi cha kukodisha kilikwisha. Kabaila alikuwa (inaonekana) amemwambia Bw. Sandford kuwa hakutaka mtoto yule awe na kukodisha kupya. Lakini bado kabaila alikuwa amefurahi (inaonekana) kumpa Bw. Sandford fursa ya kukodisha. Bw Sandford aliichukua. Wakati ambapo mtoto (sasa Bw. Keech) alikuwa mkubwa, alimpeleka Bw. Sandford mahakamani kwa faida aliyokuwa akipata kwa kupata kukodisha kwa soko. Bw. Sandford alifaa kuaminika, lakini alijiweka katika nafasi ya [[mgongano wa maslahi]]. [[Bwana Kansela]], [[Peter King, Baroni wa Kwanza Mfalme|Bwana Mfalme]], alikubali na kumuamuru Bw. Sandford kutoa faida ile na kumlipa Bw. Keech. Aliandika, {{quote|Ninaona vizuri sana kuwa, ikiwa mdhamini, akikataa kufanya kukodesha upya, anaweza kuwa na kukodesha kwake mwenyewe mali chache ya kiamana yangesajiliwa upya ... Hili linaweza kuonekana kuwa gumu sana, kuwa mdhamini ndiye mtu wa kipekee kwa binadamu wote ambaye hatakuwa na kukodisha; lakini ni bora kanuni ifuatiliwe na isipuuzwe wakati wowote.}} Bila shaka, Bwana Mfalme LC alikuwa na wasiwasi kwamba wadhamini huenda wakatumia fursa ya kutumia mali ya amana wenyewe badala ya kuyachunga. Wadadisi wa kibiashara wanaotumia hifadhi walikuwa wamesababisha [[Mbubujiko wa Bahari ya Kusini|kuaguka kwa soko la hisa]] katika siku hizo. Wajibu mkali kwa wadhamini ulijumuishwa katika sheria ya serikali na kutumika kwa wakurugenzi wa makampuni na [[maafisa watendaji wakuu]]. Mfano mwingine wa jukumu la mdhamini unaweza kuwa kuwekeza mali vizuri au kuiuza.<ref>''[[Nestle v National Westminster Bank plc]]'' [1993] 1 WLR 1260</ref> Hii hasa ndiyo kesi kwa fedha za [[pensheni]] , aina muhimu kwa zote ya amana, ambapo wawekezaji ndio wadhamini wa akiba za watu hadi [[wastaafu]]. Lakini amana pia zinaweza kuundwa kwa [[hisani ya amana|madhumuni ya hisani]], mifano maarufu ikiwa [[Makavazi ya Uingereza]] au [[Shirika la Rockefeller]]. === Utaalamu zaidi === Sheria huenea mbali kuliko masomo ya msingi hadi karibu kila eneo la maisha. Ngazi tatu zimetajwa hapa ili kurahisiha majadiliano, ingawa masomo mbalimbali hufanana na kutegemeana. ;Sheria na jamii [[Picha:Unison strike rally Oxford 20060328.jpg|thumb|Chama cha wafanyikazi kilichoundwa na kikundi cha [[UNISON]] walipogoma]] * '''[[Sheria ya ajira]]''' ni somo la uhusiano wa mara tatu wa kiwandani kati ya mfanyikazi, muajiri na [[chama cha wafanyikazi]]. Hili linahusisha kupunguza [[kufanya biashara]] kwa pamoja, na haki ya [[kugoma]]. Sheria ya kuajiriwa kwa binafsi inaashiria haki za maeneo ya kazi, kama zile [[usalama wa kazi]], [[afya na usalama]] au [[mshahara wa chini zaidi]]. * '''[[Haki za kibinadamu]]''', [[Haki za kiraia na kisiasa|haki za kiraia]] na [[sheria ya haki za kibinadamu]] ni maeneo muhimu katika kumhakikishia kila mtu uhuru na haki za kimsingi, Haya yanapatikana katika maadiko kama vile [[Azimio la Ulimwenguni la Haki za Kibinadamu]], [[Mkataba wa Ulaya wa Haki za Kibinadamu]] (iliyoanzisha [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Kibinadamu]]) na [[Mswada wa Marekani wa Haki|Mswada wa Marekani wa Haki za Kibinadamu]]. [[Mkataba wa Lisbon]] unafanya [[Mkataba wa Haki za Msingi za Umoja wa Ulaya]] uwe na nguvu za kisheria katika nchi zote wanachama isipokuwa [[Polandi na Uingereza]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080910001253/http://www.lawsociety.org.uk/documents/downloads/guide_to_treaty_of_lisbon.pdf A Guide to the Treaty of Lisbon], The Law Society</ref> * '''[[Utaratibu wa Kiraia]]''' na '''[[utaratibu wa jinai]]''' unahusisha kanuni ambazo mahakama lazima yafuate kadiri [[trial]] na rufaa zinapoendelea. Yote yanahusu haki ya raia kupata [[kuhukumiwa kwa haki]] au kesi yake kusikizwa kwa haki. * '''[[Ushahidi (sheria)|Ushahidi]]'''. Sheria ya ushahidi inahusu vifaa vinavyofaa kutumika mahakamani ili kesi ijengwe. * '''[[Sheria ya Uhamiaji]]''' na '''[[sheria ya utaifa]]''' zinahusu haki za wageni kuishi na kufanya kazi katika taifa ambalo si lao na kupata na kupoteza [[uraia]]. Yote yanahusu [[haki ya hifadhi]] na shida ya watu [[wasiokuwa na nchi]] * '''[[Usalama wa Kijamii]]'''. Sheria ya usalama wa kijamii inahusu haki za watu kuwa na bima ya kijamii, kama vile pesa zinazopewa watafuta kazi au faida za makazi. * '''[[Sheria ya familia]]''' inahusu kesi za [[ndoa]] na [[talaka]] proceedings, haki za watoto na haki za kuwa na mali na pesa ikiwa wenye kufanya ndoa watatengana. ;Sheria na biashara * '''[[Sheria ya kikampuni]]''' ilitokana na sheria ya amana, ikitegemea kanuni ya kutenganisha umiliki na udhibiti.<ref>Berle, ''Modern Corporation and Private Property''</ref> Sheria ya kisasa ya [[kampuni (sheria)|kampuni]] ilianza na [[Sheria ya Kampuni za Pamoja za Akiba ya mwaka 1856]], iliyopitishwa nchini Uingereza, ambayo iliwapa wawekezaji mbinu rahisi ya usajili ili kupata [[dhima ya kupimika]] chini ya dhana ya [[Mtu wa kisheria|mtu tofauti]] wa kampuni. * '''[[Sheria ya kibiashara]]''' inahusu mkataba tata wa mkataba na mali. Sheria ya [[shirika (sheria)|shirika]], [[sheria ya bima]], [[bili za kubadilishana]], [[ufilisi]] na [[Sheria ya kuufungwa kwa biashara]] na sheria ya uuzaji zote ni muhimu, na zinarudi nyuma hadi dhana ya ''[[Mfanyibiashara wa sheria|Lex Mercatoria]]'' ya zama za kati. [[Sheria ya Kuuza Bidhaa na Ukahaba wa Watoto ya Mwaka 1979|Sheria ya Kuuza Bidhaa]] ya Uingereza na [[Kodi Sawa ya Biashara]] ya Marekani ni mifano ya kanuni za kibiashara ya sheria ya kawaida * '''[[Sheria ya maji]]''' na '''[[Mkataba wa Umoja wa Mataifa kuhusu Sheria ya Maji|Sjeria ya Maji]]''' zinaweka muundo msingi wa biashara huru na biashara Duniani kote Baharini, ambapo yamo nje ya eneo la udhibiti wa nchi fulani. Makampuni ya meli yanafanya kazi kwa kutumia kanuni za kawaida za sheria ya biashara, ambazo zimefanywa kuwa jumla kwa soko la kimataifa. Sheria ya maji inajumuisha masuala muhimu kama vile kama vile [[kuokoa vifaa kutoka baharini]], [[Lien#|lieni za maji]], na majeraha kwa abiria. * '''[[Miliki Sheria]]''' inalenga aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services. These are legal rights ([[copyright]]s, [[trademark]]s, [[patent]]s, and [[related right]]s) which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, literary and artistic fields.<ref>WIPO, ''Intellectual Property'', 3</ref> * '''[[Fidia]]''' inashughulika na kupata mapato ya mtu mwingine, bali si [[fidia]] kwa hasara ya kibinafsi * '''[[Kutajirika isipofaa]]''' ndiyo nguzo ya tatu ya sheria ya raia (pamoja na mkataba na ukiukaji wa wajibu). Wakati ambapo mtu fulani ametajirishwa isipofaa (au kuna "kutokuwepo kwa msingi" wa biashara) kwa gharama ya mawingine, tukio hili linazalisha haki ya fidia ili kugeuza faida hiyo. ;Sheria na vikwazo [[Picha:1930-67B.png|thumb| Sakafu ya biashara ya [[Soko la Hisa la New York]] baada ya [[kuanguka kwa Wall Street mnamo mwaka wa 1929]], kabla ya sheria kali zaidi za [[vikwazo vya kibenki]] vilipoanza kutumika]] * '''[[Sheria ya kodi]]''' inahusu kanuni kuhusu [[kodi ya thamani iliyoongezwa]], [[kodi ya kampuni]], [[kodi ya mapato]]. * '''[[Kanuni za kibenki|Sheria za kibenki]]''' na [[kanuni za kifedha]] zinaweka viwango vya chini zaidi kuhusu idadi ya mtaji ambao benki zinaweza kuwa nao, na sheria kuhusu utendaji bora wa uwekezaji. Hili ni kwa minajili ya kuhakikisha ulinzi dhidi ya taabu za kiuchumi, kama vile[[Kunguka kwa soko la Wall Street mnamo mwaka wa 1929]]. * '''[[Vikwazo]]''' vinashughulika na utoaji wa [[huduma za umma]] na usimamizi wa [[vifaa vya umma]].'''[[Sheria ya maji]]''' ni mfano mmoja. Hasa tangu [[ubinafshaji]] uwe maarufu na uchukue usimamizi wa huduma kutoka kwa sheria ya umma, makampuni ya kibinafsi ambayo hapo yalikuwa yakifanya kazi iliyodhitiwa na serikali hapo awali yamefungwa na vyeo mbalimbali vya wajibu wa kijamii. [[Sera za Nishati|Nishati]], [[Ofgem|gesi]], [[sera za mawasiliano|mawasiliano]] na [[sheria ya maji|maji]] zinadhibitiwa na viwanda katika nchi nyingi za [[Shirika la Muungano wa Maendeleo ya Kiuchumi|OECD]]. * '''[[Sheria ya mashindano]]''', nchini Marekani inajulikana kama sheria [[dhidi ya amana]], ni eneo linalozidi kubadilika ambalo lilianza katika kutokana na amri za [[Roma ya Kale|Kirumi]] dhidi ya [[kuweka bei]] na mafundisho ya Uingereza ya [[biashara ya makini]]. Sheria ya kisasa ya mashindano inatokana na sheria za Marekani dhidi ya biashara za magendo na dhidi ya ukiritimba ([[Sheria ya Sherman]] na [[Sheria ya Clyaton]]) ya mwisho wa karne ya 20. Inatumika kudhibiti biashara zinazojaribu kutumia ushawishi wao wa kiuchumi kubadilisha biashra za sokoni bila kujali [[maslahi ya mnunuzi]]. * '''[[Kumlinda mnunuzi|Sheria ya mnunuzi]]''' inaweza kujumuisha chochote kuanzia kanuni kuhusu [[vifungu vya mikataba]] ambavyo si sawa hadi maelekezo kuhusu bima ya mizigo ya ndege. * '''[[Sheria ya mazingira]]''' inazidi kuwa muhimu, hasa katika mwanga wa [[Itifaki ya Kyoto]] na hatari inayoweza kutokana na [[mabadiliko ya hali ya anga]]. Ulinzi wa kimazingira pia intumika kuwaadhibu [[uharibifu wa mazingira|wanaoharibu mazingira]] katika mifumo ya kisheria ya kiinchi == Mifumo ya sheria == {{Main|Mifumo ya sheria duniani}} Kwa ujumla, mifumo ya kisheria inaweza kugawanywa kati ya mifumo ya kisheria ya kiraia na mifumo ya kisheria ya kawaida.<ref>Modern scholars argue that the significance of this distinction has progressively declined; the numerous [[legal transplants]], typical of modern law, result in the sharing by modern legal systems of many features traditionally considered typical of either common law or civil law (Mattei, ''Comparative Law and Economics'', 71)</ref> Maneno "sheria ya kiraia" yanayoashiria mfumo wa kisheria hayapaswi kuchanganyishwa na "sheria ya kiraia" kama kundi la masomo ya kisheria ambayo ni tofauti na [[sheria ya umma]] au ya jinai. Aina ya tatu ya mfumo wa kisheria—inayokubalika bado na baadhi ya nchi ambazo zina [[utengano wa kanisa na taifa]]—ni sheria sheria ya kidini, ambayo ina msingi wake katika [[maandiko ya kidini]]. Aina ya mfumo amabo nchi inatumia kutawala mara nyingi kudhamiriwa na historia yake, uhusiano wake na nchi zingine au kushikilia kwake kwa viwango vya kimataifa. [[Vyanzo vya sheria|Vyanzo]] ambavyo maneneo fulani ya kisheria hutumia kama kama zenye uwezo wa kuwa nguvu za kisheria ndizo sifa fafanuzi za mfumo wowote wa kisheria. Hata hivyo, uainishaji ni jambo la umbo kuliko maana, kwani sheria sawa mara nyingi hutawala. === Sheria ya kiraia === {{Main|Sheria ya kiraia}} [[Picha:Code Civil 1804.png|thumb|Ukurasa wa kwanza wa toleo la mwaka wa 1804 la [[Sheria za Kinapoleoni]]]] Sheria ya kiraia ni mfumo wa kisheria unaotumika katika nchi nyingi Duniani. Katika sheria ya kiraia vyanzo vinavyotambulika kama kuwa na mamlaka, ni, haswa, uundaji wa sheria—haswa [[Kuandika sheria (sheria)|sheria zilizoandikwa]] katika [[katiba]] au [[amri]] zinazopitishwa na serikali—na tamaduni.<ref>Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as "the other source of law"; hence, scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of "written law" (''ius scriptum'') or legislation, and "unwritten law" (''ius non scriptum'') or custom. Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation (Georgiadis, ''General Principles of Civil Law'', 19; Washofsky, ''Taking Precedent Seriously'', 7).</ref> Sheria za kuandikwa zinapatikana hata katika miaka mingi ya awali , huku mfano mmoja ukiwa [[Sheria ya Hammurabi|Codex Hammurabi]] ya [[sheria ya Kibebeli|Kibabeli]]. Mifumo ya sheria za kiraia ya kisasa inatokana na mazoezi ya kisheria ya [[Dola la Kirumi]] ambalo maadiko yake yalipatikana katika Ulaya ya [[Zama za Kati]]. Sheria ya Kirumu katika siku za [[Jamhuri ya Kiruma]] na Dola la Kirumi lilitegemea sana utaratibu, na ilikosa daraja la kitaaluma.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 18</ref> Badala uake mtu wa kawaida aliyeitwa, ''iudex'', alichagukiwa kufanya uamuzi. Kesi za awali hazikuripotiwa, kwa hivyo sheria yoyote yenye msingi katika kesi iliyoibuka ilifichwa na hata kutotambulika.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 21</ref> Kila kesi ilikuwa ilimuliwe upya kutokana na sheria za nchi, ambayo ni sawa na kupungua kwa umuhimu (kinadharia) wa uamuzi wa mahakimu kwa kesi za siku za usoni kwa mufumo ya kisheria siku za leo. Katika kipindi cha karne ya 6 NK katika [[Dola la Kibaizanti|Dola la Mashariki la Roma]], Kaisari [[Justinian I]] aliandika na kuzikusanya pamoja sheria ambazo zilikuwa zinapatikana hapo awali katika Roma, ambapo kile kilichobakia kilikuwa sehemu moja juu ya ishirini ya kiwango cha maandiko ya kisheria kutoka awali.<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 32</ref> Hili ikawa inafahamika kama ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]''. Kwa mujibu wa mwanahistoria mmoja wa kisheria, "Justinian alitazama kwa uangalifu hadi miaka ya dhahabu ya nyuma ya sheria ya Kirumi na alilenga kuirejesha hadi upeo wake wa karne tatu za awali."<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 35</ref> Wakati uo huo, Ulaya ya Magharibi ilitumbukia polepole katika [[Zama za Giza]], na haikuwa hadi karne ya 11ambapo wasomi katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Bologna]] walipoyagundua upya maandiko yaliyokuwa yamepotea na kuyatumia kuzitafsiri sheria zao.<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 43</ref> Maandiko ya sheria za kiraia yenye msingi unaofanana kwa karibu na sheria ya Kirumu, sambamba na ushawishi mchache kutoka [[sheria za kidini]] kama vile [[sheria ya Kikanoni]] na [[Sharia|sheria ya Kiislamu]],<ref name>Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198 [196–8]</ref><ref name="Makdisi"/> iliendelea kuenea kote baranii Ulaya hadi [[Zama za Kutaalamika|Kutaalmika]]; kisha, katika karne ya 19, Ufaransa, na [[Sheria iliyoandikwa ya Kiraia]], na Ujerumani, [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]], zilifanya sheria zao zilizokuwa zimeandikwa kuwa za kisasa. Sheria hizi mbili zilizoandikwa zilisukuma vilivyo si tu mifumo ya kisheria ya nchi katika Bara Ulaya (kama vile Ugiriki), lakini pia tamaduni za kisheria za [[Sheria ya Ujapani|Ujapani]] na [[Korea ya Kusini|Kikorea]].<ref>Hatzis, ''The Short-Lived Influence of the Napoleonic Civil Code in Greece'', 253–263</ref><ref>Demirgüç-Kunt -Levine, ''Financial Structures and Economic Growth'', 204</ref> Leo, cnhi ambazo zina mifumo ya kisheria ya kiraia ni kama vile [[Sheria ya Urusi|Urusi]] na [[Sheria ya Demokrasia ya watu ya Uchina|Uchina]] na maeneo mengi ya Marekani ya [[Marekani ya Kati|Kati]] na [[Sheria ya Marekani ya Kusini|Marekani ya Kilatini]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html The World Factbook&nbsp;— Field Listing&nbsp;– Legal system] {{Wayback|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html |date=20181226012138 }}, CIA</ref> Marekani inafuata sheria ya kawaida inayofafanuliwa hapa chini. === Sheria ya kawaida na usawa === {{Main|Sheria ya kawaida}} [[Picha:King John signing the Great Charter (Magna Carta) by English School.png|thumb|Mfalme Yohana wa Uingereza anatia sahini Magna Carta]] Sheria ya kawaida na usawa ni mifumo ya kisheria ambapo uamuzi wa mahakama yanakubalika wazi kuwa vyanzo vya sheria."Mafundisho ya utangulizi", au ''[[stare decisis]]'' (Kilatini kwa "kusimama kwa uamuzi") unamaanisha kuwa sumauzi unaofanywa na mahakama yenye mamlaka kubwa yanafunga mahakama yenye mamlaka ya chini. Mifumo ya kisheria ya kawaida hutumia amri mara chache sana, zinazopitishwa na bunge, lakini huenda zikafanya jaribio ambalo si la kitaratibu kuandika sheria zao kuliko katika "mfumo wa sheria wa kiraia". Sheria ya kawaida ina asili yake nchini Uingereza na imerithiwa na karibu nchi zote ambazo hapo awali zilihusika na [[Dola la Uingereza]] (isipokuwa Malta, [[sHERIA YA|Scotland]], na jimbo la Marekani la [[Sheria ya Louisiana|Louisiana]], na jimbo la Kanada la [[sheria ya Quebec|Quebec]]). Katika Uingereza wakati wa zama za kati, [[Ushindi wa Norman dhidi ya Uingereza|ushindi wa Norman]] ulisababisha kuungana kwa desturi mbalimbali za kikabila na hivyo basi kuunda sheria ya "kawaida" ya nchi yote. Labda ikisukumwa na [[Sheria ya Kiislamu|mazoea ya kisheria ya Kiislamu]] wakati wa [[Krusedi]],<ref name=Makdisi>Makdisi, ''The Islamic Origins'', 1635–1739</ref> sheria ya kawaida iliendelea ambapo Mfalme wa Kiingereza alikuwa amefanywa kuwa dhaifu na gharama kubwa ya vita vywa kudhibiti sehemu kubwa za Ufaransa. [[Yohana wa Uingereza|Mfalme Yohana]] alikuwa amelazimishwa na mabaroni wake kutia saini hati iliyoweka vikwazo kwa mamlaka yake ya kupisha sheria. "Mkataba huu mkuu" au ''[[Magna Carta]]'' wa mwaka 1215 pia ulihitaji jopo la mahakimu wa Mfalme kufanya mikutano yao ya kimahakama na uamuzi wao katika "mahali maalum" badala ya kutoa haki ya kibepari katika maeneo yaliyokuwa magumu kutabiri kote.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html Magna Carta] {{Wayback|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html |date=20140910155351 }}, Fordham University</ref> Kundi la mahakimu walsomi na waliokolea walipata jukumu muhimu katika kuunda sheria chini ya mfumo huu, na ikilinganishwa na wenzao Barani Ulaya mahakama ya Uingereza ilikuwa na urasimu mwingi zaidi. Kwa mfano, mnamo mwaka wa 1297, wakati ambapo mahakama kuu ya Ufaransa yalikuwa na mahakimu hamsini na wawili, [[Mahakama ya Uingereza ya Maombi ya Kawaida]] yalikuwa na watano.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 4</ref> Mahakama haya yenye nguvu na yaliyoshikamana yalisababisha mfumo wa kikiritimba.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 3</ref> Kufuatana na hilo, kadiri wakati ulivyopita, idadi iliyoongezeka ya raia waliomba Mfalme kupuuza sheria ya kawaida, na kwa niaba ya Mfalme [[Bwana Chansela]] alitoa uamuzi kufanya kile ambacho ni sawa kwa kila kesi. Kuanzia wakati wa [[Thomas More]], wakili wa kwanza kuteuliwa kama Bwana Chansela, mwili wa kimfumo wa usawa uliongezeka kando ya sheria ya kawaida yenye ukiritimba, na ilianzisha [[Mahakama yake ya Chancery]]. Mwanzoni, usawa ulikosolewa kuwa ulikosa kukosa utaratibu, na kuwa ulibadilika kulingana na urefu wa mguu wa Chansela.<ref>Pollock (ed) ''Table Talk of [[John Selden]]'' (1927) 43; "Equity is a roguish thing. For law we have a measure... equity is according to the conscience of him that is Chancellor, and as that is longer or narrower, so is equity. 'Tis all one as if they should make the stadard for the measure a Chancellor's foot."</ref> Lakini baada ya muda iliunda [[Kanuni za usawa|kanuni]], hasa chini ya [[John Scott, Ali wa kwanza wa Eldon|Bwana Eldon]].<ref>''[[Gee v Pritchard]]'' (1818) 2 Swans. 402, 414</ref> Katika karne ya 19 mifumo hiyo miwili iliunganishwa pamoja. Katika kuendeleza sheria ya kawaida na usawa, waandishi wa kitaaluma wamekuwa na jukumu muhimu. [[William Blackstone]], kuanzia kipindi cha 1760, alikuwa mwanachuoni wa kwanza kuelezea na kufunza usawa.<ref>Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/bk1ch1.htm Book the First&nbsp;– Chapter the First] {{Wayback|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/bk1ch1.htm |date=20130329045450 }}</ref> Lakini kwa kuelezea tu, wasomi walitafuta melezo na miunso msingi walibadilisha polepole jinisi sheria ilivyofanya kazi.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 17</ref> === Sheria ya kidini === {{Main|Sheria ya kidini}} Sheria ya kidini inatokana na maagizo ya [[dini]]. Baadhi ya mifano ni [[Halakha]] ya [[Uyahudi|Kiyahudi]] na [[Sharia]] ya [[Uislamu]] — ambazo zote mbili zinamaanisha "njia ya kufuata" — huku [[sheria za Kanisa]] za [[Ukristo]] nazo hutumika katika [[madhehebu]] machache, kama vile [[Kanisa Katoliki]], [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi]] na la [[Anglikana]]. Mara nyingi dini inadai kutobadilika kwa sheria, kwa sababu [[neno la Mungu]] haliwezi kufanyiwa marekebisho wala kupingwa na mahakimu au serikali. Hata hivyo mfumo fasaha wa sheria kwa jumla unahitaji upanuzi upande wa [[binadamu]]. Kwa mfano, [[Torati]] au Vitabu Vitano vya [[Musa]] katika [[Agano la Kale]]. Vitabu hivyo vina kanuni na sheria za msingi za Uyahudi, ambayo baadhi ya jamii ya Kiisraeli huchagua kutumia. [[Halakha]] ni kanuni ya sheria za Kiyahudi inayofanya muhtasari wa baadhi ya ufafanuzi wa kitabu cha [[Talmud]]. Hata hivyo, [[Sheria za Israeli]] zinaruhusu [[mlalamikaji]] kuchagua mbinu za kidini ikiwa tu anataka. Mfano mwingine ni [[Korani]] ambayo ina sheria, na inakuwa kama chanzo cha sheria zaidi kupitia ufafanuzi,<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 159</ref> ''[[Qiyas]]'' (kulinganisha), ''[[Ijma]]'' (kufikia muafaka) na [[yaliyokwishatokea]]. Hili hasa hupatikana katika mkusanyo wa sheria na falsafa ya kisheria inayojulikana kama [[Sharia]] na [[Fiqh]]. [[Picha:1879-Ottoman Court-from-NYL.png|thumb|left|Kesi katika [[Dola la Ottoman]], mwaka [[1879]], wakati sheria ya kidini ilitumika chini ya [[Mecelle]].]] Hadi [[karne ya 18]], Sharia ilitekelezwa kote katika [[Ulimwengu wa Kiislamu]] katika mfumo ambao haukuwa umeandikwa kwa ufasaha, huku sheria ya [[Mecelle]] ya [[Dola la Ottoman]] katika [[karne ya 19]] ilikuwa ya kwanza kuandika vipengele vya Sharia. Tangu miaka ya kati ya 1940, majaribio yamefanywa, katika nchi nyingi, kufanya sheria hizo zifanane zaidi na hali na dhana za kisasa.<ref name="AA">Anderson, ''Law Reform in the Middle East'', 43</ref><ref>Giannoulatos, ''Islam'', 274–275</ref> Katika nyakati za sasa, mifumo ya kisheria katika mataifa mengi ya Kiislamu hutegemea sheria za kiraia na sheria ya kawaida na pia sheria na tamaduni za Kiislamu. Katiba za baadhi ya nchi za Kiislamu, kama vile [[Misri]] na [[Afghanistan]], zinatambua [[Uislamu]] kama sheria ya taifa, hivyo kuyafanya mabunge katika nchi hizo yasiwe na budi kufuata Sharia.<ref>Sherif, ''Constitutions of Arab Countries'', 157–158</ref> [[Saudia]] inatambua Korani kama katiba, na inatawaliwa kwa msingi wa sheria ya Kiislamu.<ref name = Jurist>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm Saudi Arabia] {{Wayback|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm |date=20060830232216 }}, Jurist</ref> [[Iran]] pia imeshuhudia kurudi kwa sheria ya Kiislamu katika mfumo wake wa kisheria baada ya mwaka [[1979]].<ref>Akhlagi, ''Iranian Commercial Law'', 127</ref> Katika miongo michache iliyopita, mojawapo ya tofauti kuu ya harakati ya [[mwamko wa Kiislamu]] imekuwa wito wa kuirejesha Sharia, wito ambao umeibua kiasi kikubwa cha maandishi na kuathiri [[siasa]] duniani.<ref name="H1">Hallaq, ''The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law'', 1</ref> == Nadharia ya sheria == === Historia ya Sheria === {{Main|Historia ya sheria}} [[Picha:Milkau Oberer Teil der Stele mit dem Text von Hammurapis Gesetzescode 369-2.jpg|thumb|Mfalme [[Hammurabi]] anaonyeshwa [[Sheria ya Hammurabi|mkusanyiko wa sheria]] na mungu wa jua wa Kimesopotamia [[Shamash]], ambaye pia anatambulika kama mungu wa haki]] Historia ya sheria inashikamana kwa karibu na [[maendeleo]] ya [[ustaarabu]]. Sheria ya [[Misri ya Kale]], iliyorudi nyuma mbali hadi mnamo [[3000 KK]], ilikuwa na mkusanyiko wa sheria ambao huenda ulikuwa umegawanjwa katika vitabu kumi na viwili. Ilizingatia dhana ya [[Ma'at]], iliyokuwa na sifa ya mapokeo, [[hotuba]] za [[kushawishi]], usawa wa kijamii na [[uaminifu]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Théodoridés|title = law | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt}}</ref><ref>VerSteeg, ''Law in ancient Egypt''</ref> Kufikia [[karne ya 22 KK]], [[mtawala]] wa zamani wa [[Wasumeri|Kisumeri]], [[Ur-Nammu]] alikuwa ameandaa [[Mkusanyiko wa sheria wa Ur-Nammu|mkusanyiko wa sheria]], ambao ulihusisha kauli za [[Mjadala|kimjadala]] ("ikiwa ... basi ..."). Kufikia mwaka wa [[1760 KK]], Mfalme [[Hammurabi]] aliboresha zaidi [[Sheria ya Babeli]], kwa kuikusanya na kujandika katika [[jiwe]] kubwa. Hammurabi aliweka nakala kadhaa za jiwe lile kote katika [[milki ya Babeli]] kama [[stelae]], ili watu wote waitazame; hii ilikuja kufahamika kama [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria za Hammurabi]]. Nakala iliyobaki ambayo haijaharibika sana wa stelae hizi iligunduliwa katika [[karne ya 19]] na [[Waingereza]] wasomi wa mambo ya [[Assyria|milki ya Assyria]], na tangu wakati huo imenakiliwa upya na kutafsiriwa katika [[lugha]] mbalimbali, zikiwemo [[Kiingereza]], [[Kijerumani]] na [[Kifaransa]].<ref>Richardson, ''Hammurabi's Laws'', 11</ref> [[Agano la Kale]] lilianza mnamo [[1280 KK]], na linachukua umbo la [[amri]] za [[Maadili|kimaadili]] kama mapendekezo ya [[jamii]] nzuri. [[Miji-dola|Mji-dola]] wa [[Ugiriki ya Kale]], [[Atheni ya Kale]] kuanzia [[karne ya 8 KK]] ilikuwa jamii ya kwanza kuwa na msingi wake katika kuhusisha raia kwa upana; isipokuwa [[wanawake]] na daraja la [[watumwa]]. Hata hivyo, [[Atheni]] haikuwa na sayansi ya kisheria, na hapakuwa na neno la "sheria" isipokuwa kama dhana ya kiakili tu.<ref>Kelly, ''A Short History of Western Legal Theory'', 5–6</ref> Bado [[sheria ya Ugiriki wa Kale]] ilikuwa na uvumbuzi mkubwa wa [[Katiba ya Waatheni|kikatiba]] katika kuendeleza [[Demokrasia ya Atheni|demokrasia]].<ref>Ober, ''The Nature of Athenian Democracy'', 121</ref> [[Sheria ya Kirumi]] ilisukumwa sana na [[falsafa]] ya Kigiriki, lakini maelezo yake ya kina yaliendelezwa na wanasheria wa kitaaluma, na yalikuwa magumu sana.<ref>Kelly, ''A Short History of Western Legal Theory'', 39</ref><ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 1</ref> Katika kipindi cha karne zilizopita kati ya kupanda na kushuka kwa [[Dola la Roma]], sheria imebadilishwa ili kukabiliana na hali za kijamii zilizokuwa zikibadilika, na ilikusanywa na kuandkiwa vilivyo wakati wa utawala wa [[kaisari]] [[Justinian I]].<ref name="St107">Kama mfumo wa kisheria, Sheria ya Kirumi imeathiri moja kwa moja sheria za duniani kote. Pia ni sehemu ya msingi ya mkusanyiko wa sheria wa nchi nyingi za [[Bara|barani]] [[Ulaya]], na imekuwa muhimu katika kuunda kwa dhana ya utamaduni sawa Ulaya (Stein, ''Sheria ya Kirumi katika Historia ya Ulaya'', 2, 104–107).</ref> Ingawa ilipungua kwa umuhimu mwanzoni mwa [[Karne za Kati]], Sheria ya Kirumi iligunduliwa upya wakati wa [[karne ya 11]] ambapo wasomi walianza kutafiti mkusanyiko wa sheria za Kirumi na kuyatumia mawazo yao. Katika Uingereza ya Zama za Kati, mahakimu wa Mfalme waliunda mwili wa [[utangulizi]], ambao baadaye ulijulikana kama [[sheria ya kawaida]]. ''[[Sheria ya biashara]]'' ya Ulaya mzima iliundwa ili kuwapa [[wafanyabiashara]] uwezo wa kufanya biashara kwa kutumia viwango sawa vya mazoezi; badala ya kutumia sheria za kimtaa zenye pande nyingi. Hiyo ''Lex Mercatoria'', mtangulizi wa sheria ya kisasa ya biashara, ilihimiza [[uhuru wa mkataba]] na kuwekwa mbali kwa mali.<ref>Sealey-Hooley, ''Commercial Law'', 14</ref> Kadiri [[utaifa]] ulipozidi katika [[karne za 18]] na 19, ndipo ''Lex Mercatoria'' ilipozidi kujumuishwa katika sheria za kimanispaa za nchi mbalimbali chini ya mkusanyiko mpya wa sheria za kiraia. [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria za Napoleoni]] na sheria za [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|Kijerumani]] ulikuwa na ushawishi mkubwa zaidi. Ikitofautishwa na sheria ya kawaida ya Uingereza, ambayo ina idadi kubwa ya sheria za kesi, mikusanyiko ya sheria katika vitabu vidogo ni rahisi kuuza nje ili mahakimu waweze kuitumia. Hata hivyo, hivi leo kuna ishara kuwa sheria ya kiraia na sheria ya kawaida zinazidi kukaribiana.<ref>Mattei, ''Comparative Law and Economics'', 71</ref> Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya imekusanywa katika mikataba, lakini huendelezwa kupitia utangulizi unaofanywa na [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki]]. [[Picha:Constitution of India.jpg|thumb|left|[[Katiba ya nchi ya Uhindi]] ndiyo katiba ndefu zaidi iliyoandikwa kwa nchi, ikiwa na Ibara 444, Ibara 12 ndogo, na marekebisho mengi na maneno 117,369]] [[Sheria ya Kiislamu]] na [[Fiqh|falsafa ya sheria]] zilianza katika kipindi cha Zama za Kati.<ref name="Badr">Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198</ref> Mbinu ya kisheria ya utangulizi na kufikiria kupitia mlinganisho (''[[Qiyas]]'') iliyotumika katika sheria ya mapema ya Kiislamu ilifanana na na ile ya baadaye ya mfumo wa [[Sheria ya Uingereza|Sheria ya Kawaida ya Uingereza]].<ref name="Gamal">Justice Gamal Moursi Badr argues that Islamic law may "be called a [[lawyer]]'s law if common law is a [[judge]]'s law"(Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198, El-Gamal, ''Islamic Finance'', 16).</ref> Hii ilitumika hasa katika shule ya [[Maliki]] ya sheria ya Kiislamu iliyopatikana sana katika eneo la Afrika Kasakazini, [[Al-Andalus|Uhispania wa Kiislamu]] na baadaye [[Sicily ya Kiemereti]]. Kati ya karne za 8 na 11, sheria ya Maliki iliendeleza [[taasisi]] nyingi zilizokuwa sambamba na taasisi za baadaye za sheria ya kawaida.<ref>The "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic ''Aqd'', the English [[assize of novel disseisin]] is identified with the Islamic ''Istihqaq'', and the English jury is identified with the Islamic ''Lafif''". Other parallels include "the [[scholastic method]], the license to teach" (''[[Ijazah]]''), the "[[Law school|law schools]] known as [[Inns of Court]] in England and ''[[Madrasah|Madrasas]]'' in Islam", and the [[Agency (law)|agency]] (''[[Hawala]]'') and [[trust law]] (''[[Waqf]]'') (Gaudiosi, ''The Influence of the Islamic Law '', 1231–1261; Makdisi, ''The Islamic Origins'', 1635–1739).</ref> Sheria ya kale ya [[Sheria ya Uhindi|Uhindi]] na [[Sheria ya uchina|Uchina]] zinawakilisha mapokeo tofauti ya sheria, na kihistoria yamekuwa na [[shule]] huru za kinadharia na mazoezi. ''[[Arthashastra]]'', ambayo pengine iliandikwa mnamo [[100]] [[BK]] (ingawa ina maandiko ya awali kidogo), na ''[[Manusmriti]]'' (100–[[300]]) yalikuwa mikataba ya uanzilishaji nchini Uhindi, na ilikuwa na maandiko yanayofikiriwa kuwa wongofu wenye mamlaka wa kisheria.<ref>For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, ''Manu's Code of Law'', 18-25.</ref> Falsafa kuu ya Manu ilikuwa kuvumiliana na [[Mfumo wa Viama Vingi (falsafa ya kisheria)|Mfumo wa Vyama Vingi]], na ilitajwa kote katika eneo la Asia ya Kusini Mashariki.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 276</ref> Mapokeo haya ya [[Uhindi|Kihindu]], pamoja na sheria ya Kiislamu, yalibadilishwa na na sheria ya kawaida wakati ambapo Uhindi ilifanywa kuwa sehemu ya [[Dola la Uingereza]].<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 273</ref> [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Singapore]] na [[Hong Kong]] pia ilianza kutumia sheria ya kawaida, Mapokeo ya sheria ya [[Asia ya Kusini]] yanaangazia mkusanyiko maalum wa ushawishi wa kidunia na kidIni.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 287</ref> [[Ujapani]] ilikuwa nchi ya kwanza kuufanya mfumo wake wa sheria uwe wa kisasa sambamba na ule wa nchi za magharibi, kwa kuagiza sehemu za mkusanyiko wa sheria za [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria|Ufaransa]], lakini hasa mkusanyiko wa sheria za Kijerumani.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 304</ref> Hili lilionyesha kwa kiwango fulani hadhi ya Ujerumani kama nguvu yenye uwezo mkubwa zaidi katika kipindi cha mwisho cha karne ya 19. Pia, [[sheria ya mapokeo ya Uchina]] ilifungua njia kwa kubadilishwa na nchi za magharibi kuelekea miaka ya mwisho ya [[Nasaba ya Qing|nasaba ya Ch'ing]] kupitia njia ya mkusanyiko wa sheria tatu za kibinaFsi zilizokuwa na msingi katika muundo wa Ujapani wa sheria ya Ujerumani.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 305</ref> Leo sheria ya [[Taiwan]] inabaki na mshikamano wa karibu zaidi na mkusanyiko wa sheria kutoka kipindi hicho, kwa sababu ya mgawanyiko kati ya wanataifa wa [[Chiang Kai-shek]], ambao walitoroka kutoka sehemu hiyo, na [[wakomunisti]] wa [[Mao Zedong]] waliopata ushindi wa kudhibiti bara mnamo mwaka wa [[1949]]. Muundombinu wa sasa wa Jamhuri ya Watu wa Uchina ilishawishika pakubwa na [[Sheria ya Kisoshalisti]] ya [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti]], inayopea sheria ya utawala umuhimu mwingi kuliko haki za sheria ya kibinafsi.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 307</ref> Kwa sababu ya kuongezeka kwa kasi kwa viwanda, leo Uchina inapitia machakato wa wa marekebisho, angalau katika nyanja ya haki za kiuchumi, ikiwa si haki za kijamii na kisiasa. Sheria mpya ya mkataba ya mwaka wa 1999 ilikuwa ishara ya kusonga mbali na kuwa na utawala mwingi.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 309</ref> Isitoshe, baada ya mazungumzo yaliyodumu miaka kumi na mitano, mnamo mwaka 2001 Uchina ilijiunga na [[Shirika la Biashara Duniani]].<ref>Farah, ''Five Years of China WTO Membership'', 263–304</ref> === Falsafa ya sheria === {{Main|Falsafa ya sheria}} [[Falsafa]] ya sheria kwa kawaida inaitwa jurisprudensi. Jurisprudensi unaozidi kuongezka wenyewe ni [[falsafa ya kisiasa]], na unauliza "sheria inafaa kuwa nini?", huku jurisprudensia ya uchambuzi inauliza "sheria ni nini?". Jibu la [[utumikaji|kiutumikaji]] la [[John Austin (mwanafalsafa wa kisheria)|John Austin]] linajibu kuwa sheria ni "amri, zinazoandamana na matishio ya vkwazo, kutoka kwa mtawala, ambaye watu wote wamezoea kumtii".<ref name="jap">Bix, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/#3 John Austin]</ref> Mawakili wa [[sheria ya kimaumbile]] kwa upande mwingine, kama vile [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], wanadokeza kwamba sheria inaangazia sheria isiyobadilika ya tabia ya kimaumbile. Dhana ya "sheria ya kimaumbile" iliibuka katika [[falsafa ya Kigiriki]] ya zamani kwa wakati mmoja na kwa pamoja na dhana ya haki, na iliingia mkondo wa [[utamaduni wa Magharibi]] kupitia maandiko ya [[Thomas Aquinas]] na maoni ya [[Falsafa ya mapema ya Kiislamu|mwanafalsafa wa Kiislamu]] na mwanasheria [[Averroes]].<ref>Roeber, ''What the Law Requires'', 887</ref><ref>Stone, ''Human Law and Human Justice'', 14, 51</ref> [[Hugo Grotius]], mwanzilishi wa mfumo uliotegemea dhana za kiakili pekee ya sheria ya kimaumbile, alidokeza kuwa sheria inatokana na msukumo wa kijamii—jinsi Aristotle alivyokuwa amesema—na kufikiria.<ref>[[Fritz Berolzheimer]], ''The World's Legal Philosophies'', 115–116</ref> [[Immanuel Kant]] aliamini kuwa amri ya kimaadili inahitaji sheria "zichaguliwe kana kwamba zinafaa kushikilia kama sheria za ilimwenguni kote za kimaumbile".<ref>[[Immanuel Kant|Kant, Immanuel]], ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'', 42 (par. 434)</ref> [[Jeremy Bentham]] na mwanafunzi wake Austin, wakimfuata [[David Hume]], waliamini kuwa hili liliongeza utata wa [[Utata wa kilicho-na kinachofaa kuwepo|"kilicho" na kile ambacho "kinafaa kuwepo"]]. Bentham na Austin walisisitiza kuwe na sheria ya [[Uchanya wa sheria|uchanya]]; na kuwa sheria ya kweli ni tofauti kabisa na "maadili".<ref>Green, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-positivism/ Legal Positivism]</ref> Kant pia alikosolewa na [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], ambaye alikataa kanuni ya usawa, huku akiamini kuwa sheria hutokana na [[nia kwa nguvu]], na haiwezi fanywa kuwa ya "kimaadili" au "utovu wa nidhamu".<ref>Nietzsche, ''Zur Genealogie der Moral'', Second Essay, 11</ref><ref>Kazantzakis, ''Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law'', 97–98</ref><ref>Linarelli, ''Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral'', 23–26</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 1934, mwanafalsafa wa Kiaustria, [[Hans Kelsen]], alizidi na mapokeo ya uchanya katika kitabu chake ''[[Nadharia Safi ya Sheria]]''.<ref>Marmor, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lawphil-theory/ The Pure Theory of Law]</ref> Kelsen aliamini kuwa ingawa sheria ni tofauti na maadili, inapewa "ukawaida"; kumaanisha kuwa tunfaa kuitii. Ingawa sheria ni taarfa chanya za "ni" (k.m. faini ya kuendesha kwa kurudi nyuma katika barabara kuu ''ni'' [[Euro|€]]500); hii sheria inatuelezea kile "tunachofaa" kutenda. Kwa hivyo kila mfumo wa sheria unaweza kudadisiwa kuwa na kanuni ya msingi (''[[Grundnorm]]'') ianyotupea amri ya kutii. Mpinzani mkuu wa Kelsen, [[Carl Schmitt]], alikataa uchanya na dhana ya [[utawala wa sheria]] kwa sababu hakukubali umuhimu wa kanuni za kidhana za Uchanya badala ya mitazamo na uamuzi bayana wa kisiasa.<ref name=">Bielefeldt, ''Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism'', 25–26</ref> Kwa hiyo, Schmitt alipendekeza falsafa ya sheria ya maalum ([[hali ya dharura]]), ambayo ilikanusha kuwa kanuni za kisheria zingezunguka uzoefu wote wa kisiasa.<ref name="F171">Finn, ''Constitutions in Crisis'', 170–171</ref> [[Picha:Jeremy Bentham by Henry William Pickersgill detail.jpg|thumb|Nadharia za Bentham za utumikiaji zilibaki kimya katika sheria hadi karne ya 20]] Baadaye katika karne ya 20, [[H. L. A. Hart]] alimshambulia Austin kwa kurahisisha kwake kwa suala hilo na Kelsen kwa kutunga kwake kwa mambo ya kihadithi katika kitabu cha ''[[Dhana ya Sheria]]''.<ref>Bayles, ''Hart's Legal Philosophy'', 21</ref> Hart alidokeza kuwa sheria ni mfumo wa kanuni, zilizogawanywa kuwa (kanuni za maadili) ambazo ndizo za kimsingi na sheria za upili (zinazowalenga maafisa kusimamia kanuni msingi). Kanuni za upili zimegawanywa zaidi kuwa sheria za uamuzi (kutatua migogoro ya kisheria), kanuni za mabadiliko (zinazoruhusu sheria kuwa tofauti) na sheria ya utambuzi(inayoruhusu sheria kutambulika kama halali). Wawili kati ya wanafunzi wa Hart waliendeleza mjadala: Ktaika kitabu chake ''Dola la Sheria'', [[Ronald Dworkin]] alimshabulia Hart na wachanya kwa kukataa kwao la kufanya sheria iwe suala la kimaadili. Dworkin anadokeza kuwa sheria ni dhana ya "[[utafsirishaji (sheria)|kitafsiri]]",<ref>Dworkin, ''Law's Empire'', 410</ref> inayowataka mahakimu kupata suluhisho bora zaidi kwa mgogoro wa kisheria, kwa mujibu wa mila zao. [[Joseph Raz]], kwa upande mwingine, anawataka alitetea mtazamo wa kichanya na kukosoa mtazamo wa Hart wa "nadharia laini ya kijamii" katika kitabu chake ''Mamlaka ya Sheria''.<ref name="jra">Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 3–36</ref> Raz anadokeza kuwa sheria ni mamlaka, yanayotambulika kupitia vyanzo vya kijamii na bila kurejelea hoja za kimaadili. Katika maoni yake, uainishaji wowote wa kanuni zozote zaidi ya majukumu yao kama vifaa vya kimamlaka katika upatanisha ni bora yaachiwe [[elimu ya jamii]], badala ya falsafa ya sheria.<ref>Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 37 etc.</ref> === Uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria === {{Main|Sheria na uchumi}} Katika karne ya 18 [[Adam Smith]] aliwasilisha msingi wa kifalsafa wa kuelezea uhusiano kati ya sheria na uchumi.<ref>According to Malloy (''Law and Economics'', 114), Smith established "a classical liberal philosophy that made individuals the key referential sign while acknowledging that we live not alone but in community with others".</ref> Taaluma hiyo ilitokana na mchango wa ukosoaji dhidi ya vyama vya wafanyikazi na [[sheria dhidi ya amana]] nchini Marekani. Watetezi wa taaluma hii waliokuwa na ushawishi mkubwa zaidi, kama vile [[Richard Posner]] na [[Oliver E. Williamson|Oliver Williamson]] na kinachojulikana kama [[Shule ya Chicago (uchumi)|Shule ya Chicago]] ya wanauchumi na mawakili ikiwemo [[Milton Friedman]] na [[Gary Becker]], kwa jumla ni watetezi wa [[uouguzaji wa udhibiti]] na [[ubinafsishaji]], na ni maadui wa udhibiti wa serikali au kile wanachokiona kuwa vikwazo dhidi ya unedeshaji wa ma[[soko huru]].<ref>Jakoby, ''Economic Ideas and the Labour Market'', 53</ref> [[Picha:Richard-A-Posner.jpg|thumb|left|[[Richard Posner]], mmoja wa watetezi wa [[Chuo cha Chicago (uchumi)|Chuo cha Chicago]], huandika blogu pamoja na [[Gary Becker]] mwanauchumi ambaye ni mshindi wa [[Tuzo la Benki ya Uswidi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/ |title=The Becker-Posner Blog |accessdate=2007-02-03}}</ref>]] Mchambuzi maarufu zaidi wa kiuchumi wa sheria ni mshindi wa [[Tujo la Nobel la Uchumi|Tuzo la Nobel]] la mnamo 1991 [[Ronald Coase]], ambaye makala yake makuu ya kwanza, ''[[Hali ya Kampuni]]'' (1937), kulidokeza sababu za kuwepo kwa makampuni mbalimbali (makampuni, ubia, n.k.) ndiyo kuwepo kwa [[gharama za biashara]].<ref>Coase, ''The Nature of the Firm'', 386–405</ref> [[Homo economicus|Binadamu ambao hufikiria kawaida]] hufanya biashara kupitia mikataba ya bilaterala katika masoko wazi hadi wakati ambapo gharama ya biashara kunamaanisha kuwa kutumia makampuni ya kihalmasahhuri ili kuzalisha bidha ni ya ufanisi mwingi zaidi.Makala yake makuu ya pili, ''[[Shida ya Gharama ya Kijamii]]'' (1960), yalidokeza kuwa tunaishi katika Dunia bila gharama za kibiashara, watu ambao [[kuongea kuhusu gharama|huongea kuhusu gharama]] pamoja wanatengeneza mgao sawa wa rasilimali, buila kujali jinsi mahakama yanavyoweza kuamua katika migogoro kuhusu mali.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', 1–44</ref> Coase alitumia mfano wa kesi ya [[kero]] iliyoitwa ''[[Sturges dhidi ya Bridgman]]'', ambapo mtengenezaji peremende ambaye alipiga kelele nyingi na daktari mtulivu walikuwa majirani na walienda mahakamani ili wajue nani kati yao ndiye angefa kuhama.<ref name="Sturges"/> Coase alisema kuwa bila kujali ikiwa hakimu aliamua kuwa mtengenezaji peremende angefaa kuwacha kutumia mashine zake, au ikiwa ingembidi daktari kuvumilia kelele ile, wote wawili wangefikia mapatano ya pamoja kuhusu nani ndiye angefaa kuhama ambayo yanafikia matokeo sawa na mgawanyo wa rasilimali. Ni kuwepo tu kwa [[bei za biashara]] kunaoweza kuzuia hili.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', IV, 7</ref> Kwa hivyo sheria infaa kutazamia kile ambacho ''huenda kikafanyika'', na kuongozwa na ufumbuzi wenye [[ufanisi (uchumi)|ufanisi]]. Wenye kuunda mipango serikalini wanaamini wazo kwamba sheria na vikwazo si muhimu au zenye ufanisi katika kuwasaidia watu.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', V, 9</ref> Coase na wengine kama yeye walitaka mabadiliko ya mbinu, ili kuweka mzigo wa ushahidi katika serikali iliyokuwa ikiingilia soko, kwa kuchambua gharama za hatua.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', VIII, 23</ref> === Elimujamii ya sheria === {{Main|Elimujamii ya sheria}} Somo la kijamii la sheria ni taaluma pana ya masomo inayotazama mwingiliano kati ya sheria na jamii na inahusiana kwa karibu na falsafa ya sheria, uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria na masomo maalum zaidi kama [[somo la jinai]].<ref name="Jary">Jary, ''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', 636</ref> Taasisi za [[ujenzi wa jamii]] na mifumo ya kisheria ni maeneo muhimu ya uchunguzi wa taaluma hii. Mwanzoni, wananadharia wa kisheria walishuku taaluma hii. Kelesen alimshambuliwa mmoja wa waanzilishi wake, [[Eugen Ehrlich]], ambaye alitaka kuweka wazi tofauti kati ya sheria ya uchanya, ambayo mawakili wanajifunza na kutumia, na aina zingine za 'sheria' au kanuni za kijamii zinazodhibiti maisha ya kila siku, na kwa jumla kuzuiwa migogoro isiwafikie mawakili mahakamani.<ref>Rottleuthner, ''La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne'', 109</ref><ref>Rottleuthner, ''Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts'', 521</ref> [[Picha:Max Weber 1917.jpg|thumb|left|[[Max Weber]] mnamo mwaka wa 1917, Weber alianza kazi yake kama wakili, na antazamwa kama mmoja wa waanzilishi wa somo la jamii na somo la jamii la kisheria]] Katika kipindi cha mwaka 1900 [[Max Weber]] alifafanua mbinu yake ya "kisayansi" ya sheria, huku akitambua "umbo la kimantiki ya sheria" kama aina ya utawala, ambao si chanzo cha watu lakini kwa dhana za kiakili.<ref>Rheinstein, ''Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society'', 336</ref> [[Mamalaka ya kimantiki ya sheria|Umantiki wa kisheria]] yalikuwa maneno yake aliyoyatumia kuelezea mwili wa sheria zinazoeleweka na zinazoweza kuhesabika na zilikuwa hatua ya kwanza ya maendeleo ya kisasa ya kisiasa na taifa la ukiritimba la kisasa na kuibuka sambamba na [[ubepari]].<ref name="Jary"/> Msomi mwingine wa somo la jamii, [[Émile Durkheim]], aliandika katika ''Mgawanyo wa Ujira na Jamii'' kuwa kadiri jamii inavyozidi kuwa kubwa, ndivyo mwili wa sheria ya kiraia unaohusika hasa na fidia unapozidi kukuwa kwa gharama ya sheria za jinai na vikwazo vya kisheria.<ref>Johnson, ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology, 156</ref> Wasomi wengine wa somo la jamii ni [[Hugo Sinzheimer]], [[Theodor Geiger]], [[Georges Gurvitch]] na [[Leon Petrażycki]] Barani Ulaya, na [[William Graham Sumner]] nchini Marekani<ref>Gurvitch, ''Sociology of Law'', 142</ref><ref>Papachristou, ''Sociology of Law'', 81–82</ref> == Taasisi za kisheria == Sheria si mwili wa kanuni zisizobadilika bali ni "machakato badilifu wa kanuni zinazobadilishwa kila wakati, kuundwa, na kupewa umbo ili kuambatana na hali fulani."<ref>Hamilton and Spiro, ''The Dynamics of Law'', 3</ref> Mabadiliko yanafanywa kila wakati na taasisi mbalimbali katika jamii. Taasisi kuu za sheria katika [[Demokrasia huru]] ni [[Mahakama huru]], [[Haki ya jinai|mifumo ya haki]], [[bunge]], serikali yenye [[uwajibikaji]], na ukiritimba wenye uwezo na usiokuwa na ufisadi , kiksoi cha polisi, [[kudhibitiwa kwa jeshi na raia]] na taaluma ya kisheria yenye nguvu inayohakikisha watu wanapta haki na jamii ya kiraia mbalimbali—neno linalotumika kuashiria taasisi za kijamii, jamii na ushirikiano unaunda msingi wa kisiasa wa sheria.<ref>Jakobs, ''Pursuing Equal Opportunities'', 5–6</ref><ref>Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 275 etc.</ref> John Locke, katika ''[[Maandiko Mawili kuhusu Serikali]]'', na [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Baron de Montesquieu]] katika ''[[Roho ya Sheria]]'', walitetea [[mgawanyo wa madaraka]] kati ya miili ya kisiasa ya bunge na serikali.<ref>[[Montesquieu]], ''The Spirit of Laws'', [http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_11.htm#006 Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7]</ref> Kanuni yao ilikuwa kuwa hakuna mtu anayefaa kuwa na uwezo wa kuchukua mamlaka yote ya [[Taifa huru|taifa]], ikitofautishwa na nadharia ya [[uimla]] ya [[Thomas Hobbes]]' ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]''.<ref name="H17">Thomas Hobbes, ''Leviathan'', [https://carvercantin.com/thomas-hobbes-leviathan-xvii/ XVII]</ref> [[Max Weber]] na wengine walibadilisha mawazo kuhusu taifa. Jeshi la kisasa, upolisi na mamalaka ya ukiritimba juu ya masiha ya raia wa kawaida husababisha matatizo maalum ya uwajibikaji ambayo waandishi wa awali kama vile Locke au Montesquieu hawangeweza kutabiri. Mashirika ya kisasa ya kimataifa huzingatia umuhimu wa utawala wa sheria na [[utawala mzuri]], huku waandishi wengine hutafiti uhsusiano kati ya utawala wa sheria na utawala wa ufanisi katika nchi za kisasa.<ref>Curtin–Wessel, ''Good Governance'', 73</ref><ref>Fukuyama, ''State-Building'', 132</ref> === Mahakama === {{Main|Mahakama}} Mahakama ni idadi ya [[mahakimu]] wanaosikiza migogoro ili kuamua matokeo. Nchi nyingi zina mfumo wa mahakama ya [[rufaa]], yanayojibu kwa mamlaka makuu ya kisheria. Nchini Marekani haya ni [[Mahakama Kuu ya Marekani]];<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000711024627/http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/briefoverview.pdf A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court], Supreme Court of the United States</ref> nchini Australia, [[Mahakama Kuu ya Australia]]; nchini Uingereza , ni [[Mahakama Kuu ya Uingereza]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.supremecourt.gov.uk/ |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2010-01-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016151227/http://www.supremecourt.gov.uk/ |archivedate=2009-10-16 }}</ref> (tangu tarehe1 Oktoba 2009; hapo awali yalikuwa, [[Nyumba ya Mabwana]]);<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000711024627/http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/briefoverview.pdf House of Lords Judgements], House of Lords</ref> nchini Ujerumani ni ''[[Bundesverfassungsgericht]]''; nchini Ufaransa ni ''[[Cour de cassation (Ufaransa)|Cour de Cassation]]''.<ref>[http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/entscheidungen.html Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/entscheidungen.html |date=20061121164330 }}, Bundesverfassungsgericht</ref><ref>[http://www.courdecassation.fr/jurisprudence_publications_documentation_2/ Jurisprudence, publications, documentation] {{Wayback|url=http://www.courdecassation.fr/jurisprudence_publications_documentation_2/ |date=20070209144055 }}, Cour de cassation</ref> Kwa nchi nyingi za Ulaya Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki nchini Luxembourg inaweza kuukataa umauzi wa kitaifa, wakati ambapo sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya inafaa. Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Kibinadamu inayopatikana Strasbourg inawaruhusu raia wa nchi wanachama za [[Baraza la Ulaya]] kuleta kesi zao zinzohusiana na haki za kibinadamu mbele yake.<ref>Goldhaber, ''European Court of Human Rights'', 1–2</ref> Baadhi ya nchi huruhusu mamlaka yao makuu ya mahakama kukataa sheria wanayopata kuwa [[kinyume na katiba]]. Katika kesi ya ''[[Roe dhidi ya Wade]]'', Mahakama Kuu ya Marekani ilipindua sheria ya jimbo la Texas iliyopiga marufuku kutoa msaada kwa wanawake wenye nia ya [[Kuavya mimba]].<ref>''[[Roe v Wade]]'' (1973) [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=410&page=113 410 U.S. 113] Retrieved 2007-01-26</ref> [[Marekebisho ya Kumi na Nne ya Katiba ya Marekani|Marekebisho ya Kumi na Nne]] ya katiba ya Marekani yalikuwa yametafsiriwa kuwapa ya [[faragha]], na kwa hivyo haki ya mwanamke kuchagua kuavya mimba. Mahakama kinadharia yamefundwa na katiba, kama tu miili ya bunge. Katika nchi nyingi, mahakimu wana uwezo tu wa [[utafsiri (sheria)|kutafsiri]] katiba na sheria zingine zote. Lakini katika nchi zasheria ya kawaida, ambapo mambo si ya kikatiba, mahakama pia yanweza kuunda sheria chini ya [[mafundisho ya utangulizi]]. Uingereza, Finland na New Zealand hutumia dhana ya [[uhuru wa bunge]], ambapo mahakama ambayo hayajachaguliwa hayawezi kupindua sheria iliyopitishwa na bunge la kidemokrasia.<ref>Dicey, ''Law of the Constitution'', 37–82</ref> Katika [[Ukomiunisti|nchi za kikomiunisti]], kama vile Uchina, mahakama mara nyingi hutazamwa kama sehemu ya serikali, au kuwa chini ya bunge; taasisi za kiserikali na watendaji mbalimbali basi wana ushawishi tofauti kwa mahakama.<ref>E.g., the court president is a political appointee (Jensen–Heller, ''Introduction'', 11–12). About the notion of "judicial independence" in China, see Findlay, ''Judiciary in the PRC'', 282–284</ref> Katika nchi za Kiislamu, mahakama mara nyingi huchunguza ikiwa sheria za nchi zinafuata Sharia: [[Mahakama Kuu ya Kikatiba ya Misri]] inaweza kuoinga sheria kama hizo,<ref name="ReferenceA">Sherif, ''Constitutions of Arab Countries'', 158</ref> Na nchini Iran [[Baraza la Ulinzi]] linahakikisha uwiano wa sheria zinazopitishwa na "vigezo vya Uislamu".<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Rasekh, ''Islamism and Republicanism'', 115–116</ref> === Bunge === {{Main|Bunge}} [[Picha:European-parliament-brussels-inside.JPG|thumb|Chumba cha mjadala cha [[Bunge la Ulaya]]]] Mifano maarufu ya bunge ni [[Majumba ya Bunge]] mjini London, [[Bunge la Marekani|Kongresi]] mjini Washingtin D.C., [[Bundestag]] mjini Berlin na [[Duma]] nchini Moscow, [[Bunge la Italia|Parlamento Italiano]] mjini Roma na [[Bunge la Ufaransa|''Assemblée nationale'']] mjini Paris. Kwa kanuni ya serikali wakilishi watu hupigia kura wanasiasa ili watimize ''matakwa'' yao. Ingawa nchi kama Israeli, Ugiriki, Uswidi na Uchina zina [[nyumba moja ya bunge]], nchi nyingi zina [[nyumba mbili za bunge]], kumaanisha kuwa zina nyumba mbili za kibunge zinazochaguliwa tofauti. Katika 'nyumba ya chini' wanasiasa wanachaguliwa kuwakilisha [[Eneo wakilishi bungeni|maeneo wakilishi bungeni]]. 'Nymba ya juu' kawaida huchaguliwa kuwakilisha majimbo katika mfumo wa [[Jamhuri ya majimbo|majimbo]] (kama vile nchii Australia, Ujerumani au Marekani) au upigaji kura tofauti katika katika mfumo wa umoja (kama vile nchini Ufaransa). Nchini Uingereza nyumba ya juu inachaguliwa na na serikali kama [[Nyumba ya mabwana|nyumba ya marudio]]. Ukosoaji mmoja wa mifumo yenye nyumba mbili yenye nyumba mbili zilizochaguliwa ni kuwa nyumba ya juu na ya chini huenda zikafanana. Utetezi wa tangu jadi wa mifumo ya nyumba mbili nni kuwa chumba cha juu huwa kama nyumba ya marekebisho. Hili linaweza kupunguza uonevu na dhuluma katika hatua ya kiserikali'', 101</ref> Ili kupitisha sheria, idadi kubwa ya [[Wabunge]] lazima [[wapige kura]] ili [[muswada (sheria inayopendekezwa)]] upitishwe katika kila nyumba. Kawaida kutakuwa na kusoma kwingi na marekebesho mengi yaliyopendekezwa na makundi tofaiti ya kisiasa. Ikiwa nchi ina katiba inayofuatiliwa vyema, idadi maalum ya mabadiliko katika katiba yanahitajika, hivyo kufanya iwe gumu kubadilisha sheria. Serikali kwa kawaida huongoza mchakato huo, ambao unaweza kujumuisha [[Wabunge]] (k.m. nchini Uingereza na Ujerumani). Lakini katika mfumo wa kiraisi, serikali inachagua [[Baraza la mawaziri (serikali)|baraza la mawaziri]] kutawala kutoka kwa washirika wake [[kisiasa]] ikiwa wamechaguliwa au la (k.m. nchini Marekani au Brazili), na jukumu la bunge linapunguza liwe [[kukubali]] au [[kukataa]].<ref>About "cabinet accountability" in both presidential and parliamentary systems, see Shugart–Haggard, ''Presidential Systems'', 67 etc.</ref> === Serikali === {{Main|Serikali}} [[Picha:Dmitry Medvedev 2 April 2009-1.jpg|right|thumb| Mikutano ya [[G20]] inahusisha wawakilishi wa serikali ya kila nchi]] Mtendaji katika mfumo wa kisheria hutumika kama kituo cha [[serikali]] cha [[mamlaka]] ya kisiasa. Katika [[mfumo wa kibunge]], kama vile nchini Uingereza, Italia, Ujerumani na Ujapani, mtendaji hujulikana kama [[Baraza (serikali)|serikali]], na huwa na wanachama wa bunge. Mtendaji huchaguliwa na [[Waziri Mkuu]] au [[Chansela]], ambaye ofisi yake ina nguvu za chini ya [[Kura ya kutokuwa na imani|imani]] ya bunge. Kwa sababu uchaguzi wenye watu wengi huteua vyama vya kisiasa kutawala, kiongozi a chama anaweza kubadilika katika kipindi kabla ya uchaguzi mwingine. [[Mkuu wa Taifa]] ni kando na mtendaji, na kimfano hupitisha sheria na huwa kama mwakilishi wa nchi. Baadhi ya mifano ni [[Rais wa Ujerumani]] (anayeapishwa na Bunge); [[Malkia wa Uingereza]] (wadhifa wa [[kurithi]]), na [[Rais wa Austria]] (anachaguliwa kwa kura ya wengi). Mfano mwingine muhimu ni [[mfumo wa kirais]], unaopatikana nchini Ufaransa, Marekani na Urusi. Katika mifumo ya kirais, mtrndaji huwa kama mkuu wa taifa na mkuu wa serikali, na ana nguvu za kuchagua baraza la mawaziri pekee yake. Chini ya mfumo wa kirais, tawi la mtendaji ni kando na bunge ambapo haiwajibiki mbele ya bunge.<ref>Haggard, ''Presidents, Parliaments and Policy'', 71</ref><ref>Olson, ''The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe'', 7</ref> Ingawa jukumu la mtendaji ni tofauti toka nchi moja hado nyingine, kawaida itapendekeza wingi wa sheria, na kupendekeza ajenda ya serikali. Katika mifumo ya kirais, mtendaji mara nyingi ana nguvu za kukataa sheria. Mara nyingi mtendaji katika mifumo yote ana wajibu wa [[sera za mahusiano ya nje]], jeshi na polisi na urasimu. [[Mawaziri]] au maafisa wengine wanasimamia ofisi za nchi, kama vile [[Waziri wa nje|wizara ya nje]] au [[Waziri wa ndani|wizara ya ndani]]. Uchaguzi wa mtendaji tofauti kwa hivyo ina uwezo wa kupindua mtazamo wa nchi nzima wa serikali. === Jeshi na polisi === {{Main|Jeshi|Polisi}} [[Picha:US Customs and Border Protection officers.jpg|thumb|Maafisa wa [[Marekani wa Forodha na Ulinzi wa Mipaka]]]] Ingawa mashirika ya kijeshi yamekuwepo kwa muda mrefu kama serikali yenyewe, dhana la kikosi cha polisi kilicho tayari ni dhana ya kisasa. Mfumo wa [[Uingereza ya Zama za Kati]] ya [[mahakama ya jinai]] ya kusafiri, au [[Mahakama ya assize|assize]], ilitumia [[kesi za maonyesho]] na unyongaji hadharani kufanya jamii ziwe na hofu na hivyo kudumisha udhibiti.<ref>See, eg ''[[Tuberville v Savage]]'' (1669), 1 Mod. Rep. 3, 86 Eng. Rep. 684, where a knight said in a threatening tone to a layman, "If it were not assize time, I would not take such language from you."</ref> Polisi wa kwanza wa kisasa pengine walikuwa wale wa Paris wa karne ya 17, katika mahakama ya [[Louis XIV wa Ufaransa|Louis XIV]],<ref>[http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=219522 History of Police Forces], History.com Encyclopedia</ref> ingawa Polisi wa Mkoa wa Paris ndio wanadai kuwa wao ndio waliokuwa wa kwanza kuvaa sare.<ref>[http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité] {{Wayback|url=http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm |date=20080506215949 }}, La Préfecture de Police</ref> Weber yu maarufu kwa kudokeza kwamba taifa ni lile ambalo linadhibiti kihalali utumizi wa kipekee wa vurugu.<ref name="mwp154">Weber, [[s:Politics as a Vocation|Politics as a Vocation]]</ref><ref>Weber, ''The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation'', 154</ref> Majeshi na askari wanalinda usalama kufuatana na amri ya serikali au mahakama. Maneno [[taifa lililopangarayika]] yanaashiria taifa ambalo haliwezi kutekeleza au kulazimisha sera; askari wao na majeshi hawana uwezo wa kulinda usalama na amani na jamii inaelekea [[vurugu pekee]], wakati serikali inapokosekana.<ref>In these cases sovereignty is eroded, and often warlords acquire excessive powers (Fukuyama, ''State-Building'', 166–167).</ref> === Urasimu === {{Main|Urasimu}} [[Picha:UN Headquarters 2.jpg|thumb| Makao makuu ya [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] mjini New York yana watumishi wa kiserikali wanaotoa huduma kwa mataifa wanachama 192 ya shirika hilo.]] Asili ya neno "Urasimu" kwa Kiingereza (bureaucracy) ni neno la Kifaransa la "ofisi" (''bureau'') na neno la [[Kigiriki cha Zamani]] cha "nguvu" (''kratos'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bureaucracy&searchmode Bureaucracy], Online Etymology Dictionary</ref> Kama tu wanajeshi na polisi, watumishi wa mfumo wa kisheria wa serikali na miili inayounda urasimu wake hufuata maagizo ya Mtendaji. Mojawapo ya marejeo kwa dhana yalifanywa [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm|Baron de Grimm]], mwandishi wa Kijerumani aliyeishi nchini Ufaransa. Mnamo mwaka wa 1765 aliandika, <blockquote>Roho halisi ya sheria nchini Ufaransa ni urasimu amabo marehemu Monsieur de Gournay alikuwa akilalamika sana kuhusu; hapa ofisi, makarani, makatibu, wasimamizi na ''wanaonuia kufanya kazi fulani'' hawaapishwi kufaidi maslahi ya umma, kwa hakika maslahi ya ummayanaonekana kuanzishwa ili ofisi hizo ziwepo.<ref>Albrow, ''Bureaucracy'', 16</ref></blockquote> Wasiwasi kuhusu "utawala wa kiofisi" bado ni kawaida, na utendaji wa watumishi wa umma kawaida hutofautishwa na wa [[kampuni za kibinafsi]] zinazoendeshwa na lengo la [[faida]].<ref>Mises, ''Bureaucracy'', II, [http://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp Bureaucratic Management]</ref> Kwa kweli kampuni za kibinafsi, hasa zile kubwa, pia zina urasimu.<ref name="K367">Kettl, ''Public Bureaucracies'', 367</ref> Mtazamo mbaya wa "[[urasimu]]" kando, huduma za umma kama vile elimu, afya na shughuli za polisi au [[uchukuzi wa umma]] ni kazi muhimu nchi hivyo basi kufanya urasimu wa umma chanzo cha nguvu za serikali.<ref name="K367" /> Akiandika mapema katika karne ya 20, Max Weber aliamini kuwa sifa muhimu ya nchi iliyoendelea ilikuwa imekuwa msaada wake wa kirasimu.<ref name="mwp393">Weber, ''Economy and Society'', I, 393</ref> Weber aliandika kuwa sifa za kawaida za urasimu wa kisasa ni kuwa maafisa wanafafanua lengo lake, wigo wa kazi umefungwa na kanuni, usimamizi unajumuisha wataalamu wa wataalamu wa kitaaluma, amabo ambao husimamia kuanzia juu kuenda chini, wakiwasiliana kupitia kuandika na kufunga uwezo wa wafanyikazi wa umma kufanya watakavyo kwa kutumia kanuni.<ref>Kettl, ''Public Bureaucracies'', 371</ref> === Taaluma ya sheria === {{Main|Taaluma ya sheria}} [[Picha:Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg|thumb|Katika mifumo ya sheria ya kiraia kama ile ya Ufaransa, Ujerumani, Italia, Uhispania na Ugiriki, kuna aina maalum ya [[Karani wa sheria ya kiraia]], afisaa wa umma mwenye ufunzi wa kisheria, anayelipwa fidia na wanaofanya biasharaa.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 22</ref> Hii ni picha ya karne ya 16 ya karani wa sheria ya kiraia kama huyo ya mchoraji wa Kiflemi [[Quentin Massys]].]] Hitimisho la utawala wa sheria ni kuwepo kwa taaluma ya kisheria yenye uhuru wa kutosha wa kuweza kuomba mamlaka ya mahakama huru; haki ya usaidizi kusaidiwa na [[wakili]] mahakamani uanatokana na hitimisho hili—nchini Uingereza kazi ya wakili inatofautishwa na ile ya mshauri wa kisheria.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 1</ref> Kama mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Binadamu yanavyosema, sheria inafaa kupatikana na kila mtu na waty wanfaa kutabiri jinsi sheria itakavyowaathiri.<ref>''[[The Sunday Times v The United Kingdom]]'' [1979] [http://www.worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1979/1.html ECHR 1 at 49] Case no. 6538/74</ref> Ili kudumisha utaaluma, [[zoezi la sheria]] kawaida linachungwa na serikali au mwili huru kama vile [[chama cha mawikili]], [[baraza la mawakili]] au [[jamii ya sheria]]. Mawakili wa kisasa wanapata utambulisho maalum wa kisheria kupitia taratibu maalum za kisheria (k.m. mafanikio katika mitihani), yanahitajika na sheria ili kuwa na cheti maalum (elimi ya kisheria inayompa mwanafunzi [[Shahada ya Sheria]], [[Shahada ya Sgeria ya Kiraia]], au [[Shahada]] ya [[Juris Doctor]]<ref>Higher academic degrees may also be pursued. Examples include a [[Master of Laws]], a [[Master of Legal Studies]] or a [[Doctor of Laws]].</ref>), na zinawekwa ofisini kwa kutumia fomu za kisheria za kuapishwa ([[kukubaliwa katika baraza la mawakili]]). Nchi nyingi za Kiisalmu zina sheria sawa kuhusu elimu ya kisheria na taaluma ya kisheria, lakini zingine bado zinaruhusu mawakili wenye mafunzo katika sheria ya Kiislamu ya jadi katika taaaluma ua sheria katika mahakama ya hadhi ya kibinasfi.<ref>Ahamd, [https://web.archive.org/web/20081001195205/http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf Lawyers: Islamic Law]</ref> Nchini Uchina na katika nchi zingine za ulimwengu unaoendelea hakuna watu wa kutosha wenye mafunzo ya kisheria kufanya kazi katika mifumo ya mahakama iliyopo katika nchi hizo, na, kufuatana na hilo, viwango rasmi si vikali sana.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 22–23</ref> Baada ya kupata kukubalika, wakili mara nyingi atafanya kazi katika [[kampuni ya sheria]], katika [[vyumba (sheria)|vyumba]] kama wakili wa kipekee, katika wadhifa wa kiserikali au katika shirika la kibinafsi kama [[mshauri]] wa ndani. Isitoshe wakili anaweza kuwa [[|utafiti wa kisheria|mtafiti wa kisheria]] anayepeana uatafiti wa kisheria unapoitishwa kupitia maktaba, huduma ya kibiashara au kazi isiyokuwa na muajiri mmoja. Watu wengi wenye mafunzo katika sheria walitumia utafiti wao katika taaluma nyingine tofauti kabisa. Adhimu kwa zoezi la sheria katika mapokeo ya sheria ya kawaida ni utafiti wa kisheria kujua hali ya wakati wa sasa wa sheria. Hili linahushisha kuchunguza [[ripoti za sheria|ripoti za kesi]], [[majarida ya kisheria]] na sheria. Zoezi la sheria pia inahusu kuandika hati kama vile [[kuiitia]] kwa mahakama, [[brifu [sheria)|brifu]], mikataba, au [[amana]]. Majadiliano na ujuzu wa [[kusuluhisha migogoro]] (ikijumuisha mbinu za [[Mbinu za Masuluhisho ya Kimbadala|ADR]]) pia ni muhimi kwa zoezi la sheria, ikitegemea na aina ya taaluma.<ref>Fine, ''The Globalisation of Legal Education'', 364</ref> === Mashirika ya kijamii === {{Main|Mashirika ya kijamii}} [[Picha:1963 march on washington.jpg|thumb|Maandamano mjini Washington D.C. wakati wa [[Harakati za Haki za Kiraia za Wamarekani wenye asili ya Kiafrika (1955–1968)|Harakati ya Haki za Kiraia ya Marekani]] mnamo mwaka wa 1963]] Dhana ya [[Kiripablikani wakati kulipokuwa na madaraja mbalimbali ya kijamii]] ya "mashirika ya kijamii" ilianzia wakati wa Hobbes na Locke.<ref>Warren, ''Civil Society'', 3–4</ref> Locke aliona mashirika ya kijamii kama watu wenye "sheria sawa na mahakama [[kurejelea]] , yenye mamlaka ya kuamua utata baina yao."<ref>Locke, ''[[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government|Second Treatise]]'', Chap. VII, Of Political or Civil_Society. Chapter 7, section 87</ref> Mwanafalsafa wa Kijerumani [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] alitofautisha "taifa" na "mashirika ya kijamii" (''burgerliche Gesellschaft'') katika kitabu chake ''[[Vipengele vya Falsafa ya Sawa]]''.<ref>Hegel, ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'', 3, II, [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/prcivils.htm 182]; Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 277–278</ref> Hegel aliamini kuwa [[mashirika ya kijamii]] na [[Taifa huru|taifa]] zilikuwa kinyume kabisa, katika mpangilio wa nadharia yake ya historia. Taifa la kisasa lenye pande hizi mbili–mashirika ya kijamii lilizaliwa tena katika nadharia za [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] na [[Karl Marx]].<ref>(Pelczynski, ''The State and Civil Society'', 1–13; Warren, ''Civil Society'', 5–9)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Zaleski | first = Pawel | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality | journal = Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte | volume = 50 | issue = | pages = | publisher = Felix Meiner Verlag | location = | year = 2008 | url = | issn = | doi = | id = | accessdate = }} </ref> Siku hizi katika nadharia ya wakati wa baada ya kisasa za mashirika la kijamii lazima iwe chanzo cha sheria, kwa kuwa msingi ambapo watu wanaunda maoni na kushwishi yale wanayoamini sheria inafaa kuwa. Kama wakili wa Kiaustralia na mwandishi [[Geoffrey Robertson QC]] alivyoandika kuhusu sheria ya kimataifa, <blockquote>... mojawapo ya vyanzo vyake vya kisasa inapatikana katika majibu ya kawaida ya wanaume na wanawake, na mashirika yasiyo ya kiserikali, amabyo wengi huunga, kwa ukiukaji wa haki za kibinadamu amabyo wengi huona kwenye runinga wakiwa sebuleni nyumbani mwao.<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes Against Humanity'', 98–99</ref></blockquote> [[Uhuru wa kujieleza]], [[uhuru wa kujumuika]] na sheria zingine nyingi za kibinafsi zinawaruhusu watu kukusanyika, kujadili, kukosoa na kufanya serikali zao kuwajibika, ambapo msingi wa [[demokrasia ya majadiliano]] inaibuka. Watu wanapozidi kujihusisha mamlaka ya kisheria na na kuwa na uwezo wa kubadilisha jinsi mamlaka ya kisiasa yanapotumika maishani mwao; ndivyo sheria inapozidi kuwa [[Uhalali (kisiasa)|halali]] kwa watu. Taasisi ambazo ni za kawaida sana za mashirika ya kijamii ni masoko ya kibiashra, kampuni zenye malengo ya kupata faida, familia, [[vyama vya kibiashara]], hospitali, vyuo vikuu, shule, mashirika ya msaada, [[vilabu vya kujadili]], [[mashirika yasiyokuwa ya kiserikali]], vitongoji, makanisa, na vyama vya kidini.<ref>There is no clear legal definition of the civil society, and of the institutions it includes. Most of the institutions and bodies who try to give a list of institutions (such as the [[European Economic and Social Committee]]) exclude the political parties. For further information, see Jakobs, ''Pursuing Equal Opportunities'', 5–6; Kaldor–Anheier–Glasius, ''Global Civil Society'', ''[http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf passim] {{Wayback|url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf|date=20070817130457}}'' (PDF); Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 282–283.</ref> {{-}} == Tazama pia == {{portal}} {{Main|Muhtasari wa sheria}} * [[Haki za kibinadamu]] * [[Uchumi]] * [[Historia]] * [[Sayansi ya Kisiasa]] * [[Falsafa]] == Tanbihi == {{Marejeo|2}} https://www.path-2-happiness.com/sw == Marejeo == ; Printed sources: * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Ahmad|first=Ahmad Atif|title=Lawyers: Islamic Law|encyclopedia=Oxford Encyclopedia of Legal History|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf|format=PDF|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20081001195205/http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf|archivedate=2008-10-01}} {{Wayback|url=http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf |date=20090326034212 }} * {{cite book|last=Akhlaghi|first=Behrooz|title=The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt|year=2005|isbn=3-161-48787-7|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|editor=Yassari, Nadjma|chapter=Iranian Commercial Law and the New Investment Law FIPPA}} * {{cite book|last=Albrow|first=Martin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=London|title=Bureaucracy (Key Concepts in Political Science)|url=https://archive.org/details/bureaucracy0000mart|year=1970|isbn=0-333-11262-8}} * {{cite journal|last=Anderson |first=J.N.D.|year=1956|month=Januari |title=Law Reform in the Middle East |journal=International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944—) |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=43–51|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2607811 |accessdate=2007-03-04 |doi=10.2307/2607811}} * {{Cite wikisource|Constitution of the Athenians|[[Aristotle]]}}. 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accessdate=2006-11-10| archivedate=2014-09-10| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910155351/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html}} * {{cite web | last=Marmor | first=Andrei |url= http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lawphil-theory/ | title= The Pure Theory of Law | accessdate=2007-02-09 | work= Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=1934 }} * {{cite web| title=Saudi Arabia| url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm| publisher=[[Jurist]]| accessdate=2006-09-02| archive-date=2006-08-30| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830232216/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm| url-status=dead}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/statesparties.html|title=The States Parties to the Rome Statute|publisher=[[International Criminal Court]]|accessdate=2007-02-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040605155639/http://www.icc-cpi.int/statesparties.html|archivedate=2004-06-05}} * {{cite web|title=The World Factbook&nbsp;– Field Listing&nbsp;– Legal system|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html|publisher=[[CIA]]|accessdate=2007-10-13|archivedate=2018-12-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226012138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html}} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{sisterlinks|Law}} * [http://www.law.com/ Legal news and information network for attorneys and other legal professionals] * [http://jurispedia.org/ Encyclopaedic project of academic initiative] {{Wayback|url=http://jurispedia.org/ |date=20210408132428 }} in [[Jurispedia]] * [http://www.lawserver.com/ Legal articles, news, and interactive maps] * [http://www.worldlii.org/ WorldLII - World Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.commonlii.org/ CommonLII - Commonwealth Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.asianlii.org/ AsianLII - Asian Legal Information Institute (AsianLII)] * [http://www.austlii.edu.au/ AustLII - Australasian Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.bailii.org/ BaiLII - British and Irish Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.canlii.org/ CanLII - Canadian Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.nzlii.org/ NZLII - New Zealand Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.paclii.org/ PacLII - Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute] [[Jamii:Sheria| ]] [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] [[Jamii:Historia]] [[Jamii:Falsafa]] qysal9ygeiqlgafg53nrmlajg4car7j 1361807 1361781 2024-11-08T11:32:13Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Masahihisho aliyefanya [[Special:Contributions/~2024-9333|~2024-9333]] ([[User talk:~2024-9333|Majadiliano]]) yalirejeshwa hadi sahihisho la mwisho na [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] 1351560 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} [[Picha:JMR-Memphis1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Mwanamke wa Haki]] ni ishara ya idara ya sheria.<ref>Hamilton, Marci. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Ox4_vqFCjcEC&pg=PA296&dq=%22lady+justice%22+symbol&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=uXb8Se-IC4GuyATlm5SPBg God vs. the Gavel]'', page 296 (Cambridge University Press 2005): “The symbol of the judicial system, seen in courtrooms throughout the United States, is blindfolded Lady Justice.”</ref><ref>Fabri, Marco. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=AwwH0F8iC9QC&pg=PA137&dq=%22lady+justice%22+symbol&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=uXb8Se-IC4GuyATlm5SPBg The challenge of change for judicial systems]'', page 137 (IOS Press 2000): “the judicial system is intended to be apolitical, its symbol being that of a blindfolded Lady Justice holding balanced scales.”</ref> [[Haki]] inaonyeshwa kama [[mungu jike]] ambaye anabeba ishara [[tatu]] za [[utawala wa kisheria]]: [[upanga]] unaoashiria nguvu ya mahakama; [[mizani]] zinazoashiria upimaji wa madai yanayoshindana; na [[kitambaa]] kinachofunika macho kuashiria kutofanya upendeleo.<ref>Luban, ''Law's Blindfold'', 23</ref>]] '''Sheria''' (kutoka [[neno]] la [[Kiarabu]]; kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''law'' <ref>from [[Old English]] ''lagu'' "Words of Mel"; ''legal'' comes from [[Latin]] ''legalis'', from ''[[translating "law" to other European languages|lex]]'' "law", "statute" ([http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none Law], Online Etymology Dictionary; [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legal Legal], Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary)</ref>) ni [[mfumo]] wa [[kanuni]], ambazo kwa kawaida hutekelezwa kupitia seti ya [[taasisi]] maalumu.<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90; see "[[analytical jurisprudence]]" for extensive debate on what law is; in ''[[The Concept of Law]]'' Hart argued law is a "system of rules" (Campbell, ''The Contribution of Legal Studies'', 184); Austin said law was "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction" (Bix, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/#3 John Austin]); Dworkin describes law as an "interpretive concept" to achieve [[justice]] (Dworkin, ''Law's Empire'', 410); and Raz argues law is an "authority" to mediate people's interests (Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 3–36).</ref> Inaunda [[siasa]], [[uchumi]] na [[jamii]] kwa njia mbalimbali na huratibu mahusiano baina ya [[watu]]. [[Sheria ya mkataba]] huongoza kila kitu, kuanzia kununua [[tiketi]] ya [[basi]] hadi [[biashara]] katika [[Soko|masoko]]. [[Sheria ya mali]] inafafanua [[haki]] na [[wajibu]] unaohusiana na uhamisho wa jina la mali ya binafsi na [[mali ya kweli]]. [[Sheria ya hifadhi]] inatumika kwa mali yanayotumika kwa uwekezaji na usalama wa kifedha, huku [[sheria ya kukiuka wajibu]] inaruhusu madai ya [[fidia]] ikiwa haki au mali za mtu zinafanyiwa madhara. Ikiwa madhara ni kinyume cha sheria, [[sheria ya jinai]] inatoa mbinu zinazoweza kutumiwa na [[taifa]] ili kumshtaki mhusika. [[Sheria ya kikatiba]] inatoa utaratibu wa utungaji wa sheria, ulinzi wa [[haki za kibinadamu]] na [[uchaguzi]] wa wawakilishi wa kisiasa. [[Sheria ya utawala]] inatumika kuangalia upya maamuzi ya [[vyombo vya serikali]], huku [[sheria ya kimataifa]] inatawala shughuli baina ya [[nchi]] huru zinazohusu mambo kama vile [[biashara]], vikwazo vya kimazingira na hatua za [[Jeshi|kijeshi]]. Akiandika mnamo [[350 K.K.]], [[mwanafalsafa]] wa [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[Aristotle]] alisema, "[[Utawala wa sheria]] ni bora kuliko utawala wa mtu yeyote binafsi."<ref>"it is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens: upon the same principle, if it is advantageous to place the supreme power in some particular persons, they should be appointed to be only guardians, and the servants of the laws." (Aristotle, ''Politics'' [[s:Politics (Aristotle)/Book 3#3:16|3.16]]).</ref> Mifumo ya sheria inaelezea [[haki]] na majukumu kwa njia mbalimbali. Tofauti ya jumla inaweza kufanywa kati ya maeneo yanayotawaliwa na [[mfumo wa sheria ya kiraia]], ambayo huandika sheria zao, na yale yanayofuata [[sheria za kawaida]], ambapo sheria haijaundwa kwa utaratibu maalumu. Katika baadhi ya nchi, [[sheria ya dini]] bado hutumika kama sheria maalum. Sheria ni chanzo kikuu cha uchunguzi wa kitaalam, wa [[historia ya sheria]], [[falsafa ya sheria]], [[uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria]] au [[somo la kijamii kuhusu sheria]]. Sheria pia huibua masuala muhimu na magumu kuhusu [[usawa]], [[uadilifu]] na [[haki]]. "Katika usawa wake wa ajabu", alisema mwandishi [[Anatole France]] mnamo mwaka [[1894]], "sheria inakataza matajiri na mafukura kulala chini ya madaraja, kuombaomba barabarani na kuiba mikate."<ref>The original French is: "La loi, dans un grand souci d'égalité, interdit aux riches comme aux pauvres de coucher sous les ponts, de mendier dans les rues et de voler du pain" (France, ''The Red Lily'', [http://www.online-literature.com/anatole-france/red-lily/8/ Chapter VII]).</ref> Katika [[demokrasia]] ya kawaida, taasisi za msingi za kutafsiri na kuunda sheria ni matawi matatu makuu ya [[utawala]], ambayo ni [[mahakama]] isiyo na upendeleo, [[bunge]] na [[serikali]] yenye kuwajibika. Ili kutekeleza na kutumia nguvu za kufanya sheria ifuatwe na kutoa huduma kwa umma, urasimu wa serikali, [[jeshi]] na [[polisi]] ni muhimu. Vyombo hivyo vyote vya dola viliundwa na kutawaliwa na sheria, [[taaluma ya kisheria]] iliyo huru na [[jamii]] yenye bidii zinajulisha na kusaidia maendeleo. == Masomo ya sheria == Mifumo yote ya kisheria inahusu na masuala ya msingi, lakini kila taifa inaainisha na kubainisha masomo yake ya kisheria kwa njia mbalimbali. Tofauti ya kawaida ni kuwa "[[sheria ya umma]]" (maneno yanayohusika kwa karibu na [[taifa]], na kuhusisha sheria ya kikatiba, kitawala na ya jinai), na "[[sheria ya kibinafsi]]" (inayohusisha mkataba, [[sheria ya kukiuka wajibu]] na mali).<ref>Although many scholars argue that "the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred", and that this distinction has become mere "folklore" (Bergkamp, ''Liability and Environment'', 1–2).</ref> Katikamifumo ya [[sheria ya kirai(mfumo wa sheria)|sheria ya kirai]] , mkataba na kukiuka wajibu zinapatikana chini ya [[sheria ya majukumu]] huku sheria ya hifadhi inapatikana chini ya serkali za halali au [[Mkataba wa Hague wa Sheria inayotumika kwa Hifadhi na kwa jinsi ya Kuzijua|mikataba ya kimataifa]]. Sheria ya Kimataifa, kikatiba, kitawala, jinai, mkataba, kukiuka wajibu na mali na [[sheria ya hifadhi|hifadhi]] zinatambulika kama "masomo msingi ya jadi",<ref>E.g. in England these seven subjects, with EU law substituted for international law, make up a "qualifying law degree". For criticism, see [[Peter Birks]]' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the [http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/articles1/birks1.html#appendix Notice to Law Schools].</ref> ingawa kuna [[Sheria#Masomo zaidi|masomo zaidi]] ambayo yanaweza kuwa na umuhimu mkubwa zaidi wa kiutendaji. === Sheria ya Kimataifa === {{Main|Sheria ya umma ya kimataifa|Mgongano wa sheria|Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya}} [[Picha:Naciones Unidas 3.jpg|right|thumb|Ikitoa katiba ya sheria ya kimataifa ya umaa, mfumo wa [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] ulikubaliwa wakati wa [[Vita Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia]]]] Sheria ya kimataifa inaweza kuashiria mambo matatu: sheria ya umma ya kimataifa, sheria ya kibinafsi ya kimataifa au mgongano wa sheria na sheria ya mashirika makubwa ya kimataifa. * '''[[Sheria ya Umma ya Kimataifa]]''' inajihusisha na uhusiano kati ya mataifa uhuru. [[Vyanzo vya sheria ya kimataifa|Vyanzo]] vya maendeleo ya sheria ya umma ya kimataifa ni [[Desturi(sheria)|desturi]], mwenendo na mikataba kati ya nchi huru [[Mikataba ya Geneva]]. Sheria ya umma ya kimataifa inaweza kutengezwa na [[mashirika ya kimataifa]], kama vile [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] (ambao ilianzishwa baada ya kushindwa kwa [[Shirikisho la Kimataifa]] kuzuia [[Vita vya Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia]]),<ref>[http://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm History of the UN], United Nations. [[Winston Churchill]] (''The Hinge of Fate'', 719) comments on the League of Nations' failure: "It was wrong to say that the League failed. It was rather the member states who had failed the League."</ref> [[Shirika la Kimataifa la Ajira]], [[Shirika la Kimataifa la Biashara]], au [[Shirika la Fedha la Kimataifa]]. Sheria ya kimatifa ya umma ina hadhi maalum kama sheria kwa sababu hakuna kikozi cha kimataifa cha polisi, na mahakama (kama vile [[Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Haki]] kama tawi la kimsingi la Umoja wa Mataifa la mahakama) halina uwezo wa kuadhibu kutokutii.<ref>The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially "self help"; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states (Robertson, ''Crimes against Humanity'', 90; Schermers-Blokker, ''International Institutional Law'', 900–901).</ref> Hata hivyo, miili michache, kama vile WTO, ina mifumo yenye ufanisi ya utatuzi wa kudumu na utatuzi wa mogogoro inayoambatana na vikwazo vya kibiashara.<ref>Petersmann, ''The GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement System'', 32</ref> * '''[[Mgongano wa sheria]]''' (au "sheria ya kibinafsi ya kimataifa" katika nchi za [[sheria ya kiraia]]) unahusisha [[maeneo ya kimamlaka ya kisheria]] ya mgogoro wa kisheria baina ya watu wa kibinafsi unafaa kusikizwa na sheria za maeneo gani ya kimamlaka ya kisheria ndiyo inayofaa kutumika. Leo, biashra zinazidi kuwa na uwezo wa kusongeza minyororo ya ugavi ya [[mtaji]] na [[ajira]] kuvuka mipaka, na pia kufanya biashara na kampuni za nchi za ng'ambo, hivyo kulifanya swali kuhusu nchi ipi ndiyo inayomamlaka ya kisheria kuwa muhimu zaidi. Idadi kubwa zaidi ya biashara zinachagua usuluhishi wa kibiashara chini ya [[Tuzo la Mkataba wa Utambuzi na Utendaji wa Masuluhisho ya Kimataifa|Mkataba wa New York wa mnamo mwaka1958]].<ref>Redfem, ''International Commercial Arbitration'', 68–69</ref> * '''[[Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya]]''' ndiyo ya kwanza, kufikia sasa, ambayo ni mfano wa [[sheria kuu ya kimataifa]]. Kutokana na mwenendo wa kuongezeka kwa ushirikiano wa kiuchumi Duniani, mikataba mingi ya kikanda — hasa ya [[Umoja wa Nchi za Amerika Kusini]] — zimeanza kuufuata mfano kama huu. Katika Umoja wa Ulaya, nchi huru zimekusanya mamlaka yao katika mfumo wa mahakama na [[Bunge la Ulaya|taasisi za kisiasa]]. Taasisi hizi zinapewa uwezo wa kutekeleza kanuni za kisheria dhidi ya au kwa nchi wanachama na raia katika namna ambayo haiwezekani kupitia sheria ya umma ya kimataifa.<ref>Schermers–Blokker, ''International Institutional Law'', 943</ref> Kama [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki]] yalivyosema katika miaka ya 1960, sheria ya Umoja wa Umoja wa Ulaya hujumiusha "muundo mpya wa sheria ya kimataifa" kwa ajili ya faida inayotegemeana ya kijamii na kiuchumi wa nchi zote wanachama.<ref>See the [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:HTML C-26/62 ''Van Gend en Loos v Nederlanse Administratie Der Belastingen''], and [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61964J0006:EN:HTML ''Flaminio Costa v E.N.E.L.''] decisions of the European Court.</ref> === Sheria ya kikatiba na ya kiutawala === {{Main|Sheria ya kikatiba|Sheria ya kiutawala}} [[Picha:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|[[Azimio la Haki za Kibinadamu na za Raia]], ambalo kanuni zake bado zini thamani ya kikatiba]] Sheria ya kikatiba na kiutawala zinasimamia mambo ya nchi. [[Sheria ya kikatiba]] inahusisha uhusiano baina ya serikali, bunge na mahakama na [[haki za kibinadamu]] au [[uhuru wa kiraia]] wa watu binafsi dhidi ya nchi. Maeneo mengi ya kisheria, kama vile [[Sheria ya Marekani|Marekani]] na [[Sheria ya Ufaransa|Ufaransa]], zina katiba moja iliyoandikwa kwa makini, iliyo na [[Muswada wa Haki]]. Katiba chache kama vile [[Sheria la Uingereza|Uingereza]], hazina hati kama hiyo."Katiba" kwa ufupi ni zile sheria ambazo zinajumuisha [[mwili wa kisiasa]], kutoka [[kanuni]], [[sheria za uamuzi]] na [[Mkataba wa kikatiba(utamaduni wa kisiasa)|mkataba]]. Kesi kwa jina ''[[Entick dhidi ya Carrington]]''<ref>''[[Entick v Carrington]]'' (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030; [1765] [http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1765/J98.html 95 ER 807]</ref> ilionyesha wazi kanuni ya kikatiba inayotokana na sheria ya kawaifa. Nyumba ya Bwana Entick ilifanyiwa upekekuzi na Afisa mmoja wa polisi aliyeitwa Carrington. Wakati Bwana Entick alipolalamika mbele ya mahakama, Afisa Carrington alidokeza kwamba kibali kutoka waziri wa Serikali, [[George Montague-Dunk, ali wa pili wa Halifax|Ali wa Halifax]], kilikuwa na mamlaka halali. Hata hivyo, hakukuwa na sheria iliyoandikwa au mamlaka ya kimahakama ambayo yalitoa uwezo huo.Hakimu mkuu, [[Charles Pratt, Ali wa kwanza wa Camden|Bwana Camden]], alisema, <blockquote>Mwisho mkubwa, ambao ulifanya watu kuingia katika jamii, ilikuwa kupata mali. Haki hiyo imetunzwa na ni takatifu na haiwezi kuondolewa wakati wowote, ambapo haijaondolewa au kufupishwa na sheria fulani ya umma kwa manufaa ya wote...Hakuna sababau inayoweza kupatikana au kutolewa, kimya cha vitabu ni mamlaka dhidi ya mshtakiwa, na aliyeathiriwa lazima atendewe haki.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.constitution.org/trials/entick/entick_v_carrington.htm | title=Entick v Carrington | work=19 Howell’s State Trials 1029 (1765) | publisher=Constitution Society | location=[[Marekani|US]] | accessdate=2008-11-13}}</ref></blockquote> Kanuni ya kimsingi ya kikatiba, ilitokana na [[Citabu viwili mbili kuhusu Serikali|John Locke]], inadokeza ya kwamba mtu binafsi anaweza kufanya isipokuwa kile ambacho kimekataliwa kisheria.<ref>Locke, ''The Second Treatise'', [[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government#2:9|Chapter 9, section 124]]</ref><ref>Tamanaha, ''On the Rule of Law'', 47</ref> Sheria ya utawala ndiyo mbinu msingi ya kufanya mashirika ya umma yawajibike. Watu wanaweza kutumia [[mapitio ya kimahakama]] kwa matendo au uamuzi uliofanywa na za halmashauri za mitaa, huduma za umma au wizara za serikali, kuhakikisha kuwa zinazingatia sheria. Mahakama ya kwanza ya maalum ya kiutawala yalikuwa mahakama ya ''[[Council of State (France)|Conseil d'État]]'' yaliyoundwa mnamo mwaka wa 1799, wakati [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] alipochukua mamlaka nchini Ufaransa.<ref name="A75">Auby, ''Administrative Law in France'', 75</ref> === Sheria ya jinai === {{Main|Sheria ya jinai}} Sheria ya jinai, inayojulikana pia kama sheria ya kuadhibu, inahusisha makosa na adhabu.<ref>[[Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria|Cesare Beccaria]]'s seminal treatise of 1763–1764 is titled ''On Crimes and Punishments'' (''[[Dei delitti e delle pene]]'').</ref> Kwa hivyo inapima ufafanuzi wa adhabu ya makosa yaliyopatikana kuwa na madhara yanaonekana kuwa na uwezo wa kusababisha uharibifu lakini, kwa undani, haifanyi uamuzi wa kimaadili kumhusu mkosaji wala kuwekea jamii vikwazo ambavyo vinakataza watu kimwili wasifanye makoa mwanzoni.<ref name="W2">Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 2; Wilson, ''Criminal Law'', 2</ref> Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of [[criminal procedure]].<ref name="Br2">Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 2</ref> Kesi ya kidhana ya uhalifu inatokana na ushahidi, [[Mzigo wa Ushahidi|kuzidi shaka ya kuridhisha]], kuwa mtu ana hatia ya mambo mawili. Kwanza, mshtakiwa lazima awe amefanya kitendo ambacho kinatazamwa na jamii kuwa hatia, au ''[[actus reus]]'' (kitendo cha hatia).<ref>See e.g. Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 205 about ''[[Robinson v California]]'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962).</ref> Pili, lazima mshtakiwa awe na [[dhamira (jinai)|dhamira ya kufanya uharibifu]] ya kufanya kitendoo fulani cha jinai, au ''[[mens rea]]'' (akili ya hatia). Hata hivyo, kwa kile kinachojulikana kama hatia za "[[Dhima kali (jinai)|dhima kali]]", ''actus reus'' haitoshi.<ref>See e.g. Feinman, ''Law 111'', 260–261 about ''[[Powell v Texas]]'', 392 U.S. 514 (1968).</ref> Mifumo ya jinai ya utamaduni wa sheria ya raia zinatofautisha kati ya nia katika dhana pana (''dolus directus'' na ''dolus eventualis''), na uzembe. Uzembe hauna jukumu la jinai isipokuwa ambapo hatia fulani una adhabu yake maalum.<ref>Dörmann, Doswald-Beck and Kolb, ''Elements of War Crimes'', 491</ref><ref>Kaiser, ''Leistungsstörungen'', 333</ref> [[Picha:SalemWitchcraftTrial.jpg|thumb|left|Picha inayoonyesha [[kesi]] ya uhalifu, kwa sababu ya [[uchawi]] katika eneo la [[Kesi za wachawi za Salem|Salem]]]] Mifano ya uhalifu ni [[mauaji]], [[kushambulia]], [[udanganyifu]] na [[wizi]]. Katika mifano maalum utetezi unaweza kutumika kwa vitendo maalum, kama zile kuuwa ili [[nadharia ya utetezi wa kibinafsi|utetezi wa kibinafasi]], au katika nyakati maalum kujitetea kuwa [[utetezi wa wazimi|wazimu]]. Mfano mwingine ni katika kesi ya karne ya 19 ya ''[[Jamhuri dhidi ya Dudley na Stephens]]'', iliyopima utetezi wa "[[kimahitaji]]". Meli ya ''Mignonette'', iliyokuwa ikisafiri kutoka mji wa [[Southampton]] kuelekea mji wa [[Sydney]], ilizama. Wafanyikazi watatu wa meli hiyo na Richard Parker, kijana aliyekuwa na umri wa miaka 17, walibaki katika meli iliyoundwa na vijiti. Walikuwa na njaa na kijana yule alikuwa karibu kufa. Kwa sababu ya kuwa na njaa iliyokithiri, wafanyikazi hao walimuuwa kijana yule na kumla. Wafanyikazi hao waliokolewa, lakini wakafikishwa mahakamani huku wakiwa na hatia ya mauaji. Walijitetea kwa kusema kwamba ilihitajika kwa lazima kwa wao kumuuwa kijana yule ili kuyaokoa maisha yao. [[John Coleridge, Baroni wa Kwanza Coleridge|Bwana Coleridge]], akieleza kukataa kukubwa, aliamua, "kuhifadhi maisha ya kibinafsi ni, kwa kuzungumza kijumla, wajibu, lakini inaweza kuwa jukumu kuu kuyatoa maisha hayo kama kafara." Wanaume hao walihukumiwa [[kunyongwa|nyonga]], lakini maoni ya umma uliunga mkono haki ya wafanyikazi wale wa meli kuyaokoa maisha yao. Mwishowe, [[Ufalme]] ulipunguza hukumu zao hadi miezi sita gerezani.<ref>About ''[[R v Dudley and Stephens]]'' [1884] [http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html 14 QBD 273 DC] {{Wayback|url=http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html |date=20050228224504 }}, see Simpson, ''Cannibalism and the Common Law'', 212–217, 229–237</ref> Makosa ya jinai yanatambulika si tu kama makosa dhidi ya waathirika binafsi, lakini jamii pia.<ref name="W2" /> Taifa, kawaida likisaidiwa na polisi, huongoza mashitaka, basi hiyo ndiyo sababu mbona katika nchi zenye sheria ya kawaida kesi hutajwa kama "''Watu'' dhidi ya..." au "''Jamhuri'' (kwa [[Ufalme|"Rex"]] au [[Malkia reginanti|Regina]]) dhidi ya..." Pia, [[jopo la waamuzi]] ambao hutokana na raia wa kawaida hutumika kuamua hatia ya washitakiwa kutokna na pointi zinazoweza kubainika ukweli: jopo la waamuzi haliwezi kubadilisha kanuni za kisheria. Baadhi ya nchi zilizostawi bado hutumia [[adhabu ya kifo]] kwa matendo ya jinai lakini adhabu ya kawaida ya uhalifu itakuwa ni [[gereza|kufungwa gereza]], [[faini]] usimamizi wa taifa (kama vile probesheni), au [[huduma ya kijamii]]. Sheria ya kisasa ya jinai imeathiriwa vilivyo na sayansi ya jamii, hasa kuhusu [[hukumu(sheria)|kuhukumu]], utafiti wa kisheria, kuunda sheria, na [[kuwasaidia wahalifu kurekesha mwenedo wao]].<ref>Pelser, ''Criminal Legislation'', 198</ref> Katika ngazi ya kimataifa, nchi 108 [[Mktaba wa Sheria ya Roma ya Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai|wanachama]] wa [[Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai]], ambayo ilianzishwa kuwahukumu watu kwa [[hatia dhidi ya ubinadamu]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040605155639/http://www.icc-cpi.int/statesparties.html The States Parties to the Rome Statute], International Criminal Court</ref> === Sheria ya mkataba === {{Main|Mkataba}} [[Picha:carbolic smoke ball co.jpg|thumb|Tangazo maarufu la kampuni ya Carbolic Smoke Ball lidai kuwa lingeweza kutibu [[homa]]. Mahakama yaliamua kuwa tangazo hilo lilikuwa [[mkataba wa mtu yeyote]]]] Sheria ya mkataba inahusu ahadi zinazowezwa kutendwa, na inaweza kuandikwa kwa ufupi katika maneno ya Kilatini''[[pacta sunt servanda]]'' (ahadi lazima zitimizwe).<ref>Wenberg, ''Pacta Sunt Servanda'', 775</ref> Katika maeneo ya kimamlaka ya sheria ya kawaida, vipengele vitatu muhimu kuhusu utengenezaji wa mkataba vinahitajika: [[kutoa na kukubali]], [[kutilia maanani]] na nia ya kutengeneza uhusiano wa kisheria.Katika kesi ya ''[[Carlill shisi ya Kampuni ya Carbolic Smoke Ball]]'' kampuni ya matibabu ilitangaza kuwa dawa yake mpya ya ajabu, smokeball, ingewatibu watu kutokana na mafua, na ikiwa haingefaulu kuwatibu, wanunuzi wangepata [[paundi za Kistaling'i|£]] 100. Watu wengi waliwasilisha kesi mahakamani ili wapate £100 zao wakati dawa hiyo iliposhindwa kuwatibu. Ikiogopa [[kufilisika]], Kampuni ya Carbolic ilijitetea kwa kusema kuwa tangazo lile lilikuwa mzaha tu, na kwa hivyo halikuwa toleo lenye nguvu za kisheria. Lilikuwa [[karibisho]], mchezo tu. Lakini mahakama ya rufaa yaliamua kuwa kwa [[mtu mwenye kufikiria kwa kawaida]] kampuni ya Carbolic ilikuwa imefanya toleo. Watu walikuwa wametoa kusudi la kununua bidhaa ile kwa kupitia "shida bayana" ya kutumia bidhaa yenye hitilafu. "Soma tangazo vile utakavyo, na ulibadilishe tangazo hilo vile utakavyo", alisema [[Nathaniel Lindley, Baroni Lindley|Hakimu Lindley]], "haa kuna ahadi maalum ilitajwa katika lugha isyokuwa na utata wowote".<ref name="CCSBCE">About ''[http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_r9321042.html Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company] {{Wayback|url=http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_r9321042.html |date=20041205104916 }}'' [[Case citation|[1893] 1 QB 256]], and the element of consideration, see Beale and Tallon, ''Contract Law'', 142–143</ref> "Kutilia maanani" knaonyesha ukweli kwamba vyama vyote katika mkataba vimebadilisha kitu fulani chenye maana. Baadhi ya mifumo ya sheria ya kawaida, ikiwemo Australi, zinasonga mbali kutoka dhana ya kutilia maanani kama mojawapo ya mahitaji ya mkataba. Dhana ya "[[estoppel]]" au ''culpa in contrahendo'', inaweza kutumika kuunda wajibu wakati mazungumzo kabla ya kuingia mkataba<ref>''[[Austotel v Franklins]]'' (1989) 16 NSWLR 582</ref> Katika maeneo ya kisheria ya kiraia, kutilia maanani si lazima kwa mkataba kuwa na nguvu ya kisheria.<ref>e.g. In Germany, [http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/311.html § 311 Abs. II] [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|BGB]]</ref> Nchini Ufaransa, mkataba wa kawaida unasemekana kutokea ambapo "kukutana kwa akili" au kwa "kuwa na nia zinazowiana". [[Sheria ya Ujerumani|Ujerumani]] ina mtazamio maalum kuhusu mikataba, ambayo inayusisha sheria ya mali. [[Kanuni ya dhana ya kiakili]] (''Abstraktionsprinzip'' wanayoitumia, inamaanisha kuwa wajibu wa kibinafsi wa mkataba unaundwa kando na jina la mwenye mali yanayokabidhiwa. Wakati ambapo mikataba inavunjwa kwa sababu fulani (kwa mfano mnunuzi wa gari amelewa kiasi kwamba hana uwezo wa kisheria wa kufanya mkataba)<ref>[http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/105.html § 105 Abs. II] [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|BGB]]</ref> Wajibu wa kimkataba wa kulipa unaweza kuvunjwa tofauti na jina la mwenye gari. Sheria ya [[kutajirika kusio kwa haki]], badala ya sheria tya mkataba, basi inatumika kurudisha jina kwa mmiliki halali.<ref>Smith, ''The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law'', 1037</ref> === Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu === {{Main|Ukiukaji wa wajibu}} Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu, ambayo wakati mwingine huitwa [[kosa la jinai]], ni makosa ya raia. Kuwa na kosa la ukiukaji wa wajibu, mtu lazima awe amekiuka wajibu aliukwa anafaa kumtendea mty mwingine, au kukiuka haki fulani ya awali ya kisheria. [[Bolton dhidi ya Stone|mfano]] unaweza kuwa kumgonga mtu kimakosa na mpira wa mchezo wa kriketi.<ref>''[[Bolton v Stone]]'' [1951] AC 850</ref> Chini ya sheria ya [[uzembe]], ambayo ndiyo aina ya ukiukaji wa wajibu maarufu zaidi, mtu aliyepatwa na madhara anaweza kuomba fidia kwa ya majeraha yake kutoka kwa mtu mwenye uwajibikaji. Kanuni za uzembe zinaonyeshwa na kesi ya ''[[Donoghue dhidi ya Stevenson]]''.<ref name="DvS">''[[Donoghue v Stevenson]]'' ([[Case citation#England and Wales|[1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1]]). See the original text of the case in [http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm UK Law Online] {{Wayback|url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm |date=20070216044953 }}.</ref> Rafiki mmoja wa Bi. Donoghue aliagiza chupa isiyopenyeka nuru la [[pombe ya tangawizi]] (iliyokusudiwa kutumika na Bi. Donoghue) katika mkahawa katika eneo la [[Paisley]]. Baada ya kunya kunya nusu ya bia ile , Bi, Donoghue alimimina iliyosalia katika bilauri. Mabaki yaliyooza ya konokono yalielea juu ya pombe. Alidai kuwa alipigwa na bumbuwazi, na kupata ugonjwa wa kuchomeka ndani ya matumbo, na ilimbidi kumpeleka mtengenezaji pombe kwa kuruhusu kinywaji kuchafuka ovyo. [[Nyumba ya Mabwana]] iliamua kwamba mtengezaji pombe aliwajibika kwa ugonjwa wa Bi. Donoghue. [[Bwana Atkin]] alikuwa na mtazamo maalum wa kimaadili, na akasema, <blockquote>Dhima ya upuuzaji ... bila shaka ina msingi wake katika mawazo ya kijumla ya umma kuhusu makosa ya kimaadili amabyo mkosaji lazima alipe ... Kanuni ya kuwa unafaa kumpenda adui yako, kisheria inakuwa, haufai kumjeruhi jirani yako; na swali la wakili, nani ndiye jirani yangu? linapokea jibu lenye vikwazo. Lazima uwe na uwangalifu wa kuepuka na vitendo au visa ambapo hautendi lolote inapofaa, ambavyo unaweza kutazamia kuwa vikamjeruhi jirani yako.<ref>''[[Donoghue v Stevenson]]'' [1932] AC 532, 580</ref></blockquote> Huu ulikuwa msingi wa kanuni nne za upuuzaji; (1) Bwana Stevenson alimdai Bi. Donoghue [[wajibu wa kujali]] wa kuuza vinywaji salama (2) yeye [[Kuvuna kwa jukumu katika Sheria ya Kiingereza|alivunja]] wajibu wake wa kujali (3) madhara hayangefanyika [[usababishaji (sheria)|isipokuwa kwa]] kuvunja kwake kwa wajibu wa kujali na (4) tendo lake lilikuwa [[sababau ya karibu]], au haikuwa tokeo la [[Umbali katika Sheria ya Kiingereza|mbali]], la madhara yaliyompata mtu fulani.<ref name="DvS" /> Mfano mwingine wa ukikaji wa wajibu unaweza kuwa wa jirani ambaye anapiga kelele nyingi sana na na mashine katika nyumbani kwake.<ref name="Sturges">''[[Sturges v Bridgman]]'' (1879) 11 Ch D 852</ref> Chini ya dai la [[kero]] kelele hiyo inaweza kukomeshwa. Ukiukaji wa wajibu pia inaweza kuhusisha vitendo vya kimakusudi, kama vile [[ushambulizi (ukiukaji wa wajibu)|ushambulizi]], [[vita(ukiukaji wa wajibu)|vita]] au [[kuvuka na kuingia katka maeneo yaliyopigwa marufuku]]. Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu inayofahamika vyema ni ile ya [[kumharibia mtu jina]], ambayo inafanyika, kwa mfano, wakati gazeti linapochapisha madai yasiyokuwa na msingi ambayo yanaharibu sifa ya mwanasiasa fulani.<ref>e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, ''[[George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd]]'' [2004] EWHC 2786</ref> Ukiukaji wa wajibu ambao ni mbaya zaidi ni zile wa kiuchumi, ambao huwa msingi wa [[sheria ya ajira]] katika baadhi ya nchi kwa kufanya vyama vya kibiashara kuwa na dhima kwa sababu ya migomo,<ref>''[[Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants]]'' [1901] AC 426</ref> Wakati ambapo amri ya kisheria haipatiani kinga.<ref>In the UK, [[Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992]]; c.f. in the U.S., [[National Labor Relations Act]]</ref> === Sheria ya mali === {{Main|Sheria ya mali}} [[Picha:South Sea Bubble.jpg|thumb|Picha ya [[Bubujiko la Bahari ya Kusini]], mojawapo ya majanga ya kiuchumi yalilotokana na [[uvumi]]. Janga hilo la kiuchumi lilisababisha kuundwa kwa kanuni kali kuhusu uuzaji wa hisa.<ref>Harris, ''The Bubble Act'', 610-627</ref>]] Sheria ya [[mali]] inatawala vitu vya thamani ambavyo watu huvitambua kama 'vyao'. [[Mali ya kweli]] wakati mwingine huitwa 'mali isiyohamishika' inahusu umiliki wa ardhi na vitu vilivyojikita katika ardhi hiyo.<ref>eg ''[[Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd]]'' [1997] [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm 2 All ER 426]</ref> [[Mali ya kibinafsi]], inaashiria mambo mengineyo; vyombo vinavyowezwa kusongeshwa, kama vile tarakilishi, magari, mapambo na mikate au turathi haki, kama vile [[hisa (fedha)|akiba na hisa]]. Haki ya ''[[in rem]]'' ni haki ya kipande maalum cha mali, ikitofautishwa na haki ''[[in personam]]'' ambayo inaruhusu fidia kwa hasara, lakini si kwa kurudishiwa kitu fulani. Sheria ya ardhi inajumuisha msingi wa aina nyingi za sheria za mali, na ndiyo ngumu zaidi. Inahusisha [[mogeji]], [[mikataba ya kukodisha]], [[leseni]], [[maagano]], [[ruhusa]] na mifumo ya kisheria kwa usajili wa ardhi. Kanuni kuhusu [[matumizi ya ardhi]] ya kibinafsi chini ya [[haki miliki]], [[kampuni (law)|sheria ya kampuni]], [[sheria ya hifadhi|hifadhi]] na [[sheria ya biashara]]. Mfano wa kesi msingi ya ya sheria nyingii za mali ni ''[[Armory v Delamirie]]''.<ref>''[[Armory v Delamirie]]'' (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505</ref> Kijana wa [[kufagia chimni]] alipata pambo lenye mawe ya thamani. Alichukua pambo lile kwa muundaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu ili thamani yake ikadiriwe. Mwanafunzi wa muundaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu aliangalia pambo lile, akaiba mawe yale ya thamani, ma kumuambia kijana yule kuwa thamani yake ilkuwa [[Nusu peni (Pesa ya Uingereza)|nusu peni]] tatu na kuwa angeinunua. Kijana yule alimwambia kuwa angepenga arudishiwe pambo lile, kwa hivyo mwanafunzi wa muundaji vifaa alimrudishia pambo, lakini bila mawe yale ya thamani. Kijana yule alimpeleka mtengenezaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu kotini kwa jaribio la mwanafunzi wake kumdanganya. [[Bwana Hakimu Mkuu Pratt]] aliamua kuwa ingawa kijana hangesemekana kuwa mumiliki wa pambo lile, angefaa kutazamwa kama mpataji aliyefaa ("mpataji muwekaji") hadi mumiliki wa kiasili anapopatikana. Kwa kweli mwanafunzi na kijana yule wote walikuwa na haki ya ''[[Umiliki (sheria)|umiliki]]'' wa pambo lile (dhana ya kiufundi, inayomaanisha kuwa kitu fulani ''kingeweza'' kumilikiwa na mtu fulani), lakini nia ya kijana yule ya kumiliki ilitazamiwa kuwa bora zaidi, kwa sababu ingeweza kudhihirishwa kuwa ya kwanza katika wakati. Umiliki unaweza kuwa sehemu tisa kwa kumi ya sheria, lakini si yote. Kesi hii hutumika kudhihirisha mtazamo wa mali katika maeneo ya kisheria ya kawaida, kuwa mtu anayeweza kuonyesha dai bora zaidi la kipande cha mali, dhidi ya chama kingine, ndiye mumiliki.<ref>Matthews, ''The Man of Property'', 251–274</ref> Kwa kulinganisha, mbinu ya kiklasiki ya sheria ya raia kuhusu mali, iliendelezwa na [[Friedrich Carl von Savigny]], ni kuwa ni haki nzuri dhidi ya Ulimwengu. Wajibu, kama mkataba na ukiukaji wa wajibu hutazamwa kama haki nzuri dhidi ya watu binafsi.<ref>Savigny, ''Das Recht des Besitzes'', [http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/bigpage/%22235083_00000057%22 25] {{Wayback|url=http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/bigpage/%22235083_00000057%22 |date=20080418181513 }}</ref> Dhana ya mali inaibua maswala mengi zaidi ya kifalsafa na kisiasa. Locke alidokeza kwamba "maisha, uhuru na nyumba" zetu ni mali yetu kwa sababu tunamiliki mali yetu na [[Nadharia ya ajira ya mali|tunachangayana ajira yetu]] na mazingira yetu.<ref>Locke, ''[[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government|Second Treatise on Civil Government]]'', Chap. IX. Of the Ends of Political Society and Government. Chapter 9, section 123.</ref> === Usawa na amana === {{Main|Usawa (sheria)|sheria ya amana}} [[Picha:Microcosm of London Plate 022 - Court of Chancery, Lincoln's Inn Hall edited.jpg|thumb|[[Mahakama ya Chancery]], London, mwanzoni mwa karne ya 19]] Usawa na amana ni mwili wa sheria ulioibuka nchini Uingereza kando na "shera ya kawaida". Sheria ya kawaida ilisimamiwa na mahakimu. [[Bwana Chansela]] kwa upnade mwingine, kama muwekaji dhamiri wa mfalme, angeweza kupuuza sheria iliyotengenezwa na hakimu ikiwa alifikiria kuwa ilikuwa sawa kufanya hivyo.<ref>McGhee, ''Snell's Equity'', 7</ref> Hili lilimaanisha kuwa usawa ulianza kufanya kazi zaidi kupitia [[Malengo ya usawa|kanuni]] bali si sheria ambazo hazikubadilika. Kwa mfano, ambapo mifumo ya sheria ya kawaida au sheria ya raia haiwaruhusu watu kugawa umiliki wa kutoka kwa udhibiti wa kipande kimoja cha mali, usawa unaruhusu hili kupitia mpango unaoitwa 'amana'. Kudhibitiwa kwa mali na 'wenye amana' ambapo kwa upande mwingine umiliki 'wenye manufaa' (au 'yenye usawa') wa mali ya amana inashikiliwa na watu wanojulikana kama 'wadhamini'. Wadhamini wana wajibu kwa walengwa wao wa kuyachuna vyema mali waliyokabidhiwa.<ref>c.f. ''[[Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew]]'' [1998] Ch 1</ref> Katika kesi ya awali ya ''[[Keech dhidi ya Sandford]]''<ref>''[[Keech v Sandford]]'' (1726) Sel Cas Ch 61</ref> mtoto alirithi haki ya [[kokodisha]] katika [[Soko la Romford|soko]] katika eneo la [[Ramford]], mjini London. Bw, Sandford alikabidhiwa mali hayo hadi wakati ambapo mtoto angekomaa. Lakini kabla ya hapo, kipindi cha kukodisha kilikwisha. Kabaila alikuwa (inaonekana) amemwambia Bw. Sandford kuwa hakutaka mtoto yule awe na kukodisha kupya. Lakini bado kabaila alikuwa amefurahi (inaonekana) kumpa Bw. Sandford fursa ya kukodisha. Bw Sandford aliichukua. Wakati ambapo mtoto (sasa Bw. Keech) alikuwa mkubwa, alimpeleka Bw. Sandford mahakamani kwa faida aliyokuwa akipata kwa kupata kukodisha kwa soko. Bw. Sandford alifaa kuaminika, lakini alijiweka katika nafasi ya [[mgongano wa maslahi]]. [[Bwana Kansela]], [[Peter King, Baroni wa Kwanza Mfalme|Bwana Mfalme]], alikubali na kumuamuru Bw. Sandford kutoa faida ile na kumlipa Bw. Keech. Aliandika, {{quote|Ninaona vizuri sana kuwa, ikiwa mdhamini, akikataa kufanya kukodesha upya, anaweza kuwa na kukodesha kwake mwenyewe mali chache ya kiamana yangesajiliwa upya ... Hili linaweza kuonekana kuwa gumu sana, kuwa mdhamini ndiye mtu wa kipekee kwa binadamu wote ambaye hatakuwa na kukodisha; lakini ni bora kanuni ifuatiliwe na isipuuzwe wakati wowote.}} Bila shaka, Bwana Mfalme LC alikuwa na wasiwasi kwamba wadhamini huenda wakatumia fursa ya kutumia mali ya amana wenyewe badala ya kuyachunga. Wadadisi wa kibiashara wanaotumia hifadhi walikuwa wamesababisha [[Mbubujiko wa Bahari ya Kusini|kuaguka kwa soko la hisa]] katika siku hizo. Wajibu mkali kwa wadhamini ulijumuishwa katika sheria ya serikali na kutumika kwa wakurugenzi wa makampuni na [[maafisa watendaji wakuu]]. Mfano mwingine wa jukumu la mdhamini unaweza kuwa kuwekeza mali vizuri au kuiuza.<ref>''[[Nestle v National Westminster Bank plc]]'' [1993] 1 WLR 1260</ref> Hii hasa ndiyo kesi kwa fedha za [[pensheni]] , aina muhimu kwa zote ya amana, ambapo wawekezaji ndio wadhamini wa akiba za watu hadi [[wastaafu]]. Lakini amana pia zinaweza kuundwa kwa [[hisani ya amana|madhumuni ya hisani]], mifano maarufu ikiwa [[Makavazi ya Uingereza]] au [[Shirika la Rockefeller]]. === Utaalamu zaidi === Sheria huenea mbali kuliko masomo ya msingi hadi karibu kila eneo la maisha. Ngazi tatu zimetajwa hapa ili kurahisiha majadiliano, ingawa masomo mbalimbali hufanana na kutegemeana. ;Sheria na jamii [[Picha:Unison strike rally Oxford 20060328.jpg|thumb|Chama cha wafanyikazi kilichoundwa na kikundi cha [[UNISON]] walipogoma]] * '''[[Sheria ya ajira]]''' ni somo la uhusiano wa mara tatu wa kiwandani kati ya mfanyikazi, muajiri na [[chama cha wafanyikazi]]. Hili linahusisha kupunguza [[kufanya biashara]] kwa pamoja, na haki ya [[kugoma]]. Sheria ya kuajiriwa kwa binafsi inaashiria haki za maeneo ya kazi, kama zile [[usalama wa kazi]], [[afya na usalama]] au [[mshahara wa chini zaidi]]. * '''[[Haki za kibinadamu]]''', [[Haki za kiraia na kisiasa|haki za kiraia]] na [[sheria ya haki za kibinadamu]] ni maeneo muhimu katika kumhakikishia kila mtu uhuru na haki za kimsingi, Haya yanapatikana katika maadiko kama vile [[Azimio la Ulimwenguni la Haki za Kibinadamu]], [[Mkataba wa Ulaya wa Haki za Kibinadamu]] (iliyoanzisha [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Kibinadamu]]) na [[Mswada wa Marekani wa Haki|Mswada wa Marekani wa Haki za Kibinadamu]]. [[Mkataba wa Lisbon]] unafanya [[Mkataba wa Haki za Msingi za Umoja wa Ulaya]] uwe na nguvu za kisheria katika nchi zote wanachama isipokuwa [[Polandi na Uingereza]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080910001253/http://www.lawsociety.org.uk/documents/downloads/guide_to_treaty_of_lisbon.pdf A Guide to the Treaty of Lisbon], The Law Society</ref> * '''[[Utaratibu wa Kiraia]]''' na '''[[utaratibu wa jinai]]''' unahusisha kanuni ambazo mahakama lazima yafuate kadiri [[trial]] na rufaa zinapoendelea. Yote yanahusu haki ya raia kupata [[kuhukumiwa kwa haki]] au kesi yake kusikizwa kwa haki. * '''[[Ushahidi (sheria)|Ushahidi]]'''. Sheria ya ushahidi inahusu vifaa vinavyofaa kutumika mahakamani ili kesi ijengwe. * '''[[Sheria ya Uhamiaji]]''' na '''[[sheria ya utaifa]]''' zinahusu haki za wageni kuishi na kufanya kazi katika taifa ambalo si lao na kupata na kupoteza [[uraia]]. Yote yanahusu [[haki ya hifadhi]] na shida ya watu [[wasiokuwa na nchi]] * '''[[Usalama wa Kijamii]]'''. Sheria ya usalama wa kijamii inahusu haki za watu kuwa na bima ya kijamii, kama vile pesa zinazopewa watafuta kazi au faida za makazi. * '''[[Sheria ya familia]]''' inahusu kesi za [[ndoa]] na [[talaka]] proceedings, haki za watoto na haki za kuwa na mali na pesa ikiwa wenye kufanya ndoa watatengana. ;Sheria na biashara * '''[[Sheria ya kikampuni]]''' ilitokana na sheria ya amana, ikitegemea kanuni ya kutenganisha umiliki na udhibiti.<ref>Berle, ''Modern Corporation and Private Property''</ref> Sheria ya kisasa ya [[kampuni (sheria)|kampuni]] ilianza na [[Sheria ya Kampuni za Pamoja za Akiba ya mwaka 1856]], iliyopitishwa nchini Uingereza, ambayo iliwapa wawekezaji mbinu rahisi ya usajili ili kupata [[dhima ya kupimika]] chini ya dhana ya [[Mtu wa kisheria|mtu tofauti]] wa kampuni. * '''[[Sheria ya kibiashara]]''' inahusu mkataba tata wa mkataba na mali. Sheria ya [[shirika (sheria)|shirika]], [[sheria ya bima]], [[bili za kubadilishana]], [[ufilisi]] na [[Sheria ya kuufungwa kwa biashara]] na sheria ya uuzaji zote ni muhimu, na zinarudi nyuma hadi dhana ya ''[[Mfanyibiashara wa sheria|Lex Mercatoria]]'' ya zama za kati. [[Sheria ya Kuuza Bidhaa na Ukahaba wa Watoto ya Mwaka 1979|Sheria ya Kuuza Bidhaa]] ya Uingereza na [[Kodi Sawa ya Biashara]] ya Marekani ni mifano ya kanuni za kibiashara ya sheria ya kawaida * '''[[Sheria ya maji]]''' na '''[[Mkataba wa Umoja wa Mataifa kuhusu Sheria ya Maji|Sjeria ya Maji]]''' zinaweka muundo msingi wa biashara huru na biashara Duniani kote Baharini, ambapo yamo nje ya eneo la udhibiti wa nchi fulani. Makampuni ya meli yanafanya kazi kwa kutumia kanuni za kawaida za sheria ya biashara, ambazo zimefanywa kuwa jumla kwa soko la kimataifa. Sheria ya maji inajumuisha masuala muhimu kama vile kama vile [[kuokoa vifaa kutoka baharini]], [[Lien#|lieni za maji]], na majeraha kwa abiria. * '''[[Miliki Sheria]]''' inalenga aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services. These are legal rights ([[copyright]]s, [[trademark]]s, [[patent]]s, and [[related right]]s) which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, literary and artistic fields.<ref>WIPO, ''Intellectual Property'', 3</ref> * '''[[Fidia]]''' inashughulika na kupata mapato ya mtu mwingine, bali si [[fidia]] kwa hasara ya kibinafsi * '''[[Kutajirika isipofaa]]''' ndiyo nguzo ya tatu ya sheria ya raia (pamoja na mkataba na ukiukaji wa wajibu). Wakati ambapo mtu fulani ametajirishwa isipofaa (au kuna "kutokuwepo kwa msingi" wa biashara) kwa gharama ya mawingine, tukio hili linazalisha haki ya fidia ili kugeuza faida hiyo. ;Sheria na vikwazo [[Picha:1930-67B.png|thumb| Sakafu ya biashara ya [[Soko la Hisa la New York]] baada ya [[kuanguka kwa Wall Street mnamo mwaka wa 1929]], kabla ya sheria kali zaidi za [[vikwazo vya kibenki]] vilipoanza kutumika]] * '''[[Sheria ya kodi]]''' inahusu kanuni kuhusu [[kodi ya thamani iliyoongezwa]], [[kodi ya kampuni]], [[kodi ya mapato]]. * '''[[Kanuni za kibenki|Sheria za kibenki]]''' na [[kanuni za kifedha]] zinaweka viwango vya chini zaidi kuhusu idadi ya mtaji ambao benki zinaweza kuwa nao, na sheria kuhusu utendaji bora wa uwekezaji. Hili ni kwa minajili ya kuhakikisha ulinzi dhidi ya taabu za kiuchumi, kama vile[[Kunguka kwa soko la Wall Street mnamo mwaka wa 1929]]. * '''[[Vikwazo]]''' vinashughulika na utoaji wa [[huduma za umma]] na usimamizi wa [[vifaa vya umma]].'''[[Sheria ya maji]]''' ni mfano mmoja. Hasa tangu [[ubinafshaji]] uwe maarufu na uchukue usimamizi wa huduma kutoka kwa sheria ya umma, makampuni ya kibinafsi ambayo hapo yalikuwa yakifanya kazi iliyodhitiwa na serikali hapo awali yamefungwa na vyeo mbalimbali vya wajibu wa kijamii. [[Sera za Nishati|Nishati]], [[Ofgem|gesi]], [[sera za mawasiliano|mawasiliano]] na [[sheria ya maji|maji]] zinadhibitiwa na viwanda katika nchi nyingi za [[Shirika la Muungano wa Maendeleo ya Kiuchumi|OECD]]. * '''[[Sheria ya mashindano]]''', nchini Marekani inajulikana kama sheria [[dhidi ya amana]], ni eneo linalozidi kubadilika ambalo lilianza katika kutokana na amri za [[Roma ya Kale|Kirumi]] dhidi ya [[kuweka bei]] na mafundisho ya Uingereza ya [[biashara ya makini]]. Sheria ya kisasa ya mashindano inatokana na sheria za Marekani dhidi ya biashara za magendo na dhidi ya ukiritimba ([[Sheria ya Sherman]] na [[Sheria ya Clyaton]]) ya mwisho wa karne ya 20. Inatumika kudhibiti biashara zinazojaribu kutumia ushawishi wao wa kiuchumi kubadilisha biashra za sokoni bila kujali [[maslahi ya mnunuzi]]. * '''[[Kumlinda mnunuzi|Sheria ya mnunuzi]]''' inaweza kujumuisha chochote kuanzia kanuni kuhusu [[vifungu vya mikataba]] ambavyo si sawa hadi maelekezo kuhusu bima ya mizigo ya ndege. * '''[[Sheria ya mazingira]]''' inazidi kuwa muhimu, hasa katika mwanga wa [[Itifaki ya Kyoto]] na hatari inayoweza kutokana na [[mabadiliko ya hali ya anga]]. Ulinzi wa kimazingira pia intumika kuwaadhibu [[uharibifu wa mazingira|wanaoharibu mazingira]] katika mifumo ya kisheria ya kiinchi == Mifumo ya sheria == {{Main|Mifumo ya sheria duniani}} Kwa ujumla, mifumo ya kisheria inaweza kugawanywa kati ya mifumo ya kisheria ya kiraia na mifumo ya kisheria ya kawaida.<ref>Modern scholars argue that the significance of this distinction has progressively declined; the numerous [[legal transplants]], typical of modern law, result in the sharing by modern legal systems of many features traditionally considered typical of either common law or civil law (Mattei, ''Comparative Law and Economics'', 71)</ref> Maneno "sheria ya kiraia" yanayoashiria mfumo wa kisheria hayapaswi kuchanganyishwa na "sheria ya kiraia" kama kundi la masomo ya kisheria ambayo ni tofauti na [[sheria ya umma]] au ya jinai. Aina ya tatu ya mfumo wa kisheria—inayokubalika bado na baadhi ya nchi ambazo zina [[utengano wa kanisa na taifa]]—ni sheria sheria ya kidini, ambayo ina msingi wake katika [[maandiko ya kidini]]. Aina ya mfumo amabo nchi inatumia kutawala mara nyingi kudhamiriwa na historia yake, uhusiano wake na nchi zingine au kushikilia kwake kwa viwango vya kimataifa. [[Vyanzo vya sheria|Vyanzo]] ambavyo maneneo fulani ya kisheria hutumia kama kama zenye uwezo wa kuwa nguvu za kisheria ndizo sifa fafanuzi za mfumo wowote wa kisheria. Hata hivyo, uainishaji ni jambo la umbo kuliko maana, kwani sheria sawa mara nyingi hutawala. === Sheria ya kiraia === {{Main|Sheria ya kiraia}} [[Picha:Code Civil 1804.png|thumb|Ukurasa wa kwanza wa toleo la mwaka wa 1804 la [[Sheria za Kinapoleoni]]]] Sheria ya kiraia ni mfumo wa kisheria unaotumika katika nchi nyingi Duniani. Katika sheria ya kiraia vyanzo vinavyotambulika kama kuwa na mamlaka, ni, haswa, uundaji wa sheria—haswa [[Kuandika sheria (sheria)|sheria zilizoandikwa]] katika [[katiba]] au [[amri]] zinazopitishwa na serikali—na tamaduni.<ref>Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as "the other source of law"; hence, scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of "written law" (''ius scriptum'') or legislation, and "unwritten law" (''ius non scriptum'') or custom. Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation (Georgiadis, ''General Principles of Civil Law'', 19; Washofsky, ''Taking Precedent Seriously'', 7).</ref> Sheria za kuandikwa zinapatikana hata katika miaka mingi ya awali , huku mfano mmoja ukiwa [[Sheria ya Hammurabi|Codex Hammurabi]] ya [[sheria ya Kibebeli|Kibabeli]]. Mifumo ya sheria za kiraia ya kisasa inatokana na mazoezi ya kisheria ya [[Dola la Kirumi]] ambalo maadiko yake yalipatikana katika Ulaya ya [[Zama za Kati]]. Sheria ya Kirumu katika siku za [[Jamhuri ya Kiruma]] na Dola la Kirumi lilitegemea sana utaratibu, na ilikosa daraja la kitaaluma.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 18</ref> Badala uake mtu wa kawaida aliyeitwa, ''iudex'', alichagukiwa kufanya uamuzi. Kesi za awali hazikuripotiwa, kwa hivyo sheria yoyote yenye msingi katika kesi iliyoibuka ilifichwa na hata kutotambulika.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 21</ref> Kila kesi ilikuwa ilimuliwe upya kutokana na sheria za nchi, ambayo ni sawa na kupungua kwa umuhimu (kinadharia) wa uamuzi wa mahakimu kwa kesi za siku za usoni kwa mufumo ya kisheria siku za leo. Katika kipindi cha karne ya 6 NK katika [[Dola la Kibaizanti|Dola la Mashariki la Roma]], Kaisari [[Justinian I]] aliandika na kuzikusanya pamoja sheria ambazo zilikuwa zinapatikana hapo awali katika Roma, ambapo kile kilichobakia kilikuwa sehemu moja juu ya ishirini ya kiwango cha maandiko ya kisheria kutoka awali.<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 32</ref> Hili ikawa inafahamika kama ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]''. Kwa mujibu wa mwanahistoria mmoja wa kisheria, "Justinian alitazama kwa uangalifu hadi miaka ya dhahabu ya nyuma ya sheria ya Kirumi na alilenga kuirejesha hadi upeo wake wa karne tatu za awali."<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 35</ref> Wakati uo huo, Ulaya ya Magharibi ilitumbukia polepole katika [[Zama za Giza]], na haikuwa hadi karne ya 11ambapo wasomi katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Bologna]] walipoyagundua upya maandiko yaliyokuwa yamepotea na kuyatumia kuzitafsiri sheria zao.<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 43</ref> Maandiko ya sheria za kiraia yenye msingi unaofanana kwa karibu na sheria ya Kirumu, sambamba na ushawishi mchache kutoka [[sheria za kidini]] kama vile [[sheria ya Kikanoni]] na [[Sharia|sheria ya Kiislamu]],<ref name>Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198 [196–8]</ref><ref name="Makdisi"/> iliendelea kuenea kote baranii Ulaya hadi [[Zama za Kutaalamika|Kutaalmika]]; kisha, katika karne ya 19, Ufaransa, na [[Sheria iliyoandikwa ya Kiraia]], na Ujerumani, [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]], zilifanya sheria zao zilizokuwa zimeandikwa kuwa za kisasa. Sheria hizi mbili zilizoandikwa zilisukuma vilivyo si tu mifumo ya kisheria ya nchi katika Bara Ulaya (kama vile Ugiriki), lakini pia tamaduni za kisheria za [[Sheria ya Ujapani|Ujapani]] na [[Korea ya Kusini|Kikorea]].<ref>Hatzis, ''The Short-Lived Influence of the Napoleonic Civil Code in Greece'', 253–263</ref><ref>Demirgüç-Kunt -Levine, ''Financial Structures and Economic Growth'', 204</ref> Leo, cnhi ambazo zina mifumo ya kisheria ya kiraia ni kama vile [[Sheria ya Urusi|Urusi]] na [[Sheria ya Demokrasia ya watu ya Uchina|Uchina]] na maeneo mengi ya Marekani ya [[Marekani ya Kati|Kati]] na [[Sheria ya Marekani ya Kusini|Marekani ya Kilatini]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html The World Factbook&nbsp;— Field Listing&nbsp;– Legal system] {{Wayback|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html |date=20181226012138 }}, CIA</ref> Marekani inafuata sheria ya kawaida inayofafanuliwa hapa chini. === Sheria ya kawaida na usawa === {{Main|Sheria ya kawaida}} [[Picha:King John signing the Great Charter (Magna Carta) by English School.png|thumb|Mfalme Yohana wa Uingereza anatia sahini Magna Carta]] Sheria ya kawaida na usawa ni mifumo ya kisheria ambapo uamuzi wa mahakama yanakubalika wazi kuwa vyanzo vya sheria."Mafundisho ya utangulizi", au ''[[stare decisis]]'' (Kilatini kwa "kusimama kwa uamuzi") unamaanisha kuwa sumauzi unaofanywa na mahakama yenye mamlaka kubwa yanafunga mahakama yenye mamlaka ya chini. Mifumo ya kisheria ya kawaida hutumia amri mara chache sana, zinazopitishwa na bunge, lakini huenda zikafanya jaribio ambalo si la kitaratibu kuandika sheria zao kuliko katika "mfumo wa sheria wa kiraia". Sheria ya kawaida ina asili yake nchini Uingereza na imerithiwa na karibu nchi zote ambazo hapo awali zilihusika na [[Dola la Uingereza]] (isipokuwa Malta, [[sHERIA YA|Scotland]], na jimbo la Marekani la [[Sheria ya Louisiana|Louisiana]], na jimbo la Kanada la [[sheria ya Quebec|Quebec]]). Katika Uingereza wakati wa zama za kati, [[Ushindi wa Norman dhidi ya Uingereza|ushindi wa Norman]] ulisababisha kuungana kwa desturi mbalimbali za kikabila na hivyo basi kuunda sheria ya "kawaida" ya nchi yote. Labda ikisukumwa na [[Sheria ya Kiislamu|mazoea ya kisheria ya Kiislamu]] wakati wa [[Krusedi]],<ref name=Makdisi>Makdisi, ''The Islamic Origins'', 1635–1739</ref> sheria ya kawaida iliendelea ambapo Mfalme wa Kiingereza alikuwa amefanywa kuwa dhaifu na gharama kubwa ya vita vywa kudhibiti sehemu kubwa za Ufaransa. [[Yohana wa Uingereza|Mfalme Yohana]] alikuwa amelazimishwa na mabaroni wake kutia saini hati iliyoweka vikwazo kwa mamlaka yake ya kupisha sheria. "Mkataba huu mkuu" au ''[[Magna Carta]]'' wa mwaka 1215 pia ulihitaji jopo la mahakimu wa Mfalme kufanya mikutano yao ya kimahakama na uamuzi wao katika "mahali maalum" badala ya kutoa haki ya kibepari katika maeneo yaliyokuwa magumu kutabiri kote.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html Magna Carta] {{Wayback|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html |date=20140910155351 }}, Fordham University</ref> Kundi la mahakimu walsomi na waliokolea walipata jukumu muhimu katika kuunda sheria chini ya mfumo huu, na ikilinganishwa na wenzao Barani Ulaya mahakama ya Uingereza ilikuwa na urasimu mwingi zaidi. Kwa mfano, mnamo mwaka wa 1297, wakati ambapo mahakama kuu ya Ufaransa yalikuwa na mahakimu hamsini na wawili, [[Mahakama ya Uingereza ya Maombi ya Kawaida]] yalikuwa na watano.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 4</ref> Mahakama haya yenye nguvu na yaliyoshikamana yalisababisha mfumo wa kikiritimba.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 3</ref> Kufuatana na hilo, kadiri wakati ulivyopita, idadi iliyoongezeka ya raia waliomba Mfalme kupuuza sheria ya kawaida, na kwa niaba ya Mfalme [[Bwana Chansela]] alitoa uamuzi kufanya kile ambacho ni sawa kwa kila kesi. Kuanzia wakati wa [[Thomas More]], wakili wa kwanza kuteuliwa kama Bwana Chansela, mwili wa kimfumo wa usawa uliongezeka kando ya sheria ya kawaida yenye ukiritimba, na ilianzisha [[Mahakama yake ya Chancery]]. Mwanzoni, usawa ulikosolewa kuwa ulikosa kukosa utaratibu, na kuwa ulibadilika kulingana na urefu wa mguu wa Chansela.<ref>Pollock (ed) ''Table Talk of [[John Selden]]'' (1927) 43; "Equity is a roguish thing. For law we have a measure... equity is according to the conscience of him that is Chancellor, and as that is longer or narrower, so is equity. 'Tis all one as if they should make the stadard for the measure a Chancellor's foot."</ref> Lakini baada ya muda iliunda [[Kanuni za usawa|kanuni]], hasa chini ya [[John Scott, Ali wa kwanza wa Eldon|Bwana Eldon]].<ref>''[[Gee v Pritchard]]'' (1818) 2 Swans. 402, 414</ref> Katika karne ya 19 mifumo hiyo miwili iliunganishwa pamoja. Katika kuendeleza sheria ya kawaida na usawa, waandishi wa kitaaluma wamekuwa na jukumu muhimu. [[William Blackstone]], kuanzia kipindi cha 1760, alikuwa mwanachuoni wa kwanza kuelezea na kufunza usawa.<ref>Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/bk1ch1.htm Book the First&nbsp;– Chapter the First] {{Wayback|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/bk1ch1.htm |date=20130329045450 }}</ref> Lakini kwa kuelezea tu, wasomi walitafuta melezo na miunso msingi walibadilisha polepole jinisi sheria ilivyofanya kazi.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 17</ref> === Sheria ya kidini === {{Main|Sheria ya kidini}} Sheria ya kidini inatokana na maagizo ya [[dini]]. Baadhi ya mifano ni [[Halakha]] ya [[Uyahudi|Kiyahudi]] na [[Sharia]] ya [[Uislamu]] — ambazo zote mbili zinamaanisha "njia ya kufuata" — huku [[sheria za Kanisa]] za [[Ukristo]] nazo hutumika katika [[madhehebu]] machache, kama vile [[Kanisa Katoliki]], [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi]] na la [[Anglikana]]. Mara nyingi dini inadai kutobadilika kwa sheria, kwa sababu [[neno la Mungu]] haliwezi kufanyiwa marekebisho wala kupingwa na mahakimu au serikali. Hata hivyo mfumo fasaha wa sheria kwa jumla unahitaji upanuzi upande wa [[binadamu]]. Kwa mfano, [[Torati]] au Vitabu Vitano vya [[Musa]] katika [[Agano la Kale]]. Vitabu hivyo vina kanuni na sheria za msingi za Uyahudi, ambayo baadhi ya jamii ya Kiisraeli huchagua kutumia. [[Halakha]] ni kanuni ya sheria za Kiyahudi inayofanya muhtasari wa baadhi ya ufafanuzi wa kitabu cha [[Talmud]]. Hata hivyo, [[Sheria za Israeli]] zinaruhusu [[mlalamikaji]] kuchagua mbinu za kidini ikiwa tu anataka. Mfano mwingine ni [[Korani]] ambayo ina sheria, na inakuwa kama chanzo cha sheria zaidi kupitia ufafanuzi,<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 159</ref> ''[[Qiyas]]'' (kulinganisha), ''[[Ijma]]'' (kufikia muafaka) na [[yaliyokwishatokea]]. Hili hasa hupatikana katika mkusanyo wa sheria na falsafa ya kisheria inayojulikana kama [[Sharia]] na [[Fiqh]]. [[Picha:1879-Ottoman Court-from-NYL.png|thumb|left|Kesi katika [[Dola la Ottoman]], mwaka [[1879]], wakati sheria ya kidini ilitumika chini ya [[Mecelle]].]] Hadi [[karne ya 18]], Sharia ilitekelezwa kote katika [[Ulimwengu wa Kiislamu]] katika mfumo ambao haukuwa umeandikwa kwa ufasaha, huku sheria ya [[Mecelle]] ya [[Dola la Ottoman]] katika [[karne ya 19]] ilikuwa ya kwanza kuandika vipengele vya Sharia. Tangu miaka ya kati ya 1940, majaribio yamefanywa, katika nchi nyingi, kufanya sheria hizo zifanane zaidi na hali na dhana za kisasa.<ref name="AA">Anderson, ''Law Reform in the Middle East'', 43</ref><ref>Giannoulatos, ''Islam'', 274–275</ref> Katika nyakati za sasa, mifumo ya kisheria katika mataifa mengi ya Kiislamu hutegemea sheria za kiraia na sheria ya kawaida na pia sheria na tamaduni za Kiislamu. Katiba za baadhi ya nchi za Kiislamu, kama vile [[Misri]] na [[Afghanistan]], zinatambua [[Uislamu]] kama sheria ya taifa, hivyo kuyafanya mabunge katika nchi hizo yasiwe na budi kufuata Sharia.<ref>Sherif, ''Constitutions of Arab Countries'', 157–158</ref> [[Saudia]] inatambua Korani kama katiba, na inatawaliwa kwa msingi wa sheria ya Kiislamu.<ref name = Jurist>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm Saudi Arabia] {{Wayback|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm |date=20060830232216 }}, Jurist</ref> [[Iran]] pia imeshuhudia kurudi kwa sheria ya Kiislamu katika mfumo wake wa kisheria baada ya mwaka [[1979]].<ref>Akhlagi, ''Iranian Commercial Law'', 127</ref> Katika miongo michache iliyopita, mojawapo ya tofauti kuu ya harakati ya [[mwamko wa Kiislamu]] imekuwa wito wa kuirejesha Sharia, wito ambao umeibua kiasi kikubwa cha maandishi na kuathiri [[siasa]] duniani.<ref name="H1">Hallaq, ''The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law'', 1</ref> == Nadharia ya sheria == === Historia ya Sheria === {{Main|Historia ya sheria}} [[Picha:Milkau Oberer Teil der Stele mit dem Text von Hammurapis Gesetzescode 369-2.jpg|thumb|Mfalme [[Hammurabi]] anaonyeshwa [[Sheria ya Hammurabi|mkusanyiko wa sheria]] na mungu wa jua wa Kimesopotamia [[Shamash]], ambaye pia anatambulika kama mungu wa haki]] Historia ya sheria inashikamana kwa karibu na [[maendeleo]] ya [[ustaarabu]]. Sheria ya [[Misri ya Kale]], iliyorudi nyuma mbali hadi mnamo [[3000 KK]], ilikuwa na mkusanyiko wa sheria ambao huenda ulikuwa umegawanjwa katika vitabu kumi na viwili. Ilizingatia dhana ya [[Ma'at]], iliyokuwa na sifa ya mapokeo, [[hotuba]] za [[kushawishi]], usawa wa kijamii na [[uaminifu]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Théodoridés|title = law | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt}}</ref><ref>VerSteeg, ''Law in ancient Egypt''</ref> Kufikia [[karne ya 22 KK]], [[mtawala]] wa zamani wa [[Wasumeri|Kisumeri]], [[Ur-Nammu]] alikuwa ameandaa [[Mkusanyiko wa sheria wa Ur-Nammu|mkusanyiko wa sheria]], ambao ulihusisha kauli za [[Mjadala|kimjadala]] ("ikiwa ... basi ..."). Kufikia mwaka wa [[1760 KK]], Mfalme [[Hammurabi]] aliboresha zaidi [[Sheria ya Babeli]], kwa kuikusanya na kujandika katika [[jiwe]] kubwa. Hammurabi aliweka nakala kadhaa za jiwe lile kote katika [[milki ya Babeli]] kama [[stelae]], ili watu wote waitazame; hii ilikuja kufahamika kama [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria za Hammurabi]]. Nakala iliyobaki ambayo haijaharibika sana wa stelae hizi iligunduliwa katika [[karne ya 19]] na [[Waingereza]] wasomi wa mambo ya [[Assyria|milki ya Assyria]], na tangu wakati huo imenakiliwa upya na kutafsiriwa katika [[lugha]] mbalimbali, zikiwemo [[Kiingereza]], [[Kijerumani]] na [[Kifaransa]].<ref>Richardson, ''Hammurabi's Laws'', 11</ref> [[Agano la Kale]] lilianza mnamo [[1280 KK]], na linachukua umbo la [[amri]] za [[Maadili|kimaadili]] kama mapendekezo ya [[jamii]] nzuri. [[Miji-dola|Mji-dola]] wa [[Ugiriki ya Kale]], [[Atheni ya Kale]] kuanzia [[karne ya 8 KK]] ilikuwa jamii ya kwanza kuwa na msingi wake katika kuhusisha raia kwa upana; isipokuwa [[wanawake]] na daraja la [[watumwa]]. Hata hivyo, [[Atheni]] haikuwa na sayansi ya kisheria, na hapakuwa na neno la "sheria" isipokuwa kama dhana ya kiakili tu.<ref>Kelly, ''A Short History of Western Legal Theory'', 5–6</ref> Bado [[sheria ya Ugiriki wa Kale]] ilikuwa na uvumbuzi mkubwa wa [[Katiba ya Waatheni|kikatiba]] katika kuendeleza [[Demokrasia ya Atheni|demokrasia]].<ref>Ober, ''The Nature of Athenian Democracy'', 121</ref> [[Sheria ya Kirumi]] ilisukumwa sana na [[falsafa]] ya Kigiriki, lakini maelezo yake ya kina yaliendelezwa na wanasheria wa kitaaluma, na yalikuwa magumu sana.<ref>Kelly, ''A Short History of Western Legal Theory'', 39</ref><ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 1</ref> Katika kipindi cha karne zilizopita kati ya kupanda na kushuka kwa [[Dola la Roma]], sheria imebadilishwa ili kukabiliana na hali za kijamii zilizokuwa zikibadilika, na ilikusanywa na kuandkiwa vilivyo wakati wa utawala wa [[kaisari]] [[Justinian I]].<ref name="St107">Kama mfumo wa kisheria, Sheria ya Kirumi imeathiri moja kwa moja sheria za duniani kote. Pia ni sehemu ya msingi ya mkusanyiko wa sheria wa nchi nyingi za [[Bara|barani]] [[Ulaya]], na imekuwa muhimu katika kuunda kwa dhana ya utamaduni sawa Ulaya (Stein, ''Sheria ya Kirumi katika Historia ya Ulaya'', 2, 104–107).</ref> Ingawa ilipungua kwa umuhimu mwanzoni mwa [[Karne za Kati]], Sheria ya Kirumi iligunduliwa upya wakati wa [[karne ya 11]] ambapo wasomi walianza kutafiti mkusanyiko wa sheria za Kirumi na kuyatumia mawazo yao. Katika Uingereza ya Zama za Kati, mahakimu wa Mfalme waliunda mwili wa [[utangulizi]], ambao baadaye ulijulikana kama [[sheria ya kawaida]]. ''[[Sheria ya biashara]]'' ya Ulaya mzima iliundwa ili kuwapa [[wafanyabiashara]] uwezo wa kufanya biashara kwa kutumia viwango sawa vya mazoezi; badala ya kutumia sheria za kimtaa zenye pande nyingi. Hiyo ''Lex Mercatoria'', mtangulizi wa sheria ya kisasa ya biashara, ilihimiza [[uhuru wa mkataba]] na kuwekwa mbali kwa mali.<ref>Sealey-Hooley, ''Commercial Law'', 14</ref> Kadiri [[utaifa]] ulipozidi katika [[karne za 18]] na 19, ndipo ''Lex Mercatoria'' ilipozidi kujumuishwa katika sheria za kimanispaa za nchi mbalimbali chini ya mkusanyiko mpya wa sheria za kiraia. [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria za Napoleoni]] na sheria za [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|Kijerumani]] ulikuwa na ushawishi mkubwa zaidi. Ikitofautishwa na sheria ya kawaida ya Uingereza, ambayo ina idadi kubwa ya sheria za kesi, mikusanyiko ya sheria katika vitabu vidogo ni rahisi kuuza nje ili mahakimu waweze kuitumia. Hata hivyo, hivi leo kuna ishara kuwa sheria ya kiraia na sheria ya kawaida zinazidi kukaribiana.<ref>Mattei, ''Comparative Law and Economics'', 71</ref> Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya imekusanywa katika mikataba, lakini huendelezwa kupitia utangulizi unaofanywa na [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki]]. [[Picha:Constitution of India.jpg|thumb|left|[[Katiba ya nchi ya Uhindi]] ndiyo katiba ndefu zaidi iliyoandikwa kwa nchi, ikiwa na Ibara 444, Ibara 12 ndogo, na marekebisho mengi na maneno 117,369]] [[Sheria ya Kiislamu]] na [[Fiqh|falsafa ya sheria]] zilianza katika kipindi cha Zama za Kati.<ref name="Badr">Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198</ref> Mbinu ya kisheria ya utangulizi na kufikiria kupitia mlinganisho (''[[Qiyas]]'') iliyotumika katika sheria ya mapema ya Kiislamu ilifanana na na ile ya baadaye ya mfumo wa [[Sheria ya Uingereza|Sheria ya Kawaida ya Uingereza]].<ref name=Gamal>Justice Gamal Moursi Badr argues that Islamic law may "be called a [[lawyer]]'s law if common law is a [[judge]]'s law"(Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198, El-Gamal, ''Islamic Finance'', 16).</ref> Hii ilitumika hasa katika shule ya [[Maliki]] ya sheria ya Kiislamu iliyopatikana sana katika eneo la Afrika Kasakazini, [[Al-Andalus|Uhispania wa Kiislamu]] na baadaye [[Sicily ya Kiemereti]]. Kati ya karne za 8 na 11, sheria ya Maliki iliendeleza [[taasisi]] nyingi zilizokuwa sambamba na taasisi za baadaye za sheria ya kawaida.<ref>The "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic ''Aqd'', the English [[assize of novel disseisin]] is identified with the Islamic ''Istihqaq'', and the English jury is identified with the Islamic ''Lafif''". Other parallels include "the [[scholastic method]], the license to teach" (''[[Ijazah]]''), the "[[law school]]s known as [[Inns of Court]] in England and ''[[Madrasah|Madrasas]]'' in Islam", and the [[Agency (law)|agency]] (''[[Hawala]]'') and [[trust law]] (''[[Waqf]]'') (Gaudiosi, ''The Influence of the Islamic Law '', 1231–1261; Makdisi, ''The Islamic Origins'', 1635–1739).</ref> Sheria ya kale ya [[Sheria ya Uhindi|Uhindi]] na [[Sheria ya uchina|Uchina]] zinawakilisha mapokeo tofauti ya sheria, na kihistoria yamekuwa na [[shule]] huru za kinadharia na mazoezi. ''[[Arthashastra]]'', ambayo pengine iliandikwa mnamo [[100]] [[BK]] (ingawa ina maandiko ya awali kidogo), na ''[[Manusmriti]]'' (100–[[300]]) yalikuwa mikataba ya uanzilishaji nchini Uhindi, na ilikuwa na maandiko yanayofikiriwa kuwa wongofu wenye mamlaka wa kisheria.<ref>For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, ''Manu's Code of Law'', 18-25.</ref> Falsafa kuu ya Manu ilikuwa kuvumiliana na [[Mfumo wa Viama Vingi (falsafa ya kisheria)|Mfumo wa Vyama Vingi]], na ilitajwa kote katika eneo la Asia ya Kusini Mashariki.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 276</ref> Mapokeo haya ya [[Uhindi|Kihindu]], pamoja na sheria ya Kiislamu, yalibadilishwa na na sheria ya kawaida wakati ambapo Uhindi ilifanywa kuwa sehemu ya [[Dola la Uingereza]].<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 273</ref> [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Singapore]] na [[Hong Kong]] pia ilianza kutumia sheria ya kawaida, Mapokeo ya sheria ya [[Asia ya Kusini]] yanaangazia mkusanyiko maalum wa ushawishi wa kidunia na kidIni.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 287</ref> [[Ujapani]] ilikuwa nchi ya kwanza kuufanya mfumo wake wa sheria uwe wa kisasa sambamba na ule wa nchi za magharibi, kwa kuagiza sehemu za mkusanyiko wa sheria za [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria|Ufaransa]], lakini hasa mkusanyiko wa sheria za Kijerumani.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 304</ref> Hili lilionyesha kwa kiwango fulani hadhi ya Ujerumani kama nguvu yenye uwezo mkubwa zaidi katika kipindi cha mwisho cha karne ya 19. Pia, [[sheria ya mapokeo ya Uchina]] ilifungua njia kwa kubadilishwa na nchi za magharibi kuelekea miaka ya mwisho ya [[Nasaba ya Qing|nasaba ya Ch'ing]] kupitia njia ya mkusanyiko wa sheria tatu za kibinaFsi zilizokuwa na msingi katika muundo wa Ujapani wa sheria ya Ujerumani.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 305</ref> Leo sheria ya [[Taiwan]] inabaki na mshikamano wa karibu zaidi na mkusanyiko wa sheria kutoka kipindi hicho, kwa sababu ya mgawanyiko kati ya wanataifa wa [[Chiang Kai-shek]], ambao walitoroka kutoka sehemu hiyo, na [[wakomunisti]] wa [[Mao Zedong]] waliopata ushindi wa kudhibiti bara mnamo mwaka wa [[1949]]. Muundombinu wa sasa wa Jamhuri ya Watu wa Uchina ilishawishika pakubwa na [[Sheria ya Kisoshalisti]] ya [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti]], inayopea sheria ya utawala umuhimu mwingi kuliko haki za sheria ya kibinafsi.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 307</ref> Kwa sababu ya kuongezeka kwa kasi kwa viwanda, leo Uchina inapitia machakato wa wa marekebisho, angalau katika nyanja ya haki za kiuchumi, ikiwa si haki za kijamii na kisiasa. Sheria mpya ya mkataba ya mwaka wa 1999 ilikuwa ishara ya kusonga mbali na kuwa na utawala mwingi.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 309</ref> Isitoshe, baada ya mazungumzo yaliyodumu miaka kumi na mitano, mnamo mwaka 2001 Uchina ilijiunga na [[Shirika la Biashara Duniani]].<ref>Farah, ''Five Years of China WTO Membership'', 263–304</ref> === Falsafa ya sheria === {{Main|Falsafa ya sheria}} [[Falsafa]] ya sheria kwa kawaida inaitwa jurisprudensi. Jurisprudensi unaozidi kuongezka wenyewe ni [[falsafa ya kisiasa]], na unauliza "sheria inafaa kuwa nini?", huku jurisprudensia ya uchambuzi inauliza "sheria ni nini?". Jibu la [[utumikaji|kiutumikaji]] la [[John Austin (mwanafalsafa wa kisheria)|John Austin]] linajibu kuwa sheria ni "amri, zinazoandamana na matishio ya vkwazo, kutoka kwa mtawala, ambaye watu wote wamezoea kumtii".<ref name="jap">Bix, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/#3 John Austin]</ref> Mawakili wa [[sheria ya kimaumbile]] kwa upande mwingine, kama vile [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], wanadokeza kwamba sheria inaangazia sheria isiyobadilika ya tabia ya kimaumbile. Dhana ya "sheria ya kimaumbile" iliibuka katika [[falsafa ya Kigiriki]] ya zamani kwa wakati mmoja na kwa pamoja na dhana ya haki, na iliingia mkondo wa [[utamaduni wa Magharibi]] kupitia maandiko ya [[Thomas Aquinas]] na maoni ya [[Falsafa ya mapema ya Kiislamu|mwanafalsafa wa Kiislamu]] na mwanasheria [[Averroes]].<ref>Roeber, ''What the Law Requires'', 887</ref><ref>Stone, ''Human Law and Human Justice'', 14, 51</ref> [[Hugo Grotius]], mwanzilishi wa mfumo uliotegemea dhana za kiakili pekee ya sheria ya kimaumbile, alidokeza kuwa sheria inatokana na msukumo wa kijamii—jinsi Aristotle alivyokuwa amesema—na kufikiria.<ref>[[Fritz Berolzheimer]], ''The World's Legal Philosophies'', 115–116</ref> [[Immanuel Kant]] aliamini kuwa amri ya kimaadili inahitaji sheria "zichaguliwe kana kwamba zinafaa kushikilia kama sheria za ilimwenguni kote za kimaumbile".<ref>[[Immanuel Kant|Kant, Immanuel]], ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'', 42 (par. 434)</ref> [[Jeremy Bentham]] na mwanafunzi wake Austin, wakimfuata [[David Hume]], waliamini kuwa hili liliongeza utata wa [[Utata wa kilicho-na kinachofaa kuwepo|"kilicho" na kile ambacho "kinafaa kuwepo"]]. Bentham na Austin walisisitiza kuwe na sheria ya [[Uchanya wa sheria|uchanya]]; na kuwa sheria ya kweli ni tofauti kabisa na "maadili".<ref>Green, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-positivism/ Legal Positivism]</ref> Kant pia alikosolewa na [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], ambaye alikataa kanuni ya usawa, huku akiamini kuwa sheria hutokana na [[nia kwa nguvu]], na haiwezi fanywa kuwa ya "kimaadili" au "utovu wa nidhamu".<ref>Nietzsche, ''Zur Genealogie der Moral'', Second Essay, 11</ref><ref>Kazantzakis, ''Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law'', 97–98</ref><ref>Linarelli, ''Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral'', 23–26</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 1934, mwanafalsafa wa Kiaustria, [[Hans Kelsen]], alizidi na mapokeo ya uchanya katika kitabu chake ''[[Nadharia Safi ya Sheria]]''.<ref>Marmor, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lawphil-theory/ The Pure Theory of Law]</ref> Kelsen aliamini kuwa ingawa sheria ni tofauti na maadili, inapewa "ukawaida"; kumaanisha kuwa tunfaa kuitii. Ingawa sheria ni taarfa chanya za "ni" (k.m. faini ya kuendesha kwa kurudi nyuma katika barabara kuu ''ni'' [[Euro|€]]500); hii sheria inatuelezea kile "tunachofaa" kutenda. Kwa hivyo kila mfumo wa sheria unaweza kudadisiwa kuwa na kanuni ya msingi (''[[Grundnorm]]'') ianyotupea amri ya kutii. Mpinzani mkuu wa Kelsen, [[Carl Schmitt]], alikataa uchanya na dhana ya [[utawala wa sheria]] kwa sababu hakukubali umuhimu wa kanuni za kidhana za Uchanya badala ya mitazamo na uamuzi bayana wa kisiasa.<ref name=">Bielefeldt, ''Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism'', 25–26</ref> Kwa hiyo, Schmitt alipendekeza falsafa ya sheria ya maalum ([[hali ya dharura]]), ambayo ilikanusha kuwa kanuni za kisheria zingezunguka uzoefu wote wa kisiasa.<ref name="F171">Finn, ''Constitutions in Crisis'', 170–171</ref> [[Picha:Jeremy Bentham by Henry William Pickersgill detail.jpg|thumb|Nadharia za Bentham za utumikiaji zilibaki kimya katika sheria hadi karne ya 20]] Baadaye katika karne ya 20, [[H. L. A. Hart]] alimshambulia Austin kwa kurahisisha kwake kwa suala hilo na Kelsen kwa kutunga kwake kwa mambo ya kihadithi katika kitabu cha ''[[Dhana ya Sheria]]''.<ref>Bayles, ''Hart's Legal Philosophy'', 21</ref> Hart alidokeza kuwa sheria ni mfumo wa kanuni, zilizogawanywa kuwa (kanuni za maadili) ambazo ndizo za kimsingi na sheria za upili (zinazowalenga maafisa kusimamia kanuni msingi). Kanuni za upili zimegawanywa zaidi kuwa sheria za uamuzi (kutatua migogoro ya kisheria), kanuni za mabadiliko (zinazoruhusu sheria kuwa tofauti) na sheria ya utambuzi(inayoruhusu sheria kutambulika kama halali). Wawili kati ya wanafunzi wa Hart waliendeleza mjadala: Ktaika kitabu chake ''Dola la Sheria'', [[Ronald Dworkin]] alimshabulia Hart na wachanya kwa kukataa kwao la kufanya sheria iwe suala la kimaadili. Dworkin anadokeza kuwa sheria ni dhana ya "[[utafsirishaji (sheria)|kitafsiri]]",<ref>Dworkin, ''Law's Empire'', 410</ref> inayowataka mahakimu kupata suluhisho bora zaidi kwa mgogoro wa kisheria, kwa mujibu wa mila zao. [[Joseph Raz]], kwa upande mwingine, anawataka alitetea mtazamo wa kichanya na kukosoa mtazamo wa Hart wa "nadharia laini ya kijamii" katika kitabu chake ''Mamlaka ya Sheria''.<ref name="jra">Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 3–36</ref> Raz anadokeza kuwa sheria ni mamlaka, yanayotambulika kupitia vyanzo vya kijamii na bila kurejelea hoja za kimaadili. Katika maoni yake, uainishaji wowote wa kanuni zozote zaidi ya majukumu yao kama vifaa vya kimamlaka katika upatanisha ni bora yaachiwe [[elimu ya jamii]], badala ya falsafa ya sheria.<ref>Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 37 etc.</ref> === Uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria === {{Main|Sheria na uchumi}} Katika karne ya 18 [[Adam Smith]] aliwasilisha msingi wa kifalsafa wa kuelezea uhusiano kati ya sheria na uchumi.<ref>According to Malloy (''Law and Economics'', 114), Smith established "a classical liberal philosophy that made individuals the key referential sign while acknowledging that we live not alone but in community with others".</ref> Taaluma hiyo ilitokana na mchango wa ukosoaji dhidi ya vyama vya wafanyikazi na [[sheria dhidi ya amana]] nchini Marekani. Watetezi wa taaluma hii waliokuwa na ushawishi mkubwa zaidi, kama vile [[Richard Posner]] na [[Oliver E. Williamson|Oliver Williamson]] na kinachojulikana kama [[Shule ya Chicago (uchumi)|Shule ya Chicago]] ya wanauchumi na mawakili ikiwemo [[Milton Friedman]] na [[Gary Becker]], kwa jumla ni watetezi wa [[uouguzaji wa udhibiti]] na [[ubinafsishaji]], na ni maadui wa udhibiti wa serikali au kile wanachokiona kuwa vikwazo dhidi ya unedeshaji wa ma[[soko huru]].<ref>Jakoby, ''Economic Ideas and the Labour Market'', 53</ref> [[Picha:Richard-A-Posner.jpg|thumb|left|[[Richard Posner]], mmoja wa watetezi wa [[Chuo cha Chicago (uchumi)|Chuo cha Chicago]], huandika blogu pamoja na [[Gary Becker]] mwanauchumi ambaye ni mshindi wa [[Tuzo la Benki ya Uswidi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/ |title=The Becker-Posner Blog |accessdate=2007-02-03}}</ref>]] Mchambuzi maarufu zaidi wa kiuchumi wa sheria ni mshindi wa [[Tujo la Nobel la Uchumi|Tuzo la Nobel]] la mnamo 1991 [[Ronald Coase]], ambaye makala yake makuu ya kwanza, ''[[Hali ya Kampuni]]'' (1937), kulidokeza sababu za kuwepo kwa makampuni mbalimbali (makampuni, ubia, n.k.) ndiyo kuwepo kwa [[gharama za biashara]].<ref>Coase, ''The Nature of the Firm'', 386–405</ref> [[Homo economicus|Binadamu ambao hufikiria kawaida]] hufanya biashara kupitia mikataba ya bilaterala katika masoko wazi hadi wakati ambapo gharama ya biashara kunamaanisha kuwa kutumia makampuni ya kihalmasahhuri ili kuzalisha bidha ni ya ufanisi mwingi zaidi.Makala yake makuu ya pili, ''[[Shida ya Gharama ya Kijamii]]'' (1960), yalidokeza kuwa tunaishi katika Dunia bila gharama za kibiashara, watu ambao [[kuongea kuhusu gharama|huongea kuhusu gharama]] pamoja wanatengeneza mgao sawa wa rasilimali, buila kujali jinsi mahakama yanavyoweza kuamua katika migogoro kuhusu mali.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', 1–44</ref> Coase alitumia mfano wa kesi ya [[kero]] iliyoitwa ''[[Sturges dhidi ya Bridgman]]'', ambapo mtengenezaji peremende ambaye alipiga kelele nyingi na daktari mtulivu walikuwa majirani na walienda mahakamani ili wajue nani kati yao ndiye angefa kuhama.<ref name="Sturges"/> Coase alisema kuwa bila kujali ikiwa hakimu aliamua kuwa mtengenezaji peremende angefaa kuwacha kutumia mashine zake, au ikiwa ingembidi daktari kuvumilia kelele ile, wote wawili wangefikia mapatano ya pamoja kuhusu nani ndiye angefaa kuhama ambayo yanafikia matokeo sawa na mgawanyo wa rasilimali. Ni kuwepo tu kwa [[bei za biashara]] kunaoweza kuzuia hili.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', IV, 7</ref> Kwa hivyo sheria infaa kutazamia kile ambacho ''huenda kikafanyika'', na kuongozwa na ufumbuzi wenye [[ufanisi (uchumi)|ufanisi]]. Wenye kuunda mipango serikalini wanaamini wazo kwamba sheria na vikwazo si muhimu au zenye ufanisi katika kuwasaidia watu.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', V, 9</ref> Coase na wengine kama yeye walitaka mabadiliko ya mbinu, ili kuweka mzigo wa ushahidi katika serikali iliyokuwa ikiingilia soko, kwa kuchambua gharama za hatua.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', VIII, 23</ref> === Elimujamii ya sheria === {{Main|Elimujamii ya sheria}} Somo la kijamii la sheria ni taaluma pana ya masomo inayotazama mwingiliano kati ya sheria na jamii na inahusiana kwa karibu na falsafa ya sheria, uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria na masomo maalum zaidi kama [[somo la jinai]].<ref name="Jary">Jary, ''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', 636</ref> Taasisi za [[ujenzi wa jamii]] na mifumo ya kisheria ni maeneo muhimu ya uchunguzi wa taaluma hii. Mwanzoni, wananadharia wa kisheria walishuku taaluma hii. Kelesen alimshambuliwa mmoja wa waanzilishi wake, [[Eugen Ehrlich]], ambaye alitaka kuweka wazi tofauti kati ya sheria ya uchanya, ambayo mawakili wanajifunza na kutumia, na aina zingine za 'sheria' au kanuni za kijamii zinazodhibiti maisha ya kila siku, na kwa jumla kuzuiwa migogoro isiwafikie mawakili mahakamani.<ref>Rottleuthner, ''La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne'', 109</ref><ref>Rottleuthner, ''Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts'', 521</ref> [[Picha:Max Weber 1917.jpg|thumb|left|[[Max Weber]] mnamo mwaka wa 1917, Weber alianza kazi yake kama wakili, na antazamwa kama mmoja wa waanzilishi wa somo la jamii na somo la jamii la kisheria]] Katika kipindi cha mwaka 1900 [[Max Weber]] alifafanua mbinu yake ya "kisayansi" ya sheria, huku akitambua "umbo la kimantiki ya sheria" kama aina ya utawala, ambao si chanzo cha watu lakini kwa dhana za kiakili.<ref>Rheinstein, ''Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society'', 336</ref> [[Mamalaka ya kimantiki ya sheria|Umantiki wa kisheria]] yalikuwa maneno yake aliyoyatumia kuelezea mwili wa sheria zinazoeleweka na zinazoweza kuhesabika na zilikuwa hatua ya kwanza ya maendeleo ya kisasa ya kisiasa na taifa la ukiritimba la kisasa na kuibuka sambamba na [[ubepari]].<ref name="Jary"/> Msomi mwingine wa somo la jamii, [[Émile Durkheim]], aliandika katika ''Mgawanyo wa Ujira na Jamii'' kuwa kadiri jamii inavyozidi kuwa kubwa, ndivyo mwili wa sheria ya kiraia unaohusika hasa na fidia unapozidi kukuwa kwa gharama ya sheria za jinai na vikwazo vya kisheria.<ref>Johnson, ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology, 156</ref> Wasomi wengine wa somo la jamii ni [[Hugo Sinzheimer]], [[Theodor Geiger]], [[Georges Gurvitch]] na [[Leon Petrażycki]] Barani Ulaya, na [[William Graham Sumner]] nchini Marekani<ref>Gurvitch, ''Sociology of Law'', 142</ref><ref>Papachristou, ''Sociology of Law'', 81–82</ref> == Taasisi za kisheria == Sheria si mwili wa kanuni zisizobadilika bali ni "machakato badilifu wa kanuni zinazobadilishwa kila wakati, kuundwa, na kupewa umbo ili kuambatana na hali fulani."<ref>Hamilton and Spiro, ''The Dynamics of Law'', 3</ref> Mabadiliko yanafanywa kila wakati na taasisi mbalimbali katika jamii. Taasisi kuu za sheria katika [[Demokrasia huru]] ni [[Mahakama huru]], [[Haki ya jinai|mifumo ya haki]], [[bunge]], serikali yenye [[uwajibikaji]], na ukiritimba wenye uwezo na usiokuwa na ufisadi , kiksoi cha polisi, [[kudhibitiwa kwa jeshi na raia]] na taaluma ya kisheria yenye nguvu inayohakikisha watu wanapta haki na jamii ya kiraia mbalimbali—neno linalotumika kuashiria taasisi za kijamii, jamii na ushirikiano unaunda msingi wa kisiasa wa sheria.<ref>Jakobs, ''Pursuing Equal Opportunities'', 5–6</ref><ref>Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 275 etc.</ref> John Locke, katika ''[[Maandiko Mawili kuhusu Serikali]]'', na [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Baron de Montesquieu]] katika ''[[Roho ya Sheria]]'', walitetea [[mgawanyo wa madaraka]] kati ya miili ya kisiasa ya bunge na serikali.<ref>[[Montesquieu]], ''The Spirit of Laws'', [http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_11.htm#006 Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7]</ref> Kanuni yao ilikuwa kuwa hakuna mtu anayefaa kuwa na uwezo wa kuchukua mamlaka yote ya [[Taifa huru|taifa]], ikitofautishwa na nadharia ya [[uimla]] ya [[Thomas Hobbes]]' ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]''.<ref name="H17">Thomas Hobbes, ''Leviathan'', [https://carvercantin.com/thomas-hobbes-leviathan-xvii/ XVII]</ref> [[Max Weber]] na wengine walibadilisha mawazo kuhusu taifa. Jeshi la kisasa, upolisi na mamalaka ya ukiritimba juu ya masiha ya raia wa kawaida husababisha matatizo maalum ya uwajibikaji ambayo waandishi wa awali kama vile Locke au Montesquieu hawangeweza kutabiri. Mashirika ya kisasa ya kimataifa huzingatia umuhimu wa utawala wa sheria na [[utawala mzuri]], huku waandishi wengine hutafiti uhsusiano kati ya utawala wa sheria na utawala wa ufanisi katika nchi za kisasa.<ref>Curtin–Wessel, ''Good Governance'', 73</ref><ref>Fukuyama, ''State-Building'', 132</ref> === Mahakama === {{Main|Mahakama}} Mahakama ni idadi ya [[mahakimu]] wanaosikiza migogoro ili kuamua matokeo. Nchi nyingi zina mfumo wa mahakama ya [[rufaa]], yanayojibu kwa mamlaka makuu ya kisheria. Nchini Marekani haya ni [[Mahakama Kuu ya Marekani]];<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000711024627/http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/briefoverview.pdf A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court], Supreme Court of the United States</ref> nchini Australia, [[Mahakama Kuu ya Australia]]; nchini Uingereza , ni [[Mahakama Kuu ya Uingereza]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.supremecourt.gov.uk/ |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2010-01-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016151227/http://www.supremecourt.gov.uk/ |archivedate=2009-10-16 }}</ref> (tangu tarehe1 Oktoba 2009; hapo awali yalikuwa, [[Nyumba ya Mabwana]]);<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000711024627/http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/briefoverview.pdf House of Lords Judgements], House of Lords</ref> nchini Ujerumani ni ''[[Bundesverfassungsgericht]]''; nchini Ufaransa ni ''[[Cour de cassation (Ufaransa)|Cour de Cassation]]''.<ref>[http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/entscheidungen.html Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/entscheidungen.html |date=20061121164330 }}, Bundesverfassungsgericht</ref><ref>[http://www.courdecassation.fr/jurisprudence_publications_documentation_2/ Jurisprudence, publications, documentation] {{Wayback|url=http://www.courdecassation.fr/jurisprudence_publications_documentation_2/ |date=20070209144055 }}, Cour de cassation</ref> Kwa nchi nyingi za Ulaya Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki nchini Luxembourg inaweza kuukataa umauzi wa kitaifa, wakati ambapo sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya inafaa. Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Kibinadamu inayopatikana Strasbourg inawaruhusu raia wa nchi wanachama za [[Baraza la Ulaya]] kuleta kesi zao zinzohusiana na haki za kibinadamu mbele yake.<ref>Goldhaber, ''European Court of Human Rights'', 1–2</ref> Baadhi ya nchi huruhusu mamlaka yao makuu ya mahakama kukataa sheria wanayopata kuwa [[kinyume na katiba]]. Katika kesi ya ''[[Roe dhidi ya Wade]]'', Mahakama Kuu ya Marekani ilipindua sheria ya jimbo la Texas iliyopiga marufuku kutoa msaada kwa wanawake wenye nia ya [[Kuavya mimba]].<ref>''[[Roe v Wade]]'' (1973) [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=410&page=113 410 U.S. 113] Retrieved 2007-01-26</ref> [[Marekebisho ya Kumi na Nne ya Katiba ya Marekani|Marekebisho ya Kumi na Nne]] ya katiba ya Marekani yalikuwa yametafsiriwa kuwapa ya [[faragha]], na kwa hivyo haki ya mwanamke kuchagua kuavya mimba. Mahakama kinadharia yamefundwa na katiba, kama tu miili ya bunge. Katika nchi nyingi, mahakimu wana uwezo tu wa [[utafsiri (sheria)|kutafsiri]] katiba na sheria zingine zote. Lakini katika nchi zasheria ya kawaida, ambapo mambo si ya kikatiba, mahakama pia yanweza kuunda sheria chini ya [[mafundisho ya utangulizi]]. Uingereza, Finland na New Zealand hutumia dhana ya [[uhuru wa bunge]], ambapo mahakama ambayo hayajachaguliwa hayawezi kupindua sheria iliyopitishwa na bunge la kidemokrasia.<ref>Dicey, ''Law of the Constitution'', 37–82</ref> Katika [[Ukomiunisti|nchi za kikomiunisti]], kama vile Uchina, mahakama mara nyingi hutazamwa kama sehemu ya serikali, au kuwa chini ya bunge; taasisi za kiserikali na watendaji mbalimbali basi wana ushawishi tofauti kwa mahakama.<ref>E.g., the court president is a political appointee (Jensen–Heller, ''Introduction'', 11–12). About the notion of "judicial independence" in China, see Findlay, ''Judiciary in the PRC'', 282–284</ref> Katika nchi za Kiislamu, mahakama mara nyingi huchunguza ikiwa sheria za nchi zinafuata Sharia: [[Mahakama Kuu ya Kikatiba ya Misri]] inaweza kuoinga sheria kama hizo,<ref name="ReferenceA">Sherif, ''Constitutions of Arab Countries'', 158</ref> Na nchini Iran [[Baraza la Ulinzi]] linahakikisha uwiano wa sheria zinazopitishwa na "vigezo vya Uislamu".<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Rasekh, ''Islamism and Republicanism'', 115–116</ref> === Bunge === {{Main|Bunge}} [[Picha:European-parliament-brussels-inside.JPG|thumb|Chumba cha mjadala cha [[Bunge la Ulaya]]]] Mifano maarufu ya bunge ni [[Majumba ya Bunge]] mjini London, [[Bunge la Marekani|Kongresi]] mjini Washingtin D.C., [[Bundestag]] mjini Berlin na [[Duma]] nchini Moscow, [[Bunge la Italia|Parlamento Italiano]] mjini Roma na [[Bunge la Ufaransa|''Assemblée nationale'']] mjini Paris. Kwa kanuni ya serikali wakilishi watu hupigia kura wanasiasa ili watimize ''matakwa'' yao. Ingawa nchi kama Israeli, Ugiriki, Uswidi na Uchina zina [[nyumba moja ya bunge]], nchi nyingi zina [[nyumba mbili za bunge]], kumaanisha kuwa zina nyumba mbili za kibunge zinazochaguliwa tofauti. Katika 'nyumba ya chini' wanasiasa wanachaguliwa kuwakilisha [[Eneo wakilishi bungeni|maeneo wakilishi bungeni]]. 'Nymba ya juu' kawaida huchaguliwa kuwakilisha majimbo katika mfumo wa [[Jamhuri ya majimbo|majimbo]] (kama vile nchii Australia, Ujerumani au Marekani) au upigaji kura tofauti katika katika mfumo wa umoja (kama vile nchini Ufaransa). Nchini Uingereza nyumba ya juu inachaguliwa na na serikali kama [[Nyumba ya mabwana|nyumba ya marudio]]. Ukosoaji mmoja wa mifumo yenye nyumba mbili yenye nyumba mbili zilizochaguliwa ni kuwa nyumba ya juu na ya chini huenda zikafanana. Utetezi wa tangu jadi wa mifumo ya nyumba mbili nni kuwa chumba cha juu huwa kama nyumba ya marekebisho. Hili linaweza kupunguza uonevu na dhuluma katika hatua ya kiserikali'', 101</ref> Ili kupitisha sheria, idadi kubwa ya [[Wabunge]] lazima [[wapige kura]] ili [[muswada (sheria inayopendekezwa)]] upitishwe katika kila nyumba. Kawaida kutakuwa na kusoma kwingi na marekebesho mengi yaliyopendekezwa na makundi tofaiti ya kisiasa. Ikiwa nchi ina katiba inayofuatiliwa vyema, idadi maalum ya mabadiliko katika katiba yanahitajika, hivyo kufanya iwe gumu kubadilisha sheria. Serikali kwa kawaida huongoza mchakato huo, ambao unaweza kujumuisha [[Wabunge]] (k.m. nchini Uingereza na Ujerumani). Lakini katika mfumo wa kiraisi, serikali inachagua [[Baraza la mawaziri (serikali)|baraza la mawaziri]] kutawala kutoka kwa washirika wake [[kisiasa]] ikiwa wamechaguliwa au la (k.m. nchini Marekani au Brazili), na jukumu la bunge linapunguza liwe [[kukubali]] au [[kukataa]].<ref>About "cabinet accountability" in both presidential and parliamentary systems, see Shugart–Haggard, ''Presidential Systems'', 67 etc.</ref> === Serikali === {{Main|Serikali}} [[Picha:Dmitry Medvedev 2 April 2009-1.jpg|right|thumb| Mikutano ya [[G20]] inahusisha wawakilishi wa serikali ya kila nchi]] Mtendaji katika mfumo wa kisheria hutumika kama kituo cha [[serikali]] cha [[mamlaka]] ya kisiasa. Katika [[mfumo wa kibunge]], kama vile nchini Uingereza, Italia, Ujerumani na Ujapani, mtendaji hujulikana kama [[Baraza (serikali)|serikali]], na huwa na wanachama wa bunge. Mtendaji huchaguliwa na [[Waziri Mkuu]] au [[Chansela]], ambaye ofisi yake ina nguvu za chini ya [[Kura ya kutokuwa na imani|imani]] ya bunge. Kwa sababu uchaguzi wenye watu wengi huteua vyama vya kisiasa kutawala, kiongozi a chama anaweza kubadilika katika kipindi kabla ya uchaguzi mwingine. [[Mkuu wa Taifa]] ni kando na mtendaji, na kimfano hupitisha sheria na huwa kama mwakilishi wa nchi. Baadhi ya mifano ni [[Rais wa Ujerumani]] (anayeapishwa na Bunge); [[Malkia wa Uingereza]] (wadhifa wa [[kurithi]]), na [[Rais wa Austria]] (anachaguliwa kwa kura ya wengi). Mfano mwingine muhimu ni [[mfumo wa kirais]], unaopatikana nchini Ufaransa, Marekani na Urusi. Katika mifumo ya kirais, mtrndaji huwa kama mkuu wa taifa na mkuu wa serikali, na ana nguvu za kuchagua baraza la mawaziri pekee yake. Chini ya mfumo wa kirais, tawi la mtendaji ni kando na bunge ambapo haiwajibiki mbele ya bunge.<ref>Haggard, ''Presidents, Parliaments and Policy'', 71</ref><ref>Olson, ''The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe'', 7</ref> Ingawa jukumu la mtendaji ni tofauti toka nchi moja hado nyingine, kawaida itapendekeza wingi wa sheria, na kupendekeza ajenda ya serikali. Katika mifumo ya kirais, mtendaji mara nyingi ana nguvu za kukataa sheria. Mara nyingi mtendaji katika mifumo yote ana wajibu wa [[sera za mahusiano ya nje]], jeshi na polisi na urasimu. [[Mawaziri]] au maafisa wengine wanasimamia ofisi za nchi, kama vile [[Waziri wa nje|wizara ya nje]] au [[Waziri wa ndani|wizara ya ndani]]. Uchaguzi wa mtendaji tofauti kwa hivyo ina uwezo wa kupindua mtazamo wa nchi nzima wa serikali. === Jeshi na polisi === {{Main|Jeshi|Polisi}} [[Picha:US Customs and Border Protection officers.jpg|thumb|Maafisa wa [[Marekani wa Forodha na Ulinzi wa Mipaka]]]] Ingawa mashirika ya kijeshi yamekuwepo kwa muda mrefu kama serikali yenyewe, dhana la kikosi cha polisi kilicho tayari ni dhana ya kisasa. Mfumo wa [[Uingereza ya Zama za Kati]] ya [[mahakama ya jinai]] ya kusafiri, au [[Mahakama ya assize|assize]], ilitumia [[kesi za maonyesho]] na unyongaji hadharani kufanya jamii ziwe na hofu na hivyo kudumisha udhibiti.<ref>See, eg ''[[Tuberville v Savage]]'' (1669), 1 Mod. Rep. 3, 86 Eng. Rep. 684, where a knight said in a threatening tone to a layman, "If it were not assize time, I would not take such language from you."</ref> Polisi wa kwanza wa kisasa pengine walikuwa wale wa Paris wa karne ya 17, katika mahakama ya [[Louis XIV wa Ufaransa|Louis XIV]],<ref>[http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=219522 History of Police Forces], History.com Encyclopedia</ref> ingawa Polisi wa Mkoa wa Paris ndio wanadai kuwa wao ndio waliokuwa wa kwanza kuvaa sare.<ref>[http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité] {{Wayback|url=http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm |date=20080506215949 }}, La Préfecture de Police</ref> Weber yu maarufu kwa kudokeza kwamba taifa ni lile ambalo linadhibiti kihalali utumizi wa kipekee wa vurugu.<ref name="mwp154">Weber, [[s:Politics as a Vocation|Politics as a Vocation]]</ref><ref>Weber, ''The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation'', 154</ref> Majeshi na askari wanalinda usalama kufuatana na amri ya serikali au mahakama. Maneno [[taifa lililopangarayika]] yanaashiria taifa ambalo haliwezi kutekeleza au kulazimisha sera; askari wao na majeshi hawana uwezo wa kulinda usalama na amani na jamii inaelekea [[vurugu pekee]], wakati serikali inapokosekana.<ref>In these cases sovereignty is eroded, and often warlords acquire excessive powers (Fukuyama, ''State-Building'', 166–167).</ref> === Urasimu === {{Main|Urasimu}} [[Picha:UN Headquarters 2.jpg|thumb| Makao makuu ya [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] mjini New York yana watumishi wa kiserikali wanaotoa huduma kwa mataifa wanachama 192 ya shirika hilo.]] Asili ya neno "Urasimu" kwa Kiingereza (bureaucracy) ni neno la Kifaransa la "ofisi" (''bureau'') na neno la [[Kigiriki cha Zamani]] cha "nguvu" (''kratos'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bureaucracy&searchmode Bureaucracy], Online Etymology Dictionary</ref> Kama tu wanajeshi na polisi, watumishi wa mfumo wa kisheria wa serikali na miili inayounda urasimu wake hufuata maagizo ya Mtendaji. Mojawapo ya marejeo kwa dhana yalifanywa [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm|Baron de Grimm]], mwandishi wa Kijerumani aliyeishi nchini Ufaransa. Mnamo mwaka wa 1765 aliandika, <blockquote>Roho halisi ya sheria nchini Ufaransa ni urasimu amabo marehemu Monsieur de Gournay alikuwa akilalamika sana kuhusu; hapa ofisi, makarani, makatibu, wasimamizi na ''wanaonuia kufanya kazi fulani'' hawaapishwi kufaidi maslahi ya umma, kwa hakika maslahi ya ummayanaonekana kuanzishwa ili ofisi hizo ziwepo.<ref>Albrow, ''Bureaucracy'', 16</ref></blockquote> Wasiwasi kuhusu "utawala wa kiofisi" bado ni kawaida, na utendaji wa watumishi wa umma kawaida hutofautishwa na wa [[kampuni za kibinafsi]] zinazoendeshwa na lengo la [[faida]].<ref>Mises, ''Bureaucracy'', II, [http://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp Bureaucratic Management]</ref> Kwa kweli kampuni za kibinafsi, hasa zile kubwa, pia zina urasimu.<ref name="K367">Kettl, ''Public Bureaucracies'', 367</ref> Mtazamo mbaya wa "[[urasimu]]" kando, huduma za umma kama vile elimu, afya na shughuli za polisi au [[uchukuzi wa umma]] ni kazi muhimu nchi hivyo basi kufanya urasimu wa umma chanzo cha nguvu za serikali.<ref name="K367" /> Akiandika mapema katika karne ya 20, Max Weber aliamini kuwa sifa muhimu ya nchi iliyoendelea ilikuwa imekuwa msaada wake wa kirasimu.<ref name="mwp393">Weber, ''Economy and Society'', I, 393</ref> Weber aliandika kuwa sifa za kawaida za urasimu wa kisasa ni kuwa maafisa wanafafanua lengo lake, wigo wa kazi umefungwa na kanuni, usimamizi unajumuisha wataalamu wa wataalamu wa kitaaluma, amabo ambao husimamia kuanzia juu kuenda chini, wakiwasiliana kupitia kuandika na kufunga uwezo wa wafanyikazi wa umma kufanya watakavyo kwa kutumia kanuni.<ref>Kettl, ''Public Bureaucracies'', 371</ref> === Taaluma ya sheria === {{Main|Taaluma ya sheria}} [[Picha:Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg|thumb|Katika mifumo ya sheria ya kiraia kama ile ya Ufaransa, Ujerumani, Italia, Uhispania na Ugiriki, kuna aina maalum ya [[Karani wa sheria ya kiraia]], afisaa wa umma mwenye ufunzi wa kisheria, anayelipwa fidia na wanaofanya biasharaa.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 22</ref> Hii ni picha ya karne ya 16 ya karani wa sheria ya kiraia kama huyo ya mchoraji wa Kiflemi [[Quentin Massys]].]] Hitimisho la utawala wa sheria ni kuwepo kwa taaluma ya kisheria yenye uhuru wa kutosha wa kuweza kuomba mamlaka ya mahakama huru; haki ya usaidizi kusaidiwa na [[wakili]] mahakamani uanatokana na hitimisho hili—nchini Uingereza kazi ya wakili inatofautishwa na ile ya mshauri wa kisheria.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 1</ref> Kama mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Binadamu yanavyosema, sheria inafaa kupatikana na kila mtu na waty wanfaa kutabiri jinsi sheria itakavyowaathiri.<ref>''[[The Sunday Times v The United Kingdom]]'' [1979] [http://www.worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1979/1.html ECHR 1 at 49] Case no. 6538/74</ref> Ili kudumisha utaaluma, [[zoezi la sheria]] kawaida linachungwa na serikali au mwili huru kama vile [[chama cha mawikili]], [[baraza la mawakili]] au [[jamii ya sheria]]. Mawakili wa kisasa wanapata utambulisho maalum wa kisheria kupitia taratibu maalum za kisheria (k.m. mafanikio katika mitihani), yanahitajika na sheria ili kuwa na cheti maalum (elimi ya kisheria inayompa mwanafunzi [[Shahada ya Sheria]], [[Shahada ya Sgeria ya Kiraia]], au [[Shahada]] ya [[Juris Doctor]]<ref>Higher academic degrees may also be pursued. Examples include a [[Master of Laws]], a [[Master of Legal Studies]] or a [[Doctor of Laws]].</ref>), na zinawekwa ofisini kwa kutumia fomu za kisheria za kuapishwa ([[kukubaliwa katika baraza la mawakili]]). Nchi nyingi za Kiisalmu zina sheria sawa kuhusu elimu ya kisheria na taaluma ya kisheria, lakini zingine bado zinaruhusu mawakili wenye mafunzo katika sheria ya Kiislamu ya jadi katika taaaluma ua sheria katika mahakama ya hadhi ya kibinasfi.<ref>Ahamd, [https://web.archive.org/web/20081001195205/http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf Lawyers: Islamic Law]</ref> Nchini Uchina na katika nchi zingine za ulimwengu unaoendelea hakuna watu wa kutosha wenye mafunzo ya kisheria kufanya kazi katika mifumo ya mahakama iliyopo katika nchi hizo, na, kufuatana na hilo, viwango rasmi si vikali sana.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 22–23</ref> Baada ya kupata kukubalika, wakili mara nyingi atafanya kazi katika [[kampuni ya sheria]], katika [[vyumba (sheria)|vyumba]] kama wakili wa kipekee, katika wadhifa wa kiserikali au katika shirika la kibinafsi kama [[mshauri]] wa ndani. Isitoshe wakili anaweza kuwa [[|utafiti wa kisheria|mtafiti wa kisheria]] anayepeana uatafiti wa kisheria unapoitishwa kupitia maktaba, huduma ya kibiashara au kazi isiyokuwa na muajiri mmoja. Watu wengi wenye mafunzo katika sheria walitumia utafiti wao katika taaluma nyingine tofauti kabisa. Adhimu kwa zoezi la sheria katika mapokeo ya sheria ya kawaida ni utafiti wa kisheria kujua hali ya wakati wa sasa wa sheria. Hili linahushisha kuchunguza [[ripoti za sheria|ripoti za kesi]], [[majarida ya kisheria]] na sheria. Zoezi la sheria pia inahusu kuandika hati kama vile [[kuiitia]] kwa mahakama, [[brifu [sheria)|brifu]], mikataba, au [[amana]]. Majadiliano na ujuzu wa [[kusuluhisha migogoro]] (ikijumuisha mbinu za [[Mbinu za Masuluhisho ya Kimbadala|ADR]]) pia ni muhimi kwa zoezi la sheria, ikitegemea na aina ya taaluma.<ref>Fine, ''The Globalisation of Legal Education'', 364</ref> === Mashirika ya kijamii === {{Main|Mashirika ya kijamii}} [[Picha:1963 march on washington.jpg|thumb|Maandamano mjini Washington D.C. wakati wa [[Harakati za Haki za Kiraia za Wamarekani wenye asili ya Kiafrika (1955–1968)|Harakati ya Haki za Kiraia ya Marekani]] mnamo mwaka wa 1963]] Dhana ya [[Kiripablikani wakati kulipokuwa na madaraja mbalimbali ya kijamii]] ya "mashirika ya kijamii" ilianzia wakati wa Hobbes na Locke.<ref>Warren, ''Civil Society'', 3–4</ref> Locke aliona mashirika ya kijamii kama watu wenye "sheria sawa na mahakama [[kurejelea]] , yenye mamlaka ya kuamua utata baina yao."<ref>Locke, ''[[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government|Second Treatise]]'', Chap. VII, Of Political or Civil_Society. Chapter 7, section 87</ref> Mwanafalsafa wa Kijerumani [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] alitofautisha "taifa" na "mashirika ya kijamii" (''burgerliche Gesellschaft'') katika kitabu chake ''[[Vipengele vya Falsafa ya Sawa]]''.<ref>Hegel, ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'', 3, II, [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/prcivils.htm 182]; Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 277–278</ref> Hegel aliamini kuwa [[mashirika ya kijamii]] na [[Taifa huru|taifa]] zilikuwa kinyume kabisa, katika mpangilio wa nadharia yake ya historia. Taifa la kisasa lenye pande hizi mbili–mashirika ya kijamii lilizaliwa tena katika nadharia za [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] na [[Karl Marx]].<ref>(Pelczynski, ''The State and Civil Society'', 1–13; Warren, ''Civil Society'', 5–9)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Zaleski | first = Pawel | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality | journal = Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte | volume = 50 | issue = | pages = | publisher = Felix Meiner Verlag | location = | year = 2008 | url = | issn = | doi = | id = | accessdate = }} </ref> Siku hizi katika nadharia ya wakati wa baada ya kisasa za mashirika la kijamii lazima iwe chanzo cha sheria, kwa kuwa msingi ambapo watu wanaunda maoni na kushwishi yale wanayoamini sheria inafaa kuwa. Kama wakili wa Kiaustralia na mwandishi [[Geoffrey Robertson QC]] alivyoandika kuhusu sheria ya kimataifa, <blockquote>... mojawapo ya vyanzo vyake vya kisasa inapatikana katika majibu ya kawaida ya wanaume na wanawake, na mashirika yasiyo ya kiserikali, amabyo wengi huunga, kwa ukiukaji wa haki za kibinadamu amabyo wengi huona kwenye runinga wakiwa sebuleni nyumbani mwao.<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes Against Humanity'', 98–99</ref></blockquote> [[Uhuru wa kujieleza]], [[uhuru wa kujumuika]] na sheria zingine nyingi za kibinafsi zinawaruhusu watu kukusanyika, kujadili, kukosoa na kufanya serikali zao kuwajibika, ambapo msingi wa [[demokrasia ya majadiliano]] inaibuka. Watu wanapozidi kujihusisha mamlaka ya kisheria na na kuwa na uwezo wa kubadilisha jinsi mamlaka ya kisiasa yanapotumika maishani mwao; ndivyo sheria inapozidi kuwa [[Uhalali (kisiasa)|halali]] kwa watu. Taasisi ambazo ni za kawaida sana za mashirika ya kijamii ni masoko ya kibiashra, kampuni zenye malengo ya kupata faida, familia, [[vyama vya kibiashara]], hospitali, vyuo vikuu, shule, mashirika ya msaada, [[vilabu vya kujadili]], [[mashirika yasiyokuwa ya kiserikali]], vitongoji, makanisa, na vyama vya kidini.<ref>There is no clear legal definition of the civil society, and of the institutions it includes. Most of the institutions and bodies who try to give a list of institutions (such as the [[European Economic and Social Committee]]) exclude the political parties. For further information, see Jakobs, ''Pursuing Equal Opportunities'', 5–6; Kaldor–Anheier–Glasius, ''Global Civil Society'', ''[http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf passim] {{Wayback|url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf |date=20070817130457 }}'' (PDF); Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 282–283.</ref> {{-}} == Tazama pia == {{portal}} {{Main|Muhtasari wa sheria}} * [[Haki za kibinadamu]] * [[Uchumi]] * [[Historia]] * [[Sayansi ya Kisiasa]] * [[Falsafa]] == Tanbihi == {{Marejeo|2}} https://www.path-2-happiness.com/sw == Marejeo == ; Printed sources: * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Ahmad|first=Ahmad Atif|title=Lawyers: Islamic Law|encyclopedia=Oxford Encyclopedia of Legal History|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf|format=PDF|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20081001195205/http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf|archivedate=2008-10-01}} {{Wayback|url=http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf |date=20090326034212 }} * {{cite book|last=Akhlaghi|first=Behrooz|title=The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt|year=2005|isbn=3-161-48787-7|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|editor=Yassari, Nadjma|chapter=Iranian Commercial Law and the New Investment Law FIPPA}} * {{cite book|last=Albrow|first=Martin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=London|title=Bureaucracy (Key Concepts in Political Science)|url=https://archive.org/details/bureaucracy0000mart|year=1970|isbn=0-333-11262-8}} * {{cite journal|last=Anderson |first=J.N.D.|year=1956|month=Januari |title=Law Reform in the Middle East |journal=International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944—) |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=43–51|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2607811 |accessdate=2007-03-04 |doi=10.2307/2607811}} * {{Cite wikisource|Constitution of the Athenians|[[Aristotle]]}}. 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Listing&nbsp;– Legal system|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html|publisher=[[CIA]]|accessdate=2007-10-13|archivedate=2018-12-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226012138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html}} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{sisterlinks|Law}} * [http://www.law.com/ Legal news and information network for attorneys and other legal professionals] * [http://jurispedia.org/ Encyclopaedic project of academic initiative] {{Wayback|url=http://jurispedia.org/ |date=20210408132428 }} in [[Jurispedia]] * [http://www.lawserver.com/ Legal articles, news, and interactive maps] * [http://www.worldlii.org/ WorldLII - World Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.commonlii.org/ CommonLII - Commonwealth Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.asianlii.org/ AsianLII - Asian Legal Information Institute (AsianLII)] * [http://www.austlii.edu.au/ AustLII - Australasian Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.bailii.org/ BaiLII - British and Irish Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.canlii.org/ CanLII - Canadian Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.nzlii.org/ NZLII - New Zealand Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.paclii.org/ PacLII - Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute] [[Jamii:Sheria| ]] [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] [[Jamii:Historia]] [[Jamii:Falsafa]] fem25dl3hds0ds4whfgy9x5f1w64vum 0 2152 1361731 1208218 2024-11-08T07:07:45Z Said Mfaume 68307 Ongezeko kidogo. 1361731 wikitext text/x-wiki {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; empty-cells:show; width:330px; margin-left:0.5em;" |+<font size="+1">'''Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani'''</font><br /> | style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" | {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" | align="center" width="50%" | [[Picha:Gouverneurflagge.svg|right|150px|Bendera ya Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] | align="center" width="50%" | [[Picha:Deutsch-Ostafrika-wappen.png|100px|Nembo ya Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] |} |---- | Mwanzo wa utawala wa kikoloni || [[1885]] |---- | Makao ya serikali ya kikoloni || [[Bagamoyo]] hadi 1891 halafu [[Dar es Salaam]] |---- | Eneo || km² 995,000 |---- | Wakazi || 7,665,234 (1-1-1913) |---- | Wakazi Wajerumani || 4,100 (1913) |---- | [[Pesa]] || 1 [[rupia|Rupie]]= 64 Pesa,<br /> kuanzia 1904 <br />1 Rupie = 100 [[Heller]] |---- | Nchi huru za leo || 1961 [[Tanganyika]], tangu 1964 [[Tanzania]]<br /> [[Ruanda]] <br /> [[Burundi]] |---- |} [[Picha:Meyers b14 s0300a.jpg|thumb|300px|Ramani ya Kijerumani ionyeshayo Zanzibar na pwani (mnamo 1888)]] '''Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani''' (au: ya [[Kidachi]]; kwa [[Kijerumani]] ''Deutsch-Ostafrika -DOA-''; kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''German East Africa'') lilikuwa [[jina]] la [[koloni]] la [[Ujerumani]] huko [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] kati ya miaka [[1885]] na [[1918]]/[[1919]]. Eneo lake lilijumlisha eneleo la nchi ya sasa ambapo ndani yake kuna [[Tanzania]] bara — [[Tanganyika]] (yaani bila [[Zanzibar]]), [[Burundi]] na [[Rwanda]]. Kwa upande wa Afrika, huhesabiwa llikuwa koloni kubwa kabisa la [[Dola la Ujerumani]]. ==Eneo, mipaka na wakazi== ===Eneo na mipaka=== Eneo la koloni lilikuwa na [[kilomita za mraba]] 997,000 pamoja na sehemu za [[Maziwa makubwa ya Afrika|maziwa makubwa]] kama [[Ziwa Tanganyika]] na [[Ziwa Viktoria]]. Eneo hili lilikuwa karibu mara [[mbili]] kuliko eneo la Ujerumani yenyewe kabla ya mwaka [[1914]]. Mipaka iliamuliwa katika mapatano kati ya [[Uingereza]], [[Ubelgiji]] na [[Ureno]] ambazo wakati huo zilikuwa zikitawala makoloni ya jirani ya [[Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kiingereza]] (leo [[Kenya]] na [[Uganda]]), [[Kongo ya Kibelgiji]] (leo [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]]), [[Rhodesia]] (leo [[Zambia]] na [[Zimbabwe]]), [[Nyasaland]] (leo [[Malawi]]) na [[Msumbiji]]. Mipaka hii ni pia mipaka ya Tanzania, Rwanda na Burundi hadi leo hii. Katika mapatano baina ya Uingereza na Ujerumani ya Novemba 1886 pande zote mbili ziliahidi kuheshimu utawala wa Sultani wa Zanzibar juu ya visiwa pamoja na kanda la maili 10 kwenye pwani baina ya [[mto Tana]] na [[Mto Minengani]] ([[Msumbiji]]). Pamoja na hayo walielewana kuhusu maeneo ya maslahi yao, wakipatana kuhusu mstari uliokuwa baadaye mpaka baina ya Tanzania na Kenya hadi leo.<ref> [https://archive.org/details/mapafricabytrea00britgoog No. 123 Agreement between the British and German Governments, respecting the Sultanate of Zanzibar and the opposite East African Mainland, and their Spheres of Influence - 1st November, 1886] (in: Map of Africa by Treaty Vol II, p. 617 and p. 620) "3. Both powers agree to establish a delimitation of their respectives spheres of influence on this part of the East African Continent" "Line of Demarcation. The line of demarcation starts from the mouth of the River Wanga or Umbe, runs direct to Lake Jipe, passes thence along the eastern and round the northern side of the lake and crosses the Lumi River; After which it passes midway between the territories of Taveita and Chagga, skirts the northern base of the Kilimanjaro range, and thence is drawn direct to the point on the eastern side of Lake Victoria Nyanza which is intersected by the 1st degree of south latitude"</ref> Katika [[Mkataba wa Helgoland-Zanzibar|mkataba wa 1890 kuhusu mipaka katika Afrika]] Uingereza iliahidi kumshawishi Sultani wa Zanzibar kuuza maeneo yake kwenye pwani la bara pamoja na [[Mafia (kisiwa)|kisiwa cha Mafia]]<ref>"Great Britain shall bring to bear her full influence on the Sultan of Zanzibar to facilitate an amicable agreement by which the Sultan unconditionally cedes to Germany the Island of Mafia and his territories on the mainland (including dependencies) that are referred to in the existing concessions of the German East Africa Company. It is understood that His Highness shall receive fair compensation for the loss of revenue resulting from this cessation." ([http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=1368 Anglo-German Treaty (Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty), July 1, 1890 online hapa] kwa http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org)</ref> kwa Ujerumani<ref>Wakati ule bado kwa [[Kampuni ya Kijerumani kwa Afrika ya Mashariki]], kwa sababu serikali haikumaliza bado kutwaa haki au zaidi madai ya kampuni katika Afrika</ref>. Upande wa Kenya mstari ulichorwa kuanzia [[Bahari Hindi]] kwa [[mdomo]] wa [[mto Umba]] hadi [[Ziwa Jipe]], halafu kufuata mitelemko ya [[kaskazini]] ya [[mlima Kilimanjaro]] na kutoka hapa hadi [[Ziwa Viktoria]]. Mipaka na Uganda ilifuata [[latitudo]] ya kwanza ya kusini ya [[ikweta]] hadi mpaka na Kongo. Upande wa Kongo mpaka ulifuata sehemu za chini za [[bonde la Ufa]] na katikati ya [[Ziwa|maziwa]] kama [[Ziwa Kivu|Kivu]] na Tanganyika. Upande wa kusini ulifuata mstari kati ya ncha ya kusini ya ziwa Tanganyika hadi mdomo wa [[Mto Songwe]] katika [[Ziwa Nyasa]]. Eneo lote la ziwa lenyewe lilibaki upande wa Nyasaland ya Kiingereza, halafu mstari kutoka Ziwa Nyasa kwa kufuata [[mto Ruvuma]] hadi [[Rasi ya Delgado]] kwenye Bahari Hindi. Jinsi ilivyo na mipaka ya kikoloni mistari hii ilikata mara nyingi maeneo ya [[Kabila|makabila]] ya wenyeji. ===Wakazi=== Mwaka [[1913]] [[takwimu]] ya Wajerumani ilihesabu wakazi Waafrika 7,645,000, Waasia ([[Wahindi]] na [[Waarabu]]) 14,898 na [[Wazungu]] 5,336, kati yao Wajerumani 4,107. [[Nusu]] ya wakazi wote waliishi katika eneo la [[Maziwa makubwa ya Afrika|maziwa makubwa]] ambako [[serikali]] ya kikoloni iliacha maeneo ya Rwanda (wakazi 2,000,000), Burundi (1,500,000) na [[Bukoba]] (275,000) kama [[maeneo lindwa]] chini ya watawala wa kienyeji waliosimamiwa na [[afisa mkazi]] Mjerumani.<ref>[[Kamusi ya Koloni za Kijerumani]], makala "Deutsch-Ostafrika", fungu 9. Bevölkerungsstatistik.</ref> == Historia ya koloni == {{History of Tanzania}} Koloni hilo halikuanzishwa kwa azimio la kisiasa upande wa serikali ya Ujerumani bali lilianzishwa kama mradi wa watu binafsi waliotafuta makoloni katika Afrika. Historia ya koloni ilikuwa na awamu tatu: # mwanzo kama maeneo yaliyotawanyika ambako kampuni binafsi ([[Kampuni ya Kijerumani kwa Afrika ya Mashariki]]) ilifaulu kushawishi watawala wa kienyeji kutia sahihi kwenye mikataba; kipindi hiki kilianza [[1885]] hadi kuporomoka kwa utawala wa kampuni mnamo [[1890]] # koloni la [[Dola la Ujerumani]] (kwa Kijerumani ''Deutsches Reich'') lililoamua kuchukua mamlaka mkononi mwake kuanzia [[1891]], ambako Ujerumani iliweza kupanusha utawala wake juu ya maeneo yote # mwisho wa utawala wa Kijerumani wakati wa [[Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia]] kuanzia mwaka [[1916]] wakati jeshi kubwa la [[Uingereza]] na [[Afrika Kusini]] pamoja na [[Ubelgiji]] lilivamia, hadi kusalimu amri kwa jeshi la [[Schutztruppe]] kwenye Novemba [[1918]] Katika mapatano baada ya vita koloni liligawiwa kati ya Uingereza (iliyopata Tanganyika) na Ubelgiji (iliyopata Rwanda na Burundi). Kwa historia ya baadaye ilikuwa na maana ya kwamba walikabidhiwa maeneo ya koloni la Kijerumani la awali si kama [[mali]] kamili lakini kama [[maeneo ya kudhaminiwa]] kwa niaba ya [[shirikisho la Mataifa]] (mtangulizi wa [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] (UN). === Utangulizi === Hadi mnamo mwaka [[1880]] [[serikali]] ya [[Ujerumani]] chini ya [[chansella]] [[Otto von Bismarck]] ilikataa kuanzisha makoloni. Sehemu ya [[wafanyabiashara]] Wajerumani walidai koloni. Walisikitika kuona [[faida]] za wenzao [[Waingereza]] waliopata mara nyingi msaada kutoka kwa [[wanajeshi]] na serikali za koloni za Uingereza hasa [[Asia]]. Waliona pia faida ya [[viwanda]] vya Uingereza vilivyokuwa na [[soko]] la kulindwa katika nchi kama [[Uhindi]] kwa sababu serikali ya kikoloni ilidai [[kodi]] kali kwa [[bidhaa]] zisizotoka [[Uingereza]]. Bismarck hakuamini ya kwamba koloni lingeleta faida kwa [[taifa]] kulingana na [[gharama]] kubwa kwa serikali. Lakini wapigania koloni walikuwa na [[wabunge]] muhimu kwa serikali na polepole Bismarck alianza kukubali hatua za kwanza. Mwenyewe aliamini mwanzoni ya kwamba itatosha kuwapa wafanyabiashara [[ulinzi]] kwa shughuli zao kwa kuwaruhusu matumizi ya [[bendera]] ya Ujerumani na kuwa na [[askari]] wao wa ulinzi kama wamepatana na viongozi wazalendo katika eneo fulani kuanzisha shughuli huko. Kwa njia hii alifungua [[mlango]] kwa [[harakati]] iliyoendelea kuwa mchango wa Ujerumani katika [[mbio]] wa kugawa [[dunia]], hasa [[Afrika]]. === Juhudi za Karl Peters === [[Picha:Petersland east africa 1885.png|thumb|250px|Maeneo ya kwanza yaliyotwaliwa na Karl Peters.]] Koloni hili lilianzishwa na kijana Mjerumani [[Karl Peters]] mwaka 1885 kwa niaba ya "[[Kampuni ya Kijerumani kwa Afrika ya Mashariki]]". Peters, aliyewahi kusoma [[chuo]] Uingereza, aliona [[wivu]] juu ya ukoloni wa Uingereza, akiamini ya kwamba Ujerumani ungestahili nafasi hiyo pia. Hivyo alianza kudai koloni katika mikutano, akaanzisha "[[Shirika kwa Ukoloni wa Kijerumani]]" mwaka [[1884]] iliyokuwa kitangulizi cha kampuni. Shirika hii ilimtuma pamoja na wenzake wawili kwenda Afrika na kutafuta nafasi ya kuanzisha koloni. Kiasili walilenga maeneo mpakani mwa Msumbiji na Zimbabwe ya leo lakini hatimaye waliamua kwenda Afrika ya Mashariki. Peters alifika [[Zanzibar]] alipoambiwa na [[konsuli]] ya Ujerumani ya kwamba hawezi kuendelea: serikali ya nyumbani iliogopa ugomvi na Uingereza ilikataa mipango yake. Aliamua kuvuka [[Bara|barani]] hata hivyo akafika [[Saadani]] tarehe [[10 Novemba]] [[1884]] na kufuata njia kando ya [[mto Wami]] ili apite kanda la Kizanzibari kwenye [[pwani]] na kutembelea [[chifu|machifu]] na [[Sultani|masultani]] ndani ya bara. Hapo alifaulu kushawishi watawala wa maeneo yaliyojulikana kama [[Usagara]], [[Nguru]], [[Useguha]] na [[Ukami]] kutia [[sahihi]] kwenye mikataba iliyoandikwa kwa Kijerumani ambayo hawakuielewa. Mikataba hii ilisema ya kwamba [[mtawala]] alikabidhi kwa kampuni nchi yake pamoja na [[haki]] juu ya [[ardhi]] na [[mali]] yote. Mwaka 1885 Peters alirudi [[Berlin]] na kuonyesha mikataba yake kwa [[Gazeti|magazeti]] na serikali. [[Chansela Bismarck]] alikataa, akacheka mikataba kama [[karatasi]] bila maana. Peters alitumia [[mbinu]]: akatisha kupeleka mikataba yake kwa mfalme [[Leopold II wa Ubelgiji]] aliyekuwa kununua haki zake. Hapa Bismarck aliogopa kilio cha wapenda koloni akakubali kumpa Peters [[hati ya ulinzi]] ya tarehe [[27 Februari]] [[1885]] kwa maeneo yaliyokuwa ya kampuni kufuatana na mikataba. === Upanuzi wa eneo la kampuni === ====Upanuzi na ugomvi na Zanzibar==== Peters na wawakilishi wake walirudi wakaendelea kutafuta machifu waliokuwa tayari kutia [[saini]] mikataba yake. [[Sultani wa Zanzibar]] alipinga juhudi hizi. Zanzibar ilisimamia pwani ya [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] na tangu [[karne]] watu wa [[Mji|miji]] ya pwani walikuwa na [[wali|mawali]] wa Sultani. Zanzibar ilidai pia utawala ya bara hadi [[Ziwa Tanganyika]] na [[Kongo]], ingawa hali halisi [[athira]] yake haikwenda mbali na [[njia]] za misafara ambako [[ndovu]] na [[watumwa]] walipelekwa pwani. Tarehe [[27 Aprili]] 1885 serikali ya Zanzibar ilituma barua [[Berlin]] kupinga [[kazi]] na madai ya kampuni na kutangaza maeneo ya Tanzania ya leo kama [[milki]] yake. Iliongeza pia wanajeshi wake barani zilizokuwa chini ya [[amri]] ya [[mwanajeshi]] mstaafu Mwingereza [[Matthews]]. Hapo serikali ya Berlin ilituma kikosi cha [[manowari]] kwenda [[Bahari Hindi]]. Mwezi Agosti manowari za Kijerumani chini ya amri ya [[admirali]] [[Eduard von Knorr]] zilifika mbele ya [[Unguja]] zikalenga [[Mzinga|mizinga]] yao kwa [[ikulu]] ya sultani. Akishauriwa na [[balozi]] wa Uingereza, [[Sayyid Barghash|Sultani Bargash]] alipaswa kutoa tamko kuwa, "Kutokana na madai tunayopelekewa kwa matishio na [[Kaisari]] wa Ujerumani, tunatambua ulinzi wa Ujerumani juu ya nchi za Usagara, Nguru, Useguha, Ukami na juu ya [[wilaya]] ya [[Witu]]. Mipaka yake itaelezwa baadaye na sisi tunatambua ulinzi wa Kaisari juu ya mahali palipotajwa." <ref> nukuu ya Kiingereza katika [http://othes.univie.ac.at/1397/1/2008-09-19_5900039.pdf Franz Kotrba: William Astor Chanler (1867-1934) und Ludwig von Höhnel (1857-1942) und Afrika, Vienna 2008]</ref>. Sultani alipaswa pia kutia sahihi [[mkataba]] wa [[biashara]] na Ujerumani alipokubali haki nyingi kwa Wajerumani katika milki yake.<ref>[https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Freundschafts-,_Handels-_und_Schiffahrtsvertrag_zwischen_dem_Deutschen_Reich_und_dem_Sultan_von_Zanzibar Mkataba wa urafiki na biashara kati Dola la Ujerumani na Sultani wa Zanzibar](Kijerumani + Kiingereza)</ref> Mwaka [[1886]] Uingereza na Ujerumani walipatana juu ya "maeneo ya masilahi" yao katika Afrika ya Mashariki; hapa walielewana kuhusu mstari kati ya mdomo wa [[Umba (mto)|mto Umba]] (kati ya [[Tanga (mji)|Tanga]] na [[Mombasa]]) hadi nukta ambako [[latitudo]] ya 1 kusini inakata mwambao wa [[Ziwa Viktoria Nyanza]]<ref>Nukta hii ilisogezwa kidogo kusudi la kutokata rasi ya Muhuru inayoingia ziwani kwa umbo la pinde</ref>. Sultani alipaswa kukubali tena. Katika mapatano hayo Sultani alibaki na [[visiwa]] vya [[Unguja]], [[Pemba]], [[Mafia]] na [[funguvisiwa ya Lamu]] pamoja na kanda la pwani barani lenye [[upana]] wa [[maili]] 10 kati ya [[mto Ruvuma]] upande wa [[Kusini]] na [[mto Tana]] upande wa [[Kaskazini]], halafu miji ya [[Kismayu]], [[Barawa]], [[Merka]] na [[Mogadishu]] upande wa kaskazini zaidi. <ref>Februari 1887 Sultani aliendelea kupungukiwa maeneo alipopatana na Mwingereza [[William Mackinnon]] kumkodisha pwani ya [[Kenya]] pamoja na haki za utawala kwa malipo ya kila mwaka. Kisheria kanda hili lilibaki mali ya Zanzibar hadi [[uhuru]] wa Kenya mwaka [[1964]]</ref>. ===Mkataba kati ya Zanzibar na Kampuni juu ya kofo na pwani=== [[Picha:Rupie 1 DOA 1893 mbele.JPG|300px|thumb|<small>Sarafu ya rupia 1 iliyotolewa kwa jina la "Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft" (Kampuni ya Kijerumani ya Afrika ya Mashariki); tangu 1904 zilitolewa kwa jina la koloni yenyewe bila kutaja kampuni tena</small>]] Mapatano ya 1886 yaliwapa Wajerumani nafasi ya kuendeleza upanuzi barani nyuma ya kanda la pwani la Kizanzibari na [[mstari]] wa [[mpaka]] ulichorwa kuanzia [[mdomo]] wa [[mto Umba]] kupitia [[mlima Kilimanjaro]] hadi [[Ziwa Viktoria]]. Lakini kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kibiashara suala la [[bandari|mabandari]] bado lilibaki wazi. Hapo Peters na kampuni yake walianza kujadiliana na Sultani [[Seyyed Bargash]] (alitawala 1870 hadi 1888) kuhusu utawala wa pwani katika sehemu ya [[Tanganyika]]. Mnamo mwaka [[1887]] Bargash alikuwa amechoka: alitafuta [[pesa]] tu kwa ajili yake binafsi; alikuwa tayari kukodisha utawala wa kanda la pwani ya Tanganyika kwa Wajerumani. Wajerumani walidai kuongezeka haki na Bargash alikufa bila kumaliza mapatano. Lakini mwandamizi wake [[Sultani Seyyed Khalifa]] aliwapa Wajerumani walichotaka. Tarehe [[15 Agosti]] [[1888]] wawakilishi wa kampuni ya Kijerumani walifika kwenye mabandari yote wakatangaza utawala wao kwa niaba ya sultani. === Vita ya Abushiri na mwisho wa utawala wa Kampuni === ^{tazama [[Vita ya Abushiri]]} Badiliko hili lilisababisha [[upinzani]] na hatimaye [[ghasia]] ya wenyeji. Vipengele vya mkataba vilisema mali isiyokuwa na [[hati]] za kimaandishi haiwezi kutambuliwa. Wenye mali kama [[shamba|mashamba]] walitakiwa kununua hati kutoka kwa watawala wapya. Hapo [[Waswahili]] wa pwani walijisikia wamesalitiwa na sultani asiyekuwa na haki ya kuchukua mali zao na kuzipa kwa [[wageni]]. Mara baada ya kufika kwa Wajerumani kwenye miji ya pwani ghasia ilianza mjini [[Pangani]] na kuenea haraka kote pwani kati ya [[Tanga (mji)|Tanga]] na [[Lindi (mji)|Lindi]]. Kampuni ilikuwa na Wajerumani wachache tu walioshindwa kujitetea. Walipaswa kukimbia au wakauawa. [[Bagamoyo (mji)|Bagamoyo]] pekee palikuwa na kikosi cha askari kutoka manowari ikatetewa. Serikali ya Ujerumani iliona lazima kuingia kati na kutuma manowari pamoja na askari waliokandamiza ghasia. Bismarck alitumia mbinu wa kupata kura za bunge alizohitaji kwa ajili ya gharama ya vita hiyo. Alipeleka sheria bungeni kuwa Ujerumani unatoa [[mark]] milioni 2 kwa kupambana na biashara ya watumwa na ulinzi wa manufaa ya Kijerumani. Sasa alimtuma afisa wa jeshi mwenye maarifa ya Afrika, [[Hermann von Wissmann]] aliyeajiri maafisa na wanajeshi Wajerumani, kwa jumla watu 87 wakaelekea Afrika ya Mashariki. Njiani walipopita [[Misri]] waliajiri askari waliostaafishwa Wasudani 650; waliongeza baadaye askari Wazulu 350 kutoka Msumbiji na kuwaunganisha kuwa "[[Schutztruppe|kikosi cha Wissmann]]" kilichofaulu kushinda upinzani wote kwa msaada wa silaha za kisasa na manowari za Ujerumani<ref>Makala "Araberaufstand" katika [[Kamusi ya Koloni za Kijerumani]], Berlin 1920</ref>. Baada ya upinzani wa wenyeji wa pwani mwaka [[1889]]/[[1890]] wakiongozwa na [[Abushiri]] na [[Bwana Heri]] serikali ya Ujerumani iliamua kutwaa [[mamlaka]] kutoka kwa kampuni na kufanya eneo lote kuwa koloni la Dola la Ujerumani badala ya shirika. === Koloni la Dola la Ujerumani === Maeneo ya kampuni yalikuwa rasmi koloni la serikali tarehe [[1 Januari]] [[1891]]. Koloni lilisimamiwa na gavana. Magavana wa Kijerumani walikuwa wafuatao:<ref>{{cite web | url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/32069/ASC-075287668-3621-01.pdf?sequence=1 | title=A postal history of the First World War in Africa and its aftermath - German colonies: II Kamerun | author=A. J. Dietz | publisher=African Studies Centre, Repository, Leiden University | accessdate=17 January 2018}}</ref> * 1891–1893: [[Julius von Soden]] * 1893–1895: [[Friedrich von Schele]] * 1895–1896: Hermann von Wissmann * 1896–1901: [[Eduard von Liebert]] * 1901–1906: [[Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] * 1906–1912: [[Albrecht von Rechenberg]] * 1912–1918: [[Heinrich Schnee]] Utawala wa Kijerumani ulikwisha katika [[Vita Kuu ya Dunia ya Kwanza]] ([[1914]] - 1918) kutokana na uvamizi wa [[Uingereza]] na [[Ubelgiji]]. Katika [[Mkataba wa Versailles]] mwaka 1919 eneo la koloni la Kijerumani liligawiwa. Sehemu ya [[Tanganyika]] ilikabidhiwa kwa Uingereza na maeneo ya Rwanda na Burundi yaliwekwa chini ya [[Ubelgiji]]. ==Utawala== Eneo lote la koloni liligawiwa katika mikoa 21 na maeneo matatu yaliyokuwa bado chini ya watawala wenyeji kwa mfumo wa [[maeneo lindwa]]. Hadi 1913 mikoa 19 ilikuwa chini ya utawala wa kiraia, yaani chini ya maafisa wa serikali ya kikoloni. Mikoa miwili ya [[Mkoa wa Iringa|Iringa]] na [[Mahenge]] ilikuwa bado chini ya utawala wa kijeshi yaani hapo walikuwa maafisa wa Schutztruppe waliotekeleza majukumu yote ya serikali. Mikoa chini ya usamimizi wa maafisa Wajerumani wa kiraia ilikuwa: 1. [[Mkoa wa Tanga (DOA)|Tanga (DOA)]] </br> 2. [[Mkoa wa Pangani (DOA)|Pangani (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo [[Handeni]]</br> 3. [[Mkoa wa Bagamoyo (DOA)|Bagamoyo (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo [[Saadani]]</br> 4. Daressalam pamoja na ofisi ndogo ya polisi [[Kisangire]]</br> 5. [[Mkoa wa Rufiji (DOA)|Rufiji (DOA)]], makao makuu [[Utete]]</br> 6. [[Mkoa wa Kilwa (DOA)|Kilwa (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo za Kilindoni, Kibata na [[Liwale]]</br> 7. [[Mkoa wa Lindi (DOA)|Lindi (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo za [[Mikindani]], [[Newala]] und [[Tunduru]]</br> 8. [[Mkoa wa Langenburg (DOA)|Langenburg (DOA)]] (Tukuyu) pamoja na ofisi ndogo Itaka na Mwakete na kituo cha polisi Muaja</br> 9. [[Mkoa wa Wilhelmstal (DOA)|Wilhelmstal (DOA)]] ([[Lushoto]])</br> 10. [[Mkoa wa Morogoro (DOA)|Morogoro (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo za [[Kilosa|Kilossa]] na Kissaki</br> 11. [[Mkoa wa Songea (DOA)|Songea (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo [[Wiedhafen]]</br> 12. [[Mkoa wa Moshi (DOA)|Moshi (DOA)]]</br> 13. [[Mkoa wa Arusha (DOA)|Arusha (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo Umbulu</br> 14. [[Mkoa wa Kondoa-Irangi (DOA)|Kondoa-Irangi (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo Mkalama</br> 15. [[Mkoa wa Dodoma (DOA)|Dodoma (DOA)]] pamoja na kituo cha polisi [[Mpapwa]] na kituo cha kijeshi [[Singida]]</br> 16. [[Mkoa wa Mwanza (DOA)|Mwanza (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo Shirati na kituo cha kijeshi Ikoma</br> 17. [[Mkoa wa Tabora (DOA)|Tabora (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo za [[Shinyanga]] na Ushirombo</br> 18. [[Mkoa wa Ujiji (DOA)|Ujiji (DOA)]] pamoja na kituo cha kijeshi Kasulo</br> 19. [[Mkoa wa Bismarckburg (DOA)|Bismarckburg (DOA)]] (Kasanga (Ufipa)</br> Mikoa ya kijeshi (jer. ''Militärbezirke'') chini ya usimamizi wa maafisa wa Kijerumani wa kijeshi: 21. [[Iringa (DOA)]] pamoja na kituo cha kijeshi Ubena </br> 22. [[Mahenge (DOA)]]</br> [[Maeneo lindwa]] (jer. ''Residentur'') chini ya watawala wenyeji waliopaswa kufuata ushauri wa afisa mkazi Mjerumani (jer. ''Resident''): [[Bukoba]] pamoja na vituo vya kijeshi Usuwi na Kifumbiro, kwa ajili ya watawala wa [[Wahaya]] </br> [[Rwanda]], mji mkuu [[Kigali]], kituo cha kijeshi Mruhengeri</br> [[Burundi]], mji mkuu [[Gitega]], pamoja na ofisi ndogo Usumbura ([[Bujumbura]]).</br> ==Tanbihi== <references/> ==Marejeo== * Pugu Hadi Peramiho - kimehaririwa na P. Gerold Rupper, OSB, BPNP, Peramiho 1988, ISBN 9967 67 031 1 ==Viungo vya nje== * [https://books.google.de/books?id=m0dalboHfXgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Modern+History+of+Tanganyika&hl=de&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=A%20Modern%20History%20of%20Tanganyika&f=false Iliffe, John: A Modern History of Tanganyika], Cambridge University Press, 10.05.1979, ISBN 978-0-521-22024-8 {{Hoja Kuhusu Tanzania}} {{Hoja Kuhusu Rwanda}} {{Hoja Kuhusu Burundi}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Tanzania]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Burundi]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Rwanda]] 0fcflu450arap7vugygmv1diitc2987 1361788 1361731 2024-11-08T11:09:27Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Masahihisho aliyefanya [[Special:Contributions/Said Mfaume|Said Mfaume]] ([[User talk:Said Mfaume|Majadiliano]]) yalirejeshwa hadi sahihisho la mwisho na [[User:Kipala|Kipala]] 1208218 wikitext text/x-wiki {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; empty-cells:show; width:330px; margin-left:0.5em;" |+<font size="+1">'''Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani'''</font><br /> | style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" | {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" | align="center" width="50%" | [[Picha:Gouverneurflagge.svg|right|150px|Bendera ya Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] | align="center" width="50%" | [[Picha:Deutsch-Ostafrika-wappen.png|100px|Nembo ya Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] |} |---- | Mwanzo wa utawala wa kikoloni || [[1885]] |---- | Makao ya serikali ya kikoloni || [[Bagamoyo]] hadi 1891 halafu [[Dar es Salaam]] |---- | Eneo || km² 995,000 |---- | Wakazi || 7,665,234 (1-1-1913) |---- | Wakazi Wajerumani || 4,100 (1913) |---- | [[Pesa]] || 1 [[rupia|Rupie]]= 64 Pesa,<br /> kuanzia 1904 <br />1 Rupie = 100 [[Heller]] |---- | Nchi huru za leo || 1961 [[Tanganyika]], tangu 1964 [[Tanzania]]<br /> [[Ruanda]] <br /> [[Burundi]] |---- |} [[Picha:Meyers b14 s0300a.jpg|thumb|300px|Ramani ya Kijerumani ionyeshayo Zanzibar na pwani (mnamo 1888)]] '''Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani''' (au: ya [[Kidachi]]; kwa [[Kijerumani]] ''Deutsch-Ostafrika -DOA-''; kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''German East Africa'') ilikuwa [[jina]] la [[koloni]] la [[Ujerumani]] huko [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] kati ya miaka [[1885]] na [[1918]]/[[1919]]. Eneo lake lilijumlisha nchi za kisasa za [[Tanzania]] bara (yaani bila [[Zanzibar]]), [[Burundi]] na [[Rwanda]]. Ilikuwa koloni kubwa kabisa la [[Dola la Ujerumani]]. ==Eneo, mipaka na wakazi== ===Eneo na mipaka=== Eneo la koloni lilikuwa na [[kilomita za mraba]] 997,000 pamoja na sehemu za [[Maziwa makubwa ya Afrika|maziwa makubwa]] kama [[Ziwa Tanganyika]] na [[Ziwa Viktoria]]. Eneo hili lilikuwa karibu mara [[mbili]] kuliko eneo la Ujerumani wenyewe kabla ya mwaka [[1914]]. Mipaka iliamuliwa katika mapatano na [[Uingereza]], [[Ubelgiji]] na [[Ureno]] zilizotawala makoloni ya jirani ya [[Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kiingereza]] (leo [[Kenya]] na [[Uganda]]), [[Kongo ya Kibelgiji]] (leo [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]]), [[Rhodesia]] (leo [[Zambia]] na [[Zimbabwe]]), [[Nyasaland]] (leo [[Malawi]]) na [[Msumbiji]]. Mipaka hii ni pia mipaka ya Tanzania, Rwanda na Burundi hadi leo hii. Katika mapatano baina ya Uingereza na Ujerumani ya Novemba 1886 pande zote mbili ziliahidi kuheshimu utawala wa Sultani wa Zanzibar juu ya visiwa pamoja na kanda la maili 10 kwenye pwani baina ya [[mto Tana]] na [[Mto Minengani]] ([[Msumbiji]]). Pamoja na hayo walielewana kuhusu maeneo ya maslahi yao, wakipatana kuhusu mstari uliokuwa baadaye mpaka baina ya Tanzania na Kenya hadi leo.<ref> [https://archive.org/details/mapafricabytrea00britgoog No. 123 Agreement between the British and German Governments, respecting the Sultanate of Zanzibar and the opposite East African Mainland, and their Spheres of Influence - 1st November, 1886] (in: Map of Africa by Treaty Vol II, p. 617 and p. 620) "3. Both powers agree to establish a delimitation of their respectives spheres of influence on this part of the East African Continent" "Line of Demarcation. The line of demarcation starts from the mouth of the River Wanga or Umbe, runs direct to Lake Jipe, passes thence along the eastern and round the northern side of the lake and crosses the Lumi River; After which it passes midway between the territories of Taveita and Chagga, skirts the northern base of the Kilimanjaro range, and thence is drawn direct to the point on the eastern side of Lake Victoria Nyanza which is intersected by the 1st degree of south latitude"</ref> Katika [[Mkataba wa Helgoland-Zanzibar|mkataba wa 1890 kuhusu mipaka katika Afrika]] Uingereza iliahidi kumshawishi Sultani wa Zanzibar kuuza maeneo yake kwenye pwani la bara pamoja na [[Mafia (kisiwa)|kisiwa cha Mafia]]<ref>"Great Britain shall bring to bear her full influence on the Sultan of Zanzibar to facilitate an amicable agreement by which the Sultan unconditionally cedes to Germany the Island of Mafia and his territories on the mainland (including dependencies) that are referred to in the existing concessions of the German East Africa Company. It is understood that His Highness shall receive fair compensation for the loss of revenue resulting from this cessation." ([http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=1368 Anglo-German Treaty (Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty), July 1, 1890 online hapa] kwa http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org)</ref> kwa Ujerumani<ref>Wakati ule bado kwa [[Kampuni ya Kijerumani kwa Afrika ya Mashariki]], kwa sababu serikali haikumaliza bado kutwaa haki au zaidi madai ya kampuni katika Afrika</ref>. Upande wa Kenya mstari ulichorwa kuanzia [[Bahari Hindi]] kwa [[mdomo]] wa [[mto Umba]] hadi [[Ziwa Jipe]], halafu kufuata mitelemko ya [[kaskazini]] ya [[mlima Kilimanjaro]] na kutoka hapa hadi [[Ziwa Viktoria]]. Mipaka na Uganda ilifuata [[latitudo]] ya kwanza ya kusini ya [[ikweta]] hadi mpaka na Kongo. Upande wa Kongo mpaka ulifuata sehemu za chini za [[bonde la Ufa]] na katikati ya [[Ziwa|maziwa]] kama [[Ziwa Kivu|Kivu]] na Tanganyika. Upande wa kusini ulifuata mstari kati ya ncha ya kusini ya ziwa Tanganyika hadi mdomo wa [[Mto Songwe]] katika [[Ziwa Nyasa]]. Eneo lote la ziwa lenyewe lilibaki upande wa Nyasaland ya Kiingereza, halafu mstari kutoka Ziwa Nyasa kwa kufuata [[mto Ruvuma]] hadi [[Rasi ya Delgado]] kwenye Bahari Hindi. Jinsi ilivyo na mipaka ya kikoloni mistari hii ilikata mara nyingi maeneo ya [[Kabila|makabila]] ya wenyeji. ===Wakazi=== Mwaka [[1913]] [[takwimu]] ya Wajerumani ilihesabu wakazi Waafrika 7,645,000, Waasia ([[Wahindi]] na [[Waarabu]]) 14,898 na [[Wazungu]] 5,336, kati yao Wajerumani 4,107. [[Nusu]] ya wakazi wote waliishi katika eneo la [[Maziwa makubwa ya Afrika|maziwa makubwa]] ambako [[serikali]] ya kikoloni iliacha maeneo ya Rwanda (wakazi 2,000,000), Burundi (1,500,000) na [[Bukoba]] (275,000) kama [[maeneo lindwa]] chini ya watawala wa kienyeji waliosimamiwa na [[afisa mkazi]] Mjerumani.<ref>[[Kamusi ya Koloni za Kijerumani]], makala "Deutsch-Ostafrika", fungu 9. Bevölkerungsstatistik.</ref> == Historia ya koloni == {{History of Tanzania}} Koloni hilo halikuanzishwa kwa azimio la kisiasa upande wa serikali ya Ujerumani bali lilianzishwa kama mradi wa watu binafsi waliotafuta makoloni katika Afrika. Historia ya koloni ilikuwa na awamu tatu: # mwanzo kama maeneo yaliyotawanyika ambako kampuni binafsi ([[Kampuni ya Kijerumani kwa Afrika ya Mashariki]]) ilifaulu kushawishi watawala wa kienyeji kutia sahihi kwenye mikataba; kipindi hiki kilianza [[1885]] hadi kuporomoka kwa utawala wa kampuni mnamo [[1890]] # koloni la [[Dola la Ujerumani]] (kwa Kijerumani ''Deutsches Reich'') lililoamua kuchukua mamlaka mkononi mwake kuanzia [[1891]], ambako Ujerumani iliweza kupanusha utawala wake juu ya maeneo yote # mwisho wa utawala wa Kijerumani wakati wa [[Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia]] kuanzia mwaka [[1916]] wakati jeshi kubwa la [[Uingereza]] na [[Afrika Kusini]] pamoja na [[Ubelgiji]] lilivamia, hadi kusalimu amri kwa jeshi la [[Schutztruppe]] kwenye Novemba [[1918]] Katika mapatano baada ya vita koloni liligawiwa kati ya Uingereza (iliyopata Tanganyika) na Ubelgiji (iliyopata Rwanda na Burundi). Kwa historia ya baadaye ilikuwa na maana ya kwamba walikabidhiwa maeneo ya koloni la Kijerumani la awali si kama [[mali]] kamili lakini kama [[maeneo ya kudhaminiwa]] kwa niaba ya [[shirikisho la Mataifa]] (mtangulizi wa [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] (UN). === Utangulizi === Hadi mnamo mwaka [[1880]] [[serikali]] ya [[Ujerumani]] chini ya [[chansella]] [[Otto von Bismarck]] ilikataa kuanzisha makoloni. Sehemu ya [[wafanyabiashara]] Wajerumani walidai koloni. Walisikitika kuona [[faida]] za wenzao [[Waingereza]] waliopata mara nyingi msaada kutoka kwa [[wanajeshi]] na serikali za koloni za Uingereza hasa [[Asia]]. Waliona pia faida ya [[viwanda]] vya Uingereza vilivyokuwa na [[soko]] la kulindwa katika nchi kama [[Uhindi]] kwa sababu serikali ya kikoloni ilidai [[kodi]] kali kwa [[bidhaa]] zisizotoka [[Uingereza]]. Bismarck hakuamini ya kwamba koloni lingeleta faida kwa [[taifa]] kulingana na [[gharama]] kubwa kwa serikali. Lakini wapigania koloni walikuwa na [[wabunge]] muhimu kwa serikali na polepole Bismarck alianza kukubali hatua za kwanza. Mwenyewe aliamini mwanzoni ya kwamba itatosha kuwapa wafanyabiashara [[ulinzi]] kwa shughuli zao kwa kuwaruhusu matumizi ya [[bendera]] ya Ujerumani na kuwa na [[askari]] wao wa ulinzi kama wamepatana na viongozi wazalendo katika eneo fulani kuanzisha shughuli huko. Kwa njia hii alifungua [[mlango]] kwa [[harakati]] iliyoendelea kuwa mchango wa Ujerumani katika [[mbio]] wa kugawa [[dunia]], hasa [[Afrika]]. === Juhudi za Karl Peters === [[Picha:Petersland east africa 1885.png|thumb|250px|Maeneo ya kwanza yaliyotwaliwa na Karl Peters.]] Koloni hili lilianzishwa na kijana Mjerumani [[Karl Peters]] mwaka 1885 kwa niaba ya "[[Kampuni ya Kijerumani kwa Afrika ya Mashariki]]". Peters, aliyewahi kusoma [[chuo]] Uingereza, aliona [[wivu]] juu ya ukoloni wa Uingereza, akiamini ya kwamba Ujerumani ungestahili nafasi hiyo pia. Hivyo alianza kudai koloni katika mikutano, akaanzisha "[[Shirika kwa Ukoloni wa Kijerumani]]" mwaka [[1884]] iliyokuwa kitangulizi cha kampuni. Shirika hii ilimtuma pamoja na wenzake wawili kwenda Afrika na kutafuta nafasi ya kuanzisha koloni. Kiasili walilenga maeneo mpakani mwa Msumbiji na Zimbabwe ya leo lakini hatimaye waliamua kwenda Afrika ya Mashariki. Peters alifika [[Zanzibar]] alipoambiwa na [[konsuli]] ya Ujerumani ya kwamba hawezi kuendelea: serikali ya nyumbani iliogopa ugomvi na Uingereza ilikataa mipango yake. Aliamua kuvuka [[Bara|barani]] hata hivyo akafika [[Saadani]] tarehe [[10 Novemba]] [[1884]] na kufuata njia kando ya [[mto Wami]] ili apite kanda la Kizanzibari kwenye [[pwani]] na kutembelea [[chifu|machifu]] na [[Sultani|masultani]] ndani ya bara. Hapo alifaulu kushawishi watawala wa maeneo yaliyojulikana kama [[Usagara]], [[Nguru]], [[Useguha]] na [[Ukami]] kutia [[sahihi]] kwenye mikataba iliyoandikwa kwa Kijerumani ambayo hawakuielewa. Mikataba hii ilisema ya kwamba [[mtawala]] alikabidhi kwa kampuni nchi yake pamoja na [[haki]] juu ya [[ardhi]] na [[mali]] yote. Mwaka 1885 Peters alirudi [[Berlin]] na kuonyesha mikataba yake kwa [[Gazeti|magazeti]] na serikali. [[Chansela Bismarck]] alikataa, akacheka mikataba kama [[karatasi]] bila maana. Peters alitumia [[mbinu]]: akatisha kupeleka mikataba yake kwa mfalme [[Leopold II wa Ubelgiji]] aliyekuwa kununua haki zake. Hapa Bismarck aliogopa kilio cha wapenda koloni akakubali kumpa Peters [[hati ya ulinzi]] ya tarehe [[27 Februari]] [[1885]] kwa maeneo yaliyokuwa ya kampuni kufuatana na mikataba. === Upanuzi wa eneo la kampuni === ====Upanuzi na ugomvi na Zanzibar==== Peters na wawakilishi wake walirudi wakaendelea kutafuta machifu waliokuwa tayari kutia [[saini]] mikataba yake. [[Sultani wa Zanzibar]] alipinga juhudi hizi. Zanzibar ilisimamia pwani ya [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] na tangu [[karne]] watu wa [[Mji|miji]] ya pwani walikuwa na [[wali|mawali]] wa Sultani. Zanzibar ilidai pia utawala ya bara hadi [[Ziwa Tanganyika]] na [[Kongo]], ingawa hali halisi [[athira]] yake haikwenda mbali na [[njia]] za misafara ambako [[ndovu]] na [[watumwa]] walipelekwa pwani. Tarehe [[27 Aprili]] 1885 serikali ya Zanzibar ilituma barua [[Berlin]] kupinga [[kazi]] na madai ya kampuni na kutangaza maeneo ya Tanzania ya leo kama [[milki]] yake. Iliongeza pia wanajeshi wake barani zilizokuwa chini ya [[amri]] ya [[mwanajeshi]] mstaafu Mwingereza [[Matthews]]. Hapo serikali ya Berlin ilituma kikosi cha [[manowari]] kwenda [[Bahari Hindi]]. Mwezi Agosti manowari za Kijerumani chini ya amri ya [[admirali]] [[Eduard von Knorr]] zilifika mbele ya [[Unguja]] zikalenga [[Mzinga|mizinga]] yao kwa [[ikulu]] ya sultani. Akishauriwa na [[balozi]] wa Uingereza, [[Sayyid Barghash|Sultani Bargash]] alipaswa kutoa tamko kuwa, "Kutokana na madai tunayopelekewa kwa matishio na [[Kaisari]] wa Ujerumani, tunatambua ulinzi wa Ujerumani juu ya nchi za Usagara, Nguru, Useguha, Ukami na juu ya [[wilaya]] ya [[Witu]]. Mipaka yake itaelezwa baadaye na sisi tunatambua ulinzi wa Kaisari juu ya mahali palipotajwa." <ref> nukuu ya Kiingereza katika [http://othes.univie.ac.at/1397/1/2008-09-19_5900039.pdf Franz Kotrba: William Astor Chanler (1867-1934) und Ludwig von Höhnel (1857-1942) und Afrika, Vienna 2008]</ref>. Sultani alipaswa pia kutia sahihi [[mkataba]] wa [[biashara]] na Ujerumani alipokubali haki nyingi kwa Wajerumani katika milki yake.<ref>[https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Freundschafts-,_Handels-_und_Schiffahrtsvertrag_zwischen_dem_Deutschen_Reich_und_dem_Sultan_von_Zanzibar Mkataba wa urafiki na biashara kati Dola la Ujerumani na Sultani wa Zanzibar](Kijerumani + Kiingereza)</ref> Mwaka [[1886]] Uingereza na Ujerumani walipatana juu ya "maeneo ya masilahi" yao katika Afrika ya Mashariki; hapa walielewana kuhusu mstari kati ya mdomo wa [[Umba (mto)|mto Umba]] (kati ya [[Tanga (mji)|Tanga]] na [[Mombasa]]) hadi nukta ambako [[latitudo]] ya 1 kusini inakata mwambao wa [[Ziwa Viktoria Nyanza]]<ref>Nukta hii ilisogezwa kidogo kusudi la kutokata rasi ya Muhuru inayoingia ziwani kwa umbo la pinde</ref>. Sultani alipaswa kukubali tena. Katika mapatano hayo Sultani alibaki na [[visiwa]] vya [[Unguja]], [[Pemba]], [[Mafia]] na [[funguvisiwa ya Lamu]] pamoja na kanda la pwani barani lenye [[upana]] wa [[maili]] 10 kati ya [[mto Ruvuma]] upande wa [[Kusini]] na [[mto Tana]] upande wa [[Kaskazini]], halafu miji ya [[Kismayu]], [[Barawa]], [[Merka]] na [[Mogadishu]] upande wa kaskazini zaidi. <ref>Februari 1887 Sultani aliendelea kupungukiwa maeneo alipopatana na Mwingereza [[William Mackinnon]] kumkodisha pwani ya [[Kenya]] pamoja na haki za utawala kwa malipo ya kila mwaka. Kisheria kanda hili lilibaki mali ya Zanzibar hadi [[uhuru]] wa Kenya mwaka [[1964]]</ref>. ===Mkataba kati ya Zanzibar na Kampuni juu ya kofo na pwani=== [[Picha:Rupie 1 DOA 1893 mbele.JPG|300px|thumb|<small>Sarafu ya rupia 1 iliyotolewa kwa jina la "Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft" (Kampuni ya Kijerumani ya Afrika ya Mashariki); tangu 1904 zilitolewa kwa jina la koloni yenyewe bila kutaja kampuni tena</small>]] Mapatano ya 1886 yaliwapa Wajerumani nafasi ya kuendeleza upanuzi barani nyuma ya kanda la pwani la Kizanzibari na [[mstari]] wa [[mpaka]] ulichorwa kuanzia [[mdomo]] wa [[mto Umba]] kupitia [[mlima Kilimanjaro]] hadi [[Ziwa Viktoria]]. Lakini kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kibiashara suala la [[bandari|mabandari]] bado lilibaki wazi. Hapo Peters na kampuni yake walianza kujadiliana na Sultani [[Seyyed Bargash]] (alitawala 1870 hadi 1888) kuhusu utawala wa pwani katika sehemu ya [[Tanganyika]]. Mnamo mwaka [[1887]] Bargash alikuwa amechoka: alitafuta [[pesa]] tu kwa ajili yake binafsi; alikuwa tayari kukodisha utawala wa kanda la pwani ya Tanganyika kwa Wajerumani. Wajerumani walidai kuongezeka haki na Bargash alikufa bila kumaliza mapatano. Lakini mwandamizi wake [[Sultani Seyyed Khalifa]] aliwapa Wajerumani walichotaka. Tarehe [[15 Agosti]] [[1888]] wawakilishi wa kampuni ya Kijerumani walifika kwenye mabandari yote wakatangaza utawala wao kwa niaba ya sultani. === Vita ya Abushiri na mwisho wa utawala wa Kampuni === ^{tazama [[Vita ya Abushiri]]} Badiliko hili lilisababisha [[upinzani]] na hatimaye [[ghasia]] ya wenyeji. Vipengele vya mkataba vilisema mali isiyokuwa na [[hati]] za kimaandishi haiwezi kutambuliwa. Wenye mali kama [[shamba|mashamba]] walitakiwa kununua hati kutoka kwa watawala wapya. Hapo [[Waswahili]] wa pwani walijisikia wamesalitiwa na sultani asiyekuwa na haki ya kuchukua mali zao na kuzipa kwa [[wageni]]. Mara baada ya kufika kwa Wajerumani kwenye miji ya pwani ghasia ilianza mjini [[Pangani]] na kuenea haraka kote pwani kati ya [[Tanga (mji)|Tanga]] na [[Lindi (mji)|Lindi]]. Kampuni ilikuwa na Wajerumani wachache tu walioshindwa kujitetea. Walipaswa kukimbia au wakauawa. [[Bagamoyo (mji)|Bagamoyo]] pekee palikuwa na kikosi cha askari kutoka manowari ikatetewa. Serikali ya Ujerumani iliona lazima kuingia kati na kutuma manowari pamoja na askari waliokandamiza ghasia. Bismarck alitumia mbinu wa kupata kura za bunge alizohitaji kwa ajili ya gharama ya vita hiyo. Alipeleka sheria bungeni kuwa Ujerumani unatoa [[mark]] milioni 2 kwa kupambana na biashara ya watumwa na ulinzi wa manufaa ya Kijerumani. Sasa alimtuma afisa wa jeshi mwenye maarifa ya Afrika, [[Hermann von Wissmann]] aliyeajiri maafisa na wanajeshi Wajerumani, kwa jumla watu 87 wakaelekea Afrika ya Mashariki. Njiani walipopita [[Misri]] waliajiri askari waliostaafishwa Wasudani 650; waliongeza baadaye askari Wazulu 350 kutoka Msumbiji na kuwaunganisha kuwa "[[Schutztruppe|kikosi cha Wissmann]]" kilichofaulu kushinda upinzani wote kwa msaada wa silaha za kisasa na manowari za Ujerumani<ref>Makala "Araberaufstand" katika [[Kamusi ya Koloni za Kijerumani]], Berlin 1920</ref>. Baada ya upinzani wa wenyeji wa pwani mwaka [[1889]]/[[1890]] wakiongozwa na [[Abushiri]] na [[Bwana Heri]] serikali ya Ujerumani iliamua kutwaa [[mamlaka]] kutoka kwa kampuni na kufanya eneo lote kuwa koloni la Dola la Ujerumani badala ya shirika. === Koloni la Dola la Ujerumani === Maeneo ya kampuni yalikuwa rasmi koloni la serikali tarehe [[1 Januari]] [[1891]]. Koloni lilisimamiwa na gavana. Magavana wa Kijerumani walikuwa wafuatao:<ref>{{cite web | url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/32069/ASC-075287668-3621-01.pdf?sequence=1 | title=A postal history of the First World War in Africa and its aftermath - German colonies: II Kamerun | author=A. J. Dietz | publisher=African Studies Centre, Repository, Leiden University | accessdate=17 January 2018}}</ref> * 1891–1893: [[Julius von Soden]] * 1893–1895: [[Friedrich von Schele]] * 1895–1896: Hermann von Wissmann * 1896–1901: [[Eduard von Liebert]] * 1901–1906: [[Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] * 1906–1912: [[Albrecht von Rechenberg]] * 1912–1918: [[Heinrich Schnee]] Utawala wa Kijerumani ulikwisha katika [[Vita Kuu ya Dunia ya Kwanza]] ([[1914]] - 1918) kutokana na uvamizi wa [[Uingereza]] na [[Ubelgiji]]. Katika [[Mkataba wa Versailles]] mwaka 1919 eneo la koloni la Kijerumani liligawiwa. Sehemu ya [[Tanganyika]] ilikabidhiwa kwa Uingereza na maeneo ya Rwanda na Burundi yaliwekwa chini ya [[Ubelgiji]]. ==Utawala== Eneo lote la koloni liligawiwa katika mikoa 21 na maeneo matatu yaliyokuwa bado chini ya watawala wenyeji kwa mfumo wa [[maeneo lindwa]]. Hadi 1913 mikoa 19 ilikuwa chini ya utawala wa kiraia, yaani chini ya maafisa wa serikali ya kikoloni. Mikoa miwili ya [[Mkoa wa Iringa|Iringa]] na [[Mahenge]] ilikuwa bado chini ya utawala wa kijeshi yaani hapo walikuwa maafisa wa Schutztruppe waliotekeleza majukumu yote ya serikali. Mikoa chini ya usamimizi wa maafisa Wajerumani wa kiraia ilikuwa: 1. [[Mkoa wa Tanga (DOA)|Tanga (DOA)]] </br> 2. [[Mkoa wa Pangani (DOA)|Pangani (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo [[Handeni]]</br> 3. [[Mkoa wa Bagamoyo (DOA)|Bagamoyo (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo [[Saadani]]</br> 4. Daressalam pamoja na ofisi ndogo ya polisi [[Kisangire]]</br> 5. [[Mkoa wa Rufiji (DOA)|Rufiji (DOA)]], makao makuu [[Utete]]</br> 6. [[Mkoa wa Kilwa (DOA)|Kilwa (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo za Kilindoni, Kibata na [[Liwale]]</br> 7. [[Mkoa wa Lindi (DOA)|Lindi (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo za [[Mikindani]], [[Newala]] und [[Tunduru]]</br> 8. [[Mkoa wa Langenburg (DOA)|Langenburg (DOA)]] (Tukuyu) pamoja na ofisi ndogo Itaka na Mwakete na kituo cha polisi Muaja</br> 9. [[Mkoa wa Wilhelmstal (DOA)|Wilhelmstal (DOA)]] ([[Lushoto]])</br> 10. [[Mkoa wa Morogoro (DOA)|Morogoro (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo za [[Kilosa|Kilossa]] na Kissaki</br> 11. [[Mkoa wa Songea (DOA)|Songea (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo [[Wiedhafen]]</br> 12. [[Mkoa wa Moshi (DOA)|Moshi (DOA)]]</br> 13. [[Mkoa wa Arusha (DOA)|Arusha (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo Umbulu</br> 14. [[Mkoa wa Kondoa-Irangi (DOA)|Kondoa-Irangi (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo Mkalama</br> 15. [[Mkoa wa Dodoma (DOA)|Dodoma (DOA)]] pamoja na kituo cha polisi [[Mpapwa]] na kituo cha kijeshi [[Singida]]</br> 16. [[Mkoa wa Mwanza (DOA)|Mwanza (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo Shirati na kituo cha kijeshi Ikoma</br> 17. [[Mkoa wa Tabora (DOA)|Tabora (DOA)]] pamoja na ofisi ndogo za [[Shinyanga]] na Ushirombo</br> 18. [[Mkoa wa Ujiji (DOA)|Ujiji (DOA)]] pamoja na kituo cha kijeshi Kasulo</br> 19. [[Mkoa wa Bismarckburg (DOA)|Bismarckburg (DOA)]] (Kasanga (Ufipa)</br> Mikoa ya kijeshi (jer. ''Militärbezirke'') chini ya usimamizi wa maafisa wa Kijerumani wa kijeshi: 21. [[Iringa (DOA)]] pamoja na kituo cha kijeshi Ubena </br> 22. [[Mahenge (DOA)]]</br> [[Maeneo lindwa]] (jer. ''Residentur'') chini ya watawala wenyeji waliopaswa kufuata ushauri wa afisa mkazi Mjerumani (jer. ''Resident''): [[Bukoba]] pamoja na vituo vya kijeshi Usuwi na Kifumbiro, kwa ajili ya watawala wa [[Wahaya]] </br> [[Rwanda]], mji mkuu [[Kigali]], kituo cha kijeshi Mruhengeri</br> [[Burundi]], mji mkuu [[Gitega]], pamoja na ofisi ndogo Usumbura ([[Bujumbura]]).</br> ==Tanbihi== <references/> ==Marejeo== * Pugu Hadi Peramiho - kimehaririwa na P. Gerold Rupper, OSB, BPNP, Peramiho 1988, ISBN 9967 67 031 1 ==Viungo vya nje== * [https://books.google.de/books?id=m0dalboHfXgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Modern+History+of+Tanganyika&hl=de&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=A%20Modern%20History%20of%20Tanganyika&f=false Iliffe, John: A Modern History of Tanganyika], Cambridge University Press, 10.05.1979, ISBN 978-0-521-22024-8 {{Hoja Kuhusu Tanzania}} {{Hoja Kuhusu Rwanda}} {{Hoja Kuhusu Burundi}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Tanzania]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Burundi]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Rwanda]] 43is0xdhy4rvz0ymqn3ex3hfxszkft8 4 16648 1361730 1360954 2024-11-08T07:04:15Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 /* Makala ya 85,000 */ 1361730 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Makala ya 86,000== Tarehe [[7 Novemba]] 2024 Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imekuwa na makala ya 86,000 kuhusu mwanariadha [[Juma Ndiwa]].‎ ==Makala ya 85,000== Tarehe 20 Oktoba 2024 Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imekuwa na makala ya 85,000 kuhusu mtakatifu [[Leoniani wa Vienne]]. ==Makala ya 84,000== Tarehe 8 Oktoba 2024 Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imekuwa na makala ya 84,000 kuhusu [[Riadha|mwanariadha]] [[Jürgen Kühl]].‎‎ ==Makala ya 83,000== Tarehe 19 Septemba 2024 Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imekuwa na makala ya 83,000 kuhusu [[Riadha|mwanariadha]] [[Jacques Riparelli]]. ==Makala ya 82,000== Tarehe 10 Julai 2024 Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imekuwa na makala ya 82,000 kuhusu [[pipa]]. ==Makala ya 81,000== Tarehe 11 Juni 2024 Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imekuwa na makala ya 81,000 ambayo inahusu [[Kufukuzwa kwa Wamoroko kutoka Algeria]]. ==Makala ya 80,000== Tarehe 21 Aprili 2024 Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imekuwa na makala ya 80,000 ambayo inahusu [[mwandamizi]]. ==Mradi mpya wa kata za Tanzania== Tarehe [[20 Aprili]] [[2024]] tumemaliza kuingiza taarifa za [[kata]] zote nchini [[Tanzania]] kufuatana na [[sensa]] ya mwaka 2022. ==Makala ya 79,000== Tarehe 9 Desemba 2023 Wikipedia hii imefikia makala ya 79,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya kata ya [[Chemchem (Unguja)]] katika mradi mpya wa kata za Tanzania. {{Infobox_Person | jina =Kipala | nchi =Ujerumani | majina_mengine = | picha = | ukubwawapicha = | maelezo_ya_picha = | jina_la_kuzaliwa = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = | tarehe_ya_kufariki =10 Julai 2023 | mahala_alipofia = | sababu_ya_kifariki = | anajulikana kwa = | kazi_yake = Mchungaji | cheo =Mchungaji | mshahara = | kipindi = | alitanguliwa_na = | akafuatiwa_na = | chama = | bodi = | dini = | ndoa = | rafiki = | watoto = | mahusiano = | tovuti = | maelezo = | mwajiri = | urefu = | uzito = }} ==Kifo cha Kipala== Tarehe [[10 Julai]] 2023 mwenzetu bureaucrat [[mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ameaga dunia. Mchungaji wa Kilutheri na mmisionari katika nchi mbalimbali, zikiwemo [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]] na [[Iran]], Ingo Koll amefariki nyumbani mwake nchini [[Ujerumani]]. Alichangia sana kamusi elezo ya lugha yetu tangu tarehe 13 Machi 2006 hadi tarehe 28 Juni 2023. Mbali ya hilo, alikuwa kiungo kikuu katika kutuweka pamoja kama Wikipedia ya Kiswahili. Alitoa mchango mkubwa sana katika kuistawisha na katika mijadala mbalimbali, pamoja na kutuwakilisha kimataifa. Mwenyezi Mungu amjalie raha ya milele. Amina. Tarehe 13 Mei 2023 alikuwa amemuandikia [[mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|ndugu Rikardo]]: "Juzi daktari aliniarifu kwamba nimepata kansa. Aina hiyo kwenye kongosho inaweza kuendelea haraka sana, lakini kuna uwezekano fulani wa tiba itakayoongeza muda kidogo ... labda mwaka 1 au miwili. Hadi sasa sisikii matatizo lakini nahisi maumivu yatakuja, na matokeo ya tiba ya madawa makali yataniathiri pia. Kwa hiyo - sijui sasa nitaweza kuendelea kwa muda gani. Wiki ijayo naingia hospitalini kwa utafiti zaidi. Sidhani ni wakati wa kuaga sasa. Sina hamu ya kupokea wimbi la "pole". Tangu nimepita umri wa miaka 70 nilijiambia "kuanzia sasa hakuna cha kulalamika", maana katika kazi yangu nimezika watu mamia nilipenda kusoma zaburi ya 90. Nachukua wakati wangu kama zawadi. Sikutegemea nitapatwa na kansa ya haraka vile lakini sioni faida ya kulalamika. Hadi sasa maisha yangu yamekuwa mazuri sana, nina kila sababu kumshukuru Mungu na kushukuru watu niliokuta kwenye njia zangu. Hii ni pamoja na wewe!" ==Makala ya 78,000== Tarehe [[15 Juni]] [[2023]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 78,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Jamil Adam]] katika mradi wa [[Mchezaji|wachezaji]] wa [[mpira wa miguu]]. ==Makala ya 77,000== Tarehe [[25 Machi]] [[2023]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 77,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Chomutov]], [[mji]] wa [[Ucheki]]. ==Wakabidhi wapya wanne== Mwezi Aprili 2023 ulifanyika uchaguzi wa wakabidhi wapya. Kati ya 6 waliogombea, 4 wamechaguliwa kwa kupata zaidi ya nusu ya kura halali. Kazi njema, ndugu! ==Makala ya 76,000== Tarehe [[23 Desemba]] [[2022]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 76,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Bouhjar]], [[mji]] wa [[Tunisia]]. ==Makala ya 75,00== Tarehe [[17 Septemba]] 2022 Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 75,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Kouandé]], [[mji]] wa [[Benin]]. ==Makala ya 74,00== Tarehe [[15 Julai]] 2022 Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 74,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Ghuba ya Venezuela]]. ==Makala ya 73,00== Tarehe [[6 Juni]] 2022 Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 73,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Frenda]], mji wa [[Algeria]]. ==Makala ya 72,00== Tarehe [[14 Mei]] [[2022]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 72,000. Kwa kuwa makala nyingi zimetungwa kwa mashindano, kuna kazi kubwa ni kuziweka sawa. ==Makala ya 71,00== Tarehe [[23 Aprili]] [[2022]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 71,000 kwa makala nyingi za mradi wa [[Jamii:Arusha Editathon Muziki|Arusha Editathon Muziki]]. ==Makala ya 70,00== Tarehe [[10 Machi]] [[2022]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 70,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Ilesa]] katika mradi wa miji ya [[Nigeria]]. ==Makala ya 69,000== Tarehe [[11 Januari]] [[2022]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 69,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Maroua]] katika mradi wa miji ya [[Kamerun]]. ==Makala ya 68,000== Tarehe [[29 Oktoba]] [[2021]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 68,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Chambishi]] katika mradi wa [[miji]] ya [[Zambia]]. ==Makala ya 67,000== Tarehe [[9 Septemba]] [[2021]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 67,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Nairagie Ngare]] katika mradi wa [[vijiji]] vya [[Kenya]]. ==Makala ya 66,000== Tarehe [[14 Agosti]] [[2021]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 66,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Makutano]] katika mradi wa kata za Kenya. ==Makala ya 65,000== Tarehe [[5 Julai]] [[2021]] Wikipedia hii imefikia idadi ya 65,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Mwea]] katika mradi wa kata za Kenya. ==Makala ya 64,000== Tarehe [[19 Juni]] [[2021]] Wikipedia hii imevuka idadi ya 64,000 kutokana na tendo la kurudisha makala 907 lililofanywa na steward aliyekuwa amezifuta kwa mkupuo mmoja mwaka 2020. ==Makala ya 63,000== Tarehe [[8 Juni]] [[2021]] mradi wa Africa Wiki Challenge Arusha kuhusu viwanja vya michezo umefikisha Wikipedia yetu hadi kutunga makala ya 63,000 na kusonga mbele haraka. Hongera na asante kwa wahusika wote! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:58, 9 Juni 2021 (UTC) ==Makala ya 62,000== Tarehe [[7 Mei]] [[2021]] mradi wa [[miji]] ya [[Italia]] umefikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 62,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[San Giovanni Rotondo]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 15:28, 7 Mei 2021 (UTC) ==Makala ya 61,000== Tarehe [[15 Machi]] [[2021]] mradi wa [[watakatifu]] [[Wakristo]] umefikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 61,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Agrikola wa Chalon]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 10:19, 15 Machi 2021 (UTC) ==Makala ya 60,000== Tarehe [[20 Agosti]] [[2020]] mradi wa [[mito]] ya [[Burundi]] umefikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 60,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mto Rubirizi (Muramvya)]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 09:28, 20 Agosti 2020 (UTC) Tarehe [[8 Novemba]] 2020 Wikipedia yetu imetimiza tena idadi hiyo baada ya kukatwa makala 800 hivi hapo katikati (mpaka sasa hatujajua ilikuwaje). Ukurasa husika ni juu ya [[mtakatifu]] [[Andrea Avellino]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 07:14, 8 Novemba 2020 (UTC) ==Makala ya 59,000== Tarehe [[22 Mei]] [[2020]] mradi wa [[miji ya Rwanda]] umefikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 59,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mukarange]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 10:02, 22 Mei 2020 (UTC) ==Makala ya 58,000== Tarehe [[3 Aprili]] [[2020]] mradi wa [[Orodha ya mito ya Burundi|mito ya Burundi]] umefikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 58,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mto Gihororo (Karuzi)]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 10:55, 3 Aprili 2020 (UTC) ==Makala ya 57,000== Tarehe [[17 Machi]] [[2020]] mradi wa [[wachezaji mpira]] umefikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 57,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Gilmar Rinaldi]]. Kurasa elfu kwa juma moja tu! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 05:44, 18 Machi 2020 (UTC) ==Makala ya 56,000== Tarehe [[10 Machi]] [[2020]] mradi wa [[Makabila ya Uganda]] umefikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 56,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Wakumam]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:36, 10 Machi 2020 (UTC) ==Makala ya 55,000== Tarehe [[13 Desemba]] [[2019]] mradi wa [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika|Watakatifu wa Afrika]] umefikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 55,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Yusto askofu]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:17, 13 Desemba 2019 (UTC) ==Makala ya 54,000== Tarehe [[4 Oktoba]] 2019 makala ya 54,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[wafiadini]] wa [[Afrika]] [[Suksesi na wenzake 17]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 13:23, 4 Oktoba 2019 (UTC) ==Makala ya 53,000== Tarehe [[10 Agosti]] 2019 makala ya 53,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[Tarafa ya Tiémélékro]]. Tunawashukuru wachangiaji wetu kutoka [[Cote d'Ivoire]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 07:58, 11 Agosti 2019 (UTC) ==Makala ya 52,000== Tarehe [[16 Julai]] 2019 makala ya 52,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Rwoho]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 12:55, 16 Julai 2019 (UTC) ==Makala ya 51,000== Tarehe [[31 Mei]] 2019 makala ya 51,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Osia]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 08:35, 31 Mei 2019 (UTC) ==Makala ya 50,000== Tarehe [[3 Mei]] 2019 makala ya 50,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Ocere]]. Hatimaye tumefikia hatua hiyo kubwa! Hongera kwa wote! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 14:31, 3 Mei 2019 (UTC) ==Makala ya 49,000== Tarehe [[23 Machi]] 2019 makala ya 49,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Wangodugu]]. Tukazane ili kufikia mapema ya 50,000! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 12:12, 23 Machi 2019 (UTC) ::Hongera sana Ndugu Riccardo kwa michango yako!! Na asante!'''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 19:58, 23 Machi 2019 (UTC) ==Makala ya 48,000== Tarehe [[7 Februari]] 2019 makala ya 48,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[kisiwa cha Musira]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 10:30, 7 Februari 2019 (UTC) ==Makala ya 47,000== Tarehe [[8 Novemba]] [[2018]] makala ya 47,000 imetungwa kuhusu mto Olkimatare. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 12:26, 8 Novemba 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 46,000== Tarehe [[15 Oktoba]] 2018 makala ya 46,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Wakavi]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 13:41, 15 Oktoba 2018 (UTC) ==Ukurasa wa 100,000== Tarehe [[5 Oktoba]] 2018, kwa makala juu ya [[Mto Thiririka]], Wikipedia yetu imefikia ukurasa wa 100,000 zikihesabiwa si makala tu, bali pia kurasa za maelekezo, majadiliano, watumiaji n.k. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:41, 5 Oktoba 2018 (UTC) ==Baba Tabita kuaga== Tarehe [[26 Septemba]] 2018, huyo mchangiaji wetu mkuu ameandika ili kutuaga baada ya kazi ya miaka 12 na kisha kuugua kwa muda mrefu, akisema hajui kama ataweza kuchangia tena. Tunazidi kumuombea kwa Mwenyezi Mungu aweze kupona na kuendelea nasi. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 14:31, 26 Septemba 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 45,000== Tarehe [[12 Agosti]] [[2018]] makala ya 45,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Ilangi]], [[Korongo (jiografia)|korongo]] wa [[Kenya]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 14:11, 12 Agosti 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 44,000== Tarehe [[30 Julai]] [[2018]] makala ya 44,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Nyairoko]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:55, 30 Julai 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 43,000== Tarehe [[7 Julai]] makala ya 43,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Kaptarit]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 15:36, 7 Julai 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 42,000== Tarehe 21 Mei 2018, makala ya 42,000 imetungwa kuhusu [[mto Jigulu]]. Mbele kwa mbele! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 08:18, 21 Mei 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 41,000== Tarehe 2 Mei 2018, makala ya 41,000 ilianzishwa na [[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Ndugu Riccardo]] kuhusu [[Mto Ligunga]]. Tusonge mbeleee! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|Baba Tabita]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|majadiliano]])''' 05:13, 3 Mei 2018 (UTC) :Ninja [[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Ndugu Riccardo]] katika ubora wake. Safi sana! Tunasonga. Sasa hivi tutafika walipo Afrikaans!--[[User:Muddyb|<font color="blue">_{'''Muddyb Mwanaharakati'''}</font>]]</span> <font face="Comic sans">[[User talk:Muddyb Blast Producer|<font color="black">^'''Longa'''</font>]] 08:22, 3 Mei 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 40,000== Tarehe 17 Machi 2018, makala ya 40,000 (AROBAINI ELFU, jamani!) ni kuhusu mlima [[Nidze]]. Makala ilianzishwa na [[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Ndugu Riccardo]]. Asante na hongera, Mzee! Sherehe itafanyika wapiii? Tupo pamoja katika furaha na fahari. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|Baba Tabita]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|majadiliano]])''' 09:52, 17 Machi 2018 (UTC) :Sasa niseme tu, zama zangu zimeisha! Nyakati zangu nilipiga buku ndani ya wiki 2. Furaha iliyopo hadi mgonjwa umeamka kitandani. Pole sana mzee wangu, Oliver, na ahsante kwa taarifa!--[[User:Muddyb Blast Producer|<font color="blue">_{'''Mwanaharakati'''}</font>]]</span><font face="Verdana">[[User talk:Muddyb Blast Producer|<font color="gray">^'''Longa'''</font>]] 12:37, 17 Machi 2018 (UTC) ::Kweli tunahitaji sherehe. Hongereni ndugu zangu wote! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Ndesanjo|Ndesanjo]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Ndesanjo|majadiliano]])''' 23:44, 30 Mei 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 39,000== Tarehe 24 Desemba 2017, makala ya 39,000 imeandikwa. Sasa tunalenga ya 40,000: tujitahidi pamoja. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 08:48, 13 Januari 2018 (UTC) ==Makala ya 38,000== Tarehe 12 Oktoba 2017, makala ya 38,000 ni kuhusu [[Ziwa Kamnarok]], [[ziwa]] lililokauka la [[Kenya]]. Makala iliandikwa na [[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Ndugu Riccardo]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|Baba Tabita]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|majadiliano]])''' 21:16, 13 Oktoba 2017 (UTC) ==Makala ya 37,000== Tarehe 30 Julai 2017, makala ya 37,000 ni kuhusu [[Ziwa Ambussel]], ziwa dogo la [[Tanzania]]. Makala iliandikwa na [[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Ndugu Riccardo]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|Baba Tabita]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|majadiliano]])''' 17:44, 30 Julai 2017 (UTC) ==Makala ya 36,000== Tarehe 20 Mei 2017, makala ya 36,000 ni kuhusu [[Abdallah Majurah Bulembo]], mwanasiasa wa [[Tanzania]]. Makala iliandikwa na Ndugu [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Luhazi|Luhazi]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|Baba Tabita]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|majadiliano]])''' 18:29, 20 Mei 2017 (UTC) ==Makala ya 35,000== Tarehe 12 Januari 2017, makala ya 35,000 ni kuhusu mwandishi [[James Tate (mwandishi)|James Tate]] aliyepokea [[Tuzo ya Pulitzer ya Ushairi]] mwaka wa 1992. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|Baba Tabita]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|majadiliano]])''' 10:41, 12 Januari 2017 (UTC) ==Makala ya 33,000== 18 Aprili 2016, makala ya 33,000 ni [[Kio'du]], lugha ya [[Vietnam]] na [[Laos]]. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|Baba Tabita]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|majadiliano]])''' 11:43, 18 Aprili 2016 (UTC) ==Haririo la 1,000,000== Upande wa maharirio, tarehe [[10 Oktoba]] 2015 yamefikia [[idadi]] ya [[milioni]] 1. ==Makala ya 30,000== Nimejitahidi lakini nahisi aliyepita ni Riccardo mnamo tar. 21. Septemba 2015, sina uhakika makala gani. '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 21:32, 23 Septemba 2015 (UTC) :Ni [[Historia ya Madagaska]] tarehe 22 Septemba 2015. Hongera kwa wote! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 10:55, 24 Septemba 2015 (UTC) ==Makala ya 29,000== *13 Juni 2015, makala ya 29,000 ni [[Pembe kuu‎]] (pembe ya 180°, isiyoonekana kama pembe inafanana na mstari wa kawaida...) ==Warsha ya Wikipedia Morogoro== Tarehe 21 Machi 2015, wahariri wafuatao walitoa warsha ya kuandika na kuhariri makala za wikipedia ya Kiswahili kwa walimu na wanafunzi wa [http://www.alfagems.com/ shule ya sekondari ya AlfaGems] mjini [[Morogoro (mji)|Morogoro]]: [[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]], [[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]], [[Mtumiaji:ChriKo|ChriKo]] na [[Mtumiaji:Baba Tabita|Baba Tabita]] (bahati mbaya, [[Mtumiaji:Muddyb Blast Producer|Muddyb Blast Producer]] alibanwa kazini na kutoweza kuhudhuria). Tumefurahi kuona mafanikio mema! <gallery> Morogoro 2015 Warsha ya wanafunzi 1.jpg|Warsha ya Wikipedia ya Kiswahili Morogoro 2015 Machi - Warsha ya wanafunzi 1 Morogoro 2015 Warsha ya wanafunzi 2.jpg|Warsha ya Wikipedia ya Kiswahili Morogoro 2015 Machi - Warsha ya wanafunzi 2 Morogoro 2015 warsha ya wanafunzi 3.jpg|Warsha ya Wikipedia ya Kiswahili Morogoro 2015 Machi - Warsha ya wanafunzi 3 Warsha wanafunzi.jpg|Warsha ya Wikipedia ya Kiswahili Morogoro 2015 Machi - Warsha ya wanafunzi 4 Alfagems Shule ya Sekondari Morogoro - Wikipedia imefika!.jpg|Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imefika Alfagems SS Warsha ya walimu.jpg|Walimu walikuwa na warsha yao pia Alfagems Shule ya Sekondari Morogoro - wikipedia imefika hadi chumba hiki.jpg|Hapo iko chumba cha kompyuta ambako wanafunzi zaidi ya 60 waliangalia nafasi zilizopo kwenye wikipedia ya Kiswahili </gallery> ==Makala ya 28,000== *25 Januari 2015, makala ya 28,000 ni [[Kipaici]], lugha ya [[Kaledonia Mpya]]. ==Makala ya 22,000== *28 Oktoba 2011 imefika makala 22,000! ==Makala ya 20,000== [[Picha:Wikipedia 20000 articles.png|80px|right]] * 21 Agosti 2010: mji wa [[Dordrecht]] ;-) ==Makala ya 15,000== * 25 Desemba 2009 (UTC) :-) '''Mlimba''' ni tarafa iliyopo katika wilaya ya Kilombero katika Mkoa wa Morogoro. Ipo umbali wa kilomita 150 kutoka Ifakara mjini. Tarafa ya Mlimba ina ujumla wa kata 6. Kata ya Tanganyika Masagati ni kata maarufu sana katika tarafa ya Mlimba. Ipo umbali usiopungua kilomita 100 kutoka Mlimba mjini. Tarafa hii inakabiliwa na matatizo mbalimbali ikiwemo ya usafiri, utumishi wa umma {walimu,madaktari n.k}. Wakazi wa mlimba wanategemea zaidi usafiri wa TAZARA. Kata ya Mlimba ina shule za msingi zisizopungua 10 na sekondari 3.Tarafa ya Mlimba ina shule zaidi ya 30 za msingi na 8 za sekondari. Moja kati ya shule maarufu ni shule ya msingi MAKIRIKA na shule ya sekondari MLIMBA GIRLS. Shule ya msingi MAKIRIKA ipo umbali wa kilomita 10 kutoka Mlimba mjini. Shule hii ipo katika kijiji cha Makirika. Ina walimu 4 {Donatus Dacky, Abel Michael, John Justine na Selemani Mkonje},shule ina darasa la awali hadi la saba! Pia katika tarafa ya mlimba utakutana na mgodi wa umeme{KIHANSI}... imehaririwa na selemani mkonje ==Maendeleo ya makala za kata nchini [[Tanzania]]== Makala za kata zinafuata majina ya kata yaliyotajwa katika taarifa ya sensa 2002. Kata zilizoanzishwa baadaye kwa kawaida hazipo bado. Kata zote za Tanzania zimepata makala fupi ya mbegu; mengine yameshapanushwa. Ilikuwa kazi kubwa na ya maana! Kazi inayobaki ni kufuatilia habari za wilaya mpya zilizoanzishwa mwaka 2006/2007 kwa sababu orodha ya kata iliyopatikana ilikuwa ya sensa ya mwaka 2002. Pale tulipotambua wilaya mpya tulianza makala ya wilaya pia kigezo cha kata zake isipokuwa bado bila majina. Kata ya wilaya mpya bado zinaorodheshwa chini ya chini ya wilaya mama. Mifano ya wilaya mpya ni [[Wilaya ya Misenyi]], [[Wilaya ya Chato]], [[Wilaya ya Rorya]]. ==Mikoa ya Tanzania ambayo kata zote zimeanzishwa makala ya mbegu== [[Mkoa wa Arusha|Arusha]] | [[Mkoa wa Dar es Salaam|Dar es Salaam]] | [[Mkoa wa Dodoma|Dodoma]] | [[Mkoa wa Iringa|Iringa]] | [[Mkoa wa Kagera|Kagera]] | [[Mkoa wa Kilimanjaro|Kilimanjaro]] | [[Mkoa wa Kigoma|Kigoma]] | [[Mkoa wa Lindi|Lindi]] | [[Mkoa wa Mara|Mara]] | [[Mkoa wa Mwanza|Mwanza]] | [[Mkoa wa Mbeya|Mbeya]] | [[Mkoa wa Manyara|Manyara]] | [[Mkoa wa Morogoro|Morogoro]] | [[Mkoa wa Mtwara|Mtwara]] | [[Mkoa wa Pemba Kaskazini |Pemba Kaskazini]] | [[Mkoa wa Pemba Kusini|Pemba Kusini]] | [[Mkoa wa Pwani|Pwani]] | [[Mkoa wa Rukwa|Rukwa]] | [[Mkoa wa Ruvuma|Ruvuma]] | [[Mkoa wa Shinyanga|Shinyanga]] | [[Mkoa wa Singida|Singida]] | [[Mkoa wa Tabora|Tabora]] | [[Mkoa wa Tanga|Tanga]] | [[Mkoa wa Unguja Mjini Magharibi|Unguja Mjini Magharibi]] | [[Mkoa wa Unguja Kaskazini|Unguja Kaskazini]] | [[Mkoa wa Unguja Kusini|Unguja Kusini]] ==Wikipedia yetu katika orodha ya [[meta:List of Wikipedias by edits per article]]== [[Meta:List_of_Wikipedias_by_sample_of_articles]] inalinganisha wikipedia za lugha mbalimbali kwenye msingi wa orodha la [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo]]. Katika ulinganisho wa Aprili 2009 makala zifuatazo ziliangaliwa hasa kuwa ama zinekosekana kabisa au ni fupi mno au ziko na ukubwa karibu na ngazi inayofuata (kati ya ndogo-wastani-kubwa na kila ngazi inapewa uzito tofauti katika ulinganisho). Majina yafuatayo ni katika wikipedia ya Kiingereza. #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Song Song] ([[Wimbo|wimbo - alama 463 pekee]]) #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Crusades Crusades] - [[vita za misalaba]] #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Communism Communism] - [[ukomunisti]] #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Culture Culture] - [[utamaduni]] #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Big Bang Big Bang] - [[mlipuko mkuu]] #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Evolution Evolution] - [[mageuko ya spishi]] #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Democracy Democracy] - [[demokrasia]] #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Horse Horse] - [[farasi]] #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Basketball Basketball] - [[mpira wa kikapu]] #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Fascism Fashism] - [[ufashisti]] --'''[[User:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[User talk:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 17:21, 9 Aprili 2009 (UTC) == Mradi mpya: [[Wilaya, tarafa na kata za Kenya]]== Baada ya kutunga makala za mbegu kwa kila kata ya [[Tanzania]] tunalenga sasa kufanya kazi hiyohiyo kwa kata zote za Kenya. Ukurasa [[Wilaya, tarafa na kata za Kenya]] umeundwa kwa muda kwa kurahisisha utekelezaji wa mradi huu. Orodha hii inafikiwa pia kwa kifupi[[ kata Kenya]]. == Swahili Wikipedia now the largest African language Wikipedia == Apologies for the English, I don't speak Swahili, but I thought I'd let everyone know that Swahili has just passed Afrikaans as the largest African language Wikipedia. Congratulations! See [http://www.greenman.co.za/blog/?p=614 greenman.co.za] for more information. '''[[Mtumiaji:Greenman|Greenman]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Greenman|majadiliano]])''' 22:12, 3 Agosti 2009 (UTC) ::It was time! - Don't you think so? - Congratulations!--'''[[Mtumiaji:Aristo Class|Aristo Class]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Aristo Class|majadiliano]])''' 13:48, 10 Septemba 2018 (UTC) ==The Nairobi Hospital== Apologies for the English, my Kiswahili are not that good. I've been writting an article (at the el:Wikipedia) about the "[[:el:The Nairobi Hospital]]" and I do not have any pictures to support it. Can somebody from the Nairobi area, take several pictures of "The Nairobi Hospital" and upload them at Wikimedia Commons?<br/> Asante sana!--'''[[Mtumiaji:Aristo Class|Aristo Class]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Aristo Class|majadiliano]])''' 20:58, 8 Septemba 2018 (UTC)<br/> P.S. I am particullarly interested of the "Galanos Block".<br/> --'''[[Mtumiaji:Aristo Class|Aristo Class]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Aristo Class|majadiliano]])''' 16:05, 14 Septemba 2018 (UTC) ==Galanos sulphur baths== Additive to The Nairobi Hospital request, I have another one, the following: I have written the [[:el:Galanos sulphur baths]] at the Greek Wikipedia and do not have any pictures to accompany it. Can somebody from the [[:el:Tanga Region]], take several photographs of the "Galanos thermal springs" and upload them at Wikimedia Commons?<br/> Asante sana!--'''[[Mtumiaji:Aristo Class|Aristo Class]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Aristo Class|majadiliano]])''' 16:01, 14 Septemba 2018 (UTC) :Thanks for your contribution. We are a small group, at the moment I am not aware of anybody around Tanga. Lets see if we find someone. '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 19:44, 19 Septemba 2018 (UTC) ::Dear '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]]''', thank you very much for your response, I'll be waiting and hoping.<br/> ::With kindest regards!--'''[[Mtumiaji:Aristo Class|Aristo Class]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Aristo Class|majadiliano]])''' 07:48, 22 Septemba 2018 (UTC) == Afrocuration == Hi all. I will be adding 4 articles relating to the Afrocuration project to add articles relating to Covid-19. Namely, [[Utambuzi|Medical Diagnosis]], [[Ugonjwa unaopitishwa hewani|Airborne Disease]], Hand Washing, [[Athari ya pandemia ya Korona 2019-20 kwa mazingira|Environmental impact]]. Kind regards '''[[Mtumiaji:Dumbassman|Dumbassman]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Dumbassman|majadiliano]])''' 15:01, 6 Juni 2020 (UTC) : {{ping|Riccardo Riccioni}} can I upload the other 2 articles? '''[[Mtumiaji:Dumbassman|Dumbassman]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Dumbassman|majadiliano]])''' 16:17, 8 Juni 2020 (UTC) ::If you used computer translation, it's better if you don't upload them. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 07:51, 9 Juni 2020 (UTC) ::: The 2 pages I created was made through an Afrocuration project done by translators that do speak Kiswahili and was not made through the content creation tool. Unfortunately I cannot gauge the quality of these articles. Were the other 2 of such poor quality that I shouldn't upload them? Thanks '''[[Mtumiaji:Dumbassman|Dumbassman]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Dumbassman|majadiliano]])''' 11:09, 9 Juni 2020 (UTC) :::: Truly, the first one was very poor, the second one was a little better. Many times Swahili speakers are not so good translators! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 12:36, 9 Juni 2020 (UTC) ::::: Thanks a lot for your honest feedback. I will ask that the other 2 articles first be proofread. If anyone is keen to help the Google docs are available [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1QUovtBQax-5hrTerPVDG6mg_0t_r0CkyrE-YrkotB1o/edit# here] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1huDcJvyIdWk3QT1EDmOUNjfXIGRMuzr79n0S9z4bJls/edit# here]. Thanks '''[[Mtumiaji:Dumbassman|Dumbassman]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Dumbassman|majadiliano]])''' 16:02, 9 Juni 2020 (UTC) :::::: Both articles need many corrections, though they are understandable. Let you upload them, then we will try to work on them. Thank you for your care and humble attitude. Peace to you! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 06:37, 10 Juni 2020 (UTC) :::::::::::: Asante sana kwa maoni yako ya kweli. Nitauliza kwamba nakala zingine 2 kwanza zihakikiwe. Ikiwa mtu yeyote ana hamu ya kusaidia hati za Google zinapatikana [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1QUovtBQax-5hrTerPVDG6mg_0t_r0CkyrE-YrkotB1o/edit# hapa] na '''[[Mtumiaji:Dumbassman|Dumbassman]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Dumbassman|majadiliano]])''' 08:47, 13 Juni 2020 (UTC) ==Wikipedia pages Wanting Photos #WPWP== Habari wachangiaji, katika mradi wa WPWP unaoendelea hivi sasa, kuna fujo nyingi za wachangiaji wakati wa kuongeza picha, kama kuacha maneno ya lugha nyingine katika maelezo juu ya picha. Hivyo ni ombi langu kwa wachangiaji angalau kupitia hizi makala na kufanya masahihisho. [[https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maalum:Michango/Tarih&offset=&limit=500&target=Tarih|Angalia kiungo hiki]] '''[[Mtumiaji:Czeus25 Masele|Czeus25 Masele]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Czeus25 Masele|majadiliano]])''' 06:55, 10 Agosti 2020 (UTC) :Ni kweli. Kwa tamaa ya tuzo wengine wanaongeza picha yoyote na maandishi yasiyo sahihi. Sisi hatuna muda wa kupitia kazi hizo zote. Hata hivyo kwa jumla faida fulani ipo. Amani kwenu! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 10:01, 10 Agosti 2020 (UTC) ==Have you Voted?== Hi all, There are 16 eligible voters in Swahili Wikipedia for the ongoing [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021|Wikimedia Board of Trustees elections]]. But only one 3 people have voted so far. The Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees election is still ongoing. Votes will be accepted until 23:59 31 August 2021 (UTC). [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wgyP3fNI4M 2021 Wikimedia Board election video]:Please watch and share this widely so we can motivate more participation from all eligible voters! Please visit [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation Board Elections 2021|here]] to cast your vote. You can also read more about the candidates [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/Candidates|here]] Best, '''[[Mtumiaji:Zuz (WMF)|Zuz (WMF)]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Zuz (WMF)|majadiliano]])''' 10:07, 26 Agosti 2021 (UTC) == 2021 Wikimedia Board of Trustees Election Result == Thank you to everyone who participated in the 2021 Board election. The Elections Committee has reviewed the votes of the 2021 Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees election, organized to select four new trustees. A record 6,873 people from across 214 projects cast their valid votes. The following four candidates received the most support: *[[:meta:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2021/Candidates/Rosie_Stephenson-Goodknight Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight|Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight]] *[[:meta:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2021/Candidates/Victoria_Doronina Victoria Doronina|Victoria Doronina]] *[[:meta:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2021/Candidates/Dariusz_Jemielniak Dariusz Jemielniak|Dariusz Jemielniak]] *[[:meta:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2021/Candidates/Lorenzo_Losa Lorenzo Losa|Lorenzo Losa]] While these candidates have been ranked through the community vote, they are not yet appointed to the Board of Trustees. They still need to pass a successful background check and meet the qualifications outlined in the Bylaws. The Board has set a tentative date to appoint new trustees at the end of this month. Read the full announcement [[:meta:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021_Election_Results|here]]. Best, '''[[Mtumiaji:Zuz (WMF)|Zuz (WMF)]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Zuz (WMF)|majadiliano]])''' 10:49, 8 Septemba 2021 (UTC) ==Campaigns Ambassador Contractor Opening For African French, Arabic And Swahili Speakers== Dear Swahili Wikipedia Community, The [[m:Campaigns|Campaigns Team]] at the Wikimedia Foundation is excited to announce that it seeks a '''Campaigns Ambassador''' with experience working in the French, Arabic or Swahili Wikipedia communities in Africa. The campaign ambassador will support our product and programs team in providing support and advising to campaign organizers and improve the campaign organizing journey. The Campaigns Ambassador will be supporting the rollout of tools and features to support campaign organizers, in the communities we are building for. Kindly confirm further details and requirements about the role in the [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Ddp1mWyzZXtPppQl9ovzjgxBBClmL4EGFc7_58kN1is/edit '''attached job description''']. All interested applicants should submit a copy of their curriculum vitae (CV) and cover letter via email to '''fnartey@Wikimedia.org''' and copy '''ifried@wikimedia.org''' by 28th November 2021. If you have any further questions about the role kindly contact '''jjonsson@wikimedia.org'''. Thank you. Best, <br> Imelda ==Voting closes soon on the revised Enforcement Guidelines for the Universal Code of Conduct== : ''[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Revised_enforcement_guidelines/Announcement/Voting_3|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]'' : [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Revised_enforcement_guidelines/Announcement/Voting_3|More languages]] ''•'' [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Universal+Code+of+Conduct%2FRevised+enforcement+guidelines%2FAnnouncement%2FVoting+3&language=&action=page&filter= Please help translate to your language] : Hello all, [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Revised_enforcement_guidelines/Voting|Voting]] closes on the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Revised_enforcement_guidelines|revised Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines]] at '''23.59 UTC''' today, '''January 31, 2023'''. Please visit the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Revised_enforcement_guidelines/Voter_information|voter information page on Meta-wiki]] for voter eligibility information and details on how to vote. More information on the Enforcement Guidelines and the voting process is available in this [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Revised_enforcement_guidelines/Announcement/Voting_1|previous message]]. On behalf of the UCoC Project Team, '''[[Mtumiaji:Zuz (WMF)|Zuz (WMF)]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Zuz (WMF)|majadiliano]])''' 10:14, 31 Januari 2023 (UTC) t7op0cc4f8hn7a4n1w5sixene91zi6q 0 18879 1361708 1099271 2024-11-08T04:14:48Z Adinani Alli Hamisi 70776 1361708 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Skullclose.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Fuvu la kichwa]], [[ishara]] maarufu ya kifo.]] [[File:Kuoleman Puutarha by Hugo Simberg.jpg|alt=|thumb|Mauti ikishughulikia maua yake, katika Kuoleman puutarha, kazi ya Hugo Simberg (1906).]] [[File:All causes world map-Deaths per million persons-WHO2012.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Idadi]] ya vifo kati ya watu [[milioni]] moja mwaka [[2012]]{{refbegin|3}}{{legend|#ffff20|1054-4,598}}{{legend|#ffe820|4,599-5,516}}{{legend|#ffd820|5,517-6,289}}{{legend|#ffc020|6,290-6,835}}{{legend|#ffa020|6,836-7,916}}{{legend|#ff9a20|7,917-8,728}}{{legend|#f08015|8,729-9,404}}{{legend|#e06815|9,405-10,433}}{{legend|#d85010|10,434-12,233}}{{legend|#d02010|12,234-17,141}}{{refend}} ]] '''Mauti''' (kutoka [[Kiarabu]] '''موت''', ''maut'') au '''kifo''' (kutoka [[kitenzi]] cha [[Kibantu]] ''kufa'') ni [[mwisho]] wa [[uhai]]; kwa [[lugha]] ya [[biolojia]] mwisho wa michakato yote ndani ya [[kiumbehai]] ambayo ni [[dalili]] za uhai. Mauti ni hali ya kuisha kwa uhai wa kiumbe. Inapotokea, mwili wa kiumbe kupoteza uwezo wa kufanya kazi za kiasili kama vile kupumua, kudunda kwa mapigo ya moyo, na mzunguko wa damu. Mauti inaweza kutokea kwa sababu mbalimbali, ikiwemo magonjwa, ajali, au hali ya kimaumbile kama umri mkubwa. ==Chanzo== Mauti hutokea kutokana na sababu mbalimbali kama vile * [[umri]] mkubwa unaosababisha michakato ya kimsingi [[Mwili|mwilini]] kusimama polepole * [[muda]] mrefu wa maisha unaoruhusu makosa na kasoro kujumuika na kusababisha madhara (mfano: [[kansa]]) * [[magonjwa]] yanayovuruga michakato ya uhai hadi kuisimamisha * [[ajali]] zinazoharibu [[viungo]] muhimu mwilini * ukosefu wa [[chakula]], [[maji]], [[hewa]] au kinga dhidi ya [[mazingira]] magumu * athari haribifu kutoka viumbe wengine (k.m. kushambuliwa) au kutoka mazingira ==Hakikisho== Kwa [[binadamu]] kutokea kwa kifo mara nyingi hakutokei mara moja; katika mazingira ya kawaida kifo kinaonekana kama [[moyo]] hausikiki tena na [[mapafu]] hayakupumua kwa [[dakika]] kadhaa. Hata hivyo kuna uwezekano wa kwamba [[kazi]] ya moyo na mapafu ni hafifu kiasi kwamba haitambuliki. Penye [[hospitali]] nzuri na mitambo ya kiganga mara nyingi mtu anarudi kuishi ingawa mahali pengine ametazamwa ameshaaga [[dunia]]. Kama [[mashine]] zinaendelea kuchukua kazi ya moyo na mapafu si rahisi kujua kifo kinatokea lini. [[Wataalamu]] wengi siku hizi wanapoona michakato ya kawaida ya [[ubongo]] imekwisha kwa muda fulani, wanasema kifo kimetokea. Hata hivyo kuna kesi za watu wanaozinduka baada ya muda huo. == Mauti na utamaduni == Katika [[utamaduni]] na [[imani]] za watu mauti ni jambo muhimu. Lugha ina njia nyingi za kuitaja kwa mfano kuaga dunia, kufariki dunia n.k. Katika [[dini]] na [[falsafa]] kuna misimamo mbalimbali kuhusu mauti kama vile # Mauti ni mwisho wa binadamu kimwili na kiroho; hakuna kinachobaki baada ya kifo # Mauti ni hatua tu katika [[mzunguko wa maisha]]; [[nafsi]] au [[roho]] inarudi katika [[maumbile]] mengine # Kifo ni kupita penginepo: [[uzima wa milele]], [[mbinguni]], upeo wa wafu n.k. ==Katika Ukristo== Hasa kadiri ya [[Ukristo]], ni muhimu tujiandae kufa wakati wowote na namna yoyote kwa kuishi kitakatifu sasa na kwa kujiombea [[neema]] tutakazohitaji saa ya kufa kwetu, tukijua tumewekewa “kufa mara moja, na baada ya kufa hukumu” ([[Eb]] 9:27). “Katika mambo yako yote uukumbuke mwisho wako, hivyo hutakosa kamwe hata hatima” ([[YbS]] 7:36). “Hamjui yatakayokuwako kesho! Uzima wenu ni nini? Maana ninyi ni mvuke uonekanao kwa kitambo, kisha hutoweka” ([[Yak]] 4:14). “Kesheni, mwombe, msije mkaingia majaribuni” ([[Math]] 26:41). “Ina thamani machoni pa Bwana mauti ya wacha Mungu wake” ([[Zab]] 116:15). Hasa [[utiifu]] wa [[Yesu]] [[Msalaba|msalabani]] umegeuza [[laana]] ya kifo iwe [[baraka]] kwa waamini wake. “Heri wafu wafao katika Bwana tangu sasa. Naam, asema Roho, wapate kupumzika baada ya taabu zao; kwa kuwa matendo yao yafuatana nao” ([[Ufu]] 14:13). Tutakapofariki [[dunia]] [[roho]] yetu isiyokufa, mbali na [[mwili]] unaooza, itapewa [[tuzo]] au [[adhabu]] tuliyostahili kwa [[maisha]] yetu. “Ikawa yule maskini alikufa, akachukuliwa na malaika mpaka kifuani kwa Ibrahimu. Yule tajiri naye akafa, akazikwa. Basi, kule kuzimu aliyainua macho yake, alipokuwa katika mateso, akamwona Ibrahimu kwa mbali, na Lazaro kifuani mwake” ([[Lk]] 16:22-23). “Kwangu mimi kuishi ni Kristo, na kufa ni faida… ninatamani kwenda zangu nikae na Kristo, maana ni vizuri zaidi sana” ([[Fil]] 1:21,23). “Nasi tunaona ni afadhali kutokuwamo katika mwili na kukaa pamoja na Bwana” ([[2Kor]] 5:8). Kwa kuwa kifo ni “mavumbi kuirudia nchi kama yalivyokuwa, nayo roho kumrudia Mungu aliyeitoa” ([[Mhu]] 12:7). [[Kiyama|Siku ya ufufuo]] roho na mwili vitaungana tena kwa ajili ya [[uzima]] au [[moto]] wa [[milele]]. “Pumzi iliwaingia, wakaishi, wakasimama kwa miguu yao, jeshi kubwa mno” ([[Ez]] 37:10). {{mbegu}} [[Jamii:Biolojia]] [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Uislamu]] [[Jamii:Utamaduni]] lhkjfew0ptc1l4q5ucabch43oacu9l2 1361770 1361708 2024-11-08T09:20:59Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361770 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Skullclose.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Fuvu la kichwa]], [[ishara]] maarufu ya kifo.]] [[File:Kuoleman Puutarha by Hugo Simberg.jpg|alt=|thumb|Mauti ikishughulikia maua yake, katika Kuoleman puutarha, kazi ya Hugo Simberg (1906).]] [[File:All causes world map-Deaths per million persons-WHO2012.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Idadi]] ya vifo kati ya watu [[milioni]] moja mwaka [[2012]]{{refbegin|3}}{{legend|#ffff20|1054-4,598}}{{legend|#ffe820|4,599-5,516}}{{legend|#ffd820|5,517-6,289}}{{legend|#ffc020|6,290-6,835}}{{legend|#ffa020|6,836-7,916}}{{legend|#ff9a20|7,917-8,728}}{{legend|#f08015|8,729-9,404}}{{legend|#e06815|9,405-10,433}}{{legend|#d85010|10,434-12,233}}{{legend|#d02010|12,234-17,141}}{{refend}} ]] '''Mauti''' (kutoka [[Kiarabu]] '''موت''', ''maut'') au '''kifo''' (kutoka [[kitenzi]] cha [[Kibantu]] ''kufa'') ni [[mwisho]] wa [[uhai]] wa kiumbe; kwa [[lugha]] ya [[biolojia]] mwisho wa michakato yote ndani ya [[kiumbehai]] ambayo ni [[dalili]] za uhai, hivyo mwili hupoteza uwezo wa kufanya kazi za kiasili kama vile kupumua, kudunda kwa mapigo ya moyo, na mzunguko wa damu. Mauti inaweza kutokea kwa sababu mbalimbali, ikiwemo magonjwa, ajali, au hali ya kimaumbile kama umri mkubwa. ==Chanzo== Mauti hutokea kutokana na sababu mbalimbali kama vile * [[umri]] mkubwa unaosababisha michakato ya kimsingi [[Mwili|mwilini]] kusimama polepole * [[muda]] mrefu wa maisha unaoruhusu makosa na kasoro kujumuika na kusababisha madhara (mfano: [[kansa]]) * [[magonjwa]] yanayovuruga michakato ya uhai hadi kuisimamisha * [[ajali]] zinazoharibu [[viungo]] muhimu mwilini * ukosefu wa [[chakula]], [[maji]], [[hewa]] au kinga dhidi ya [[mazingira]] magumu * athari haribifu kutoka viumbe wengine (k.m. kushambuliwa) au kutoka mazingira ==Hakikisho== Kwa [[binadamu]] kutokea kwa kifo mara nyingi hakutokei mara moja; katika mazingira ya kawaida kifo kinaonekana kama [[moyo]] hausikiki tena na [[mapafu]] hayakupumua kwa [[dakika]] kadhaa. Hata hivyo kuna uwezekano wa kwamba [[kazi]] ya moyo na mapafu ni hafifu kiasi kwamba haitambuliki. Penye [[hospitali]] nzuri na mitambo ya kiganga mara nyingi mtu anarudi kuishi ingawa mahali pengine ametazamwa ameshaaga [[dunia]]. Kama [[mashine]] zinaendelea kuchukua kazi ya moyo na mapafu si rahisi kujua kifo kinatokea lini. [[Wataalamu]] wengi siku hizi wanapoona michakato ya kawaida ya [[ubongo]] imekwisha kwa muda fulani, wanasema kifo kimetokea. Hata hivyo kuna kesi za watu wanaozinduka baada ya muda huo. == Mauti na utamaduni == Katika [[utamaduni]] na [[imani]] za watu mauti ni jambo muhimu. Lugha ina njia nyingi za kuitaja kwa mfano kuaga dunia, kufariki dunia n.k. Katika [[dini]] na [[falsafa]] kuna misimamo mbalimbali kuhusu mauti kama vile # Mauti ni mwisho wa binadamu kimwili na kiroho; hakuna kinachobaki baada ya kifo # Mauti ni hatua tu katika [[mzunguko wa maisha]]; [[nafsi]] au [[roho]] inarudi katika [[maumbile]] mengine # Kifo ni kupita penginepo: [[uzima wa milele]], [[mbinguni]], upeo wa wafu n.k. ==Katika Ukristo== Hasa kadiri ya [[Ukristo]], ni muhimu tujiandae kufa wakati wowote na namna yoyote kwa kuishi kitakatifu sasa na kwa kujiombea [[neema]] tutakazohitaji saa ya kufa kwetu, tukijua tumewekewa “kufa mara moja, na baada ya kufa hukumu” ([[Eb]] 9:27). “Katika mambo yako yote uukumbuke mwisho wako, hivyo hutakosa kamwe hata hatima” ([[YbS]] 7:36). “Hamjui yatakayokuwako kesho! Uzima wenu ni nini? Maana ninyi ni mvuke uonekanao kwa kitambo, kisha hutoweka” ([[Yak]] 4:14). “Kesheni, mwombe, msije mkaingia majaribuni” ([[Math]] 26:41). “Ina thamani machoni pa Bwana mauti ya wacha Mungu wake” ([[Zab]] 116:15). Hasa [[utiifu]] wa [[Yesu]] [[Msalaba|msalabani]] umegeuza [[laana]] ya kifo iwe [[baraka]] kwa waamini wake. “Heri wafu wafao katika Bwana tangu sasa. Naam, asema Roho, wapate kupumzika baada ya taabu zao; kwa kuwa matendo yao yafuatana nao” ([[Ufu]] 14:13). Tutakapofariki [[dunia]] [[roho]] yetu isiyokufa, mbali na [[mwili]] unaooza, itapewa [[tuzo]] au [[adhabu]] tuliyostahili kwa [[maisha]] yetu. “Ikawa yule maskini alikufa, akachukuliwa na malaika mpaka kifuani kwa Ibrahimu. Yule tajiri naye akafa, akazikwa. Basi, kule kuzimu aliyainua macho yake, alipokuwa katika mateso, akamwona Ibrahimu kwa mbali, na Lazaro kifuani mwake” ([[Lk]] 16:22-23). “Kwangu mimi kuishi ni Kristo, na kufa ni faida… ninatamani kwenda zangu nikae na Kristo, maana ni vizuri zaidi sana” ([[Fil]] 1:21,23). “Nasi tunaona ni afadhali kutokuwamo katika mwili na kukaa pamoja na Bwana” ([[2Kor]] 5:8). Kwa kuwa kifo ni “mavumbi kuirudia nchi kama yalivyokuwa, nayo roho kumrudia Mungu aliyeitoa” ([[Mhu]] 12:7). [[Kiyama|Siku ya ufufuo]] roho na mwili vitaungana tena kwa ajili ya [[uzima]] au [[moto]] wa [[milele]]. “Pumzi iliwaingia, wakaishi, wakasimama kwa miguu yao, jeshi kubwa mno” ([[Ez]] 37:10). {{mbegu}} [[Jamii:Biolojia]] [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Uislamu]] [[Jamii:Utamaduni]] ncu2s11b5iwska9htbygbu8f2hz0fk4 0 20634 1361729 1358216 2024-11-08T07:02:26Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361729 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox website | jina = [[Picha:Wikipedia-favicon.png|16px|Favicon of Wikipedia]] Wikipedia ya Kiswahili | screenshot = | logo = [[Picha:Wikipedia-logo-v2-sw.svg|140px]] | maelezo ya picha = Logo ya Wikipedia ya Kiswahili | kisara = http://sw.wikipedia.org/ | kibiashara = Hapana | mahala = [[Miami, Florida]] | aina = [[Kamusi elezo|Mradi wa Kamusi Elezo ya Interneti]] | lugha = [[Kiswahili]] | watumiaji = {{NUMBEROFUSERS}} watumiaji, {{NUMBEROFADMINS}} wakabidhi tarehe {{Date}} | kujisajiri = Hiari | mmiliki = [[Wikimedia Foundation]] | mwanzo = {{start date and age|df=yes|2003|3|8}} }} '''Wikipedia ya Kiswahili''' (au '''Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili''') ni toleo la [[kamusi elezo]] ya [[Wikipedia]] kwa [[lugha]] ya [[Kiswahili]]. Wikipedia ya Kiswahili ilianzishwa [[tarehe]] [[8 Machi]] [[2003]], na tarehe [[{{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}]], [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}]], imefikia makala zipatazo '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''', [[idadi]] inayoifanya iwe Wikipedia ya 81 (kati ya 339 zilizo hai) kwa [[hesabu]] ya makala zote.<ref>[http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias#10_000.2B_articles Wikipedia ya Kiswahili inakua siku hadi siku: itazame [[:m:List_of_Wikipedias#10_000.2B_articles|Meta-Wiki]]]</ref>. Mwaka [[2019]] Wikipedia ya Kiswahili iliangaliwa mara 65,856 kwa siku, mwaka [[2020]] mara 73,056 na mwaka 2021 (Januari-Oktoba) 83,595 ambayo inakaribia kuwa sawa na mara 3,500 kwa [[saa]]. Mwaka huo kurasa zilizotazamwa zilikuwa 70,419,110, sawa na 192,929 kwa siku na 8,038 kwa saa. Idadi hiyo imezidi kuongezeka kwa kuwa kwenye mwezi Mei 2022 kurasa zetu zilifunguliwa mara 240,641 kwa siku na mnamo Juni 2024 mara 275,415 kwa siku <ref>https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/sw.wikipedia.org/reading/total-page-views/normal|table|2-year|(access)~desktop*mobile-app*mobile-web|monthly</ref>. Karibu [[nusu]] ya wasomaji wetu wako [[Tanzania]]<ref>Linganisha https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/sw.wikipedia.org/reading/page-views-by-country/normal|table|last-month|(access)~desktop*mobile-app*mobile-web|monthly</ref>, halafu [[Kenya]], [[Marekani]] na sehemu nyingine [[duniani]] <ref>Asilimia hucheza mwezi kwa mwezi. Kwenye mwezi Juni 2022 kurasa zetu zilifunguliwa kutoka Tanzania 40%, Kenya 17%, Marekani 13%, Uhindi 5%, Urusi na Nigeria 4%, nchi zote nyingine 17%.</ref>. Wikipedia ya Kiswahili ilikuwa inafunguliwa na 0,01% ya wanaofungua Wikipedia duniani kote mwezi Septemba 2018, ikiwa katika nafasi ya 65 kati ya lugha zote. Takwimu husika zinacheza kirahisi kama, kwa mfano, kutokana na habari zinazotangazwa na [[vyombo vya habari]], watu wengi wanatafuta habari zaidi kwenye [[intaneti]], maana Waswahili walioko Marekani si wengi sana, lakini wana urahisi wa kutumia intaneti, hivyo wanaweza wakawazidi watumiaji wa Tanzania ambako watu wengi bado hawana njia ya kutumia mtandao. Mwezi huohuo, waliofungua Wikipedia nchini Kenya walikuwa 0,10% za wasomaji wote duniani; kumbe nchini Tanzania waliofungua Wikipedia walikuwa 0,04% tu za wasomaji wote duniani. Mnamo Januari mwaka [[2021]] kati ya waliofungua [[Wikipedia]] nchini [[Tanzania]], 14% waliifungua kwa Kiswahili. Kumbe nchini Kenya waliofungua Wikipedia ya Kiswahili walikuwa 4% tu, lakini kuna ongezeko kubwa, kwa sababu mnamo Septemba 2018, waliofungua Wikipedia nchini Kenya walikuwa 0,08% za wasomaji wote duniani; kati yao waliofungua Wikipedia ya Kiswahili walikuwa 1.7%. Kumbe nchini Tanzania waliofungua Wikipedia walikuwa 0,03% za wasomaji wote duniani, lakini kati yao 11.2% waliifungua kwa Kiswahili, asilimia inayozidi kukua kadiri makala zinavyoongezeka na kuwa bora zaidi. == Maendeleo == [[Picha:Mwanzo 1.JPG|thumb|250px|Ukurasa wa "Mwanzo" ulivyokuwa mwaka 2004.]] Mnamo [[Julai]] [[2006]] Wikipedia ya Kiswahili ilifikisha makala 1,000 na tarehe [[14 Septemba]] mwaka huohuo ilifikia makala ya 2,000. Mnamo Julai [[2007]] ilifikisha makala 5,000 na tarehe [[26 Septemba]] 2007, 6,000. Tarehe [[21 Aprili]] [[2008]], Wikipedia ya Kiswahili ilifikisha makala 7,000 na tarehe [[19 Desemba]] 2008 ilifikisha makala 8,000, hasa baada ya kuanzishwa makala nyingi za mbegu za [[kata]] za [[Tanzania]]. Makala za mbegu za Tanzania, ziliendelea kuisukuma Wikipedia ya Kiswahili hadi kufikia kiwango cha makala 9,000 tarehe [[2 Februari]] [[2009]] na makala 10,000 tarehe [[21 Februari]] 2009. Ilipofika tarehe [[9 Aprili]] 2009, Wikipedia ya Kiswahili ilifikia kiwango cha makala 11,000 na tarehe [[25 Aprili]] 2009 ilifikia makala 12,000. Mnamo tarehe [[20 Juni]] [[2009]], Wikipedia ya Kiswahili ilibadilisha ukurasa wake wa mwanzo katika sura mpya. Mnamo tarehe [[17 Agosti]] 2009 ilifikia makala zipatazo 13,000, na kuendelea kuifanya iwe Wikipedia ya kwanza kwa ukubwa katika Afrika. Haikushia hapo: tarehe [[11 Septemba]] 2009, Wikipedia hii ilifikia makala 14,000 na tarehe [[25 Desemba]] 2009 makala 15,000. [[Picha:Wikipedia 20000 articles.png|80px|right]] Tarehe [[31 Mei]] [[2010]] ilifikia makala 18,000 na tarehe [[21 Agosti]] mwaka huohuo makala 20,000. Tarehe [[28 Oktoba]] [[2011]] ilifikia makala 22,000. Tarehe [[15 Februari]] [[2014]] ilifikia makala 26,000 na tarehe [[28 Oktoba]] mwaka huohuo makala 27,000. Tarehe [[25 Januari]] [[2015]] ilivuka idadi ya makala 28,000, tarehe [[13 Juni]] 2015 ilifikia makala 29,000, tarehe [[22 Septemba]] mwaka huohuo ilifikia makala 30,000 na kuendelea tena. Upande wa maharirio, tarehe [[10 Oktoba]] 2015 yalifikia idadi ya [[milioni]] 1. Tarehe [[10 Novemba]] mwaka huohuo ilivuka makala 31,000 na kupiku [[Wikipedia ya Kiyoruba]]. Tarehe [[13 Februari]] [[2016]] ilivuka idadi ya makala 32,000 na kusonga mbele kiasi cha kufikia 33,000 tarehe [[18 Aprili]] 2016, halafu 34,000 tarehe [[20 Agosti]] 2016 kwa makala [[Kinung]]. Makala juu ya [[James Tate (mwandishi)|James Tate]] iliifanya itimize idadi ya 35,000 tarehe [[12 Januari]] [[2017]]. Mwaka huohuo, tarehe [[20 Mei]] 2017 idadi ya makala ilifikia 36,000, tarehe [[30 Julai]] ilifikia 37,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Ziwa Ambussel]], tarehe [[12 Oktoba]] 38,000 kwa makala juu ya [[mto Jubba]] na tarehe [[24 Desemba]] ilifikia 39,000. Tarehe [[17 Machi]] [[2018]] mradi wa [[milima]] ulileta makala ya 40,000: [[Nidze]]. Mradi wa [[mito ya Tanzania]] ulisukuma Wikipedia hii kufikia idadi ya makala 41,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mto Ligunga]] tarehe [[2 Mei]] 2018 na 42,000 kwa ukurasa wa [[mto Jigulu]] tarehe [[21 Mei]]. Mradi wa [[mito ya Kenya]] ulifikisha idadi ya makala kuwa 43,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mto Kaptarit]] tarehe [[7 Julai]] 2018, kuwa 44,000 tarehe [[30 Julai]] kwa ukurasa juu ya [[mto Nyairoko]], kuwa 45,000 tarehe [[12 Agosti]] kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mto Ilangi]], kuwa 46,000 tarehe [[15 Oktoba]] kwa ukurasa juu ya [[mto Wakavi]], tena kuwa 47,000 tarehe [[8 Novemba]] kwa ukurasa juu ya [[mto Olkimatare]]. Tarehe [[7 Februari]] [[2019]] mradi wa [[Orodha ya visiwa vya Tanzania|visiwa vya Tanzania]] ulivusha Wikipedia yetu katika elfu ya 48 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[kisiwa cha Musira]]. Tarehe [[23 Machi]] 2019 mradi wa [[Orodha ya mito ya Uganda|Mito ya Uganda]] ulivusha Wikipedia yetu katika elfu ya 49 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[mto Wangodugu]], tarehe [[3 Mei]] 2019 uliifikisha katika idadi ya 50,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[mto Ocere]], tarehe [[31 Mei]] uliivusha tena katika elfu ya 51 kwa makala juu ya [[mto Osia]] na tarehe 16 Julai uliifikisha idadi ya 52,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Mto Rwoho]]. Tarehe [[10 Agosti]] 2019 mradi kuhusu ugatuzi nchini [[Cote d'Ivoire]] ulizaa makala ya 53,000 kuhusu [[Tarafa ya Tiémélékro]]. Tunawashukuru wachangiaji wetu kutoka nchi hiyo ya [[Afrika Magharibi]]. Tarehe [[4 Oktoba]] 2019 mradi kuhusu [[watakatifu]] wa [[Afrika]] ulifikisha makala za Wikipedia hii katika idadi ya 54,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[wafiadini]] [[Suksesi na wenzake 17]], na tarehe [[13 Desemba]] 2019 [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika|mradi huohuo]] ulifikisha idadi ya makala hadi 55,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Yusto askofu]]. Tarehe [[10 Machi]] [[2020]] mradi wa [[Makabila ya Uganda]] ulifikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 56,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Wakumam]]. Tarehe [[17 Machi]] 2020 mradi wa [[wachezaji]] wa [[mpira wa miguu]] ulifikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 57,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Gilmar Rinaldi]]. Kurasa elfu kwa juma moja tu! Tarehe [[3 Aprili]] 2020 mradi wa [[mito]] ya [[Burundi]] ulifikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 58,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mto Gihororo (Karuzi)]]. Tarehe [[22 Mei]] 2020 mradi wa [[miji]] ya [[Rwanda]] ulifikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 59,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mukarange]]. Tarehe [[20 Agosti]] 2020 mradi wa [[mito]] ya [[Burundi]] ulifikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 60,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[Mto Rubirizi (Muramvya)]]. Tarehe [[8 Novemba]] 2020 Wikipedia yetu ilitimiza tena idadi hiyo (baada ya makala 907 kufutwa na steward fulani kwa mkupuo mmoja). Ukurasa husika ni juu ya [[mtakatifu]] [[Andrea Avellino]]. Tarehe [[15 Machi]] [[2021]] tulifikia makala 61,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[mtakatifu]] [[Agrikola wa Chalon]]. Tarehe [[7 Mei]] 2021 mradi wa [[miji]] ya [[Italia]] ulifikisha Wikipedia yetu kwenye makala ya 62,000 kwa ukurasa juu ya [[San Giovanni Rotondo]]. Tarehe [[8 Juni]] 2021 mradi wa Africa Wiki Challenge Arusha kuhusu viwanja vya michezo ulifikisha Wikipedia yetu hadi kutunga makala ya 63,000 na kusonga mbele haraka. Tarehe [[19 Juni]] 2021 Wikipedia hii ilivuka makala ya 64,000 kutokana na tendo la kurudisha makala 907 lililofanywa na steward aliyekuwa amezifuta kwa mkupuo mmoja mwaka 2020. Tarehe [[5 Julai]] 2021 ilifikia idadi ya 65,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Mwea]] katika mradi wa [[kata]] za [[Kenya]] na tarehe [[14 Agosti]] 2021 ilifikia idadi ya 66,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Makutano]] katika mradi huohuo. Tarehe [[9 Septemba]] 2021 ilifikia idadi ya 67,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Nairagie Ngare]] katika mradi wa vijiji vya Kenya. Tarehe [[29 Oktoba]] 2021 ilifikia idadi ya 68,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Chambishi]] katika mradi wa miji ya [[Zambia]]. Tarehe [[11 Januari]] [[2022]] Wikipedia hii ilifikia idadi ya 69,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Maroua]] katika mradi wa miji ya [[Kamerun]], tarehe [[10 Machi]] 2022 ilifikia idadi ya 70,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Ilesa]] katika mradi wa miji ya [[Nigeria]], tarehe [[23 Aprili]] 2022 ilifikia idadi ya 71,000 kwa makala nyingi za mradi wa [[Jamii:Arusha Editathon Muziki|Arusha Editathon Muziki]]. Kazi kubwa ni kuziweka sawa. Tarehe [[14 Mei]] 2022 ilifikia idadi ya 72,000, tarehe [[6 Juni]] 2022 ilifikia idadi ya 73,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Frenda]], mji wa [[Algeria]], tarehe [[15 Julai]] 2022 idadi ya 74,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Ghuba ya Venezuela]], tarehe [[17 Septemba]] 2022 idadi ya 75,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Kouandé]], [[mji]] wa [[Benin]] na tarehe [[23 Desemba]] 2022 idadi ya 76,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Bouhjar]], [[mji]] wa [[Tunisia]]. Tarehe [[25 Machi]] [[2023]] Wikipedia hii ilifikia idadi ya 77,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Chomutov]], [[mji]] wa [[Ucheki]], tarehe [[15 Juni]] [[2023]] idadi ya 78,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Jamil Adam]] katika mradi wa [[Mchezaji|wachezaji]] wa [[mpira wa miguu]], na tarehe [[9 Desemba]] 2023 idadi ya 79,000 kwa makala juu ya [[Chemchem (Unguja)]] katika mradi wa kata mpya za Tanzania. Mwaka [[2024]] Wikipedia ya Kiswahili imesonga mbele kwa kasi zaidi: tarehe [[21 Aprili]] imekuwa na makala ya 80,000 kuhusu [[mwandamizi]], tarehe [[11 Juni]] imekuwa na makala ya 81,000 kuhusu [[Kufukuzwa kwa Wamoroko kutoka Algeria]], tarehe [[10 Julai]] makala ya 82,000 kuhusu [[pipa]], tarehe [[19 Septemba]] makala ya 83,000 kuhusu [[Riadha|mwanariadha]] [[Jacques Riparelli]], tarehe [[8 Oktoba]] makala ya 84,000 kuhusu mwanariadha [[Jürgen Kühl]], tarehe [[20 Oktoba]] makala ya 85,000 kuhusu [[mtakatifu]] [[Leoniani wa Vienne]] na tarehe [[7 Novemba]] makala ya 86,000 kuhusu mwanariadha [[Juma Ndiwa]].‎ ==Kati ya Wikipedia za Afrika== Kwa lugha zenye asili ya Afrika na [[visiwa]] vya jirani, Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili ndiyo ya nne kwa idadi ya makala zote ikifuatia Wikipedia ya [[Kiarabu cha Misri]], ile ya [[Kiafrikaans]] na ile ya [[Kimalagasy]]. Kwa kuangalia yaliyomo halisi (bila makala mafupi sana) ndiyo ya tatu baada ya Kiarabu cha Misri na Kiafrikaans. Pia ilikuwa ya kwanza kati ya Wikipedia za [[lugha za Niger-Kongo]] kuvuka kiwango cha makala 1,000. Sasa zimeongezeka, lakini ya Kiswahili bado inaongoza. Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili ilikuwa ya pili katika Afrika nzima kuvuka kiasi cha makala 10,000 baada ya [[Wikipedia ya Kiafrikaans]]. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060901052536/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/08/27/business/wiki.php ''Building Wikipedia in African languages''], by Noam Cohen, [[:en:International Herald Tribune|International Herald Tribune]], [[27 Agosti]] [[2006]].</ref> == Tazama pia == * [[Wikipedia ya Kiafrikaans]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiarabu]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kibulgaria]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kicheki]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kichina]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kidenmark]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiebrania]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiesperanto]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiestonia]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kifaransa]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kifini]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kihaiti]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kihispania]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiholanzi]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kihungaria]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiindonesia]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiitalia]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kijapani]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kijerumani]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiingereza]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiingereza Rahisi]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kikatala]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kikorea]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kikroatia]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kilingala]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kilithuania]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kinorwei]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kipoland]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kireno]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiromania]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kirusi]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiserbia]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kislovakia]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kislovene]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiswidi]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kituruki]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiukraini]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiwolofu]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kiyoruba]] * [[Wikipedia ya Kizulu]] == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [[mwanzo|Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili]] * [http://stats.wikimedia.org/EN/TablesWikipediaSW.htm Statistics for Swahili Wikipedia] by Erik Zachte * [https://stats.wikimedia.org/wikimedia/squids/SquidReportPageViewsPerLanguageBreakdown.htm Page Views per Language] - inaonyesha wikipedia za lugha mbalimbali pamoja na Kiswahili zinaangaliwa katika nchi gani hasa * [https://stats.wikimedia.org/wikimedia/squids/SquidReportPageViewsPerCountryBreakdown.htm Pages Views per country] - inaonyesha ni wikipedia zipi zinazoangaliwa namna gani nchi kwa nchi (kwa wikipedia yetu ni hasa Tanzania) {{Mawikipedia}} {{Wikipedia za Kiafrika}} [[Jamii:Kiswahili]] [[Jamii:Wikipedia kwa lugha tofauti]] cvm789xi9blc13inaf81dlum89f9m1x 0 32925 1361706 1304387 2024-11-08T04:09:01Z Adinani Alli Hamisi 70776 1361706 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Two left hands forming a heart shape.jpg|thumb|right|Mikono miwili ikiunganika kutengenezea umbo la moyo.]] {{Mapendo}} '''Mapenzi''' ni [[neno]] la [[Kiswahili]] linalojumlisha [[idadi]] kadhaa ya [[hisia]], kuanzia [[mahaba]], [[pendo]] hadi [[upendo]] wa [[Mungu|Kimungu]]. Hata hivyo Mapenzi ni hali ya kihisia ambapo mtu anahisi kuvutiwa, kuthamini, na kupenda mwingine kwa kiwango cha kipekee. Hali hii inahusisha upendo, heshima, huruma, na kujali hisia na mahitaji ya mwingine. Mapenzi yanaweza kuwa ya kimapenzi (romantic), ya kifamilia, au ya kirafiki, na yanaweza kujitokeza kwa njia mbalimbali kulingana na uhusiano kati ya watu wawili. Ni kwamba [[kitenzi]] "kupenda" kinaweza kurejelea aina za hisia, hali na mitazamo tofautitofauti, kuanzia [[ridhaa]] ya jumla ya [[kitu]] ("Napenda [[chakula]] hiki"), hadi [[mvuto]] mkali kati ya [[binadamu]] ("Nampenda [[mume]] wangu"). [[Uanuwai]] wa [[matumizi]] na [[maana]], pamoja na [[utata]] wa hisia zinazohusika, hufanya kuwe na [[ugumu]] katika [[ufafanuzi]], hata kulingana na hali nyingine za kihisia. Ki[[dhahania]], ''mapenzi'' kwa kawaida yanarejelea [[hisia za ndani]], zisizoelezeka, za kudumu kwa mwingine, yakishirikisha hisia tofauti, kutoka [[hamu]] na [[urafiki]] wa kimahaba hadi ukaribu wa kihisia wa [[kifamilia]] na [[kitaamuli]], usioelekea kabisa [[ngono]]<ref name="PlatonicSchool">{{cite book |last=Kristeller |first=Paul Oskar |title=Renaissance Thought and the Arts: Collected Essays |publisher=Princeton University |year=1980 |isbn=0-691-02010-8}}</ref> na hata [[umoja]] wa kina au [[ibada]] ya [[upendo]] wa ki[[dini]]. <ref name="Gita"> {{cite book |last= Mascaró |first=Juan |title=The Bhagavad Gita |url= https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgita0000unse_r9w2 |publisher=Penguin Classics |year=2003 |isbn=0-140-44918-3}} (J. Mascaró, translator)</ref> Mapenzi katika aina zake mbalimbali husimamia [[mafungamano]] na, kutokana na umuhimu wake mkuu katika [[saikolojia]], ni mojawapo ya [[maudhui]] yanayopatikana sana katika [[sanaa]]. ==Ufafanuzi== [[File:Columpio Veracruz 059.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Mapenzi ya kindugu ([[250]]-[[900]] [[BK]]). Jumba la ukumbusho la Anthropolojia katika [[Xalapa]], [[Veracruz]], [[Mexico]].]] Wakati yanapojadiliwa kidhahania, ''mapenzi'' kwa kawaida yanarejelea pendo kati ya watu, hisia alizonazo mtu kuhusu mtu mwingine. Ingawa [[desturi]] au [[chanzo]] cha mapenzi ni [[suala]] ambalo hujadiliwa mara kwa mara, sura tofauti ya neno hili zinaweza kuwekwa wazi kwa kuamua nini si mapenzi: *kama njia ya kawaida ya kuonyesha [[hisia chanya]] (aina kubwa ya kupenda), mapenzi kwa kawaida hugonganishwa na [[chuki]] (au [[kutojali]]); *kama pendo ambalo linaegemea zaidi kwenye uhusiano wa kirafiki kuliko wa kingono, mapenzi kwa kawaida hugonganishwa na [[tamaa]]; na *kama uhusiano kati ya watu, unaohusisha mahaba, mapenzi hugonganishwa na [[urafiki]], ingawa neno ''mapenzi'' linaweza kutumika pia kwa urafiki wa karibu katika miktadha fulanifulani. Neno la [[Kiingereza]] "love" linaweza kuwa na maana zinazohusiana lakini tofauti kadiri ya miktadha. Kumbe, [[lugha]] nyingine huweza kutumia maneno mbalimbali kueleza [[dhana]] tofauti ambazo Kiingereza hutumia neno "love" tu kurejelea; mfano mmoja ni wingi wa maneno ya [[Kigiriki]] yanayorejelea "mapendo". Tofauti za [[utamaduni]] katika kufafanua mapenzi, hufanya liwe jambo gumu kutoa [[ufafanuzi]] wowote. <ref>{{cite journal |last=Kay |first=Paul |title=What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_1984-03_86_1/page/65 |journal=American Anthropologist |series=New Series |volume=86 |issue=1 |month=Machi |year=1984 |pages=65&ndash;79 |doi=10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00050}}</ref> Aidha, mawazo kuhusu mapenzi yamebadilika sana kadiri ya wakati. Baadhi ya [[wanahistoria]] wanahusisha dhana za kisasa za mapenzi ya kimahaba na [[Ulaya]] wakati au baada ya [[Karne za Kati]], ingawa kuwepo kwa mahusiano ya kimahaba kabla ya wakati huo kunaonyeshwa na [[ushairi]] wa kimapenzi wa kale. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.TrueOpenLove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html |title=Ancient Love Poetry |accessdate=2021-07-17 |archivedate=2007-09-30 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930072056/http://www.trueopenlove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html }}</ref> Kuna [[mithali]] kadhaa kuhusu mapenzi, mojawapo ikiwa ile ya [[Vergilio]] ya kuwa "Pendo hushinda yote" na ile ya kundi la [[Beatles]] "[[All you need is love]]" (Unachohitaji ni mapenzi tu). [[Mwanafalsafa]] [[Gottfried Leibniz]] alisema mapenzi ni "kuwa na [[furaha]] tele kutokana na furaha ya mwingine." <ref>{{cite web |url=http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Confessio_philosophi |first=Gottfried |last=Leibniz |title=Confessio philosophi |publisher=Wikisource edition |accessdate=Mar 25, 2009}}</ref> ==Mapenzi yasiyohusu mtu maalum== Mtu anaweza kusema anapenda [[nchi]], [[kanuni]] au [[shabaha]] maalumu ikiwa anaithamini sana na kuizingatia kwa makini. Vilevile, katika [[huduma za huruma]] na [[kazi za kujitolea]] "upendo" wa kazi unaweza kutokana na mapenzi yasiyohusishwa na kitu pamoja na [[utu]] na [[imani]] za ki[[siasa]] badala ya mapenzi kati ya watu. Watu pia wanaweza "kupenda" vitu, [[wanyama]], au [[shughuli]] ikiwa watajitolea kujihusisha na vitu vile. Kukiwa na [[tamaa ya kingono]] pia, hali hiyo inaitwa [[parafilia]].<ref>{{Cite web | last = DiscoveryHealth | first = | title = Paraphilia | url = http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html | accessdate = 2007-12-16 | archivedate = 2007-12-12 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071212105714/http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html }}</ref> ==Mapenzi kati ya watu== [[File:DickseeRomeoandJuliet.jpg|thumb|Wapenzi [[Romeo na Julieta]] walivyochorwa na [[Frank Dicksee]].]] Mapenzi kati ya watu wawili ni hisia za nguvu kuliko ''kumpenda'' mwingine kwa jumla. Mapenzi yasiyotuzwa ni hisia za mapenzi ambazo haziwezi kulipwa au kurudishwa. Mapenzi kama hayo yanaweza kuwepo kati ya [[wanafamilia]], marafiki, na [[wanandoa]]. Pia kuna matatizo kadhaa ya kisaikolojia yanayohusiana na mapenzi. Tangu kale [[historia]], [[falsafa]] na [[dini]] ndizo [[taaluma]] ambazo zimewaza sana suala la mapenzi. Katika [[karne ya 20]], [[sayansi]] ya [[saikolojia]] imeandika mambo mengi juu ya suala hili. Katika miaka ya karibuni, [[saikolojia ya mabadiliko]], [[biolojia ya mabadiliko]], [[anthropolojia]], [[sayansi ya nyuro]] na [[biolojia]] zimezidisha [[ufahamu]] juu ya mapenzi. ===Msingi wa kikemia=== Biolojia ya [[jinsia]] huona mapenzi kama [[hisia]] za [[mamalia]], sawa na [[njaa]] au [[kiu]].<ref name="Lewis">{{cite book | last = Lewis | first = Thomas | coauthors = Amini, F., & Lannon, R. | title = A General Theory of Love | url = https://archive.org/details/generaltheoryof00lewi | publisher = Random House | year = 2000 |isbn=0-375-70922-3}}</ref> [[Helen Fisher]], [[mtaalamu]] wa [[mada]] ya mapenzi, amegawa mapenzi katika sehemu tatu zinazolingana: tamaa, mvuto na pendo. Tamaa huwafunua watu kwa wengine; mvuto wa kimahaba huwahamasisha kuzingatia [[nguvu]] yao kwa kuhusiana kingono; na pendo linahusisha kustahimili mwenzako (au [[mtoto]]) kwa muda wa kutosha kumlea. [[Tamaa]] ni hamu ya mwanzo ya ngono ambayo inaendana na kutolewa kwa wingi kwa [[kemikali]] kama vile [[testosterone]] na [[estrogen]]. Athari hizo huwa hazikai zaidi ya wiki chache au miezi michache. [[Pendo]] ni hamu ya binafsi na ya kimahaba zaidi inayoelekezwa kwa mtu maalum wa kuhusiana kingono, ambayo hutokana na tamaa wakati wajibu kwa mtu huyo unakua. [[Utafiti]] uliofanywa hivi karibuni na [[Sayansi ya nyuro]] umeonyesha kuwa kadiri watu wanavyoendelea kupendana, [[ubongo]] huwa unatoa aina fulani za kemikali, ikiwa ni pamoja na 'pheromones', 'dopamine', 'norepinephrine', na 'serotonin', ambazo hufanya kazi sawa na 'amphetamines', kuchochea [[kiini cha furaha]] kwenye ubongo na kusababisha ongezeko la [[mapigo ya moyo]], kupoteza [[hamu ya kula]] na kulala, na hisia kali za [[msisimko]]. Utafiti umeonyesha kwamba hatua hiyo kwa jumla hudumu kuanzia mwaka mmoja na nusu hadi miaka mitatu. <ref name="human">{{cite book |last=Winston |first=Robert |year=2004 |title=Human |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]}}</ref> Kwa kuwa hatua za tamaa na mvuto huendelea kwa muda tu, hatua ya tatu inahitajika kuelezea mahusiano ya muda mrefu. [[Upendo]] ni [[maingiliano]] ambayo hukuza mahusiano ya kudumu kwa miaka na hata miongo mingi. Upendo kwa jumla umejengwa kwenye [[wajibu]] kama vile [[ndoa]] na [[watoto]], au kuheshimiana kirafiki kulikojengwa kwenye mambo kama vitu mnavyovipenda. Upendo umehusishwa na kuwepo kwa viwango vya juu vya kemikali ('oxytocin' na 'vasopressin') ikilinganishwa na mahusiano ya muda mfupi. <ref name="human"></ref> [[Enzo Emanuele]] na wenzake walieleza kuwa [[molekuli]] ya [[protini]] inayojulikana kama chanzo cha ukuaji wa neva (nerve growth factor = NGF) ina viwango vya juu wakati watu wanapoanza kupendana, lakini viwango hivyo hurudi kwenye vipimo vya awali baada ya mwaka mmoja. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Emanuele, E. |coauthor=Polliti, P.; Bianchi, M.; Minoretti, P.; Bertona, M.; & Geroldi, D |year=2005 |title=Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love |url=http://www.biopsychiatry.com/lovengf.htm |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=Sept. 05}}</ref> ===Msingi wa kisaikolojia=== [[File:Sri Lankan woman and child.jpg|thumb|250px|Bibi na mjukuu, [[Sri Lanka]].]] Saikolojia inaonyesha mapenzi kama jambo tambuzi na la kijamii. [[Mwanasaikolojia]] [[Robert Sternberg]] alibuni [[nadharia ya miraba mitatu ya mapenzi]] akasema mapenzi yana vipengele vitatu tofauti: urafiki, kujitoa, na [[uchu]]. Urafiki ni aina ambayo watu wawili huambiana [[siri]] na mambo kadhaa kuhusu [[maisha]] yao binafsi. Kuwajibika, kwa upande mwingine, ni matumaini kuwa uhusiano huo utadumu. Aina ya mwisho na inayopatikana sana ni mvuto wa kingono au uchu. Mapenzi ya uchu ni kama yanavyoonyeshwa katika kupumbazwa kimapenzi pamoja na mapenzi ya kimahaba. Aina zote za mapenzi hutazamwa kama mchanganyiko tofauti wa vipengele hivyo vitatu. Mwanasaikolojia kutoka [[Marekani]], [[Zick Rubin]] alijaribu kutumia [[saikometriki]]. Kazi yake inasema kuwa mapenzi yamejengwa na vipengele vitatu: upendo, kujali na urafiki. <ref>{{cite journal |last=Rubin |first=Zick |title=Measurement of Romantic Love |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1970-10_16_2/page/265 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=16 |pages=265&ndash;27 |year=1970 |doi=10.1037/h0029841}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last=Rubin |first=Zick |title=Liking and Loving: an invitation to social psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/likinglovinginvi00rubi |location=New York |publisher=Holt, Rinehart & Winston |year=1973}}</ref> Kufuatia maendeleo katika [[nadharia za umeme]], kama vile [[sheria ya Coulomb]] ambayo ilionyesha kuwa [[nguvu chanya]] na [[nguvu hasi]] huvutiana, milinganisho katika maisha ya binadamu ilifanywa, kama vile "vitu vilivyo kinyume kuvutiana." Katika karne ya 20, utafiti juu ya mahusiano ya kingono miongoni mwa binadamu umepata kwa jumla kuwa jambo hili si kweli kuhusu tabia za watu kwa sababu hao kwa kawaida kuwapenda wale walio na sifa zinazofanana na zao. Hata hivyo, katika nyanja chache zisizo za kawaida na maalumu, kama vile [[mifumo ya kinga]], inaonekana kwamba binadamu hupendelea binadamu ambao ni tofauti nao (mfano, walio na mfumo wa orthojoni), kwa kuwa jambo hili litasababisha kupata mtoto ambaye ana sifa bora za pande zote mbili. <ref>{{cite book | last = Berscheid | first = Ellen | coauthors = Walster, Elaine, H.| title = Interpersonal Attraction | publisher = Addison-Wesley Publishing Co | year = 1969 | id = CCCN 69-17443 }}</ref> Katika miaka ya hivi karibuni, [[nadharia]] mbalimbali za [[maingiliano ya binadamu]] zimebuniwa na kuelezewa kwa kuzingatia upendo, mahusiano, maingiliano, na mivuto. Baadhi ya wataalamu wa Magharibi hugawanywa katika vipengele viwili vikuu, chenye utu na chenye kujipenda. Mtazamo huo umewakilishwa na [[Scott Peck]], ambaye anasema kuwa mapenzi ni mchanganyiko wa "wasiwasi kuhusu ukuaji kiroho wa mwingine," na kujipenda sahili. <ref name="peck">{{cite book | title=The Road Less Traveled | url=https://archive.org/details/roadlesstraveled00peck_571 | isbn=0-671-25067-1 | last=Peck | first=Scott | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1978 | page=[https://archive.org/details/roadlesstraveled00peck_571/page/n166 169]}}</ref> Kwa pamoja, mapenzi ni shughuli, si hisia tu. ===Ulinganifu wa mifumo ya kisayansi=== Mifumo ya kibiolojia ya mapenzi huyatazama kama msukumo wa kimamalia, sawa na [[njaa]] au [[kiu]]<ref name="Lewis"></ref>, kumbe saikolojia huyatazama kama jambo linalotegemea zaidi jamii na utamaduni. Pengine kuna [[chembe]] za [[ukweli]] katika mitazamo yote miwili. Hakika mapenzi huathiriwa na [[homoni]], na jinsi watu hufikiri na kutenda katika mapenzi huathiriwa na mawazo yao kuhusu hayo. Mtazamo wa kawaida katika [[biolojia]] ni kwamba kuna misukumo miwili mikuu katika mapenzi: [[mvuto wa kingono]] na [[pendo]]. Pendo kati ya watu wazima huchukuliwa kufanya kazi kwa kuzingatia kanuni sawa na zile zinazomfanya [[mtoto mchanga]] kumpenda mama yake. Mtazamo wa [[jadi]] wa kisaikolojia huangalia mapenzi kama muungano wa [[mapenzi ya kimwenzi]] na [[mapenzi ya kiuchu]]. Mapenzi ya kiuchu ni hamu kubwa, na mara nyingi huandamana na [[mhemko wa kimwili]] (kupumua kwa nguvu, mpigo wa moyo wa kasi); [[mapenzi ya kimwenzi]] ni mapenzi na hisia za kirafiki zisizoandamana na mhemko wa kimwili. Uchunguzi umeonyesha kuwa ubongo wa waliopumbazwa na mapenzi unafanana na ule wa wenye [[ugonjwa wa akili]]. Mapenzi huanzisha shughuli katika eneo la ubongo sawa na njaa, kiu, na [[hamu ya madawa]]. Mapenzi mapya, kwa hiyo, yanaweza kuegemea upande wa mwili kuliko wa hisia. Kadiri wakati unavyopita, athari hizo zinazotokana na mapenzi hukomaa, na maeneo mbalimbali ya ubongo yanaamshwa, hasa yale yanayohusiana na ahadi za muda mrefu. ==Mitazamo ya kitamaduni== ===Uajemi=== : :: ::: ::::''Hata baada ya muda huu wote'' :::::''Jua haliambii ardhi, "ninakudai."'' ::::::''Angalia kinachotokea na Upendo kama huo!'' '''' : :: ::: :::: - ''Linaangaza mbingu nzima.'' (Hafiz) [[Maulana Rumi]], [[Hafez]] na [[Sa'di]] ni ishara za uchu na mapenzi ambazo huwasilishwa na lugha na [[utamaduni wa Kiajemi]]. Neno la Kiajemi linalorejelea mapenzi ni ''eshgh,'' lililotokana na la Kiarabu ''Ishq.'' Katika utamaduni wa Kiajemi, kila kitu kinazungukwa na mapenzi na yote huwa ni kwa ajili ya mapenzi, kuanzia kupenda marafiki na familia, mabibi na mabwana, na hatimaye kufikia upendo wa Kimungu ambao ndio lengo halisi la maisha. Zaidi ya karne saba zilizopita, Sa'di aliandika: : :: ::: ::::''Watoto wa Adamu ni viungo vya mwili mmoja'' :::::''Baada ya kuumbwa kwa kiini kimoja.'' ::::::''Wakati msiba wa wakati unaathiri kiungo kimoja'' :::::::''Viungo hivyo vingine haviwezi kuwa na amani.'' ::::::::''Ikiwa hauna huruma kwa matatizo ya wengine'' :::::::::''Wewe hustahili kuitwa kwa jina la "mtu."'' ===China na tamaduni za jirani=== [[File:Love zh.svg|thumb|The traditional Chinese character for love (愛) consists of a heart (middle) inside of "accept," "feel," or "perceive," which shows a graceful emotion.]] [[Ukonfusio]] kwa desturi ulisisitiza wajibu, mwelekeo na tendo katika uhusiano (km wema kutoka kwa wazazi, [[utiifu wa mzazi]] kutoka kwa watoto, uaminifu kwa mfalme, na kadhalika) kuliko mapenzi yenyewe. Katika kuzingatia hayo, dhana ya "mapenzi" umekuja tu hivi majuzi kutoka [[Ustaarabu wa magharibi|Magharibi]]. Hata hivyo, ''[[Ren]]'' (仁) inaweza kuonekana kama wema wa mapenzi, ambayo ni sehemu muhimu ya maisha ya kimaadili, na lazima ifuatwe na wote. [[Mozi]] alibuni dhana ya ''Ai'' (爱) iliyotokana na ile ya Kikonfusio ''Ren,'' ambayo inakaribiana zaidi na ile ya kimagharibi ya mapenzi bia. Badala ya kuonyesha mitazamo tofauti kwa watu tofauti, dhana ya [[Mohism]] inasisitiza kumpenda kila mtu, si marafiki au familia pekee, bila kuzingatia kama wao pia watafanya hivyo. Katika lugha ya [[Kichina]] na [[tamaduni za kisasa]], istilahi kadhaa hutumiwa kurejelea dhana ya mapenzi: *''Ai'' (爱) ni kitenzi (km ''Wo Ai Ni'' 我爱你, au "Ninakupenda") na istilahi (kama ''Ai Qing'' 爱情, au "Mapenzi ya Kimahaba"). Neno hili ndilo ambalo linatumiwa sana kurejelea mapenzi, na linaweza kuwa na maana mbalimbali katika mazingira tofauti, kama ilivyo katika Kiingereza. Tangu mwaka 1949, eneo la Bara China limekuwa likitumia neno ''[[wikt:airen|Ai Ren]]'' (爱人, asilia lililomaanisha "mpenzi") kama neno kuu la "mke/mume" (wakati maneno tofauti ya "bibi" na "bwana" yalidumishwa, yalikosa kusisitizwa ili kukuza usawa wa kijinsia); neno ''Ai Renouce '' lina maana dhahania hasi nchini China, jambo ambalo bado linajitokeza miongoni mwa wengi nchini [[Taiwan.]] *Istilahi ''Lian'' (恋) inaelezea hali kupenda na kutegemea ya mtu binafsi inayotokana na mapenzi, na kwa hivyo huwa halitumiki sana likiwa peke yake. Mara nyingi huwa linatumiwa hasa kuelezea mapenzi ya kimahaba au kingono, kama vile "kuwa katika mapenzi" (恋爱, ''Lian Ai),'' "mpenzi" (恋人, ''Lian Ren)'' au [["ushoga"]] (同性恋, ''Tong Xing Lian).'' *Istilahi ''Qing'' (情), au "hisia", mara nyingi inaonyesha "mapenzi" katika muktadha sahihi. Linapotumiwa pamoja na ''Ai'' (爱) neno hili hasa huwa linatumiwa kuelezea mapenzi ya kimahaba, kama katika ''Ai Qing'' 爱情. ''Qing Ren'' (情人) ni istilali ingine inayorejelea "mpenzi", ikimaanisha kuwa kumekuwa na uhusiano wa kingono . *Istilahi ''Gănqíng'' (感情) inajumuisha hisia zilizoko na upendo ambao umekua kutokana na kuwa na uhusiano wa karibu. Ujenzi wa ''gănqíng'' hii, au maingiliano, kwa hivyo ni muhimu katika kuanzisha na kudumisha mapenzi. *''[[Yuanfen]]'' (缘份) ni muungano wa kudura. Mwanzo wa uhusiano wa maana (uwe wa kimahaba au kirafiki) huwa unafikiriwa kuwa mara nyingi unategemea ''yuanfen.'' Mtazamo sawa na huu katika Kiingereza ni "hatima" au "kudura". ===Japani=== Katika [[Ubudha wa Kijapani]], neno ''ai'' (爱) linarejelea mapenzi ya uchu na kujali, na hamu ya msingi. Inaweza kukua kuelekea ama ubinafsi au kutokuwa na ubinafsi na kutaalamika. ''[[Amae]]'' (甘え), neno la Kijapani lenye maana ya "kujihusisha na utegemezi," ni sehemu ya [[utamaduni wa Ujapani]] wa kumlea mtoto. Akina mama wa Kijapani wanatarajiwa kukumbatia na kuendekeza watoto wao, na watoto wanatarajiwa kuwatuza mama zao kwa kuwashikilia na kuwahudumia. Baadhi ya [[wanasosholojia]] wamependekeza kuwa maingiliano ya kijamii ya Kijapani katika maisha ya baadaye yamejengeka juu ya 'amae' ya mama kwa mtoto. ===Ugiriki wa kale=== [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] ina maneno mbalimbali na tofauti: ''philia, eros, agape, storge na xenia.'' Hata hivyo, imekuwa vigumu kihistoria kutofautisha kabisa maana za maneno hayo ya Kigiriki (kama ilivyo kwa lugha nyingine nyingi). Tafsiri ya [[Biblia]] ya Ugiriki ya kale ina mifano ya [[kitenzi]] ''agapo'' kikiwa na maana sawa na ''[[phileo]].'' ''[[Agape]]'' inamaanisha mapenzi'' katika Ugiriki ya sasa kisasa. Neno ''S'agapo'' linamaanisha ''Ninakupenda'' katika Kigiriki. Neno ''agapo'' ni kitenzi ''Ninapenda.'' Kwa jumla linarejelea [[aina]] ya mapenzi ambayo ni "safi", badala ya mvuto wa kimwili unaopendekezwa na ''eros.'' Hata hivyo, kuna baadhi ya mifano ya ''agape'' inayotumika kuleta maana sawa na ''eros.'' Pia imetafsiriwa kama "upendo wa nafsi." ''[[Eros]]'' ni mapenzi ya kimahaba, yaliyo na shauku na hamu. Neno la Kigiriki ''erota'' linamaanisha ''katika mapenzi.'' Ingawa mapenzi ya eros kwa kawaida huwa yanahisiwa kwa mtu, kwa kutafakari yanakuwa ni kuthamini uzuri ndani ya mtu, au hata inakuwa ni kuthamini [[uzuri]] wenyewe. Mapenzi ya eros husaidia nafsi kukumbuka ujuzi wa uzuri na huchangia katika ufahamu wa ukweli wa kiroho. Wapenzi na wanafalsafa wote huchochewa na eros kutafuta ukweli. Baadhi ya tafsiri huyaorodhesha kama "mapenzi ya mwili." ''[[Philia]]'' kama mapenzi ya [[wema]] yasiyo na uchu, ilikuwa ni dhana iliyobuniwa na [[Aristotle]]. Inahusisha uaminifu kwa marafiki, familia na jamii, na inahitaji wema, usawa, na kufahamiana. Philia huchochewa na kwa sababu za kiutendaji; mmoja au wawili wa wahusika kufaidika na uhusiano. Inaweza pia kumaanisha "mapenzi ya akili." ''[[Storge]]'' ni mapenzi ya kawaida, kama wanayohisi wazazi kwa watoto wao. ''[[Xenia]]'' (ξενία ''xenía),'' ukarimu, ulikuwa jambo muhimu sana katika Ugiriki wa kale. Ulikuwa karibu na urafiki wa kitaambiko ulioanzishwa kati ya mwenyeji na mgeni wake, ambao hapo awali wangekuwa hawafahamiani. Mwenyeji alimlisha na kumpatia mgeni malazi, na mgeni alitarajiwa kulipia kwa shukrani pekee. Umuhimu wa jambo hili unaweza kuonekana kupitia [[visasili]] vya Kigiriki, hasa vile vya [[Homer]] ambavyo ni [[Iliad]] na [[Odyssey]]. ===Uturuki=== Katika [[Kituruki]], neno "mapenzi" huwa na maana kadhaa. Mtu anaweza kumpenda Mungu, mtu, wazazi, au familia. Lakini mtu huyo anaweza "kupenda" mtu mmoja tu kutoka jinsia tofauti na yake, jambo ambalo wao hulipatia neno "aşk", yaani mapenzi kwa maana za kimahaba na kingono pekee. Ikiwa Mturuki atasema kuwa yeye anampenda (aşk) mtu, si aina ya mapenzi ambayo mtu anaweza kuhisi kwa wazazi wake, ni ya mtu mmoja tu, na inaonyesha [[ashiki]] kuu. Neno hili hupatikana kwenye [[lugha za Kiturki]], kama zile za [[Azerbaijani]] (Esq) na [[Kazakh]] (ғашық). ===Roma ya Kale (Kilatini)=== [[Lugha]] ya [[Kilatini]] ina vitenzi mbalimbali vinavyolingana na neno la Kiingereza "love." ''Amare'' ndilo neno msingi la ''mapenzi,'' na bado ndilo linalotumiwa kwenye [[Kiitalia]] hadi leo. [[Warumi]] walilitumia kurejelea uhusiano wa kirafiki na wakimahaba au kingono. Kutoka kitenzi hiki tunapata ''amans-'' mpenzi, amator, "mpenzi wa kitaalamu," mara nyingi likiwa na wazo la ziada la uzinzi - na ''amica,'' "mpenzi", na mara nyingi hutumiwa kitafsida kurejelea [[kahaba]]. Neno linalolingana ni ''amor'' (umuhimu wa neno hili kwa Warumi unaonyeshwa katika ukweli kwamba, jina la mji [[Rome-]], katika Kilatini: ''Roma-linaweza'' kutazamwa kama [[anagramu]] ya ''amor,'' neno ambalo lilitumika kama jina la siri la mji katika duru pana nyakati za zamani), <ref> Thomas Köves-Zulauf, Reden und Schweigen, München, 1972.</ref> na ambalo ni pia linatumika katika wingi kuashiria mahusiano ya kimapenzi na matukio ya kingono. Kutoka kwenye kiini kile bado tunapata ''amicus'' - "rafiki" na ''Amicitia,'' "urafiki" (unaojengwa kwenye ushirika, na kulingana wakati mwingine kwa karibu na "uwiwa" au "ushawishi"). [[Cicero]] aliandika makala inayoitwa ''[[de Amicitia]],'' ambayo inazungumzia wazo hili kwa urefu fulani. [[Ovid]] aliandika mwongozo wa kupendana uitwao ''[[Ars Amatoria]]'' ambao unazungumzia, kwa kina, kila kitu kutoka masuala ya uhusiano nje ya ndoa hadi masuala ya wazazi wanaomnyima mtu uhuru. Wakati mwingine Kilatini hutumia neno ''Amare'' katika sehemu ambazo huzua utata. Hata hivyo, katika Kilatini kwa jumla kuna maneno ''placere'' au ''delectāre,'' ambayo hutumiwa zaidi katika miktadha isiyo rasmi, na neno la mwisho la ''delectāre'' likitumiwa mara nyingi katika ushairi wa kimapenzi wa [[Catullus]]. Neno ''Diligere'' mara nyingi linazua wazo la "kuwa na upendo wa," "kuheshimu," na kwa nadra sana hutumiwa kurejelea mapenzi ya kimahaba. Neno hili linaweza kufaa kuelezea urafiki wa watu wawili. [[Nomino]] inayolingana ''diligentia,'' hata hivyo, ina maana ya "bidii" au "uangalifu," na ina uhusiano mdogo sana wa kisemantiki na kitenzi hicho. ''Observare'' ni kisawe cha ''diligere;'' licha ya kuwa na asili moja na Kiingereza, kitenzi hicho na nomino inayolingana, ''observantia,'' mara nyingi huashiria "heshima" au "upendo." Neno ''[[Caritas]]'' hutumika katika tafsiri za Kilatini za [[Biblia ya Kikristo]] kwa maana ya "upendo wenye hisani"; maana hiyo, hata hivyo, haipatikani katika [[maandiko ya Kirumi]] ya [[Upagani|Kipagani]]. ==Maoni ya dini== ===Dini za Kiabrahamu === [[File:Ahava.jpg|thumb|left|200px|"LOVE sculpture" 1977 ya Robert Indiana, 'spelling ahava in Israel']] ====Uyahudi==== Katika [[Kiyahudi]], Ahava ndilo neno linalotumika sana kurejelea upendo kati ya watu na upendo wa Mungu. [[Uyahudi]] unatumia ufafanuzi mpana wa upendo, kati ya watu na kati ya mtu na Mungu. Kuhusu upendo kati ya watu, [[Torati]] inasema, "Mpende jirani yako kama ujipendavyo" ([[Mambo ya Walawi]] 19:18). Kuhusu upendo wa pili, mtu ameamuriwa kumpenda Mungu "kwa moyo wako wote, kwa roho yako yote na kwa nguvu zako zote" ([[Kumb]] 6:5), zilizochukuliwa na [[Mishna]] ([[ufafanuzi]] wa [[sheria)]] za Wayahudi kurejelea mema, mtu kuwa tayari kutoa maisha yake kama dhabihu badala ya kutenda makosa fulani makubwa, mtu kuwa tayari kutoa mali yake yote kama sadaka, na kumshukuru Mungu licha ya mashaka (Berakhoth 9:5). [[Fasihi ya Marabi]] hutofautiana katika jinsi upendo huu unaweza kuendelezwa, kwa mfano, kwa kutafakari matendo ya Mungu au kushuhudia makuu yaliyoumbwa. Na kuhusu upendo kati ya washirika wa ndoa, jambo hili huchukuliwa kama kiungo muhimu cha maisha: "Ishi maisha na mke umpendaye" [[Kitabu cha Mhubiri]] 9:9). Kitabu cha [[Biblia]] ''[[Wimbo Ulio Bora]]'' huchukuliwa kama [[fumbo]] la upendo wa kindoa kati ya Mungu na taifa lake, lakini kwa kawaida wasomaji hukiona kama wimbo wa mapenzi. [[Rabi]] [[Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler]] ([[karne ya 20]]) hunukuliwa mara nyingi kwa kufafanua upendo kwa mtazamo wa Wayahudi unaosema upendo ni "kutoa bila kutarajia kupokea" (kutoka ''Michtav'' ''me-Eliyahu,'' Vol. 1). ====Ukristo==== [[File:baglione.jpg|thumb|right|Mapenzi matakatifu dhidi ya mapenzi ya kiulimwengu, mchoro wa [[Giovanni Baglione]] wa mwaka [[1602]]-[[1603]].]] Uelewa wa [[Ukristo]] unasema kwamba [[upendo]] hutoka kwa [[Mungu]]. Mapenzi ya [[mwanamume]] na [[mwanamke]] ("eros" katika Kigiriki) na mapenzi yasiyo na ubinafsi kwa wengine ("agape") mara nyingi hulinganishwwa kama mapenzi ya "kupaa" na "kushuka", lakini hatimaye ni jambo moja. <ref name="vatican1">{{cite web |url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20051225_deus-caritas-est_en.html |author=Pope Benedict XVI |title=papal encyclical, Deus Caritas Est.}}</ref> Kuna maneno kadhaa ya Kigiriki yanayorejelea "mapenzi" ambayo yanatajwa katika duru za Wakristo. * ''[[Agape]]'': Katika [[Agano Jipya]], agape ni ya [[hisani]], isiyo na [[ubinafsi]] wala ma[[sharti]]. Ni mapenzi ya [[wazazi]], ambayo yanajenga [[wema]] katika [[dunia]], ni vile [[Mungu]] anavyoonekana kuwapenda wanadamu, na huonekana kama aina ya mapenzi ambayo Wakristo hutamani kuonyesha kwa mtu mwingine. * ''[[Phileo]]'': Pia katika Agano Jipya, ''phileo'' ni itikio la binadamu kwa kitu ambacho hufurahisha. Pia yanajulikana kama "mapenzi ya kindugu." * Maneno mengine mawili yanayorejelea mapenzi katika lugha ya Kigiriki ambayo ni: ''[[eros]]'' (mapenzi ya kingono) na ''[[storge]]'' (mapenzi ya mtoto kwa mzazi), hayakutumika katika [[Agano Jipya]]. [[Wakristo]] wanaamini kwamba ''kumpenda Mungu kwa moyo wako wote, akili, na nguvu na kumpenda [[jirani]] yako kama ujipendavyo'' ni mambo mawili muhimu katika maisha, [[amri kuu]] ya [[Torati]], kulingana na mafundisho na maisha ya [[Yesu]] (taz. [[Injili ya Marko]] sura ya 12, Aya 28-34). [[Mtakatifu]] [[Agostino wa Hipo]] aliyafupisha haya alipoandika ''"Umpende Mungu, halafu ufanye utakavyo."'' [[Mtume Paulo]] alitukuza upendo kama kitu muhimu kulilo vyote. Huku akielezea upendo katika [[shairi]] maarufu katika [[Waraka wa kwanza kwa Wakorintho]] aliandika, ''"Upendo huvumilia, upendo ni mwema,'' ''hauna wivu, haujivuni, hauna kiburi.'' ''Si ufidhuli, hauna majivuno, haukasirishwi kwa haraka, hauhesabu mabaya uliotendewa.'' ''Upendo haufurahii maovu bali hufurahia ukweli.'' ''Upendo daima hulinda, daima huamini, daima huwa na matumaini, na daima huvumilia."'' ([[1 Kor]] 13:4-7). [[Mtume Yohane]] aliandika, ''"Kwa maana Mungu aliupenda ulimwengu hata akamtoa [[Mwana]] wake wa pekee, ili kila mtu amwaminiye asipotee bali awe na [[uzima wa milele]].'' '' Maana Mungu hakumtuma Mwanawe ulimwenguni ili auhukumu [[ulimwengu]], bali ulimwengu uokolewe katika yeye.'' ''Kila mtu amwaminiye hahukumiwi, lakini yeyote asiyemuamini tayari ana hatia kwa sababu yeye hajaamini [[jina]] la [[Mwana pekee wa Mungu]]."'' ([[Yoh]] 3:16-18). Yohane pia aliandika, ''"Marafiki zangu, hebu tupendane kwani upendo hutoka kwa Mungu.'' ''Kila mtu anayependa amezaliwa wa Mungu na anamjua Mungu.'' ''Yeyote asiyependa hamjui Mungu, kwa sababu Mungu ni upendo."'' ([[1 Yoh]] 4:7-8). Mtakatifu Augustino anasema ni lazima mtu aweze kutambua tofauti kati ya upendo na tamaa. Tamaa ni kujihusisha katika jambo kupindukia, bali kupenda na kupendwa ndilo jambo ambalo amelitafuta maisha yake yote. Hata anasema, ''"Nilikuwa nimependana na upendo."'' Hatimaye, akawa anampenda Mungu na kupendwa naye. Augustino anasema kuwa yule anayeweza kukupenda kwa ukweli na [[ukamilifu]] ni Mungu, kwa sababu upendo kwa binadamu unaruhusu [[udhaifu]] kama vile ''"[[wivu]], [[wasiwasi]], [[hofu]], [[hasira]], na [[ushindani]]."'' Kulingana na Augustino, kumpenda Mungu ni ''"kufikia amani ambayo ni yako."'' ([[Maungamo ya Mtakatifu Augustino]]). [[Wanateolojia]] Wakristo humwona Mungu kama chanzo cha upendo, ambao huonekana katika binadamu na mahusiano yao ya upendo. Msomi mkubwa wa Biblia [[C. S. Lewis]] aliandika kitabu kinachoitwa ''[[The Four Loves]].'' [[Papa Benedikto XVI]] aliandika [[waraka]] wake wa kwanza kuhusu [["Mungu ni upendo"]]. Humo alisema kuwa mwanadamu, aliyeumbwa kwa mfano wa Mungu ambaye ni upendo, anaweza kupenda; kujitoa kwa Mungu na wengine ([[agape]]) na kwa kupokea na kuhisi upendo wa Mungu kupitia [[tafakuri]] (Eros). Maisha haya ya upendo, kulingana na yeye, ni maisha ya watakatifu kama [[Bikira Maria]] na [[Mama Teresa]] wa [[Kolkata]] na ni mwelekeo ambao Wakristo huchukua wanapoamini kuwa Mungu anawapenda. <ref name="vatican1"></ref> ====Uislamu na Uarabu==== Kwa kiwango fulani, mapenzi hayahusishi mtazamo wa Kiislamu wa maisha kama undugubia ambao unahusisha wale wote ambao wanashika [[imani]] ya Kiislamu. Hakuna sehemu inayosema Mungu ni upendo, lakini miongoni mwa majina 99 ya [[Allah]], kuna jina ''Al-Wadud,'' au "Anayependa," ambalo hupatikana katika Sura 11:90 na vilevile Sura 85:14. Linamtaja Mungu kama "aliyejaa fadhili." Wale wote ambao wanaamini wana mapenzi ya Mungu, lakini kwa kiasi gani au juhudi zipi amemfurahisha Mungu inamtegemea mtu binafsi. ''[[Ishq]],'' au mapenzi ya kiungu, ni msisitizo wa [[Usufi]]. [[Wasufi]] huamini kwamba mapenzi ni makadirio ya kiini cha Mungu kwa ulimwengu. Mungu anatamani kutambua uzuri, na kama mtu aangaliavyo kwenye kioo ili kujiona, Mungu "hujiangalia" kwenye mienendo ya asili. Kwa kuwa kila kitu kinaonyesha Mungu, shule ya usufi huzingatia kuona uzuri ndani ya kinachoonekana kuwa kibaya. Usufi mara nyingi unajulikana kama dini ya upendo. Mungu katika usufi hutajwa kwa majina matatu makuu, ambayo ni mpenzi, mpendwa, na kipenzi, na neno la mwisho kati ya maneno haya likijitokeza sana katika ushairi wa kisufi. Mtazamo wa kawaida wa Usufi ni kwamba kupitia mapenzi, wanadamu wanaweza kurudia usafi na neema yao ya awali. Watakatifu wa Usufi wanasifika kwa kuwa "walevi" kutokana na upendo wao wa Mungu; ndio maana mvinyo unatajwa sana katika mashairi na muziki wa kisufi. ===Dini za Mashariki=== ====Ubudha==== Katika [[Ubudha]], [[K&amp;#257;ma]] ni mapenzi ya kimihemko na kingono. Ni kikwazo katika njia ya [[kutaalamika]], kwani yana ubinafsi. ''[[Karu&amp;#7751;ā]]'' ni huruma na rehema, ambayo hupunguza mateso ya wengine. Huenda sambamba na hekima na ni muhimu kwa kutaalamika. ''Adveṣa'' na ''[[Metta]]'' ni mapenzi ya ukarimu. Mapenzi haya hayana masharti na yanahitaji mtu kwa kiasi fulani awe amejikubali. Mapenzi haya ni tofauti kabisa na yale ya kawaida, ambayo kwa kawaida huwa yanahusu upendo na ngono na ambayo ni nadra yawepo bila kujifikiria. Badala yake, katika Ubudha inarejelea uhisani wa ustawi wa wengine usio wa kibinafsi. Maadili ya [[Bodhisattva]] katika Ubudha wa Mahayana yanahusisha kujinyima kamili ili kuchukua mzigo wa mateso ya dunia. Kichocheo kikuu alicho nacho mtu ili kuchukua njia ya Bodhisattva ni wazo la wokovu ndani yake, mapenzi ya kiutu kwa viumbe wote. ====Uhindu==== Katika [[Ubanyani]], ''[[k&amp;#257;ma]]'' ni mapenzi matamu ya kingono, yaliyohuishwa na mungu [[Kamadeva.]] Kwa shule nyingi za kihindu, huu ndio mwisho wa tatu ''[[(artha)]]'' katika maisha. Mara nyingi [[Kamadeva]] huonyeshwa pichani kashika [[upinde]] wa [[miwa]] na [[mshale]] wa [[maua;]] yeye huweza hata kubebwa na kasuku mkubwa. Yeye huwa ameandamana na mke wake [[rati na sahibu wake Vasanta]], mkubwa wa msimu wa kuchipua Sanamu za mawe za Kaama na rati zinaweza kuonekana kwenye mlango wa hekalu ya Chenna Keshava katika [[Belur]], huko [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. ''Määrä'' ni jina lingine la ''kama.'' Tofauti na ''kama, prema'' {{ndash}} au ''Prem'' {{ndash}} yanarejelea mapenzi yaliyoinuliwa. ''[[Karuna]]'' ni huruma na rehema, ambazo humchochea mtu kusaidia kupunguza mateso ya wengine. [[Bhakti]] ni istilahi ya ''Kisanskriti'', inayomaanisha "mapenzi ya ibada kwa Mungu mkuu." Mtu anayefuata ''bhakti'' anaitwa ''bhakta.'' Waandishi wa [[Kihindi]], wanateolojia, wanafalsafa wametambua aina tisa za ''[[bhakti]]'', ambazo zinaweza kupatikana katika kitabu cha [[Bhagavata Purana]] and works cha [[Tulsidas.]] Kazi ya kifalsafa ''[[Narada Bhakti Sutra]]'' iliyoandikwa na [[mwandishi]] asiyejulikana (anayefikiriwa kuwa [[Narada]]), inatambua aina [[kumi na moja]] za mapenzi. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Vyanzo== *{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=Henry|title=Saint Augustine Confessions|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998}} *{{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Helen|title=Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love|year=2004|url=https://archive.org/details/whywelove00hele}} *{{cite book|last=Singer|first=Irving|title=The Nature of Love|subtitle=in three volumes|publisher=Random House|year=1966|edition= v.1 reprinted and later volumes from The University of Chicago Press, 1984|isbn=0-226-76094-4}} *{{cite journal|author=Sternberg, R.J.|title=A triangular theory of love|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-review_1986-01_93_1/page/n124|year=1986|journal=Psychological Review|volume=93|page=119&ndash;135|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119}} *{{cite journal|author=Sternberg, R.J.|title=Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1987-11_102_3/page/331|year=1987|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=102|page=331&ndash;345|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.331}} *{{cite book|last=Tennov|first=Dorothy|title=Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love|url=https://archive.org/details/lovelimerence00tenn|location=New York|publisher=Stein and Day|year=1979|isbn=0-812-86134-5}} *{{cite book|author=Wood Samuel E., Ellen Wood and Denise Boyd|title=The World of Psychology|edition=5th|year=2005|publisher=Pearson Education|page=402&ndash;403}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Wiktionary|affect|affective}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080414121753/http://personality-project.org/revelle/publications/gilboa.pdf Personality and the Structure of Affective Responses] * {{Cite web |url=http://www.brianlynchmd.com/AT/resources.htm |title=Affect and Script Theory - Silvan S. Tomkins |first=Brian |last=Lynch |access-date=2008-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915175735/http://www.brianlynchmd.com/AT/resources.htm |archive-date=15 September 2008 |url-status=dead |accessdate=2023-02-19 |archivedate=2008-09-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915175735/http://www.brianlynchmd.com/AT/resources.htm }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101121194322/http://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/Russell1980.pdf Circumplex Model of Affect] * [http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/99/2/229.pdf Affect and Memory] [[Category:Jinsia]] [[Category:Saikolojia]] [[Category:Maadili]] a51dqpx1znrl0mlpb01a86dlf8ta4ld 1361769 1361706 2024-11-08T09:19:27Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Masahihisho aliyefanya [[Special:Contributions/Adinani Alli Hamisi|Adinani Alli Hamisi]] ([[User talk:Adinani Alli Hamisi|Majadiliano]]) yalirejeshwa hadi sahihisho la mwisho na [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] 1304387 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Two left hands forming a heart shape.jpg|thumb|right|Mikono miwili ikiunganika kutengenezea umbo la moyo.]] {{Mapendo}} '''Mapenzi''' ni [[neno]] la [[Kiswahili]] linalojumlisha [[idadi]] kadhaa ya [[hisia]], kuanzia [[mahaba]], [[pendo]] hadi [[upendo]] wa [[Mungu|Kimungu]]. Ni kwamba [[kitenzi]] "kupenda" kinaweza kurejelea aina za hisia, hali na mitazamo tofautitofauti, kuanzia [[ridhaa]] ya jumla ya [[kitu]] ("Napenda [[chakula]] hiki"), hadi [[mvuto]] mkali kati ya [[binadamu]] ("Nampenda [[mume]] wangu"). [[Uanuwai]] wa [[matumizi]] na [[maana]], pamoja na [[utata]] wa hisia zinazohusika, hufanya kuwe na [[ugumu]] katika [[ufafanuzi]], hata kulingana na hali nyingine za kihisia. Ki[[dhahania]], ''mapenzi'' kwa kawaida yanarejelea [[hisia za ndani]], zisizoelezeka, za kudumu kwa mwingine, yakishirikisha hisia tofauti, kutoka [[hamu]] na [[urafiki]] wa kimahaba hadi ukaribu wa kihisia wa [[kifamilia]] na [[kitaamuli]], usioelekea kabisa [[ngono]]<ref name="PlatonicSchool">{{cite book |last=Kristeller |first=Paul Oskar |title=Renaissance Thought and the Arts: Collected Essays |publisher=Princeton University |year=1980 |isbn=0-691-02010-8}}</ref> na hata [[umoja]] wa kina au [[ibada]] ya [[upendo]] wa ki[[dini]]. <ref name="Gita"> {{cite book |last= Mascaró |first=Juan |title=The Bhagavad Gita |url= https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgita0000unse_r9w2 |publisher=Penguin Classics |year=2003 |isbn=0-140-44918-3}} (J. Mascaró, translator)</ref> Mapenzi katika aina zake mbalimbali husimamia [[mafungamano]] na, kutokana na umuhimu wake mkuu katika [[saikolojia]], ni mojawapo ya [[maudhui]] yanayopatikana sana katika [[sanaa]]. ==Ufafanuzi== [[File:Columpio Veracruz 059.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Mapenzi ya kindugu ([[250]]-[[900]] [[BK]]). Jumba la ukumbusho la Anthropolojia katika [[Xalapa]], [[Veracruz]], [[Mexico]].]] Wakati yanapojadiliwa kidhahania, ''mapenzi'' kwa kawaida yanarejelea pendo kati ya watu, hisia alizonazo mtu kuhusu mtu mwingine. Ingawa [[desturi]] au [[chanzo]] cha mapenzi ni [[suala]] ambalo hujadiliwa mara kwa mara, sura tofauti ya neno hili zinaweza kuwekwa wazi kwa kuamua nini si mapenzi: *kama njia ya kawaida ya kuonyesha [[hisia chanya]] (aina kubwa ya kupenda), mapenzi kwa kawaida hugonganishwa na [[chuki]] (au [[kutojali]]); *kama pendo ambalo linaegemea zaidi kwenye uhusiano wa kirafiki kuliko wa kingono, mapenzi kwa kawaida hugonganishwa na [[tamaa]]; na *kama uhusiano kati ya watu, unaohusisha mahaba, mapenzi hugonganishwa na [[urafiki]], ingawa neno ''mapenzi'' linaweza kutumika pia kwa urafiki wa karibu katika miktadha fulanifulani. Neno la [[Kiingereza]] "love" linaweza kuwa na maana zinazohusiana lakini tofauti kadiri ya miktadha. Kumbe, [[lugha]] nyingine huweza kutumia maneno mbalimbali kueleza [[dhana]] tofauti ambazo Kiingereza hutumia neno "love" tu kurejelea; mfano mmoja ni wingi wa maneno ya [[Kigiriki]] yanayorejelea "mapendo". Tofauti za [[utamaduni]] katika kufafanua mapenzi, hufanya liwe jambo gumu kutoa [[ufafanuzi]] wowote. <ref>{{cite journal |last=Kay |first=Paul |title=What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_1984-03_86_1/page/65 |journal=American Anthropologist |series=New Series |volume=86 |issue=1 |month=Machi |year=1984 |pages=65&ndash;79 |doi=10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00050}}</ref> Aidha, mawazo kuhusu mapenzi yamebadilika sana kadiri ya wakati. Baadhi ya [[wanahistoria]] wanahusisha dhana za kisasa za mapenzi ya kimahaba na [[Ulaya]] wakati au baada ya [[Karne za Kati]], ingawa kuwepo kwa mahusiano ya kimahaba kabla ya wakati huo kunaonyeshwa na [[ushairi]] wa kimapenzi wa kale. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.TrueOpenLove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html |title=Ancient Love Poetry |accessdate=2021-07-17 |archivedate=2007-09-30 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930072056/http://www.trueopenlove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html }}</ref> Kuna [[mithali]] kadhaa kuhusu mapenzi, mojawapo ikiwa ile ya [[Vergilio]] ya kuwa "Pendo hushinda yote" na ile ya kundi la [[Beatles]] "[[All you need is love]]" (Unachohitaji ni mapenzi tu). [[Mwanafalsafa]] [[Gottfried Leibniz]] alisema mapenzi ni "kuwa na [[furaha]] tele kutokana na furaha ya mwingine." <ref>{{cite web |url=http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Confessio_philosophi |first=Gottfried |last=Leibniz |title=Confessio philosophi |publisher=Wikisource edition |accessdate=Mar 25, 2009}}</ref> ==Mapenzi yasiyohusu mtu maalum== Mtu anaweza kusema anapenda [[nchi]], [[kanuni]] au [[shabaha]] maalumu ikiwa anaithamini sana na kuizingatia kwa makini. Vilevile, katika [[huduma za huruma]] na [[kazi za kujitolea]] "upendo" wa kazi unaweza kutokana na mapenzi yasiyohusishwa na kitu pamoja na [[utu]] na [[imani]] za ki[[siasa]] badala ya mapenzi kati ya watu. Watu pia wanaweza "kupenda" vitu, [[wanyama]], au [[shughuli]] ikiwa watajitolea kujihusisha na vitu vile. Kukiwa na [[tamaa ya kingono]] pia, hali hiyo inaitwa [[parafilia]].<ref>{{Cite web | last = DiscoveryHealth | first = | title = Paraphilia | url = http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html | accessdate = 2007-12-16 | archivedate = 2007-12-12 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071212105714/http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html }}</ref> ==Mapenzi kati ya watu== [[File:DickseeRomeoandJuliet.jpg|thumb|Wapenzi [[Romeo na Julieta]] walivyochorwa na [[Frank Dicksee]].]] Mapenzi kati ya watu wawili ni hisia za nguvu kuliko ''kumpenda'' mwingine kwa jumla. Mapenzi yasiyotuzwa ni hisia za mapenzi ambazo haziwezi kulipwa au kurudishwa. Mapenzi kama hayo yanaweza kuwepo kati ya [[wanafamilia]], marafiki, na [[wanandoa]]. Pia kuna matatizo kadhaa ya kisaikolojia yanayohusiana na mapenzi. Tangu kale [[historia]], [[falsafa]] na [[dini]] ndizo [[taaluma]] ambazo zimewaza sana suala la mapenzi. Katika [[karne ya 20]], [[sayansi]] ya [[saikolojia]] imeandika mambo mengi juu ya suala hili. Katika miaka ya karibuni, [[saikolojia ya mabadiliko]], [[biolojia ya mabadiliko]], [[anthropolojia]], [[sayansi ya nyuro]] na [[biolojia]] zimezidisha [[ufahamu]] juu ya mapenzi. ===Msingi wa kikemia=== Biolojia ya [[jinsia]] huona mapenzi kama [[hisia]] za [[mamalia]], sawa na [[njaa]] au [[kiu]].<ref name="Lewis">{{cite book | last = Lewis | first = Thomas | coauthors = Amini, F., & Lannon, R. | title = A General Theory of Love | url = https://archive.org/details/generaltheoryof00lewi | publisher = Random House | year = 2000 |isbn=0-375-70922-3}}</ref> [[Helen Fisher]], [[mtaalamu]] wa [[mada]] ya mapenzi, amegawa mapenzi katika sehemu tatu zinazolingana: tamaa, mvuto na pendo. Tamaa huwafunua watu kwa wengine; mvuto wa kimahaba huwahamasisha kuzingatia [[nguvu]] yao kwa kuhusiana kingono; na pendo linahusisha kustahimili mwenzako (au [[mtoto]]) kwa muda wa kutosha kumlea. [[Tamaa]] ni hamu ya mwanzo ya ngono ambayo inaendana na kutolewa kwa wingi kwa [[kemikali]] kama vile [[testosterone]] na [[estrogen]]. Athari hizo huwa hazikai zaidi ya wiki chache au miezi michache. [[Pendo]] ni hamu ya binafsi na ya kimahaba zaidi inayoelekezwa kwa mtu maalum wa kuhusiana kingono, ambayo hutokana na tamaa wakati wajibu kwa mtu huyo unakua. [[Utafiti]] uliofanywa hivi karibuni na [[Sayansi ya nyuro]] umeonyesha kuwa kadiri watu wanavyoendelea kupendana, [[ubongo]] huwa unatoa aina fulani za kemikali, ikiwa ni pamoja na 'pheromones', 'dopamine', 'norepinephrine', na 'serotonin', ambazo hufanya kazi sawa na 'amphetamines', kuchochea [[kiini cha furaha]] kwenye ubongo na kusababisha ongezeko la [[mapigo ya moyo]], kupoteza [[hamu ya kula]] na kulala, na hisia kali za [[msisimko]]. Utafiti umeonyesha kwamba hatua hiyo kwa jumla hudumu kuanzia mwaka mmoja na nusu hadi miaka mitatu. <ref name="human">{{cite book |last=Winston |first=Robert |year=2004 |title=Human |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]}}</ref> Kwa kuwa hatua za tamaa na mvuto huendelea kwa muda tu, hatua ya tatu inahitajika kuelezea mahusiano ya muda mrefu. [[Upendo]] ni [[maingiliano]] ambayo hukuza mahusiano ya kudumu kwa miaka na hata miongo mingi. Upendo kwa jumla umejengwa kwenye [[wajibu]] kama vile [[ndoa]] na [[watoto]], au kuheshimiana kirafiki kulikojengwa kwenye mambo kama vitu mnavyovipenda. Upendo umehusishwa na kuwepo kwa viwango vya juu vya kemikali ('oxytocin' na 'vasopressin') ikilinganishwa na mahusiano ya muda mfupi. <ref name="human"></ref> [[Enzo Emanuele]] na wenzake walieleza kuwa [[molekuli]] ya [[protini]] inayojulikana kama chanzo cha ukuaji wa neva (nerve growth factor = NGF) ina viwango vya juu wakati watu wanapoanza kupendana, lakini viwango hivyo hurudi kwenye vipimo vya awali baada ya mwaka mmoja. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Emanuele, E. |coauthor=Polliti, P.; Bianchi, M.; Minoretti, P.; Bertona, M.; & Geroldi, D |year=2005 |title=Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love |url=http://www.biopsychiatry.com/lovengf.htm |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=Sept. 05}}</ref> ===Msingi wa kisaikolojia=== [[File:Sri Lankan woman and child.jpg|thumb|250px|Bibi na mjukuu, [[Sri Lanka]].]] Saikolojia inaonyesha mapenzi kama jambo tambuzi na la kijamii. [[Mwanasaikolojia]] [[Robert Sternberg]] alibuni [[nadharia ya miraba mitatu ya mapenzi]] akasema mapenzi yana vipengele vitatu tofauti: urafiki, kujitoa, na [[uchu]]. Urafiki ni aina ambayo watu wawili huambiana [[siri]] na mambo kadhaa kuhusu [[maisha]] yao binafsi. Kuwajibika, kwa upande mwingine, ni matumaini kuwa uhusiano huo utadumu. Aina ya mwisho na inayopatikana sana ni mvuto wa kingono au uchu. Mapenzi ya uchu ni kama yanavyoonyeshwa katika kupumbazwa kimapenzi pamoja na mapenzi ya kimahaba. Aina zote za mapenzi hutazamwa kama mchanganyiko tofauti wa vipengele hivyo vitatu. Mwanasaikolojia kutoka [[Marekani]], [[Zick Rubin]] alijaribu kutumia [[saikometriki]]. Kazi yake inasema kuwa mapenzi yamejengwa na vipengele vitatu: upendo, kujali na urafiki. <ref>{{cite journal |last=Rubin |first=Zick |title=Measurement of Romantic Love |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1970-10_16_2/page/265 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=16 |pages=265&ndash;27 |year=1970 |doi=10.1037/h0029841}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last=Rubin |first=Zick |title=Liking and Loving: an invitation to social psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/likinglovinginvi00rubi |location=New York |publisher=Holt, Rinehart & Winston |year=1973}}</ref> Kufuatia maendeleo katika [[nadharia za umeme]], kama vile [[sheria ya Coulomb]] ambayo ilionyesha kuwa [[nguvu chanya]] na [[nguvu hasi]] huvutiana, milinganisho katika maisha ya binadamu ilifanywa, kama vile "vitu vilivyo kinyume kuvutiana." Katika karne ya 20, utafiti juu ya mahusiano ya kingono miongoni mwa binadamu umepata kwa jumla kuwa jambo hili si kweli kuhusu tabia za watu kwa sababu hao kwa kawaida kuwapenda wale walio na sifa zinazofanana na zao. Hata hivyo, katika nyanja chache zisizo za kawaida na maalumu, kama vile [[mifumo ya kinga]], inaonekana kwamba binadamu hupendelea binadamu ambao ni tofauti nao (mfano, walio na mfumo wa orthojoni), kwa kuwa jambo hili litasababisha kupata mtoto ambaye ana sifa bora za pande zote mbili. <ref>{{cite book | last = Berscheid | first = Ellen | coauthors = Walster, Elaine, H.| title = Interpersonal Attraction | publisher = Addison-Wesley Publishing Co | year = 1969 | id = CCCN 69-17443 }}</ref> Katika miaka ya hivi karibuni, [[nadharia]] mbalimbali za [[maingiliano ya binadamu]] zimebuniwa na kuelezewa kwa kuzingatia upendo, mahusiano, maingiliano, na mivuto. Baadhi ya wataalamu wa Magharibi hugawanywa katika vipengele viwili vikuu, chenye utu na chenye kujipenda. Mtazamo huo umewakilishwa na [[Scott Peck]], ambaye anasema kuwa mapenzi ni mchanganyiko wa "wasiwasi kuhusu ukuaji kiroho wa mwingine," na kujipenda sahili. <ref name="peck">{{cite book | title=The Road Less Traveled | url=https://archive.org/details/roadlesstraveled00peck_571 | isbn=0-671-25067-1 | last=Peck | first=Scott | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1978 | page=[https://archive.org/details/roadlesstraveled00peck_571/page/n166 169]}}</ref> Kwa pamoja, mapenzi ni shughuli, si hisia tu. ===Ulinganifu wa mifumo ya kisayansi=== Mifumo ya kibiolojia ya mapenzi huyatazama kama msukumo wa kimamalia, sawa na [[njaa]] au [[kiu]]<ref name="Lewis"></ref>, kumbe saikolojia huyatazama kama jambo linalotegemea zaidi jamii na utamaduni. Pengine kuna [[chembe]] za [[ukweli]] katika mitazamo yote miwili. Hakika mapenzi huathiriwa na [[homoni]], na jinsi watu hufikiri na kutenda katika mapenzi huathiriwa na mawazo yao kuhusu hayo. Mtazamo wa kawaida katika [[biolojia]] ni kwamba kuna misukumo miwili mikuu katika mapenzi: [[mvuto wa kingono]] na [[pendo]]. Pendo kati ya watu wazima huchukuliwa kufanya kazi kwa kuzingatia kanuni sawa na zile zinazomfanya [[mtoto mchanga]] kumpenda mama yake. Mtazamo wa [[jadi]] wa kisaikolojia huangalia mapenzi kama muungano wa [[mapenzi ya kimwenzi]] na [[mapenzi ya kiuchu]]. Mapenzi ya kiuchu ni hamu kubwa, na mara nyingi huandamana na [[mhemko wa kimwili]] (kupumua kwa nguvu, mpigo wa moyo wa kasi); [[mapenzi ya kimwenzi]] ni mapenzi na hisia za kirafiki zisizoandamana na mhemko wa kimwili. Uchunguzi umeonyesha kuwa ubongo wa waliopumbazwa na mapenzi unafanana na ule wa wenye [[ugonjwa wa akili]]. Mapenzi huanzisha shughuli katika eneo la ubongo sawa na njaa, kiu, na [[hamu ya madawa]]. Mapenzi mapya, kwa hiyo, yanaweza kuegemea upande wa mwili kuliko wa hisia. Kadiri wakati unavyopita, athari hizo zinazotokana na mapenzi hukomaa, na maeneo mbalimbali ya ubongo yanaamshwa, hasa yale yanayohusiana na ahadi za muda mrefu. ==Mitazamo ya kitamaduni== ===Uajemi=== : :: ::: ::::''Hata baada ya muda huu wote'' :::::''Jua haliambii ardhi, "ninakudai."'' ::::::''Angalia kinachotokea na Upendo kama huo!'' '''' : :: ::: :::: - ''Linaangaza mbingu nzima.'' (Hafiz) [[Maulana Rumi]], [[Hafez]] na [[Sa'di]] ni ishara za uchu na mapenzi ambazo huwasilishwa na lugha na [[utamaduni wa Kiajemi]]. Neno la Kiajemi linalorejelea mapenzi ni ''eshgh,'' lililotokana na la Kiarabu ''Ishq.'' Katika utamaduni wa Kiajemi, kila kitu kinazungukwa na mapenzi na yote huwa ni kwa ajili ya mapenzi, kuanzia kupenda marafiki na familia, mabibi na mabwana, na hatimaye kufikia upendo wa Kimungu ambao ndio lengo halisi la maisha. Zaidi ya karne saba zilizopita, Sa'di aliandika: : :: ::: ::::''Watoto wa Adamu ni viungo vya mwili mmoja'' :::::''Baada ya kuumbwa kwa kiini kimoja.'' ::::::''Wakati msiba wa wakati unaathiri kiungo kimoja'' :::::::''Viungo hivyo vingine haviwezi kuwa na amani.'' ::::::::''Ikiwa hauna huruma kwa matatizo ya wengine'' :::::::::''Wewe hustahili kuitwa kwa jina la "mtu."'' ===China na tamaduni za jirani=== [[File:Love zh.svg|thumb|The traditional Chinese character for love (愛) consists of a heart (middle) inside of "accept," "feel," or "perceive," which shows a graceful emotion.]] [[Ukonfusio]] kwa desturi ulisisitiza wajibu, mwelekeo na tendo katika uhusiano (km wema kutoka kwa wazazi, [[utiifu wa mzazi]] kutoka kwa watoto, uaminifu kwa mfalme, na kadhalika) kuliko mapenzi yenyewe. Katika kuzingatia hayo, dhana ya "mapenzi" umekuja tu hivi majuzi kutoka [[Ustaarabu wa magharibi|Magharibi]]. Hata hivyo, ''[[Ren]]'' (仁) inaweza kuonekana kama wema wa mapenzi, ambayo ni sehemu muhimu ya maisha ya kimaadili, na lazima ifuatwe na wote. [[Mozi]] alibuni dhana ya ''Ai'' (爱) iliyotokana na ile ya Kikonfusio ''Ren,'' ambayo inakaribiana zaidi na ile ya kimagharibi ya mapenzi bia. Badala ya kuonyesha mitazamo tofauti kwa watu tofauti, dhana ya [[Mohism]] inasisitiza kumpenda kila mtu, si marafiki au familia pekee, bila kuzingatia kama wao pia watafanya hivyo. Katika lugha ya [[Kichina]] na [[tamaduni za kisasa]], istilahi kadhaa hutumiwa kurejelea dhana ya mapenzi: *''Ai'' (爱) ni kitenzi (km ''Wo Ai Ni'' 我爱你, au "Ninakupenda") na istilahi (kama ''Ai Qing'' 爱情, au "Mapenzi ya Kimahaba"). Neno hili ndilo ambalo linatumiwa sana kurejelea mapenzi, na linaweza kuwa na maana mbalimbali katika mazingira tofauti, kama ilivyo katika Kiingereza. Tangu mwaka 1949, eneo la Bara China limekuwa likitumia neno ''[[wikt:airen|Ai Ren]]'' (爱人, asilia lililomaanisha "mpenzi") kama neno kuu la "mke/mume" (wakati maneno tofauti ya "bibi" na "bwana" yalidumishwa, yalikosa kusisitizwa ili kukuza usawa wa kijinsia); neno ''Ai Renouce '' lina maana dhahania hasi nchini China, jambo ambalo bado linajitokeza miongoni mwa wengi nchini [[Taiwan.]] *Istilahi ''Lian'' (恋) inaelezea hali kupenda na kutegemea ya mtu binafsi inayotokana na mapenzi, na kwa hivyo huwa halitumiki sana likiwa peke yake. Mara nyingi huwa linatumiwa hasa kuelezea mapenzi ya kimahaba au kingono, kama vile "kuwa katika mapenzi" (恋爱, ''Lian Ai),'' "mpenzi" (恋人, ''Lian Ren)'' au [["ushoga"]] (同性恋, ''Tong Xing Lian).'' *Istilahi ''Qing'' (情), au "hisia", mara nyingi inaonyesha "mapenzi" katika muktadha sahihi. Linapotumiwa pamoja na ''Ai'' (爱) neno hili hasa huwa linatumiwa kuelezea mapenzi ya kimahaba, kama katika ''Ai Qing'' 爱情. ''Qing Ren'' (情人) ni istilali ingine inayorejelea "mpenzi", ikimaanisha kuwa kumekuwa na uhusiano wa kingono . *Istilahi ''Gănqíng'' (感情) inajumuisha hisia zilizoko na upendo ambao umekua kutokana na kuwa na uhusiano wa karibu. Ujenzi wa ''gănqíng'' hii, au maingiliano, kwa hivyo ni muhimu katika kuanzisha na kudumisha mapenzi. *''[[Yuanfen]]'' (缘份) ni muungano wa kudura. Mwanzo wa uhusiano wa maana (uwe wa kimahaba au kirafiki) huwa unafikiriwa kuwa mara nyingi unategemea ''yuanfen.'' Mtazamo sawa na huu katika Kiingereza ni "hatima" au "kudura". ===Japani=== Katika [[Ubudha wa Kijapani]], neno ''ai'' (爱) linarejelea mapenzi ya uchu na kujali, na hamu ya msingi. Inaweza kukua kuelekea ama ubinafsi au kutokuwa na ubinafsi na kutaalamika. ''[[Amae]]'' (甘え), neno la Kijapani lenye maana ya "kujihusisha na utegemezi," ni sehemu ya [[utamaduni wa Ujapani]] wa kumlea mtoto. Akina mama wa Kijapani wanatarajiwa kukumbatia na kuendekeza watoto wao, na watoto wanatarajiwa kuwatuza mama zao kwa kuwashikilia na kuwahudumia. Baadhi ya [[wanasosholojia]] wamependekeza kuwa maingiliano ya kijamii ya Kijapani katika maisha ya baadaye yamejengeka juu ya 'amae' ya mama kwa mtoto. ===Ugiriki wa kale=== [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] ina maneno mbalimbali na tofauti: ''philia, eros, agape, storge na xenia.'' Hata hivyo, imekuwa vigumu kihistoria kutofautisha kabisa maana za maneno hayo ya Kigiriki (kama ilivyo kwa lugha nyingine nyingi). Tafsiri ya [[Biblia]] ya Ugiriki ya kale ina mifano ya [[kitenzi]] ''agapo'' kikiwa na maana sawa na ''[[phileo]].'' ''[[Agape]]'' inamaanisha mapenzi'' katika Ugiriki ya sasa kisasa. Neno ''S'agapo'' linamaanisha ''Ninakupenda'' katika Kigiriki. Neno ''agapo'' ni kitenzi ''Ninapenda.'' Kwa jumla linarejelea [[aina]] ya mapenzi ambayo ni "safi", badala ya mvuto wa kimwili unaopendekezwa na ''eros.'' Hata hivyo, kuna baadhi ya mifano ya ''agape'' inayotumika kuleta maana sawa na ''eros.'' Pia imetafsiriwa kama "upendo wa nafsi." ''[[Eros]]'' ni mapenzi ya kimahaba, yaliyo na shauku na hamu. Neno la Kigiriki ''erota'' linamaanisha ''katika mapenzi.'' Ingawa mapenzi ya eros kwa kawaida huwa yanahisiwa kwa mtu, kwa kutafakari yanakuwa ni kuthamini uzuri ndani ya mtu, au hata inakuwa ni kuthamini [[uzuri]] wenyewe. Mapenzi ya eros husaidia nafsi kukumbuka ujuzi wa uzuri na huchangia katika ufahamu wa ukweli wa kiroho. Wapenzi na wanafalsafa wote huchochewa na eros kutafuta ukweli. Baadhi ya tafsiri huyaorodhesha kama "mapenzi ya mwili." ''[[Philia]]'' kama mapenzi ya [[wema]] yasiyo na uchu, ilikuwa ni dhana iliyobuniwa na [[Aristotle]]. Inahusisha uaminifu kwa marafiki, familia na jamii, na inahitaji wema, usawa, na kufahamiana. Philia huchochewa na kwa sababu za kiutendaji; mmoja au wawili wa wahusika kufaidika na uhusiano. Inaweza pia kumaanisha "mapenzi ya akili." ''[[Storge]]'' ni mapenzi ya kawaida, kama wanayohisi wazazi kwa watoto wao. ''[[Xenia]]'' (ξενία ''xenía),'' ukarimu, ulikuwa jambo muhimu sana katika Ugiriki wa kale. Ulikuwa karibu na urafiki wa kitaambiko ulioanzishwa kati ya mwenyeji na mgeni wake, ambao hapo awali wangekuwa hawafahamiani. Mwenyeji alimlisha na kumpatia mgeni malazi, na mgeni alitarajiwa kulipia kwa shukrani pekee. Umuhimu wa jambo hili unaweza kuonekana kupitia [[visasili]] vya Kigiriki, hasa vile vya [[Homer]] ambavyo ni [[Iliad]] na [[Odyssey]]. ===Uturuki=== Katika [[Kituruki]], neno "mapenzi" huwa na maana kadhaa. Mtu anaweza kumpenda Mungu, mtu, wazazi, au familia. Lakini mtu huyo anaweza "kupenda" mtu mmoja tu kutoka jinsia tofauti na yake, jambo ambalo wao hulipatia neno "aşk", yaani mapenzi kwa maana za kimahaba na kingono pekee. Ikiwa Mturuki atasema kuwa yeye anampenda (aşk) mtu, si aina ya mapenzi ambayo mtu anaweza kuhisi kwa wazazi wake, ni ya mtu mmoja tu, na inaonyesha [[ashiki]] kuu. Neno hili hupatikana kwenye [[lugha za Kiturki]], kama zile za [[Azerbaijani]] (Esq) na [[Kazakh]] (ғашық). ===Roma ya Kale (Kilatini)=== [[Lugha]] ya [[Kilatini]] ina vitenzi mbalimbali vinavyolingana na neno la Kiingereza "love." ''Amare'' ndilo neno msingi la ''mapenzi,'' na bado ndilo linalotumiwa kwenye [[Kiitalia]] hadi leo. [[Warumi]] walilitumia kurejelea uhusiano wa kirafiki na wakimahaba au kingono. Kutoka kitenzi hiki tunapata ''amans-'' mpenzi, amator, "mpenzi wa kitaalamu," mara nyingi likiwa na wazo la ziada la uzinzi - na ''amica,'' "mpenzi", na mara nyingi hutumiwa kitafsida kurejelea [[kahaba]]. Neno linalolingana ni ''amor'' (umuhimu wa neno hili kwa Warumi unaonyeshwa katika ukweli kwamba, jina la mji [[Rome-]], katika Kilatini: ''Roma-linaweza'' kutazamwa kama [[anagramu]] ya ''amor,'' neno ambalo lilitumika kama jina la siri la mji katika duru pana nyakati za zamani), <ref> Thomas Köves-Zulauf, Reden und Schweigen, München, 1972.</ref> na ambalo ni pia linatumika katika wingi kuashiria mahusiano ya kimapenzi na matukio ya kingono. Kutoka kwenye kiini kile bado tunapata ''amicus'' - "rafiki" na ''Amicitia,'' "urafiki" (unaojengwa kwenye ushirika, na kulingana wakati mwingine kwa karibu na "uwiwa" au "ushawishi"). [[Cicero]] aliandika makala inayoitwa ''[[de Amicitia]],'' ambayo inazungumzia wazo hili kwa urefu fulani. [[Ovid]] aliandika mwongozo wa kupendana uitwao ''[[Ars Amatoria]]'' ambao unazungumzia, kwa kina, kila kitu kutoka masuala ya uhusiano nje ya ndoa hadi masuala ya wazazi wanaomnyima mtu uhuru. Wakati mwingine Kilatini hutumia neno ''Amare'' katika sehemu ambazo huzua utata. Hata hivyo, katika Kilatini kwa jumla kuna maneno ''placere'' au ''delectāre,'' ambayo hutumiwa zaidi katika miktadha isiyo rasmi, na neno la mwisho la ''delectāre'' likitumiwa mara nyingi katika ushairi wa kimapenzi wa [[Catullus]]. Neno ''Diligere'' mara nyingi linazua wazo la "kuwa na upendo wa," "kuheshimu," na kwa nadra sana hutumiwa kurejelea mapenzi ya kimahaba. Neno hili linaweza kufaa kuelezea urafiki wa watu wawili. [[Nomino]] inayolingana ''diligentia,'' hata hivyo, ina maana ya "bidii" au "uangalifu," na ina uhusiano mdogo sana wa kisemantiki na kitenzi hicho. ''Observare'' ni kisawe cha ''diligere;'' licha ya kuwa na asili moja na Kiingereza, kitenzi hicho na nomino inayolingana, ''observantia,'' mara nyingi huashiria "heshima" au "upendo." Neno ''[[Caritas]]'' hutumika katika tafsiri za Kilatini za [[Biblia ya Kikristo]] kwa maana ya "upendo wenye hisani"; maana hiyo, hata hivyo, haipatikani katika [[maandiko ya Kirumi]] ya [[Upagani|Kipagani]]. ==Maoni ya dini== ===Dini za Kiabrahamu === [[File:Ahava.jpg|thumb|left|200px|"LOVE sculpture" 1977 ya Robert Indiana, 'spelling ahava in Israel']] ====Uyahudi==== Katika [[Kiyahudi]], Ahava ndilo neno linalotumika sana kurejelea upendo kati ya watu na upendo wa Mungu. [[Uyahudi]] unatumia ufafanuzi mpana wa upendo, kati ya watu na kati ya mtu na Mungu. Kuhusu upendo kati ya watu, [[Torati]] inasema, "Mpende jirani yako kama ujipendavyo" ([[Mambo ya Walawi]] 19:18). Kuhusu upendo wa pili, mtu ameamuriwa kumpenda Mungu "kwa moyo wako wote, kwa roho yako yote na kwa nguvu zako zote" ([[Kumb]] 6:5), zilizochukuliwa na [[Mishna]] ([[ufafanuzi]] wa [[sheria)]] za Wayahudi kurejelea mema, mtu kuwa tayari kutoa maisha yake kama dhabihu badala ya kutenda makosa fulani makubwa, mtu kuwa tayari kutoa mali yake yote kama sadaka, na kumshukuru Mungu licha ya mashaka (Berakhoth 9:5). [[Fasihi ya Marabi]] hutofautiana katika jinsi upendo huu unaweza kuendelezwa, kwa mfano, kwa kutafakari matendo ya Mungu au kushuhudia makuu yaliyoumbwa. Na kuhusu upendo kati ya washirika wa ndoa, jambo hili huchukuliwa kama kiungo muhimu cha maisha: "Ishi maisha na mke umpendaye" [[Kitabu cha Mhubiri]] 9:9). Kitabu cha [[Biblia]] ''[[Wimbo Ulio Bora]]'' huchukuliwa kama [[fumbo]] la upendo wa kindoa kati ya Mungu na taifa lake, lakini kwa kawaida wasomaji hukiona kama wimbo wa mapenzi. [[Rabi]] [[Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler]] ([[karne ya 20]]) hunukuliwa mara nyingi kwa kufafanua upendo kwa mtazamo wa Wayahudi unaosema upendo ni "kutoa bila kutarajia kupokea" (kutoka ''Michtav'' ''me-Eliyahu,'' Vol. 1). ====Ukristo==== [[File:baglione.jpg|thumb|right|Mapenzi matakatifu dhidi ya mapenzi ya kiulimwengu, mchoro wa [[Giovanni Baglione]] wa mwaka [[1602]]-[[1603]].]] Uelewa wa [[Ukristo]] unasema kwamba [[upendo]] hutoka kwa [[Mungu]]. Mapenzi ya [[mwanamume]] na [[mwanamke]] ("eros" katika Kigiriki) na mapenzi yasiyo na ubinafsi kwa wengine ("agape") mara nyingi hulinganishwwa kama mapenzi ya "kupaa" na "kushuka", lakini hatimaye ni jambo moja. <ref name="vatican1">{{cite web |url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20051225_deus-caritas-est_en.html |author=Pope Benedict XVI |title=papal encyclical, Deus Caritas Est.}}</ref> Kuna maneno kadhaa ya Kigiriki yanayorejelea "mapenzi" ambayo yanatajwa katika duru za Wakristo. * ''[[Agape]]'': Katika [[Agano Jipya]], agape ni ya [[hisani]], isiyo na [[ubinafsi]] wala ma[[sharti]]. Ni mapenzi ya [[wazazi]], ambayo yanajenga [[wema]] katika [[dunia]], ni vile [[Mungu]] anavyoonekana kuwapenda wanadamu, na huonekana kama aina ya mapenzi ambayo Wakristo hutamani kuonyesha kwa mtu mwingine. * ''[[Phileo]]'': Pia katika Agano Jipya, ''phileo'' ni itikio la binadamu kwa kitu ambacho hufurahisha. Pia yanajulikana kama "mapenzi ya kindugu." * Maneno mengine mawili yanayorejelea mapenzi katika lugha ya Kigiriki ambayo ni: ''[[eros]]'' (mapenzi ya kingono) na ''[[storge]]'' (mapenzi ya mtoto kwa mzazi), hayakutumika katika [[Agano Jipya]]. [[Wakristo]] wanaamini kwamba ''kumpenda Mungu kwa moyo wako wote, akili, na nguvu na kumpenda [[jirani]] yako kama ujipendavyo'' ni mambo mawili muhimu katika maisha, [[amri kuu]] ya [[Torati]], kulingana na mafundisho na maisha ya [[Yesu]] (taz. [[Injili ya Marko]] sura ya 12, Aya 28-34). [[Mtakatifu]] [[Agostino wa Hipo]] aliyafupisha haya alipoandika ''"Umpende Mungu, halafu ufanye utakavyo."'' [[Mtume Paulo]] alitukuza upendo kama kitu muhimu kulilo vyote. Huku akielezea upendo katika [[shairi]] maarufu katika [[Waraka wa kwanza kwa Wakorintho]] aliandika, ''"Upendo huvumilia, upendo ni mwema,'' ''hauna wivu, haujivuni, hauna kiburi.'' ''Si ufidhuli, hauna majivuno, haukasirishwi kwa haraka, hauhesabu mabaya uliotendewa.'' ''Upendo haufurahii maovu bali hufurahia ukweli.'' ''Upendo daima hulinda, daima huamini, daima huwa na matumaini, na daima huvumilia."'' ([[1 Kor]] 13:4-7). [[Mtume Yohane]] aliandika, ''"Kwa maana Mungu aliupenda ulimwengu hata akamtoa [[Mwana]] wake wa pekee, ili kila mtu amwaminiye asipotee bali awe na [[uzima wa milele]].'' '' Maana Mungu hakumtuma Mwanawe ulimwenguni ili auhukumu [[ulimwengu]], bali ulimwengu uokolewe katika yeye.'' ''Kila mtu amwaminiye hahukumiwi, lakini yeyote asiyemuamini tayari ana hatia kwa sababu yeye hajaamini [[jina]] la [[Mwana pekee wa Mungu]]."'' ([[Yoh]] 3:16-18). Yohane pia aliandika, ''"Marafiki zangu, hebu tupendane kwani upendo hutoka kwa Mungu.'' ''Kila mtu anayependa amezaliwa wa Mungu na anamjua Mungu.'' ''Yeyote asiyependa hamjui Mungu, kwa sababu Mungu ni upendo."'' ([[1 Yoh]] 4:7-8). Mtakatifu Augustino anasema ni lazima mtu aweze kutambua tofauti kati ya upendo na tamaa. Tamaa ni kujihusisha katika jambo kupindukia, bali kupenda na kupendwa ndilo jambo ambalo amelitafuta maisha yake yote. Hata anasema, ''"Nilikuwa nimependana na upendo."'' Hatimaye, akawa anampenda Mungu na kupendwa naye. Augustino anasema kuwa yule anayeweza kukupenda kwa ukweli na [[ukamilifu]] ni Mungu, kwa sababu upendo kwa binadamu unaruhusu [[udhaifu]] kama vile ''"[[wivu]], [[wasiwasi]], [[hofu]], [[hasira]], na [[ushindani]]."'' Kulingana na Augustino, kumpenda Mungu ni ''"kufikia amani ambayo ni yako."'' ([[Maungamo ya Mtakatifu Augustino]]). [[Wanateolojia]] Wakristo humwona Mungu kama chanzo cha upendo, ambao huonekana katika binadamu na mahusiano yao ya upendo. Msomi mkubwa wa Biblia [[C. S. Lewis]] aliandika kitabu kinachoitwa ''[[The Four Loves]].'' [[Papa Benedikto XVI]] aliandika [[waraka]] wake wa kwanza kuhusu [["Mungu ni upendo"]]. Humo alisema kuwa mwanadamu, aliyeumbwa kwa mfano wa Mungu ambaye ni upendo, anaweza kupenda; kujitoa kwa Mungu na wengine ([[agape]]) na kwa kupokea na kuhisi upendo wa Mungu kupitia [[tafakuri]] (Eros). Maisha haya ya upendo, kulingana na yeye, ni maisha ya watakatifu kama [[Bikira Maria]] na [[Mama Teresa]] wa [[Kolkata]] na ni mwelekeo ambao Wakristo huchukua wanapoamini kuwa Mungu anawapenda. <ref name="vatican1"></ref> ====Uislamu na Uarabu==== Kwa kiwango fulani, mapenzi hayahusishi mtazamo wa Kiislamu wa maisha kama undugubia ambao unahusisha wale wote ambao wanashika [[imani]] ya Kiislamu. Hakuna sehemu inayosema Mungu ni upendo, lakini miongoni mwa majina 99 ya [[Allah]], kuna jina ''Al-Wadud,'' au "Anayependa," ambalo hupatikana katika Sura 11:90 na vilevile Sura 85:14. Linamtaja Mungu kama "aliyejaa fadhili." Wale wote ambao wanaamini wana mapenzi ya Mungu, lakini kwa kiasi gani au juhudi zipi amemfurahisha Mungu inamtegemea mtu binafsi. ''[[Ishq]],'' au mapenzi ya kiungu, ni msisitizo wa [[Usufi]]. [[Wasufi]] huamini kwamba mapenzi ni makadirio ya kiini cha Mungu kwa ulimwengu. Mungu anatamani kutambua uzuri, na kama mtu aangaliavyo kwenye kioo ili kujiona, Mungu "hujiangalia" kwenye mienendo ya asili. Kwa kuwa kila kitu kinaonyesha Mungu, shule ya usufi huzingatia kuona uzuri ndani ya kinachoonekana kuwa kibaya. Usufi mara nyingi unajulikana kama dini ya upendo. Mungu katika usufi hutajwa kwa majina matatu makuu, ambayo ni mpenzi, mpendwa, na kipenzi, na neno la mwisho kati ya maneno haya likijitokeza sana katika ushairi wa kisufi. Mtazamo wa kawaida wa Usufi ni kwamba kupitia mapenzi, wanadamu wanaweza kurudia usafi na neema yao ya awali. Watakatifu wa Usufi wanasifika kwa kuwa "walevi" kutokana na upendo wao wa Mungu; ndio maana mvinyo unatajwa sana katika mashairi na muziki wa kisufi. ===Dini za Mashariki=== ====Ubudha==== Katika [[Ubudha]], [[K&amp;#257;ma]] ni mapenzi ya kimihemko na kingono. Ni kikwazo katika njia ya [[kutaalamika]], kwani yana ubinafsi. ''[[Karu&amp;#7751;ā]]'' ni huruma na rehema, ambayo hupunguza mateso ya wengine. Huenda sambamba na hekima na ni muhimu kwa kutaalamika. ''Adveṣa'' na ''[[Metta]]'' ni mapenzi ya ukarimu. Mapenzi haya hayana masharti na yanahitaji mtu kwa kiasi fulani awe amejikubali. Mapenzi haya ni tofauti kabisa na yale ya kawaida, ambayo kwa kawaida huwa yanahusu upendo na ngono na ambayo ni nadra yawepo bila kujifikiria. Badala yake, katika Ubudha inarejelea uhisani wa ustawi wa wengine usio wa kibinafsi. Maadili ya [[Bodhisattva]] katika Ubudha wa Mahayana yanahusisha kujinyima kamili ili kuchukua mzigo wa mateso ya dunia. Kichocheo kikuu alicho nacho mtu ili kuchukua njia ya Bodhisattva ni wazo la wokovu ndani yake, mapenzi ya kiutu kwa viumbe wote. ====Uhindu==== Katika [[Ubanyani]], ''[[k&amp;#257;ma]]'' ni mapenzi matamu ya kingono, yaliyohuishwa na mungu [[Kamadeva.]] Kwa shule nyingi za kihindu, huu ndio mwisho wa tatu ''[[(artha)]]'' katika maisha. Mara nyingi [[Kamadeva]] huonyeshwa pichani kashika [[upinde]] wa [[miwa]] na [[mshale]] wa [[maua;]] yeye huweza hata kubebwa na kasuku mkubwa. Yeye huwa ameandamana na mke wake [[rati na sahibu wake Vasanta]], mkubwa wa msimu wa kuchipua Sanamu za mawe za Kaama na rati zinaweza kuonekana kwenye mlango wa hekalu ya Chenna Keshava katika [[Belur]], huko [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. ''Määrä'' ni jina lingine la ''kama.'' Tofauti na ''kama, prema'' {{ndash}} au ''Prem'' {{ndash}} yanarejelea mapenzi yaliyoinuliwa. ''[[Karuna]]'' ni huruma na rehema, ambazo humchochea mtu kusaidia kupunguza mateso ya wengine. [[Bhakti]] ni istilahi ya ''Kisanskriti'', inayomaanisha "mapenzi ya ibada kwa Mungu mkuu." Mtu anayefuata ''bhakti'' anaitwa ''bhakta.'' Waandishi wa [[Kihindi]], wanateolojia, wanafalsafa wametambua aina tisa za ''[[bhakti]]'', ambazo zinaweza kupatikana katika kitabu cha [[Bhagavata Purana]] and works cha [[Tulsidas.]] Kazi ya kifalsafa ''[[Narada Bhakti Sutra]]'' iliyoandikwa na [[mwandishi]] asiyejulikana (anayefikiriwa kuwa [[Narada]]), inatambua aina [[kumi na moja]] za mapenzi. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Vyanzo== *{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=Henry|title=Saint Augustine Confessions|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998}} *{{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Helen|title=Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love|year=2004|url=https://archive.org/details/whywelove00hele}} *{{cite book|last=Singer|first=Irving|title=The Nature of Love|subtitle=in three volumes|publisher=Random House|year=1966|edition= v.1 reprinted and later volumes from The University of Chicago Press, 1984|isbn=0-226-76094-4}} *{{cite journal|author=Sternberg, R.J.|title=A triangular theory of love|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-review_1986-01_93_1/page/n124|year=1986|journal=Psychological Review|volume=93|page=119&ndash;135|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119}} *{{cite journal|author=Sternberg, R.J.|title=Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1987-11_102_3/page/331|year=1987|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=102|page=331&ndash;345|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.331}} *{{cite book|last=Tennov|first=Dorothy|title=Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love|url=https://archive.org/details/lovelimerence00tenn|location=New York|publisher=Stein and Day|year=1979|isbn=0-812-86134-5}} *{{cite book|author=Wood Samuel E., Ellen Wood and Denise Boyd|title=The World of Psychology|edition=5th|year=2005|publisher=Pearson Education|page=402&ndash;403}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Wiktionary|affect|affective}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080414121753/http://personality-project.org/revelle/publications/gilboa.pdf Personality and the Structure of Affective Responses] * {{Cite web |url=http://www.brianlynchmd.com/AT/resources.htm |title=Affect and Script Theory - Silvan S. Tomkins |first=Brian |last=Lynch |access-date=2008-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915175735/http://www.brianlynchmd.com/AT/resources.htm |archive-date=15 September 2008 |url-status=dead |accessdate=2023-02-19 |archivedate=2008-09-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915175735/http://www.brianlynchmd.com/AT/resources.htm }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101121194322/http://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/Russell1980.pdf Circumplex Model of Affect] * [http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/99/2/229.pdf Affect and Memory] [[Category:Jinsia]] [[Category:Saikolojia]] [[Category:Maadili]] rm018fl0k5yrgx5q3kglf3yiololb8v 0 55556 1361613 1292366 2024-11-07T18:53:48Z CommonsDelinker 234 Removing [[:c:File:Christina_Aguilera_at_the_VinFuture_Prize_2022,_in_Vietnam.png|Christina_Aguilera_at_the_VinFuture_Prize_2022,_in_Vietnam.png]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Yann|Yann]] because: per [[:c:COM:NETCOPYVIO|]]. 1361613 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Msanii muziki 2 | Jina = Christina Aguilera | Img = | Img_capt = Christina Aguilera, mnamo 2022 | Img_size = | Landscape = | Background = solo_singer | Jina la kuzaliwa = Christina Maria Aguilera | Amezaliwa = {{birth date and age|1980|12|18|df=yes}} | Asili yake = [[New York]], [[Marekani]] | Kazi yake = | Ala = [[Sauti]], [[synthesizer]] [[muziki wa dansi|dansi]], [[electronic]] | Aina ya sauti = [[Contralto]] | Miaka ya kazi = 1999–hadi leo | Studio = [[RCA Records]] <small>(1999-hadi leo)</small> | Ameshirikiana na = | Tovuti = [http://www.christinaaguilera.com www.christinaaguilera.com] }} '''Christina Maria Aguilera''' (anafahamika zaidi kama '''Christina Aguilera'''; alizaliwa [[18 Desemba]] [[1980]]) ni [[mwimbaji]] na [[mtunzi]] wa [[nyimbo]] za pop dansi kutoka [[Marekani]]. Ameshinda mara 5 [[tuzo]] za [[Grammy ]]. ==Muziki== ===Albamu'=== * 1999: ''Christina Aguilera'' * 2002: ''Stripped'' * 2006: ''Back To Basics'' * 2010: ''Bionic'' * 2018: ''Liberation {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Aguilera, Christina}} [[Jamii:Mbegu za watu]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1980]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waimbaji wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] nfke4vgz2e77lebqs5fimnl5x2ilwg5 10 59576 1361716 1350568 2024-11-08T05:16:45Z Joeangatia 39839 1361716 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="text-align: left; font-size: 88%; width: 22em; line-height: 1.5em" |+ style="font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold" {{!}} {{{drug_name|{{{imagename|{{PAGENAME}} }}} }}}{{#ifeq:{{{type|}}}|mab|^{[[Nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies|?]]}}} |- {{#if:{{{name|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: right; " {{!}} {{Navbar|Drugbox/{{PAGENAME}}|mini=1}} }} |- {{#if:{{{image|}}}{{{image2|}}}| {{#if:{{{image|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} [[file:{{{image}}} | {{Px|{{{width|}}}|220}} |alt={{{alt|}}}]] {{!}}- }} {{#if:{{{image2|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} [[file:{{{image2}}} | {{Px|{{{width2|}}}|{{{width|}}}|220}} |alt={{{alt2|}}}]] {{!}}- }}| {{#ifexist:File:{{PAGENAME}}.png| ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} [[File:{{PAGENAME}}.png | {{Px|{{{width|}}}|220}}|alt={{{alt|}}}| Chemical structure of {{PAGENAME}} ]] {{!}}-|{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#ifeq: {{NAMESPACE}} |{{ns:0}} | [[Category:Drug pages needing a structure drawing]] }}}}}}}} }} }} {{#if: {{{caption|}}}| {{!}} colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} {{{caption}}} {{!}}- }} <!-- Top header for Combination, Monoclonal else default IUPAC header -->! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | vaccine = [[Vaccine|Vaccine description]] | combo = Combination of | mab = [[Monoclonal antibody#Applications|Monoclonal antibody]] | #default = {{#if:{{{IUPAC_name|}}} | Jina la Utaratibu la ([[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry nomenclature|IUPAC]])}}}} |- <!-- Naming 1) If not mab/combo/vaccine show IUPAC value -->{{#switch: {{{type|}}} | mab | combo | vaccine = | #default ={{#if:{{{IUPAC_name|}}} | {{!}} colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} <span style="font-size:11px">{{{IUPAC_name}}}</span> }} }} |- <!-- Naming 2) If type=vaccine then show vaccine details -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | ! Target disease {{!}} {{#if:{{{target|}}} | {{{target}}} | ? }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | ! [[Vaccine#Types|Type]] {{!}} {{#switch:{{{vaccine_type|}}} |Killed |killed |Inactivated |inactivated = Killed/Inactivated |Attenuated |attenuated = [[Attenuated virus]] |Live |live = Live bacteria |Toxoid |toxoid = [[Toxoid]] |Subunit |subunit = Subunit |Protein subunit |protein subunit |Protein |protein = [[Protein subunit]] |Conjugate |conjugate=[[Conjugate vaccine]] |Recombinant |recombinant = [[Recombinant DNA|Recombinant Vector]] |DNA |dna = [[DNA vaccination]] | ? }} }} |- <!-- Naming 3) If type=mab then show monoclonal antibody details -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | {{#if: {{{mab_type|}}} | ! [[:File:Engineered monoclonal antibodies.svg|Type]] {{!}} {{#switch: {{{mab_type|}}} | MAB | mab = Whole antibody | Fab | fab = [[Fab fragment]] | F(ab')2 | f(ab')2 = [[F(ab')2 fragment|F(ab')₂ fragment]] | Fab' | fab' = [[Fab' fragment]] | scFv | scfv = [[Single-chain variable fragment]] | discFv | discfv = Di-[[single-chain variable fragment]] | sdAb | sdab = [[Single domain antibody]] | 3funct = [[Trifunctional antibody]] | clFab | clfab = [[Chemically linked Fab]] | BiTE | bite = [[Bi-specific T-cell engager]] | ? }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | {{#if: {{{source|}}} | ! 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[[Antigen|Target]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{target|}}} | {{{target}}} | ? }} }} }} |- <!-- Naming 4) if type=combo show its components (2 obligatory, 3 & 4 optional) -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | ! [[{{{component1|? Component}}}]] {{!}} {{{class1|? Class}}} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | ! [[{{{component2|? Component}}}]] {{!}} {{{class2|? Class}}} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | {{#if:{{{component3|}}} | {{!}}- ! [[{{{component3|?}}}]] {{!}} {{{class3|? Class}}} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | {{#if:{{{component4|}}} | {{!}}- ! [[{{{component4|?}}}]] {{!}} {{{class4|? Class}}} }} }} |- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" | Data ya kikliniki |- {{#if:{{{tradename|}}}| ! [[Majina ya kibiashara]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{tradename|}}} | {{{tradename}}} }} }} <!-- |- {{#if:{{{ASHP|}}}| ! 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[[Pregnancy category|Kategoria ya ujauzito]] | {{#if:{{{pregnancy_AU|}}} | {{#switch: {{{pregnancy_AU|}}} | a | A = A | b1 | B1 = B1 | b2 | B2 = B2 | b3 | B3 = B3 | b | B = B? | c | C = C | d | D = D | x | X = X | ? }}<small>([[Australia|AU]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{pregnancy_US|}}} | {{#switch: {{{pregnancy_US|}}} | a | A = A | b | B = B | c | C = C | d | D = D | x | X = X | ? }}<small>([[Marekani|US]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{pregnancy_category|}}} | {{{pregnancy_category}}} | {{#if:{{{pregnancy_AU|}}}{{{pregnancy_US|}}} | | ? }} }} |- ! [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Hali ya kisheria]] | <!-- All but first country block must start the '{{#ifeq' on same line as preceeding block's closing '}}'. Test for upper & lower case, use wikilinked two-letter ISO country codes (ISO 3166-1) within the framework of [[WP:MOS]]. Note space after counry code as separator & allows line wrapping. Previous legal-status kept both for backwards compatibility - most articles currently use this and for furture appends free-text to country-specified categorisations. -->{{#if:{{{legal_AU|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_AU|}}} | unscheduled | Unscheduled = U<small>nscheduled</small> | | s2 | S2 | Schedule 2 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 2 Pharmacy Medicine|Pharmacy Only (S2)]] | s3 | S3 | Schedule 3 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 3 Pharmacist Only Medicine|Pharmacist Only (S3)]] | s4 | S4 | Schedule 4 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 4 Prescription Only Medicine|Prescription Only (S4)]] | s5 | S5 | Schedule 5 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 5 Caution|Caution (S5)]] | s6 | S6 | Schedule 6 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 6 Poison|Poison (S6)]] | s7 | S7 | Schedule 7 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 7 Dangerous Poison|Dangerous Poison (S7)]] | s8 | S8 | Schedule 8 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 8 Controlled Drug|Controlled (S8)]] | s9 | S9 | Schedule 9 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 9 Prohibited Substance|Prohibited (S9)]] | ? }}<small> ([[Australia|AU]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_CA|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_CA|}}} | otc | OTC = [[Over-the-counter drug|OTC]] | {{Unicode|℞}}-only | {{Unicode|℞}} | rx | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = [[Prescription drug|{{Unicode|℞}}<small>-only</small>]] | Schedule I = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_I|Schedule I]] | Schedule II = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_II|Schedule II]] | Schedule III = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_III|Schedule III]] | Schedule IV = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_IV|Schedule IV]] | Schedule V = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_V|Schedule V]] | Schedule VI = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VI_(Precursors)|Schedule VI]] | Schedule VII = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VII|Schedule VII]] | Schedule VIII= [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VIII|Schedule VIII]] | ? }}<small> ([[Kanada|CA]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_UK|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_UK|}}} | gsl | GSL = GSL | p | P =P | pom | POM = [[Prescription drug|POM]] | cd | CD =CD | CD Lic = CD Lic | CD POM = CD POM | CD No Reg POM = CD No Reg POM | CD (Anab) POM = CD (Anab) POM | CD (Benz) POM = CD (Benz) POM | CD Inv POM = CD Inv POM | ? }}<small> ([[Ufalme wa Muungano|UK]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_US|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_US|}}} | otc | OTC = [[Over-the-counter drug|OTC]] | {{Unicode|℞}}-only | {{Unicode|℞}} | rx | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = [[Prescription drug|{{Unicode|℞}}<small>-only</small>]] | Schedule I = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_I_drugs|Schedule I]] | Schedule II = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_II_drugs|Schedule II]] | Schedule III = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_III_drugs|Schedule III]] | Schedule IV = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_IV_drugs|Schedule IV]] | Schedule V = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_V_drugs|Schedule V]] | ? }}<small> ([[Marekani|US]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_status|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_status|}}} | rx | RX | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = {{Unicode|℞}} P<small>rescription only</small> | {{{legal_status}}} }} }}{{#if:{{{legal_AU|}}}{{{legal_CA|}}}{{{legal_UK|}}}{{{legal_US|}}}{{{legal_status|}}} | | ? }} |- {{#if:{{{dependency_liability|}}}| ! style="white-space: nowrap" {{!}} [[Drug dependence|Dependence liability]] {{!}} {{{dependency_liability}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{routes_of_administration|}}}| ! [[Route of administration|Njia mbalimbali]] {{!}} {{{routes_of_administration}}} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default={{#if:{{{bioavailability|}}}{{{protein_bound|}}}{{{metabolism|}}}{{{elimination_half-life|}}}{{{excretion|}}} | ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Data ya utendakazi }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{bioavailability|}}}| ! [[Uingiaji katika mzunguko wa mwili]] {{!}} {{{bioavailability}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | | {{#if:{{{protein_bound|}}}| ! [[Plasma protein binding|Kufunga kwa protini]] {{!}} {{{protein_bound}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{metabolism|}}}| ! [[Drug metabolism|Metabolism]] {{!}} {{{metabolism}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{elimination_half-life|}}}| ! [[Biological half-life|Half-life]] {{!}} {{{elimination_half-life}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{excretion|}}}| ! [[Excretion]] {{!}} {{{excretion}}} }} }} |- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" | Vitambulisho |- {{#if:{{{CAS_number|}}}{{{CAS_supplemental|}}} | ! [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{CAS_number|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2009/MB_cgi?term={{{CAS_number}}}&rn=1 {{{CAS_number}}}]</span>}}{{{CAS_number_Ref|}}} {{{CAS_supplemental|}}} }}{{#if: {{{CAS_number|}}} | |[[Category:Chemical pages needing a CAS Registry Number]]}} |- ! {{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System#ATCvet|ATCvet code]] | [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System|Nambari ya ATC]]}} | {{#if:{{{ATC_prefix|}}} | {{#ifeq:{{lc:{{{ATC_prefix|}}} }} | none | None [[Category:Drugs not assigned an ATC code]] | [[ATC_code_{{{ATC_prefix}}}|{{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | Q}}{{{ATC_prefix}}}]]{{#if:{{{ATC_suffix|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[{{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | http://www.whocc.no/atcvet/atcvet_index/?code=Q{{{ATC_prefix}}}{{{ATC_suffix}}} {{{ATC_suffix}}} | http://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code={{{ATC_prefix}}}{{{ATC_suffix}}} {{{ATC_suffix}}}}}]</span> {{{ATC_supplemental|}}} }} }} | {{#if:{{{ATC_supplemental|}}}| {{{ATC_supplemental|}}}| ? <includeonly>[[Category:Drugboxes with an unspecified ATC code]]</includeonly>}} }} |- {{#if:{{{PubChem|}}}{{{PubChemSubstance|}}} | ! [[PubChem]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{PubChem|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid={{{PubChem}}} CID {{{PubChem}}}]</span> | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid={{{PubChemSubstance}}} SID{{{PubChemSubstance}}}] }} }} |- {{#if:{{{IUPHAR_ligand|}}} | ! [[International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology|IUPHAR ligand]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.iuphar-db.org/DATABASE/LigandDisplayForward?ligandId={{{IUPHAR_ligand}}} {{{IUPHAR_ligand}}}]</span> }} |- {{#if:{{{DrugBank|}}} | ! [[DrugBank]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/{{{DrugBank}}} {{{DrugBank}}}]</span> }} |- {{#if:{{{ChemSpiderID|}}} | ! [[ChemSpider]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.{{{ChemSpiderID}}} {{{ChemSpiderID}}}]</span>{{{ChemSpiderID_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{UNII|}}} | ! [[Unique Ingredient Identifier|UNII]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://fdasis.nlm.nih.gov/srs/srsdirect.jsp?regno={{{UNII}}} {{{UNII}}}]</span>{{{UNII_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{KEGG|}}} | ! [[KEGG]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.kegg.jp/entry/{{{KEGG}}} {{{KEGG}}}]</span>{{{KEGG_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{ChEBI|}}} | ! [[ChEBI]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI:{{{ChEBI}}} CHEBI:{{{ChEBI}}}]</span>{{#switch:{{{ChEBI_Ref|}}}x | {{Ebicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without EBI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}} |{{{ChEBI_Ref|}}}}}}} |- {{#if:{{{ChEMBL|}}} | ! [[ChEMBL]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembldb/index.php/compound/inspect/CHEMBL{{{ChEMBL}}} CHEMBL{{{ChEMBL}}}]</span>{{#switch:{{{ChEMBL_Ref|}}}x | {{Ebicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without EBI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}} |{{{ChEMBL_Ref|}}}}}}} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{synonyms|}}} | ! [[Synonym]]s {{!}} {{{synonyms}}} }} }} |- <!-- If type=combo or vaccine, then none of following chemical data parameters to be displayed -->{{#switch:{{{type|}}}|combo|vaccine=|#default= ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Data ya kikemikali {{!}}- }} {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | ! [[Chemical formula|Fomyula]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{chemical_formula|}}} | {{{chemical_formula}}} | {{#if:{{{C|}}}{{{H|}}}{{{O|}}}{{{N|}}}{{{S|}}} |<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{C|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{C|}}} |Carbon }} | atom_color=rgb(000,000,000) | atom_abb=C | atom_number={{{C}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{H|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{H|2}}} |Hydrogen }} | atom_color=rgb(77,77,77) | atom_abb=H | atom_number={{{H}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Ag|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Ag|}}} |Silver}} | atom_color=rgb(160,160,160) | atom_abb=Ag | atom_number={{{Ag}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{As|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{As|}}} |Arsenic}} | atom_color=rgb(101,71,120) | atom_abb=As | atom_number={{{As}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Au|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Au|}}} |Gold}} | atom_color=rgb(127,84,0) | atom_abb=Au | atom_number={{{Au}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{B|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{B|}}}|Boron}} | atom_color=rgb(116,82,82) | atom_abb=B | atom_number={{{B}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Bi|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Bi|}}}|Bismuth}} | atom_color=rgb(87,33,94) | atom_abb=Bi | atom_number={{{Bi}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Br|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Br|}}}|Bromine}} | atom_color=rgb(83,20,20) | atom_abb=Br | atom_number={{{Br}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Cl|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Cl|}}}|Chlorine}} | atom_color=rgb(15,95,15) | atom_abb=Cl | atom_number={{{Cl}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Co|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Co|}}} |Cobalt }} | atom_color=rgb(53,59,90) | atom_abb=Co | atom_number={{{Co}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{F|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{F|}}} |Fluorine}} | atom_color=rgb(66,98,98) | atom_abb=F | atom_number={{{F}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Fe|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Fe|}}} |Iron}} | atom_color= | atom_abb=Fe | atom_number={{{Fe}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Gd|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Gd|}}} |Gadolinium}} | atom_color=rgb(64,0,64) | atom_abb=Gd | atom_number={{{Gd}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{I|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{I|}}} |Iodine}} | atom_color=rgb(74,11,74) | atom_abb=I | atom_number={{{I}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{K|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{K|}}} |Potassium}} | atom_color=rgb(72,32,106) | atom_abb=K | atom_number={{{K}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Mn|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Mn|}}} |Manganese}} | atom_color=rgb(78,21,99) | atom_abb=Mn | atom_number={{{Mn}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{N|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{N|}}} |Nitrogen }} | atom_color=rgb(0,0,128) | atom_abb=N | atom_number={{{N}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Na|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Na|}}}|Sodium}} | atom_color=rgb(11,11,97) | atom_abb=Na | atom_number={{{Na}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{O|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{O|}}} |Oxygen}} | atom_color=rgb(116,35,35) | atom_abb=O | atom_number={{{O}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{P|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{P|}}} |Phosphorus}} | atom_color=rgb(127,63,0) | atom_abb=P | atom_number={{{P}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Pt|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Pt|}}} |Platinum}} | atom_color=rgb(21,53,79) | atom_abb=Pt | atom_number={{{Pt}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{S|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{S|}}} |Sulfur}} | atom_color=rgb(114,97,31) | atom_abb=S | atom_number={{{S}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Sb|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Sb|}}} |Antimony}} | atom_color=rgb(86,47,94) | atom_abb=Sb | atom_number={{{Sb}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Se|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Se|}}}|Selenium}} | atom_color=rgb(105,78,25) | atom_abb=Se | atom_number={{{Se}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Sr|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Sr|}}}|Strontium}} | atom_color=rgb(14,67,14) | atom_abb=Sr | atom_number={{{Sr}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Tc|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Tc|}}} |Technetium}} | atom_color=rgb(30,79,84) | atom_abb=Tc | atom_number={{{Tc}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Zn|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Zn|}}} |Zinc}} | atom_color=rgb(54,60,104) | atom_abb=Zn | atom_number={{{Zn}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->^{{{#if:{{{charge|}}}|{{{charge}}}|&nbsp;}}} | ? }} }} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{molecular_weight|}}} | ! [[Molecular mass|Mol. mass]] {{!}} {{{molecular_weight}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{smiles|}}} | ! [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] {{!}} <!-- exluded until it is clear how we can use a nowiki-tag for template replacements <small><small><small><small>{{{smiles}}}</small></small></small></small><br> --><span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.emolecules.com/cgi-bin/search?t=ex&q={{urlencode:{{{smiles}}}}} eMolecules]</span> & <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/search/?smarts={{urlencode:{{{smiles}}}}} PubChem]</span> }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{StdInChI|}}}| {{!}} colspan="2" {{!}} {{Collapsible list|title =[[International Chemical Identifier|InChI]] | 1 ={{#if:{{{StdInChI|}}}|InChI={{{StdInChI}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChI_comment|}}}|&nbsp;{{{StdInChI_comment}}} }}{{#switch:{{{StdInChI_Ref|}}}x | {{Stdinchicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without InChI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}}|{{{StdInChI_Ref|}}}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChIKey|}}}|<br />Key:{{{StdInChIKey}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChIKey_comment|}}}|&nbsp;{{{StdInChIKey_comment}}} }}{{#switch:{{{StdInChIKey_Ref|}}}x |{{Stdinchicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without InChI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}}|{{{StdInChIKey_Ref|}}}}}}}}}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default={{#if:{{{density|}}}{{{melting_point|}}}{{{boiling_point|}}}{{{solubility|}}}{{{specific_rotation|}}}{{{sec_combustion|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Physical data }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{density|}}} | ! [[Densiti]] {{!}} {{{density}}}&nbsp;g/cm³ }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{melting_point|}}} | ! [[Melting point|Melt. point]] {{!}} {{{melting_point}}}{{#if:{{{melting_high|}}}| –{{{melting_high}}}}}&nbsp;°C ({{#expr: ( {{{melting_point}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }}{{#if:{{{melting_high|}}}| –{{#expr: ( {{{melting_high}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }} }}&nbsp;°F) {{{melting_notes|}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{boiling_point|}}} | ! [[Kiwango cha kuchemka]] {{!}} {{{boiling_point}}}&nbsp;°C ({{#expr: ( {{{boiling_point}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }}&nbsp;°F) {{{boiling_notes|}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{solubility|}}} | ! [[Solubility]] in [[Water (molecule)|water]] {{!}} {{{solubility}}}&nbsp;mg/mL (20&nbsp;°C) }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{specific_rotation|}}} | ! [[Specific rotation|Spec. rot]] {{!}} {{{specific_rotation}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{sec_combustion|}}} | ! [[Standard enthalpy change of combustion|SEC Combust]] {{!}} {{{sec_combustion}}} }} }} }} |- {{#if: {{{chemical_formula|}}} | [[Category:Drug pages needing formula fontification]] |}} {{#if:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}{{{verifiedrevid|}}}| {{!}}- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|&nbsp;{{Cross|14}}[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Chemicals/Chembox_validation|(what is this?)]]|{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|&nbsp;{{Tick|14}}[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Chemicals/Chembox_validation|(Hiki ni nini?)]]}}}}{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?&diff=cur&oldid={{{verifiedrevid|}}} (thibitisha)]</span>}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|<br />|{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|<br />}}}}}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|[[Category:Drugboxes which contain changes to verified fields]]|}}{{#ifeq:{{{Watchedfields|}}}|changed|[[Category:Drugboxes which contain changes to watched fields]]|}}{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}||[[Category:Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes]]}} |- |}<noinclude>{{Documentation}}</noinclude> gc883931o5qnjnk3v07twuztc1svj0c 1361717 1361716 2024-11-08T05:20:38Z Joeangatia 39839 1361717 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="text-align: left; font-size: 88%; width: 22em; line-height: 1.5em" |+ style="font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold" {{!}} {{{drug_name|{{{imagename|{{PAGENAME}} }}} }}}{{#ifeq:{{{type|}}}|mab|^{[[Nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies|?]]}}} |- {{#if:{{{name|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: right; " {{!}} {{Navbar|Drugbox/{{PAGENAME}}|mini=1}} }} |- {{#if:{{{image|}}}{{{image2|}}}| {{#if:{{{image|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} [[file:{{{image}}} | {{Px|{{{width|}}}|220}} |alt={{{alt|}}}]] {{!}}- }} {{#if:{{{image2|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} [[file:{{{image2}}} | {{Px|{{{width2|}}}|{{{width|}}}|220}} |alt={{{alt2|}}}]] {{!}}- }}| {{#ifexist:File:{{PAGENAME}}.png| ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} [[File:{{PAGENAME}}.png | {{Px|{{{width|}}}|220}}|alt={{{alt|}}}| Chemical structure of {{PAGENAME}} ]] {{!}}-|{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#ifeq: {{NAMESPACE}} |{{ns:0}} | [[Category:Drug pages needing a structure drawing]] }}}}}}}} }} }} {{#if: {{{caption|}}}| {{!}} colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} {{{caption}}} {{!}}- }} <!-- Top header for Combination, Monoclonal else default IUPAC header -->! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | vaccine = [[Vaccine|Vaccine description]] | combo = Combination of | mab = [[Monoclonal antibody#Applications|Monoclonal antibody]] | #default = {{#if:{{{IUPAC_name|}}} | Jina la Utaratibu la ([[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry nomenclature|IUPAC]])}}}} |- <!-- Naming 1) If not mab/combo/vaccine show IUPAC value -->{{#switch: {{{type|}}} | mab | combo | vaccine = | #default ={{#if:{{{IUPAC_name|}}} | {{!}} colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} <span style="font-size:11px">{{{IUPAC_name}}}</span> }} }} |- <!-- Naming 2) If type=vaccine then show vaccine details -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | ! Target disease {{!}} {{#if:{{{target|}}} | {{{target}}} | ? }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | ! [[Vaccine#Types|Type]] {{!}} {{#switch:{{{vaccine_type|}}} |Killed |killed |Inactivated |inactivated = Killed/Inactivated |Attenuated |attenuated = [[Attenuated virus]] |Live |live = Live bacteria |Toxoid |toxoid = [[Toxoid]] |Subunit |subunit = Subunit |Protein subunit |protein subunit |Protein |protein = [[Protein subunit]] |Conjugate |conjugate=[[Conjugate vaccine]] |Recombinant |recombinant = [[Recombinant DNA|Recombinant Vector]] |DNA |dna = [[DNA vaccination]] | ? }} }} |- <!-- Naming 3) If type=mab then show monoclonal antibody details -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | {{#if: {{{mab_type|}}} | ! [[:File:Engineered monoclonal antibodies.svg|Type]] {{!}} {{#switch: {{{mab_type|}}} | MAB | mab = Whole antibody | Fab | fab = [[Fab fragment]] | F(ab')2 | f(ab')2 = [[F(ab')2 fragment|F(ab')₂ fragment]] | Fab' | fab' = [[Fab' fragment]] | scFv | scfv = [[Single-chain variable fragment]] | discFv | discfv = Di-[[single-chain variable fragment]] | sdAb | sdab = [[Single domain antibody]] | 3funct = [[Trifunctional antibody]] | clFab | clfab = [[Chemically linked Fab]] | BiTE | bite = [[Bi-specific T-cell engager]] | ? }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | {{#if: {{{source|}}} | ! [[Monoclonal antibody#Production|Source]] {{!}} {{#switch: {{{source|}}} | a = [[Panya]] | e = [[Hamster]] | i = [[Primate]] | o = [[Kipanya]] | u = [[Binadamu]] | xi/a = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] ([[Panya]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xi/e = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] ([[hamster]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xi/i = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] ([[primate]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xi/o = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] ([[Kipanya]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xi = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] | zu/a = [[Humanized]] (from [[Panya]]) | zu/e = [[Humanized]] (from [[hamster]]) | zu/i = [[Humanized]] (from [[primate]]) | zu/o = [[Humanized]] (from [[Kipanya]]) | zu = [[Humanized]] | xizu/a = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid ([[Panya]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xizu/e = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid ([[hamster]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xizu/i = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid ([[primate]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xizu/o = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid ([[Kipanya]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xizu = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid | axo = [[Panya]]/[[Kipanya]] hybrid | {{{source|}}}[[Category:Drugboxes with unformatted antibody source]] }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | {{#if: {{{target|}}} | ! [[Antigen|Target]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{target|}}} | {{{target}}} | ? }} }} }} |- <!-- Naming 4) if type=combo show its components (2 obligatory, 3 & 4 optional) -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | ! [[{{{component1|? Component}}}]] {{!}} {{{class1|? Class}}} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | ! [[{{{component2|? Component}}}]] {{!}} {{{class2|? Class}}} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | {{#if:{{{component3|}}} | {{!}}- ! [[{{{component3|?}}}]] {{!}} {{{class3|? Class}}} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | {{#if:{{{component4|}}} | {{!}}- ! [[{{{component4|?}}}]] {{!}} {{{class4|? Class}}} }} }} |- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" | Data ya kikliniki |- {{#if:{{{tradename|}}}| ! [[Majina ya kibiashara]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{tradename|}}} | {{{tradename}}} }} }} <!-- |- {{#if:{{{ASHP|}}}| ! [[American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|ASHP]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{ASHP|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.safemedication.com/searchresults/DisplayDrug.aspx?id={{{ASHP}}} {{{ASHP}}}]</span>}} }} --> |- {{#if:{{{Drugs.com|}}}| ! [[American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|AHFS]]/[[Drugs.com]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{Drugs.com|}}} | {{{Drugs.com}}}}} }} <!-- |- {{#if:{{{eMedicine|}}}| ! [[eMedicine]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{eMedicine|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.emedicinehealth.com/drug-{{{eMedicine}}}/article_em.htm {{{eMedicine}}}]</span>}} }} --> |- {{#if:{{{MedlinePlus|}}}| ! [[MedlinePlus]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{MedlinePlus|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/{{{MedlinePlus}}}.html {{{MedlinePlus}}}]</span>}} }} |- {{#if:{{{licence_EU|}}}{{{licence_US|}}}{{{DailyMedID|}}} | ! [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Taarifa za leseni]] {{!}} }}{{#if:{{{licence_EU|}}} | [[European Medicines Agency|EMA]]:<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[{{EMA-EPAR|{{{licence_EU}}}}} Link]</span>{{#if:{{{licence_US|}}}{{{DailyMedID|}}} | ,&nbsp; }} }}{{#if:{{{DailyMedID|}}} | [[Daily Med|US&nbsp;Daily&nbsp;Med]]:<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?id={{{DailyMedID}}} link]</span> |{{#if:{{{licence_US|}}} | [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration|US&nbsp;FDA]]:<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/drugsatfda/index.cfm?fuseaction=Search.SearchAction&SearchTerm={{{licence_US}}}&SearchType=BasicSearch link]</span> }} }} |- ! [[Pregnancy category|Kategoria ya ujauzito]] | {{#if:{{{pregnancy_AU|}}} | {{#switch: {{{pregnancy_AU|}}} | a | A = A | b1 | B1 = B1 | b2 | B2 = B2 | b3 | B3 = B3 | b | B = B? | c | C = C | d | D = D | x | X = X | ? }}<small>([[Australia|AU]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{pregnancy_US|}}} | {{#switch: {{{pregnancy_US|}}} | a | A = A | b | B = B | c | C = C | d | D = D | x | X = X | ? }}<small>([[Marekani|US]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{pregnancy_category|}}} | {{{pregnancy_category}}} | {{#if:{{{pregnancy_AU|}}}{{{pregnancy_US|}}} | | ? }} }} |- ! [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Hali ya kisheria]] | <!-- All but first country block must start the '{{#ifeq' on same line as preceeding block's closing '}}'. Test for upper & lower case, use wikilinked two-letter ISO country codes (ISO 3166-1) within the framework of [[WP:MOS]]. Note space after counry code as separator & allows line wrapping. Previous legal-status kept both for backwards compatibility - most articles currently use this and for furture appends free-text to country-specified categorisations. -->{{#if:{{{legal_AU|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_AU|}}} | unscheduled | Unscheduled = U<small>nscheduled</small> | | s2 | S2 | Schedule 2 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 2 Pharmacy Medicine|Pharmacy Only (S2)]] | s3 | S3 | Schedule 3 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 3 Pharmacist Only Medicine|Pharmacist Only (S3)]] | s4 | S4 | Schedule 4 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 4 Prescription Only Medicine|Prescription Only (S4)]] | s5 | S5 | Schedule 5 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 5 Caution|Caution (S5)]] | s6 | S6 | Schedule 6 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 6 Poison|Poison (S6)]] | s7 | S7 | Schedule 7 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 7 Dangerous Poison|Dangerous Poison (S7)]] | s8 | S8 | Schedule 8 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 8 Controlled Drug|Controlled (S8)]] | s9 | S9 | Schedule 9 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 9 Prohibited Substance|Prohibited (S9)]] | ? }}<small> ([[Australia|AU]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_CA|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_CA|}}} | otc | OTC = [[Over-the-counter drug|OTC]] | {{Unicode|℞}}-only | {{Unicode|℞}} | rx | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = [[Prescription drug|{{Unicode|℞}}<small>-only</small>]] | Schedule I = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_I|Schedule I]] | Schedule II = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_II|Schedule II]] | Schedule III = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_III|Schedule III]] | Schedule IV = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_IV|Schedule IV]] | Schedule V = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_V|Schedule V]] | Schedule VI = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VI_(Precursors)|Schedule VI]] | Schedule VII = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VII|Schedule VII]] | Schedule VIII= [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VIII|Schedule VIII]] | ? }}<small> ([[Kanada|CA]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_UK|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_UK|}}} | gsl | GSL = GSL | p | P =P | pom | POM = [[Prescription drug|POM]] | cd | CD =CD | CD Lic = CD Lic | CD POM = CD POM | CD No Reg POM = CD No Reg POM | CD (Anab) POM = CD (Anab) POM | CD (Benz) POM = CD (Benz) POM | CD Inv POM = CD Inv POM | ? }}<small> ([[Ufalme wa Muungano|UK]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_US|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_US|}}} | otc | OTC = [[Over-the-counter drug|OTC]] | {{Unicode|℞}}-only | {{Unicode|℞}} | rx | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = [[Prescription drug|{{Unicode|℞}}<small>-only</small>]] | Schedule I = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_I_drugs|Schedule I]] | Schedule II = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_II_drugs|Schedule II]] | Schedule III = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_III_drugs|Schedule III]] | Schedule IV = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_IV_drugs|Schedule IV]] | Schedule V = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_V_drugs|Schedule V]] | ? }}<small> ([[Marekani|US]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_status|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_status|}}} | rx | RX | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = {{Unicode|℞}} P<small>rescription only</small> | {{{legal_status}}} }} }}{{#if:{{{legal_AU|}}}{{{legal_CA|}}}{{{legal_UK|}}}{{{legal_US|}}}{{{legal_status|}}} | | ? }} |- {{#if:{{{dependency_liability|}}}| ! style="white-space: nowrap" {{!}} [[Drug dependence|Dependence liability]] {{!}} {{{dependency_liability}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{routes_of_administration|}}}| ! [[Route of administration|Njia mbalimbali]] {{!}} {{{routes_of_administration}}} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default={{#if:{{{bioavailability|}}}{{{protein_bound|}}}{{{metabolism|}}}{{{elimination_half-life|}}}{{{excretion|}}} | ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Data ya utendakazi }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{bioavailability|}}}| ! [[Uingiaji katika mzunguko wa mwili]] {{!}} {{{bioavailability}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | | {{#if:{{{protein_bound|}}}| ! [[Plasma protein binding|Kufunga kwa protini]] {{!}} {{{protein_bound}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{metabolism|}}}| ! [[Drug metabolism|Kimetaboliki]] {{!}} {{{metabolism}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{elimination_half-life|}}}| ! [[Biological half-life|Nusu uhai]] {{!}} {{{elimination_half-life}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{excretion|}}}| ! [[Excretion]] {{!}} {{{excretion}}} }} }} |- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" | Vitambulisho |- {{#if:{{{CAS_number|}}}{{{CAS_supplemental|}}} | ! [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{CAS_number|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2009/MB_cgi?term={{{CAS_number}}}&rn=1 {{{CAS_number}}}]</span>}}{{{CAS_number_Ref|}}} {{{CAS_supplemental|}}} }}{{#if: {{{CAS_number|}}} | |[[Category:Chemical pages needing a CAS Registry Number]]}} |- ! {{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System#ATCvet|ATCvet code]] | [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System|Nambari ya ATC]]}} | {{#if:{{{ATC_prefix|}}} | {{#ifeq:{{lc:{{{ATC_prefix|}}} }} | none | None [[Category:Drugs not assigned an ATC code]] | [[ATC_code_{{{ATC_prefix}}}|{{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | Q}}{{{ATC_prefix}}}]]{{#if:{{{ATC_suffix|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[{{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | http://www.whocc.no/atcvet/atcvet_index/?code=Q{{{ATC_prefix}}}{{{ATC_suffix}}} {{{ATC_suffix}}} | http://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code={{{ATC_prefix}}}{{{ATC_suffix}}} {{{ATC_suffix}}}}}]</span> {{{ATC_supplemental|}}} }} }} | {{#if:{{{ATC_supplemental|}}}| {{{ATC_supplemental|}}}| ? <includeonly>[[Category:Drugboxes with an unspecified ATC code]]</includeonly>}} }} |- {{#if:{{{PubChem|}}}{{{PubChemSubstance|}}} | ! [[PubChem]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{PubChem|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid={{{PubChem}}} CID {{{PubChem}}}]</span> | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid={{{PubChemSubstance}}} SID{{{PubChemSubstance}}}] }} }} |- {{#if:{{{IUPHAR_ligand|}}} | ! [[International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology|IUPHAR ligand]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.iuphar-db.org/DATABASE/LigandDisplayForward?ligandId={{{IUPHAR_ligand}}} {{{IUPHAR_ligand}}}]</span> }} |- {{#if:{{{DrugBank|}}} | ! [[DrugBank]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/{{{DrugBank}}} {{{DrugBank}}}]</span> }} |- {{#if:{{{ChemSpiderID|}}} | ! [[ChemSpider]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.{{{ChemSpiderID}}} {{{ChemSpiderID}}}]</span>{{{ChemSpiderID_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{UNII|}}} | ! [[Unique Ingredient Identifier|UNII]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://fdasis.nlm.nih.gov/srs/srsdirect.jsp?regno={{{UNII}}} {{{UNII}}}]</span>{{{UNII_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{KEGG|}}} | ! [[KEGG]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.kegg.jp/entry/{{{KEGG}}} {{{KEGG}}}]</span>{{{KEGG_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{ChEBI|}}} | ! [[ChEBI]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI:{{{ChEBI}}} CHEBI:{{{ChEBI}}}]</span>{{#switch:{{{ChEBI_Ref|}}}x | {{Ebicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without EBI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}} |{{{ChEBI_Ref|}}}}}}} |- {{#if:{{{ChEMBL|}}} | ! [[ChEMBL]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembldb/index.php/compound/inspect/CHEMBL{{{ChEMBL}}} CHEMBL{{{ChEMBL}}}]</span>{{#switch:{{{ChEMBL_Ref|}}}x | {{Ebicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without EBI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}} |{{{ChEMBL_Ref|}}}}}}} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{synonyms|}}} | ! [[Visawe]] {{!}} {{{synonyms}}} }} }} |- <!-- If type=combo or vaccine, then none of following chemical data parameters to be displayed -->{{#switch:{{{type|}}}|combo|vaccine=|#default= ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Data ya kikemikali {{!}}- }} {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | ! [[Chemical formula|Fomyula]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{chemical_formula|}}} | {{{chemical_formula}}} | {{#if:{{{C|}}}{{{H|}}}{{{O|}}}{{{N|}}}{{{S|}}} |<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{C|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{C|}}} |Carbon }} | atom_color=rgb(000,000,000) | atom_abb=C | atom_number={{{C}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{H|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{H|2}}} |Hydrogen }} | atom_color=rgb(77,77,77) | atom_abb=H | atom_number={{{H}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Ag|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Ag|}}} |Silver}} | atom_color=rgb(160,160,160) | atom_abb=Ag | atom_number={{{Ag}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{As|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{As|}}} |Arsenic}} | atom_color=rgb(101,71,120) | atom_abb=As | atom_number={{{As}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Au|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Au|}}} |Gold}} | atom_color=rgb(127,84,0) | atom_abb=Au | atom_number={{{Au}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{B|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{B|}}}|Boron}} | atom_color=rgb(116,82,82) | atom_abb=B | atom_number={{{B}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Bi|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Bi|}}}|Bismuth}} | atom_color=rgb(87,33,94) | atom_abb=Bi | atom_number={{{Bi}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Br|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Br|}}}|Bromine}} | atom_color=rgb(83,20,20) | atom_abb=Br | atom_number={{{Br}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Cl|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Cl|}}}|Chlorine}} | atom_color=rgb(15,95,15) | atom_abb=Cl | atom_number={{{Cl}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Co|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Co|}}} |Cobalt }} | atom_color=rgb(53,59,90) | atom_abb=Co | atom_number={{{Co}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{F|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{F|}}} |Fluorine}} | atom_color=rgb(66,98,98) | atom_abb=F | atom_number={{{F}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Fe|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Fe|}}} |Iron}} | atom_color= | atom_abb=Fe | atom_number={{{Fe}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Gd|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Gd|}}} |Gadolinium}} | atom_color=rgb(64,0,64) | atom_abb=Gd | atom_number={{{Gd}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{I|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{I|}}} |Iodine}} | atom_color=rgb(74,11,74) | atom_abb=I | atom_number={{{I}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{K|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{K|}}} |Potassium}} | atom_color=rgb(72,32,106) | atom_abb=K | atom_number={{{K}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Mn|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Mn|}}} |Manganese}} | atom_color=rgb(78,21,99) | atom_abb=Mn | atom_number={{{Mn}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{N|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{N|}}} |Nitrogen }} | atom_color=rgb(0,0,128) | atom_abb=N | atom_number={{{N}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Na|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Na|}}}|Sodium}} | atom_color=rgb(11,11,97) | atom_abb=Na | atom_number={{{Na}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{O|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{O|}}} |Oxygen}} | atom_color=rgb(116,35,35) | atom_abb=O | atom_number={{{O}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{P|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{P|}}} |Phosphorus}} | atom_color=rgb(127,63,0) | atom_abb=P | atom_number={{{P}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Pt|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Pt|}}} |Platinum}} | atom_color=rgb(21,53,79) | atom_abb=Pt | atom_number={{{Pt}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{S|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{S|}}} |Sulfur}} | atom_color=rgb(114,97,31) | atom_abb=S | atom_number={{{S}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Sb|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Sb|}}} |Antimony}} | atom_color=rgb(86,47,94) | atom_abb=Sb | atom_number={{{Sb}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Se|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Se|}}}|Selenium}} | atom_color=rgb(105,78,25) | atom_abb=Se | atom_number={{{Se}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Sr|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Sr|}}}|Strontium}} | atom_color=rgb(14,67,14) | atom_abb=Sr | atom_number={{{Sr}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Tc|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Tc|}}} |Technetium}} | atom_color=rgb(30,79,84) | atom_abb=Tc | atom_number={{{Tc}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Zn|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Zn|}}} |Zinc}} | atom_color=rgb(54,60,104) | atom_abb=Zn | atom_number={{{Zn}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->^{{{#if:{{{charge|}}}|{{{charge}}}|&nbsp;}}} | ? }} }} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{molecular_weight|}}} | ! [[Molecular mass|Mol. mass]] {{!}} {{{molecular_weight}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{smiles|}}} | ! [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] {{!}} <!-- exluded until it is clear how we can use a nowiki-tag for template replacements <small><small><small><small>{{{smiles}}}</small></small></small></small><br> --><span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.emolecules.com/cgi-bin/search?t=ex&q={{urlencode:{{{smiles}}}}} eMolecules]</span> & <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/search/?smarts={{urlencode:{{{smiles}}}}} PubChem]</span> }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{StdInChI|}}}| {{!}} colspan="2" {{!}} {{Collapsible list|title =[[International Chemical Identifier|InChI]] | 1 ={{#if:{{{StdInChI|}}}|InChI={{{StdInChI}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChI_comment|}}}|&nbsp;{{{StdInChI_comment}}} }}{{#switch:{{{StdInChI_Ref|}}}x | {{Stdinchicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without InChI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}}|{{{StdInChI_Ref|}}}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChIKey|}}}|<br />Key:{{{StdInChIKey}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChIKey_comment|}}}|&nbsp;{{{StdInChIKey_comment}}} }}{{#switch:{{{StdInChIKey_Ref|}}}x |{{Stdinchicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without InChI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}}|{{{StdInChIKey_Ref|}}}}}}}}}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default={{#if:{{{density|}}}{{{melting_point|}}}{{{boiling_point|}}}{{{solubility|}}}{{{specific_rotation|}}}{{{sec_combustion|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Physical data }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{density|}}} | ! [[Densiti]] {{!}} {{{density}}}&nbsp;g/cm³ }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{melting_point|}}} | ! [[Melting point|Melt. point]] {{!}} {{{melting_point}}}{{#if:{{{melting_high|}}}| –{{{melting_high}}}}}&nbsp;°C ({{#expr: ( {{{melting_point}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }}{{#if:{{{melting_high|}}}| –{{#expr: ( {{{melting_high}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }} }}&nbsp;°F) {{{melting_notes|}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{boiling_point|}}} | ! [[Kiwango cha kuchemka]] {{!}} {{{boiling_point}}}&nbsp;°C ({{#expr: ( {{{boiling_point}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }}&nbsp;°F) {{{boiling_notes|}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{solubility|}}} | ! [[Solubility]] in [[Water (molecule)|water]] {{!}} {{{solubility}}}&nbsp;mg/mL (20&nbsp;°C) }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{specific_rotation|}}} | ! [[Specific rotation|Spec. rot]] {{!}} {{{specific_rotation}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{sec_combustion|}}} | ! [[Standard enthalpy change of combustion|SEC Combust]] {{!}} {{{sec_combustion}}} }} }} }} |- {{#if: {{{chemical_formula|}}} | [[Category:Drug pages needing formula fontification]] |}} {{#if:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}{{{verifiedrevid|}}}| {{!}}- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|&nbsp;{{Cross|14}}[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Chemicals/Chembox_validation|(what is this?)]]|{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|&nbsp;{{Tick|14}}[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Chemicals/Chembox_validation|(Hiki ni nini?)]]}}}}{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?&diff=cur&oldid={{{verifiedrevid|}}} (thibitisha)]</span>}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|<br />|{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|<br />}}}}}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|[[Category:Drugboxes which contain changes to verified fields]]|}}{{#ifeq:{{{Watchedfields|}}}|changed|[[Category:Drugboxes which contain changes to watched fields]]|}}{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}||[[Category:Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes]]}} |- |}<noinclude>{{Documentation}}</noinclude> togxugpb7bj65siv11viebip0vpf8ev 1361726 1361717 2024-11-08T06:23:04Z Joeangatia 39839 1361726 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="text-align: left; font-size: 88%; width: 22em; line-height: 1.5em" |+ style="font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold" {{!}} {{{drug_name|{{{imagename|{{PAGENAME}} }}} }}}{{#ifeq:{{{type|}}}|mab|^{[[Nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies|?]]}}} |- {{#if:{{{name|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: right; " {{!}} {{Navbar|Drugbox/{{PAGENAME}}|mini=1}} }} |- {{#if:{{{image|}}}{{{image2|}}}| {{#if:{{{image|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} [[file:{{{image}}} | {{Px|{{{width|}}}|220}} |alt={{{alt|}}}]] {{!}}- }} {{#if:{{{image2|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} [[file:{{{image2}}} | {{Px|{{{width2|}}}|{{{width|}}}|220}} |alt={{{alt2|}}}]] {{!}}- }}| {{#ifexist:File:{{PAGENAME}}.png| ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} [[File:{{PAGENAME}}.png | {{Px|{{{width|}}}|220}}|alt={{{alt|}}}| Chemical structure of {{PAGENAME}} ]] {{!}}-|{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#ifeq: {{NAMESPACE}} |{{ns:0}} | [[Category:Drug pages needing a structure drawing]] }}}}}}}} }} }} {{#if: {{{caption|}}}| {{!}} colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} {{{caption}}} {{!}}- }} <!-- Top header for Combination, Monoclonal else default IUPAC header -->! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | vaccine = [[Vaccine|Vaccine description]] | combo = Combination of | mab = [[Monoclonal antibody#Applications|Monoclonal antibody]] | #default = {{#if:{{{IUPAC_name|}}} | Jina la Utaratibu la ([[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry nomenclature|IUPAC]])}}}} |- <!-- Naming 1) If not mab/combo/vaccine show IUPAC value -->{{#switch: {{{type|}}} | mab | combo | vaccine = | #default ={{#if:{{{IUPAC_name|}}} | {{!}} colspan=2 style="text-align: center" {{!}} <span style="font-size:11px">{{{IUPAC_name}}}</span> }} }} |- <!-- Naming 2) If type=vaccine then show vaccine details -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | ! Target disease {{!}} {{#if:{{{target|}}} | {{{target}}} | ? }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | ! [[Vaccine#Types|Type]] {{!}} {{#switch:{{{vaccine_type|}}} |Killed |killed |Inactivated |inactivated = Killed/Inactivated |Attenuated |attenuated = [[Attenuated virus]] |Live |live = Live bacteria |Toxoid |toxoid = [[Toxoid]] |Subunit |subunit = Subunit |Protein subunit |protein subunit |Protein |protein = [[Protein subunit]] |Conjugate |conjugate=[[Conjugate vaccine]] |Recombinant |recombinant = [[Recombinant DNA|Recombinant Vector]] |DNA |dna = [[DNA vaccination]] | ? }} }} |- <!-- Naming 3) If type=mab then show monoclonal antibody details -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | {{#if: {{{mab_type|}}} | ! [[:File:Engineered monoclonal antibodies.svg|Type]] {{!}} {{#switch: {{{mab_type|}}} | MAB | mab = Whole antibody | Fab | fab = [[Fab fragment]] | F(ab')2 | f(ab')2 = [[F(ab')2 fragment|F(ab')₂ fragment]] | Fab' | fab' = [[Fab' fragment]] | scFv | scfv = [[Single-chain variable fragment]] | discFv | discfv = Di-[[single-chain variable fragment]] | sdAb | sdab = [[Single domain antibody]] | 3funct = [[Trifunctional antibody]] | clFab | clfab = [[Chemically linked Fab]] | BiTE | bite = [[Bi-specific T-cell engager]] | ? }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | {{#if: {{{source|}}} | ! [[Monoclonal antibody#Production|Source]] {{!}} {{#switch: {{{source|}}} | a = [[Panya]] | e = [[Hamster]] | i = [[Primate]] | o = [[Kipanya]] | u = [[Binadamu]] | xi/a = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] ([[Panya]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xi/e = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] ([[hamster]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xi/i = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] ([[primate]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xi/o = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] ([[Kipanya]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xi = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]] | zu/a = [[Humanized]] (from [[Panya]]) | zu/e = [[Humanized]] (from [[hamster]]) | zu/i = [[Humanized]] (from [[primate]]) | zu/o = [[Humanized]] (from [[Kipanya]]) | zu = [[Humanized]] | xizu/a = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid ([[Panya]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xizu/e = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid ([[hamster]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xizu/i = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid ([[primate]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xizu/o = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid ([[Kipanya]]/[[Binadamu]]) | xizu = [[chimeric antibody|Chimeric]]/[[humanized]] hybrid | axo = [[Panya]]/[[Kipanya]] hybrid | {{{source|}}}[[Category:Drugboxes with unformatted antibody source]] }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | mab | {{#if: {{{target|}}} | ! [[Antigen|Target]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{target|}}} | {{{target}}} | ? }} }} }} |- <!-- Naming 4) if type=combo show its components (2 obligatory, 3 & 4 optional) -->{{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | ! [[{{{component1|? Component}}}]] {{!}} {{{class1|? Class}}} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | ! [[{{{component2|? Component}}}]] {{!}} {{{class2|? Class}}} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | {{#if:{{{component3|}}} | {{!}}- ! [[{{{component3|?}}}]] {{!}} {{{class3|? Class}}} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | {{#if:{{{component4|}}} | {{!}}- ! [[{{{component4|?}}}]] {{!}} {{{class4|? Class}}} }} }} |- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" | Data ya kikliniki |- {{#if:{{{tradename|}}}| ! [[Majina ya kibiashara]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{tradename|}}} | {{{tradename}}} }} }} <!-- |- {{#if:{{{ASHP|}}}| ! [[American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|ASHP]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{ASHP|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.safemedication.com/searchresults/DisplayDrug.aspx?id={{{ASHP}}} {{{ASHP}}}]</span>}} }} --> |- {{#if:{{{Drugs.com|}}}| ! [[American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|AHFS]]/[[Drugs.com]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{Drugs.com|}}} | {{{Drugs.com}}}}} }} <!-- |- {{#if:{{{eMedicine|}}}| ! [[eMedicine]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{eMedicine|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.emedicinehealth.com/drug-{{{eMedicine}}}/article_em.htm {{{eMedicine}}}]</span>}} }} --> |- {{#if:{{{MedlinePlus|}}}| ! [[MedlinePlus]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{MedlinePlus|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/{{{MedlinePlus}}}.html {{{MedlinePlus}}}]</span>}} }} |- {{#if:{{{licence_EU|}}}{{{licence_US|}}}{{{DailyMedID|}}} | ! [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Taarifa za leseni]] {{!}} }}{{#if:{{{licence_EU|}}} | [[European Medicines Agency|EMA]]:<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[{{EMA-EPAR|{{{licence_EU}}}}} Link]</span>{{#if:{{{licence_US|}}}{{{DailyMedID|}}} | ,&nbsp; }} }}{{#if:{{{DailyMedID|}}} | [[Daily Med|US&nbsp;Daily&nbsp;Med]]:<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?id={{{DailyMedID}}} link]</span> |{{#if:{{{licence_US|}}} | [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration|US&nbsp;FDA]]:<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/drugsatfda/index.cfm?fuseaction=Search.SearchAction&SearchTerm={{{licence_US}}}&SearchType=BasicSearch link]</span> }} }} |- ! [[Pregnancy category|Kategoria ya ujauzito]] | {{#if:{{{pregnancy_AU|}}} | {{#switch: {{{pregnancy_AU|}}} | a | A = A | b1 | B1 = B1 | b2 | B2 = B2 | b3 | B3 = B3 | b | B = B? | c | C = C | d | D = D | x | X = X | ? }}<small>([[Australia|AU]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{pregnancy_US|}}} | {{#switch: {{{pregnancy_US|}}} | a | A = A | b | B = B | c | C = C | d | D = D | x | X = X | ? }}<small>([[Marekani|US]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{pregnancy_category|}}} | {{{pregnancy_category}}} | {{#if:{{{pregnancy_AU|}}}{{{pregnancy_US|}}} | | ? }} }} |- ! [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Hali ya kisheria]] | <!-- All but first country block must start the '{{#ifeq' on same line as preceeding block's closing '}}'. Test for upper & lower case, use wikilinked two-letter ISO country codes (ISO 3166-1) within the framework of [[WP:MOS]]. Note space after counry code as separator & allows line wrapping. Previous legal-status kept both for backwards compatibility - most articles currently use this and for furture appends free-text to country-specified categorisations. -->{{#if:{{{legal_AU|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_AU|}}} | unscheduled | Unscheduled = U<small>nscheduled</small> | | s2 | S2 | Schedule 2 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 2 Pharmacy Medicine|Pharmacy Only (S2)]] | s3 | S3 | Schedule 3 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 3 Pharmacist Only Medicine|Pharmacist Only (S3)]] | s4 | S4 | Schedule 4 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 4 Prescription Only Medicine|Prescription Only (S4)]] | s5 | S5 | Schedule 5 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 5 Caution|Caution (S5)]] | s6 | S6 | Schedule 6 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 6 Poison|Poison (S6)]] | s7 | S7 | Schedule 7 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 7 Dangerous Poison|Dangerous Poison (S7)]] | s8 | S8 | Schedule 8 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 8 Controlled Drug|Controlled (S8)]] | s9 | S9 | Schedule 9 = [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 9 Prohibited Substance|Prohibited (S9)]] | ? }}<small> ([[Australia|AU]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_CA|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_CA|}}} | otc | OTC = [[Over-the-counter drug|OTC]] | {{Unicode|℞}}-only | {{Unicode|℞}} | rx | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = [[Prescription drug|{{Unicode|℞}}<small>-only</small>]] | Schedule I = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_I|Schedule I]] | Schedule II = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_II|Schedule II]] | Schedule III = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_III|Schedule III]] | Schedule IV = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_IV|Schedule IV]] | Schedule V = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_V|Schedule V]] | Schedule VI = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VI_(Precursors)|Schedule VI]] | Schedule VII = [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VII|Schedule VII]] | Schedule VIII= [[Controlled_Drugs_and_Substances_Act#Schedule_VIII|Schedule VIII]] | ? }}<small> ([[Kanada|CA]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_UK|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_UK|}}} | gsl | GSL = GSL | p | P =P | pom | POM = [[Prescription drug|POM]] | cd | CD =CD | CD Lic = CD Lic | CD POM = CD POM | CD No Reg POM = CD No Reg POM | CD (Anab) POM = CD (Anab) POM | CD (Benz) POM = CD (Benz) POM | CD Inv POM = CD Inv POM | ? }}<small> ([[Ufalme wa Muungano|UK]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_US|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_US|}}} | otc | OTC = [[Over-the-counter drug|OTC]] | {{Unicode|℞}}-only | {{Unicode|℞}} | rx | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = [[Prescription drug|{{Unicode|℞}}<small>-only</small>]] | Schedule I = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_I_drugs|Schedule I]] | Schedule II = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_II_drugs|Schedule II]] | Schedule III = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_III_drugs|Schedule III]] | Schedule IV = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_IV_drugs|Schedule IV]] | Schedule V = [[Controlled_Substances_Act#Schedule_V_drugs|Schedule V]] | ? }}<small> ([[Marekani|US]]) </small> }}{{#if:{{{legal_status|}}} | {{#switch: {{{legal_status|}}} | rx | RX | Rx | rx-only | Rx-only = {{Unicode|℞}} P<small>rescription only</small> | {{{legal_status}}} }} }}{{#if:{{{legal_AU|}}}{{{legal_CA|}}}{{{legal_UK|}}}{{{legal_US|}}}{{{legal_status|}}} | | ? }} |- {{#if:{{{dependency_liability|}}}| ! style="white-space: nowrap" {{!}} [[Drug dependence|Dependence liability]] {{!}} {{{dependency_liability}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{routes_of_administration|}}}| ! [[Route of administration|Njia mbalimbali za matumizi]] {{!}} {{{routes_of_administration}}} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default={{#if:{{{bioavailability|}}}{{{protein_bound|}}}{{{metabolism|}}}{{{elimination_half-life|}}}{{{excretion|}}} | ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Data ya utendakazi }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{bioavailability|}}}| ! [[Uingiaji katika mzunguko wa mwili]] {{!}} {{{bioavailability}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | | {{#if:{{{protein_bound|}}}| ! [[Plasma protein binding|Kufunga kwa protini]] {{!}} {{{protein_bound}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{metabolism|}}}| ! [[Drug metabolism|Kimetaboliki]] {{!}} {{{metabolism}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{elimination_half-life|}}}| ! [[Biological half-life|Nusu uhai]] {{!}} {{{elimination_half-life}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{excretion|}}}| ! [[Excretion]] {{!}} {{{excretion}}} }} }} |- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" | Vitambulisho |- {{#if:{{{CAS_number|}}}{{{CAS_supplemental|}}} | ! [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] {{!}} {{#if: {{{CAS_number|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2009/MB_cgi?term={{{CAS_number}}}&rn=1 {{{CAS_number}}}]</span>}}{{{CAS_number_Ref|}}} {{{CAS_supplemental|}}} }}{{#if: {{{CAS_number|}}} | |[[Category:Chemical pages needing a CAS Registry Number]]}} |- ! {{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System#ATCvet|ATCvet code]] | [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System|Nambari ya ATC]]}} | {{#if:{{{ATC_prefix|}}} | {{#ifeq:{{lc:{{{ATC_prefix|}}} }} | none | None [[Category:Drugs not assigned an ATC code]] | [[ATC_code_{{{ATC_prefix}}}|{{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | Q}}{{{ATC_prefix}}}]]{{#if:{{{ATC_suffix|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[{{#ifeq:{{{ATCvet}}} | yes | http://www.whocc.no/atcvet/atcvet_index/?code=Q{{{ATC_prefix}}}{{{ATC_suffix}}} {{{ATC_suffix}}} | http://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code={{{ATC_prefix}}}{{{ATC_suffix}}} {{{ATC_suffix}}}}}]</span> {{{ATC_supplemental|}}} }} }} | {{#if:{{{ATC_supplemental|}}}| {{{ATC_supplemental|}}}| ? <includeonly>[[Category:Drugboxes with an unspecified ATC code]]</includeonly>}} }} |- {{#if:{{{PubChem|}}}{{{PubChemSubstance|}}} | ! [[PubChem]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{PubChem|}}} | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid={{{PubChem}}} CID {{{PubChem}}}]</span> | <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?sid={{{PubChemSubstance}}} SID{{{PubChemSubstance}}}] }} }} |- {{#if:{{{IUPHAR_ligand|}}} | ! [[International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology|IUPHAR ligand]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.iuphar-db.org/DATABASE/LigandDisplayForward?ligandId={{{IUPHAR_ligand}}} {{{IUPHAR_ligand}}}]</span> }} |- {{#if:{{{DrugBank|}}} | ! [[DrugBank]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/{{{DrugBank}}} {{{DrugBank}}}]</span> }} |- {{#if:{{{ChemSpiderID|}}} | ! [[ChemSpider]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.{{{ChemSpiderID}}} {{{ChemSpiderID}}}]</span>{{{ChemSpiderID_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{UNII|}}} | ! [[Unique Ingredient Identifier|UNII]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://fdasis.nlm.nih.gov/srs/srsdirect.jsp?regno={{{UNII}}} {{{UNII}}}]</span>{{{UNII_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{KEGG|}}} | ! [[KEGG]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.kegg.jp/entry/{{{KEGG}}} {{{KEGG}}}]</span>{{{KEGG_Ref|}}} }} |- {{#if:{{{ChEBI|}}} | ! [[ChEBI]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI:{{{ChEBI}}} CHEBI:{{{ChEBI}}}]</span>{{#switch:{{{ChEBI_Ref|}}}x | {{Ebicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without EBI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}} |{{{ChEBI_Ref|}}}}}}} |- {{#if:{{{ChEMBL|}}} | ! [[ChEMBL]] {{!}} <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembldb/index.php/compound/inspect/CHEMBL{{{ChEMBL}}} CHEMBL{{{ChEMBL}}}]</span>{{#switch:{{{ChEMBL_Ref|}}}x | {{Ebicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without EBI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}} |{{{ChEMBL_Ref|}}}}}}} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{synonyms|}}} | ! [[Visawe]] {{!}} {{{synonyms}}} }} }} |- <!-- If type=combo or vaccine, then none of following chemical data parameters to be displayed -->{{#switch:{{{type|}}}|combo|vaccine=|#default= ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Data ya kikemikali {{!}}- }} {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | ! [[Chemical formula|Fomyula]] {{!}} {{#if:{{{chemical_formula|}}} | {{{chemical_formula}}} | {{#if:{{{C|}}}{{{H|}}}{{{O|}}}{{{N|}}}{{{S|}}} |<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{C|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{C|}}} |Carbon }} | atom_color=rgb(000,000,000) | atom_abb=C | atom_number={{{C}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{H|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{H|2}}} |Hydrogen }} | atom_color=rgb(77,77,77) | atom_abb=H | atom_number={{{H}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Ag|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Ag|}}} |Silver}} | atom_color=rgb(160,160,160) | atom_abb=Ag | atom_number={{{Ag}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{As|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{As|}}} |Arsenic}} | atom_color=rgb(101,71,120) | atom_abb=As | atom_number={{{As}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Au|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Au|}}} |Gold}} | atom_color=rgb(127,84,0) | atom_abb=Au | atom_number={{{Au}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{B|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{B|}}}|Boron}} | atom_color=rgb(116,82,82) | atom_abb=B | atom_number={{{B}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Bi|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Bi|}}}|Bismuth}} | atom_color=rgb(87,33,94) | atom_abb=Bi | atom_number={{{Bi}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Br|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Br|}}}|Bromine}} | atom_color=rgb(83,20,20) | atom_abb=Br | atom_number={{{Br}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Cl|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Cl|}}}|Chlorine}} | atom_color=rgb(15,95,15) | atom_abb=Cl | atom_number={{{Cl}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Co|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Co|}}} |Cobalt }} | atom_color=rgb(53,59,90) | atom_abb=Co | atom_number={{{Co}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{F|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{F|}}} |Fluorine}} | atom_color=rgb(66,98,98) | atom_abb=F | atom_number={{{F}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Fe|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Fe|}}} |Iron}} | atom_color= | atom_abb=Fe | atom_number={{{Fe}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Gd|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Gd|}}} |Gadolinium}} | atom_color=rgb(64,0,64) | atom_abb=Gd | atom_number={{{Gd}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{I|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{I|}}} |Iodine}} | atom_color=rgb(74,11,74) | atom_abb=I | atom_number={{{I}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{K|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{K|}}} |Potassium}} | atom_color=rgb(72,32,106) | atom_abb=K | atom_number={{{K}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Mn|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Mn|}}} |Manganese}} | atom_color=rgb(78,21,99) | atom_abb=Mn | atom_number={{{Mn}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{N|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{N|}}} |Nitrogen }} | atom_color=rgb(0,0,128) | atom_abb=N | atom_number={{{N}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Na|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Na|}}}|Sodium}} | atom_color=rgb(11,11,97) | atom_abb=Na | atom_number={{{Na}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{O|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{O|}}} |Oxygen}} | atom_color=rgb(116,35,35) | atom_abb=O | atom_number={{{O}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{P|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{P|}}} |Phosphorus}} | atom_color=rgb(127,63,0) | atom_abb=P | atom_number={{{P}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Pt|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Pt|}}} |Platinum}} | atom_color=rgb(21,53,79) | atom_abb=Pt | atom_number={{{Pt}}} |var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{S|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{S|}}} |Sulfur}} | atom_color=rgb(114,97,31) | atom_abb=S | atom_number={{{S}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Sb|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Sb|}}} |Antimony}} | atom_color=rgb(86,47,94) | atom_abb=Sb | atom_number={{{Sb}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Se|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Se|}}}|Selenium}} | atom_color=rgb(105,78,25) | atom_abb=Se | atom_number={{{Se}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Sr|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Sr|}}}|Strontium}} | atom_color=rgb(14,67,14) | atom_abb=Sr | atom_number={{{Sr}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Tc|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Tc|}}} |Technetium}} | atom_color=rgb(30,79,84) | atom_abb=Tc | atom_number={{{Tc}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->{{OrganicBox_{{#if:{{{Zn|}}} |atom }} | atom_name={{#if:{{{Zn|}}} |Zinc}} | atom_color=rgb(54,60,104) | atom_abb=Zn | atom_number={{{Zn}}} | var1= }}<!-- -->^{{{#if:{{{charge|}}}|{{{charge}}}|&nbsp;}}} | ? }} }} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{molecular_weight|}}} | ! [[Molecular mass|Mol. mass]] {{!}} {{{molecular_weight}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{smiles|}}} | ! [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] {{!}} <!-- exluded until it is clear how we can use a nowiki-tag for template replacements <small><small><small><small>{{{smiles}}}</small></small></small></small><br> --><span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://www.emolecules.com/cgi-bin/search?t=ex&q={{urlencode:{{{smiles}}}}} eMolecules]</span> & <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/search/?smarts={{urlencode:{{{smiles}}}}} PubChem]</span> }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default= {{#if:{{{StdInChI|}}}| {{!}} colspan="2" {{!}} {{Collapsible list|title =[[International Chemical Identifier|InChI]] | 1 ={{#if:{{{StdInChI|}}}|InChI={{{StdInChI}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChI_comment|}}}|&nbsp;{{{StdInChI_comment}}} }}{{#switch:{{{StdInChI_Ref|}}}x | {{Stdinchicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without InChI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}}|{{{StdInChI_Ref|}}}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChIKey|}}}|<br />Key:{{{StdInChIKey}}}{{#if:{{{StdInChIKey_comment|}}}|&nbsp;{{{StdInChIKey_comment}}} }}{{#switch:{{{StdInChIKey_Ref|}}}x |{{Stdinchicite}}x=&nbsp;^{{Tick|7}}[[Category:Articles without InChI source]] | changedx=&nbsp;^{{Cross|7}}|{{{StdInChIKey_Ref|}}}}}}}}}}} }} }} |- {{#switch: {{{type|}}} | combo | vaccine= | #default={{#if:{{{density|}}}{{{melting_point|}}}{{{boiling_point|}}}{{{solubility|}}}{{{specific_rotation|}}}{{{sec_combustion|}}}| ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}} Physical data }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{density|}}} | ! [[Densiti]] {{!}} {{{density}}}&nbsp;g/cm³ }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{melting_point|}}} | ! [[Melting point|Melt. point]] {{!}} {{{melting_point}}}{{#if:{{{melting_high|}}}| –{{{melting_high}}}}}&nbsp;°C ({{#expr: ( {{{melting_point}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }}{{#if:{{{melting_high|}}}| –{{#expr: ( {{{melting_high}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }} }}&nbsp;°F) {{{melting_notes|}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{boiling_point|}}} | ! [[Kiwango cha kuchemka]] {{!}} {{{boiling_point}}}&nbsp;°C ({{#expr: ( {{{boiling_point}}} * 9 / 5 ) + 32 round 0 }}&nbsp;°F) {{{boiling_notes|}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{solubility|}}} | ! [[Solubility]] in [[Water (molecule)|water]] {{!}} {{{solubility}}}&nbsp;mg/mL (20&nbsp;°C) }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{specific_rotation|}}} | ! [[Specific rotation|Spec. rot]] {{!}} {{{specific_rotation}}} }} }} }} |- {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | combo | | {{#ifeq: {{{type|}}} | vaccine | | {{#if:{{{sec_combustion|}}} | ! [[Standard enthalpy change of combustion|SEC Combust]] {{!}} {{{sec_combustion}}} }} }} }} |- {{#if: {{{chemical_formula|}}} | [[Category:Drug pages needing formula fontification]] |}} {{#if:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}{{{verifiedrevid|}}}| {{!}}- ! colspan=2 style="background-color: #ddd; text-align: center" {{!}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|&nbsp;{{Cross|14}}[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Chemicals/Chembox_validation|(what is this?)]]|{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|&nbsp;{{Tick|14}}[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Chemicals/Chembox_validation|(Hiki ni nini?)]]}}}}{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?&diff=cur&oldid={{{verifiedrevid|}}} (thibitisha)]</span>}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|<br />|{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}|<br />}}}}}}{{#ifeq:{{{Verifiedfields|}}}|changed|[[Category:Drugboxes which contain changes to verified fields]]|}}{{#ifeq:{{{Watchedfields|}}}|changed|[[Category:Drugboxes which contain changes to watched fields]]|}}{{#if:{{{verifiedrevid|}}}||[[Category:Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes]]}} |- |}<noinclude>{{Documentation}}</noinclude> 8mdl2byfvrgibjujlcy9vu7aavjnuph 0 70848 1361719 1322384 2024-11-08T05:26:08Z ~2024-9443 70998 1361719 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ExamplesSidebar|35%| *'''Maji''' yamejaza tangi *'''Maziwa''' ya mtoto yamechacha. *'''Mazingira''' haya yanavutia. *'''Mafuta''' yanauzwa kwa bei ghali. }} '''Nomino za wingi''' ni aina ya nomino zinazotaja vitu visivyohesabika na hudokeza dhana ya wingi ilhali hazina umoja wala wingi. '''Nomino za wingi''' aghalabu huwa zinaanza na silabi '''"ma"''' na kiambishi chake cha upatanisho wa kisarufi huwa ni '''"ya-".''' Ikumbukwe katika lugha ya Kiswahili viambishi '''"ma-"''' na '''"ya-"''' hudokeza dhana ya wingi. Na ndiyo maana hizi nomino huitwa za wingi. ;Mifano: *[[Maji]] *[[Maziwa]] *Mazigazi *[[Mafuta]] *Mawaga *[[Mazingira]] *[[Marashi|Manukato]] *Mavi *[[Mawasiliano ya simu nchini Tanzania|Mawasiliano]] *Madhumuni *Mahame *[[Mavuno]] *Mavune *Mauzauza *Makato *Makao *Makamo *[[Maudhui]] *[[Mandhari]] ==Tazama pia== *[[Lango:Lugha]] *[[Nomino]] *[[Vivumishi]] *[[Viwakilishi]] {{Aina za maneno}} {{mbegu-lugha}} [[Jamii:Isimu]] [[Jamii:Sarufi]] 61i0mnceti2a3cn582y74c7vxuevky0 0 76264 1361707 1345658 2024-11-08T04:12:45Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361707 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Manuscript arm 5-6AD.jpg|right|thumb|Maandishi ya Kiarmenia, karne ya 5–6.]] [[File:The first Bible printed in the Armenian language.jpg|thumb|Biblia ya kwanza kwa lugha ya Kiarmenia.]] '''Kiarmenia''' ni [[lugha]] ya pekee katika [[jamii]] ya [[lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya]]. Kinatumiwa na watu [[milioni]] 6, hasa nchini [[Armenia]] (ambapo ni [[lugha rasmi]]) na kandokando yake. [[Alfabeti]] yake maalumu ilibuniwa na [[Mesrop Mashtots]] mwaka [[405]]. [[Fasihi]] yake ina [[historia]] ndefu, ikianza na [[tafsiri]] ya [[Biblia]] ya [[karne ya 5]]. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist|33em}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} *{{citation |last=Dum-Tragut |first=Jasmine |year=2009 |title=Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |place=Amsterdam }} * {{citation |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W. |year=2004 |title=Indo-European Language and Culture |place=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing }} * {{citation |last=Hübschmann |first=Heinrich |year=1875 |title=Über die Stellung des armenischen im Kreise der indogermanischen Sprachen |url=http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/lrc/iedocctr/ie-docs/lehmann/reader/Chapter12.html |journal=Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung |volume=23 |pages=5–42 |access-date=2015-04-18 |archive-date=2005-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051221170107/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/lrc/iedocctr/ie-docs/lehmann/reader/Chapter12.html |dead-url=yes }} * *{{citation |last=Price |first=G. |year=1998 |title=Encyclopedia of European languages |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] }} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== {{refbegin}} * Adjarian, Herchyah H. (1909) ''Classification des dialectes arméniens, par H. Adjarian.'' Paris: Honoro Champion. * Clackson, James. 1994. ''The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek.'' London: Publications of the Philological Society, No 30. (and Oxford: Blackwell Publishing) * Holst, Jan Henrik (2009) ''Armenische Studien.'' Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. * [[J.P. Mallory|Mallory, J. P.]] (1989) ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.'' London: Thames & Hudson. * [[Bert Vaux|Vaux, Bert]]. 1998. ''The Phonology of Armenian.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Vaux, Bert. 2002. "The Armenian dialect of Jerusalem." in Armenians in the Holy Land. "Louvain: Peters. {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{sister project links|voy=Armenian (Eastern) phrasebook |Armenian language |wikt=Category:Armenian language}} {{InterWiki|code=hy}} * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Armenian_Swadesh_list Armenian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh list appendix]) * [http://www.avc-agbu.org/ AGBU – Armenian Virtual College – First online university to learn Armenian] * [http://armenianlanguage.org/ Armenian language resources] {{Wayback|url=http://armenianlanguage.org/ |date=20110624075714 }} * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/armenian.htm The Armenian alphabet] * [http://learn101.org/armenian.php Learn Armenian] (Organization teaching grammar vocabulary and phrases) * [http://multitree.org/codes/hye lugha ya Kiarmenia kwenye Multitree] {{Wayback|url=http://multitree.org/codes/hye |date=20120725001951 }} *[http://www.language-archives.org/language/hye makala za OLAC kuhusu Kiarmenia] {{Wayback|url=http://www.language-archives.org/language/hye |date=20160322185344 }} *[http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nucl1235 lugha ya Kiarmenia katika Glottolog] *[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hye lugha ya Kiarmenia katika Ethnologue] '''Armenian Online Dictionaries''' * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Index:Armenian/ա en.wiktionary.org] {{Wayback|url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Index%3AArmenian/%D5%A1 |date=20140712015129 }} Armenian–English dictionary with pronunciations, etymologies and inflection tables. * [http://www.hydictionary.com Armenian English Dictionary] Armenian–English dictionary. * [http://www.nayiri.com/ Nayiri.com] (Library of Armenian dictionaries): ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=HY_HY Armenian dictionary] (about 18,000 terms; definitions in Armenian). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=6 Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (Հայերէն Բացատրական Բառարան) by [[Stepan Malkhasiants]] (about 130,000 entries). One of the definitive Armenian dictionaries. ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=7 Armenian Etymological Dictionary] (Հայերէն Արմատական Բառարան) by [[Hrachia Acharian]] (5,062 word roots). The definitive study of the history and origins of word roots in Armenian. Also includes explanations of each word root as it is used today. ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=29 Explanatory Dictionary of Contemporary Armenian] (Ժամանակակից Հայոց Լեզվի Բացատրական Բառարան) published by the Armenian SSR Academy of Sciences between 1969 and 1980. In Eastern Armenian, reformed orthography (about 125,000 headwords). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=8 Հայոց Լեզուի Նոր Բառարան], Western Armenian dictionary published in two volumes in Beirut in 1992 (about 56,000 headwords). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=24 Modern Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (Արդի Հայերենի Բացատրական Բառարան) by [[Edward Aghayan]] (about 135,600 headwords). In Eastern Armenian and reformed Armenian orthography. ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=25 Armenian Language Thesaurus] (Հայոց Լեզվի Հոմանիշների Բառարան) by [[Ashot Sukiasyan]] (about 83,000 entries). In Eastern Armenian and reformed Armenian orthography. ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=HY_EN Armenian-English dictionary] (about 70,000 entries). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=EN_HY English-Armenian dictionary] (about 96,000 entries). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=HY_FR Armenian-French dictionary] (about 18,000 entries). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=FR_HY French-Armenian dictionary] (about 20,000 entries). * [http://www.masis.am/test/dic/ www.masis.am/test/dic/] {{Wayback|url=http://www.masis.am/test/dic/ |date=20150114090701 }} Armenian–English Dictionary, more than 17,000 terms. * [http://dictionaries.arnet.am/ dictionaries.arnet.am] Collection of Armenian [[XDXF]] and [[Stardict]] dictionaries * [http://dictionary.hayastan.com/ dictionary.hayastan.com] {{Wayback|url=http://dictionary.hayastan.com/ |date=20140705231820 }} Armenian–English Dictionary, more than 9,000 terms. * [http://cymraeg.ru/daoulagad.html Daoulagad] - mobile Armenian OCR dictionary {{mbegu-lugha}} [[Jamii:Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya]] [[Jamii:Armenia]] 8gpkeh66h1am7fkflfuz27ybykkdvsw 3 80712 1361570 1340801 2024-11-07T14:43:59Z Lantani 10493 masahihisho (labda) 1361570 wikitext text/x-wiki Mtumiaji '''Lantani''' hutumia aghalabu Wikipedia ya Kijerumani. Viungo vya huko: * [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Lantani Ukurasa wa mtumiaji Lantani] (kwa Kijerumani) * [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer_Diskussion:Lantani Ukurasa wa majidiliano wa mtumiaji Lantani] (michango kwa Kiswahili au Kiingereza yanakaribishwa pia) Ukitaka Lantani asikose kuuona mchango wako inafaa utumie ukurasa wake wa majadiliano wa Kijerumani au utumie ukurasa huu hapa na kutuma ujumbe huko kwenye ukurasa wa Kijerumani. Asante. teka7enn0naplmwz9f89hngcemjx8yv 1361688 1361570 2024-11-08T02:16:22Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361688 wikitext text/x-wiki Mtumiaji '''Lantani''' hutumia aghalabu Wikipedia ya Kijerumani. Viungo vya huko: * [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Lantani Ukurasa wa mtumiaji Lantani] (kwa Kijerumani) * [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer_Diskussion:Lantani Ukurasa wa majidiliano wa mtumiaji Lantani] (michango kwa Kiswahili au Kiingereza yanakaribishwa pia) Ukitaka Lantani asikose kuuona mchango wako inafaa utumie ukurasa wake wa majadiliano wa Kijerumani au utumie ukurasa huu hapa na kutuma ujumbe huko kwenye ukurasa wa Kijerumani. Asante. {{Karibu}} '''[[Mtumiaji:Justine Msechu|Justine Msechu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Justine Msechu|majadiliano]])''' 02:16, 8 Novemba 2024 (UTC) 7ztuwq0ukbs5un5cebnjoxodxk3a79z 0 86931 1361772 1110299 2024-11-08T09:39:38Z ~2024-9794 71003 1361772 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kiazeri-Kaskazini''' ni [[Lugha za Kiturki|lugha ya Kiturki]] nchini [[Azerbaijan]], [[Urusi]], [[Georgia (nchi)|Georgia]] na [[Armenia]] inayozungumzwa na [[Waazeri]]. Ni [[lugha rasmi]] nchini Azerbaijan. Ni lugha tofauti na [[Kiazeri-Kusini]] nchini [[Uajemi]]. Hata hivyo wengine huangalia hizo lugha mbili kuwa lugha moja tu, yaani [[Kiazeri]]. Mwaka wa 2010 idadi ya wasemaji wa Kiazeri-Kaskazini nchini Azerbaijan imehesabiwa kuwa watu milioni nane na robo. Pia kuna wasemaji 473,000 nchini Urusi (2010), 360,000 nchini Georgia (2007) na 161,000 nchini Armenia (1993). Kufuatana na uainishaji wa lugha kwa ndani zaidi, Kiazeri-Kaskazini iko katika kundi la Kiturki cha Kusini. ==Viungo vya nje== *[http://multitree.org/codes/azj lugha ya Kiazeri za Kaskazini kwenye Multitree] *[http://www.language-archives.org/language/azj makala za OLAC kuhusu Kiazeri za Kaskazini] *[http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nort2697 lugha ya Kiazeri za Kaskazini katika Glottolog] *[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/azj lugha ya Kiazeri za Kaskazini kwenye Ethnologue] {{mbegu-lugha}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Azeri, Kaskazini}} [[Jamii:Kiazeri]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Azerbaijan]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Urusi]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Georgia]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Uturuki]] 4zzo094mn10d7a06c58eaxoy9bcj871 1361800 1361772 2024-11-08T11:24:35Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361800 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kiazeri-Kaskazini''' ni [[Lugha za Kiturki|lugha ya Kiturki]] nchini [[Azerbaijan]], [[Urusi]], [[Georgia (nchi)|Georgia]] na [[Armenia]] inayozungumzwa na [[Waazeri]]. Ni [[lugha rasmi]] nchini Azerbaijan. Ni lugha tofauti na [[Kiazeri-Kusini]] nchini [[Uajemi]]. Hata hivyo wengine huangalia hizo lugha mbili kuwa lugha moja tu, yaani [[Kiazeri]]. Mwaka wa 2010 idadi ya wasemaji wa Kiazeri-Kaskazini nchini Azerbaijan imehesabiwa kuwa watu milioni nane na robo. Pia kuna wasemaji 473,000 nchini Urusi (2010), 360,000 nchini Georgia (2007) na 161,000 nchini Armenia (1993). Kufuatana na [[uainishaji wa lugha]] wa ndani zaidi, Kiazeri-Kaskazini iko katika [[kundi]] la [[Kiturki cha Kusini]]. ==Viungo vya nje== *[http://multitree.org/codes/azj lugha ya Kiazeri za Kaskazini kwenye Multitree] *[http://www.language-archives.org/language/azj makala za OLAC kuhusu Kiazeri za Kaskazini] *[http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nort2697 lugha ya Kiazeri za Kaskazini katika Glottolog] *[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/azj lugha ya Kiazeri za Kaskazini kwenye Ethnologue] {{mbegu-lugha}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Azeri, Kaskazini}} [[Jamii:Kiazeri]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Azerbaijan]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Urusi]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Georgia]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Armenia]] 81t1y24ihnkuxr61ry6ada27vawi183 0 86933 1361774 1284307 2024-11-08T09:42:43Z Orattas 71002 1361774 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kiazeri-Kusini''' ni [[Lugha za Kiturki|lugha ya Kiturki]] nchini [[Azerbaijan]], [[Uajemi]], [[Uturuki]], [[Iraq]] na [[Syria]] inayozungumzwa na [[Waazeri]]. Ni lugha tofauti na [[Kiazeri-Kaskazini]] ambayo ni [[lugha rasmi]] nchini Azerbaijan. Mwaka wa 2010 idadi ya wasemaji wa Kiazeri-Kusini nchini Uajemi imehesabiwa kuwa watu zaidi ya milioni kumi na mbili. Pia kuna wasemaji milioni mbili nchini Iraq (2014), 248,000 nchini Azerbaijan, 540,000 nchini Uturuki (2014) na 44,000 nchini Syria (2014). Kufuatana na uainishaji wa lugha kwa ndani zaidi, Kiazeri-Kusini iko katika kundi la Kiturki ya Kusini. ==Viungo vya nje== *[http://multitree.org/codes/azb lugha ya Kiazeri-Kusini kwenye Multitree] *[http://www.language-archives.org/language/azb makala za OLAC kuhusu Kiazeri-Kusini] {{Wayback|url=http://www.language-archives.org/language/azb |date=20170503054210 }} *[http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sout2697 lugha ya Kiazeri-Kusini katika Glottolog] *[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/azb lugha ya Kiazeri-Kusini kwenye Ethnologue] {{mbegu-lugha}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Azeri, Kusini}} [[Jamii:Kiazeri]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Azerbaijan]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Uajemi]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Syria]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Iraq]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Uturuki]] dbgaj3gdqpdm2n377i7luomqtbrpov5 1361799 1361774 2024-11-08T11:23:09Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361799 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kiazeri-Kusini''' ni [[Lugha za Kiturki|lugha ya Kiturki]] nchini [[Azerbaijan]], [[Uajemi]], [[Uturuki]], [[Iraq]] na [[Syria]] inayozungumzwa na [[Waazeri]]. Ni lugha tofauti na [[Kiazeri-Kaskazini]] ambayo ni [[lugha rasmi]] nchini Azerbaijan. Mwaka wa 2010 idadi ya wasemaji wa Kiazeri-Kusini nchini Uajemi imehesabiwa kuwa watu zaidi ya milioni kumi na mbili. Pia kuna wasemaji milioni mbili nchini Iraq, 540,000 nchini Uturuki, 248,000 nchini Azerbaijan, na 44,000 nchini Syria (2014). Kufuatana na [[uainishaji wa lugha]] wa ndani zaidi, Kiazeri-Kusini iko katika [[kundi]] la [[Kiturki cha Kusini]]. ==Viungo vya nje== *[http://multitree.org/codes/azb lugha ya Kiazeri-Kusini kwenye Multitree] *[http://www.language-archives.org/language/azb makala za OLAC kuhusu Kiazeri-Kusini] {{Wayback|url=http://www.language-archives.org/language/azb |date=20170503054210 }} *[http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sout2697 lugha ya Kiazeri-Kusini katika Glottolog] *[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/azb lugha ya Kiazeri-Kusini kwenye Ethnologue] {{mbegu-lugha}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Azeri, Kusini}} [[Jamii:Kiazeri]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Azerbaijan]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Uajemi]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Syria]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Iraq]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Uturuki]] sdmckit58sguf11v5kauwctemnkdqry 0 87122 1361817 986866 2024-11-08T11:43:38Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361817 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:ElectoralCollege2000.svg|thumb|500px|Ramani ya Marekani ikionyesha matokeo ya uchaguzi [[Orodha ya majimbo ya Marekani|jimbo kwa jimbo.]] '''Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, mwaka wa 2000''' ulikuwa wa 54 katika [[Historia ya Marekani|historia ya Marekani]]. Ulifanywa Jumanne tarehe 7 Novemba. ==Matokeo== Upande wa "Republican Party", mgombea [[George W. Bush]] (pamoja na kaimu wake [[Dick Cheney]]) alimshinda mgombea wa "Democratic Party" [[Al Gore]] (pamoja na kaimu wake [[Joseph Lieberman]]). Bush alipata kura 271, na Gore 266. {{mbegu-siasa}} [[Jamii:Chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:2000]] slhsg55x9f1dw6uy9leubgbtsqwpqcp 1361818 1361817 2024-11-08T11:44:38Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361818 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:ElectoralCollege2000.svg|thumb|500px|Ramani ya Marekani ikionyesha matokeo ya uchaguzi [[Orodha ya majimbo ya Marekani|jimbo kwa jimbo]].]] '''Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, 2000''' ulikuwa wa 54 katika [[historia ya Marekani]]. Ulifanywa Jumanne tarehe [[7 Novemba]] [[2000]]. ==Matokeo== Upande wa "Republican Party", mgombea [[George W. Bush]] (pamoja na kaimu wake [[Dick Cheney]]) alimshinda mgombea wa "Democratic Party" [[Al Gore]] (pamoja na kaimu wake [[Joseph Lieberman]]). Bush alipata kura 271, na Gore 266. {{mbegu-siasa}} [[Jamii:Chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:2000]] 43esquqr6ky6zvqnpq81ndf75psribq 0 107605 1361539 1333647 2024-11-07T12:27:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361539 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Geopolitical organization |conventional_long_name = Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) |native_name = <small>''الهيئة الحكومية للتنمية''<br>''Autorité intergouvernementale pour le développement''</small> |linking_name = the Intergovernmental Authority on Development |image_coat = Igadseal.png |symbol_type = Seal |image_map = IGAD.svg |membership = {{collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |title = [[IGAD#Membership| 8 states]] |[[Horn of Africa]]:<br> {{DJI}} | {{ERI}} | {{ETH}} | {{SOM}} | [[Nile Valley]]: <br> {{SUD}} | {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|South Sudan}}}} | [[African Great Lakes]]: <br> {{KEN}} | {{UGA}} }} |admin_center_type = [[Headquarters]] |admin_center = {{nowrap|{{flagicon|DJI}} [[Djibouti (city)|Djibouti City]]}} |coordinates = |official_languages = [[English language|English]] |leader_title1 = {{nowrap|Executive Secretary}} |leader_name1 = {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Mahboub Maalim]]}} |leader_title2 = |leader_name2 = |established = January 1986 <small>(As IGADD)</small><br> 1996 |area_rank = |area_magnitude = |area_km2 = 5,204,977 |area_sq_mi = 1,997,303 |population_estimate = |population_estimate_rank = |population_estimate_year = |population_density_km2 = |population_density_sq_mi = |population_density_rank = |GDP_PPP =$337.82 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal =$197.202 billion |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal_year = |GDP_nominal_per_capita =$888.5 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |Gini_year = |Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> |Gini = <!--number only--> |Gini_ref = |Gini_rank = |HDI_year = |HDI_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> |HDI = <!--number only--> |HDI_ref = |HDI_rank = |currency = |time_zone = [[East Africa Time]] |utc_offset = +3 |official_website = {{URL|www.igad.org}} }} '''Intergovernmental Authority on Development''' ('''IGAD''') ni muundo wa kimataifa kwa ajili ya [[biashara]] unaounganisha nchi 8 za [[Afrika]]: [[Somalia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Eritrea]], [[uganda]], [[Sudan Kusini]], [[Sudan]] na [[Jibuti]]. Ulianzishwa [[mwaka]] [[1996]]. [[Makao makuu]] yako Jibuti. ==Wanachama== ;Pembe ya Afrika *{{flag|Djibouti}} (founding member, since 1986) *{{flag|Ethiopia}} (founding member, since 1986) *{{flag|Somalia}} (founding member, since 1986) *{{flag|Eritrea}} (admitted 1993, withdrew 2007, readmitted 2011)<ref>{{cite web |title=Intergovernmental Authority on Development: About us: History |first= |last= |publisher=IGAD |date=9 January 2010 |url=http://www.igad.org/ |accessdate=29 December 2014 |archive-date=2018-02-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208164236/http://www.igad.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ;Bonde la Nile *{{flag|Sudan}} (founding member, since 1986) *{{flag|South Sudan}} (admitted 2011)<ref>{{cite web |title=East African bloc admits South Sudan as member |first= |last= |publisher=Reuters Africa |date=25 November 2011 |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE7AO0A820111125 |accessdate=25 October 2012 |archivedate=2012-05-05 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505123658/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE7AO0A820111125 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505123658/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE7AO0A820111125 }}</ref> ;Maziwa Makuu ya Afrika *{{flag|Kenya}} (founding member, since 1986) *{{flag|Uganda}} (founding member, since 1986) ==Tazama pia== *[[Jumuia ya Afrika Mashariki]] ([[EAC]]) *[[Soko la Pamoja kwa Afrika Mashariki na Kusini]] ([[COMESA]]) ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Viungo vya nje== *[http://www.igad.org/ IGAD official site] {{Wayback|url=http://www.igad.org/ |date=20180208164236 }} *[http://www.igad.org/about/agreement_establishing_igad.pdf Agreement Establishing the Intergovernmental Authority on Development] {{Wayback|url=http://www.igad.org/about/agreement_establishing_igad.pdf |date=20070927160932 }} *[http://www.iss.co.za/AF/RegOrg/unity_to_union/igadprof.htm IGAD Profile (Institute for Security Studies)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.iss.co.za/AF/RegOrg/unity_to_union/igadprof.htm |date=20050422131644 }} *[http://www.cewarn.org/ Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism (CEWARN)] {{mbegu-siasa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Intergovernmental Authority On Development}} [[Category:Umoja wa Afrika]] [[Category:Pembe ya Afrika]] [[Category:Mashirika ya kimataifa]] mv2ds4c2blom9l1ddprelc15dwc9rzh 0 110377 1361595 1346222 2024-11-07T16:21:51Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361595 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Muigizaji | rangi = Khaki | jina = Jennifer Aniston | picha = JenniferAnistonHWoFFeb2012.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = Jennifer Aniston, mnamo Februari 2012 | jina la kuzaliwa = Jennifer Joanna Aniston | alizaliwa = {{birth date and age|1969|02|11}} [[Picha:Flag of the United States.svg|20px]]<br />[[Marekani]] | kafariki = | jina lingine = | kazi yake = [[Mwigizaji]]<br />[[Mtayarishaji]]<br />Mfanyi biashara | miaka ya kazi = 1987 - hadi leo | ndoa = Brad Pitt (2000-2005) Justin Theroux (2015-2017) | rafiki = | watoto = | wazazi = John Aniston<br />Nancy Dow | mahusiano = | tovuti = }} '''Jennifer Joanna Aniston''' (alizaliwa [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[11 Februari]] [[1969]]) ni [[mwigizaji]] wa [[filamu]] kutoka [[Marekani]] aliyepata umaarufu kwa uigizaji wake kwenye kipindi cha [[Friends]], (mnamo [[1994]]-[[2004]]). Uigizaji wake kwenye kipindi hiki kilimpa ushindi wa [[tuzo]] za ''Primetime Emmy'', ''Golden Globe'' na ''Screen Actors Guild''. ==Maisha ya awali== [[Wazazi]] wake, John Aniston na Nancy Dow, walikuwa waigizaji maarufu pia. ==Mahusiano== Jennifer Aniston alipendana na [[Brad Pitt]] mnamo 1998, na wawili hao wakaoana baada ya miaka miwili, mjini Malibu. Mnamo 2005, Jennifer na Brad waliachana. Mnamo [[2011]], alikutana na [[mwigizaji]] [[Justin Theroux]] na kuoana naye mnamo [[5 Agosti]] [[2015]]. Wawili hao waliachana mnamo [[2017]]. ==Filamu== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Mwaka ! Filamu ! Aliigiza kama ! class="unsortable" | Maelezo ! class="unsortable" | Marejeo |- | 1988 | ''Mac and Me'' | Dancer in McDonald's | |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.today/9OXDR/5e549c52e049c57e4a52ce23dfac9846cd2e18a4.png|title=The Empire Interview: Aniston|work=[[Empire (magazine)|Empire]]|publisher=[[Bauer Consumer Media]]|date=March 2015|first=Olly|last=Richards|accessdate=October 1, 2017|issue=Single|volume=309}}{{cbignore}}</ref> |- | 1993 | ''Leprechaun'' | Tory Reding | |<ref name="leprechaun">{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/movies/movie-news/jennifer-aniston-tells-of-mortifying-moment-fiance-justin-theroux-stumbled-across-her-first-film-leprechaun-30763437.html|title=Jennifer Aniston tells of 'mortifying moment' fiance Justin Theroux stumbled across her first film 'Leprechaun'|work=[[Irish Independent]]|date=November 21, 2014|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Lynne|last=Kelleher}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" | 1996 | ''She's the One'' | Renee Fitzpatrick | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.empireonline.com/movies/one-3/review/|title=She's The One Review|work=[[Empire (magazine)|Empire]]|date=June 1, 2000|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Caroline |last=Westbrook}}</ref> |- | ''Dream for an Insomniac'' | Allison | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/library/film/061998dream-film-review.html|title='Dream for an Insomniac': Coffee and Kierkegaard in Frisco|work=The New York Times|date=June 19, 1998|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Stephen|last=Holden|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020216231939/http://www.nytimes.com/library/film/061998dream-film-review.html|archivedate=February 16, 2002}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |1997 | '''Til There Was You'' | Debbie | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1997-05-30/entertainment/9705300434_1_dylan-mcdermott-gwen-story|title='Til There Was You|work=Chicago Tribune|date=May 30, 1997|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=John|last=Petrakis|archivedate=2017-10-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001030846/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1997-05-30/entertainment/9705300434_1_dylan-mcdermott-gwen-story}}</ref> |- | ''Picture Perfect'' | Kate Mosley | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ew.com/article/1997/08/01/picture-perfect-3/|title=Picture Perfect|work=Entertainment Weekly|date=August 1, 1997|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Lisa|last=Schwarzbaum}}</ref> |- | rowspan="3" |1998 | ''Thin Pink Line'' | Clove | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/the_thin_pink_line_2000/|title=The Thin Pink Line (1990)|work=Rotten Tomatoes|date=|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | ''Waiting for Woody'' | Mwenyewe | Filamu fupi |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b8184a1d0|title=Waiting for Woody|publisher=[[British Film Institute]]|date=|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=|last=}}</ref> |- | ''The Object of My Affection'' | Nina Borowski | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/reviews/the-object-of-my-affection-19980417|title=The Object of My Affection|work=Rolling Stone|date=April 17, 1998|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Peter|last=Travers|archivedate=2017-09-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222631/http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/reviews/the-object-of-my-affection-19980417}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |1999 | ''Office Space'' | Joanna | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ew.com/article/2011/10/07/office-space-reunion-interview/|title='Office Space': Cast talk cult hit and Jennifer Aniston|work=Entertainment Weekly|date=October 7, 2011|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Anthony|last=Bretznican}}</ref> |- | ''Iron Giant'' | Annie Hughes (sauti) | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/1999/film/reviews/the-iron-giant-1117749993/|title=The Iron Giant|work=Variety|date=July 21, 1999|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Lael|last=Loewenstein}}</ref> |- | 2001 | ''Rock Star'' | Emily Poule | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9905E7D61339F934A3575AC0A9679C8B63&mcubz=1|title=Film Review; Celebrating the Love Of Bad Rock in the 80's|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=September 7, 2001|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=A.O.|last=Scott}}</ref> |- | 2002 | ''Good Girl'' | Justine Last | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9E01E1D9113BF934A3575BC0A9649C8B63&mcubz=1|title=Film Review; The Catcher In the Texas Chain Store|work=The New York Times|date=August 7, 2002|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Elvis|last=Michell}}</ref> |- | 2003 | ''Bruce Almighty'' | Grace Connelly | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jan/10/jim-carrey-bruce-almighty-sequel|title=Heaven sent? Jim Carrey set for Bruce Almighty sequel|work=The Guardian|date=January 10, 2002|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Rachel|last=Aroesti}}</ref> |- | 2004 | ''Along Came Polly'' | Polly Prince | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/movies/2004/01/poop_goes_the_weasel.html|title=Poop Goes the Weasel|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=January 15, 2004|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=David|last=Edelstein}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2005 | ''Derailed'' | Lucinda Harris / Jane | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ew.com/article/2005/11/09/derailed-2/|title=Derailed|work=Entertainment Weekly|date=November 9, 2005|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Lisa|last=Schwarzbaum}}</ref> |- | ''Rumor Has It'' | Sarah Huttinger | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2006/05/the-movie-review-rumor-has-it-and-the-family-stone/69411/|title=The Movie Review: 'Rumor Has It' and 'The Family Stone'|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=May 30, 2005|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Christopher|last=Orr}}</ref> |- | rowspan="3" |2006 | ''Friends with Money'' | Olivia | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/reviews/friends-with-money-20060907|title=Friends With Money|work=[[Rolling Stone]]|date=September 7, 2006|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Peter|last=Travers|archivedate=2017-10-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001030831/http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/reviews/friends-with-money-20060907}}</ref> |- | ''Room 10'' | Mtayarishaji | Filamu fupi |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2006/10/17/jennifer-aniston-makes-directing-debut-with-room-10.html|title=Jennifer Aniston Makes Directing Debut With 'Room 10'|publisher=[[FOX News]]|date=October 17, 2006|via=[[Associated Press]]|accessdate=September 28, 2017|location=Los Angeles}}</ref> |- | ''The Break-Up'' | Brooke Meyers | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/the-break-up-2006|title=The Break-Up Movie Review & Film Summary|publisher=Roger Ebert|date=December 25, 2008|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Roger|last=Ebert}}</ref> |- | rowspan="3" |2008 | ''Marley & Me'' | Jenny Grogan | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/Movies/12/25/ew.review.marley/index.html|title=Review: 'Marley' lovable, heartwarming|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=December 25, 2008|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Owen|last=Gleiberman|archive-date=2017-09-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222436/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/Movies/12/25/ew.review.marley/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | ''Burma: It Can't Wait'' | Mtayarishaji | Filamu fupi |<ref>Sources: * {{cite web|url=https://www.productionhub.com/video/8882/burma-it-cant-wait|title=Burma: 'It Can't Wait'|work=Production Hub|date=February 25, 2011|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/burmamyanmar/1930247/Celebrities-turn-the-spotlight-on-Burma.html|title=Celebrities turn the spotlight on Burma|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=May 6, 2008|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Catherine|last=Elsworth|location=Los Angeles}}</ref> |- | ''Management'' | Sue Claussen | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2008/film/markets-festivals/management-1200470675/|title=Management|work=Variety|date=September 11, 2008|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Joe|last=Leydon}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2009 | ''He's Just Not That into You'' | Beth Murphy | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1877294,00.html|title=''He's Just Not That Into You'', and Neither Are We|work=Time|date=February 5, 2009|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Mary|last=Pols}}</ref> |- | ''Love Happens'' | Eloise Chandler | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/tv-movies/love-not-jennifer-aniston-picks-rom-com-loser-article-1.403255|title='Love Happens': Not much happens as Jennifer Aniston picks another rom-com loser|work=[[New York Daily News]]|date=September 17, 2009|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Elizabeth|last=Weitzman}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2010 | ''The Bounty Hunter'' | Nicole Hurley | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/18/AR2010031800830.html|title='The Bounty Hunter': An attempt at offbeat humor that doesn't deliver|work=[[Washington Post]]|date=March 19, 2010|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Danl|last=Kois}}</ref> |- | ''The Switch'' | Kassie Larson | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://world.wng.org/2010/08/the_switch|title=The Switch|work=[[World (magazine)|World]]|date=September 11, 2010|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Michael|last=Leaser|archivedate=2017-09-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930175323/https://world.wng.org/2010/08/the_switch}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2011 | ''Just Go with It'' | Katherine Murphy / Devlin Maccabee | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.time.com/2011/02/10/just-go-with-it-review/|title=''Just Go with It''? Jennifer Aniston Runs Away with It|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=February 10, 2011|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first= Mary|last=Pols}}</ref> |- | ''Horrible Bosses'' | Dr. Julia Harris | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2011/07/horrible-bosses|title=Is Jennifer Aniston Really a Horrible Boss in Horrible Bosses? (and 24 Other Urgent Questions)|work=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]|date=July 8, 2011|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Mike|last=Ryan}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" | 2012 | ''Wanderlust'' | Linda Gergenblatt | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2012/02/24/wanderful/|title=Wanderful!|work=[[New York Post]]|date=February 24, 2012|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Lou |last=Lumenick}}</ref> |- | ''$ellebrity'' | Mwenyewe | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/jennifer-aniston-jennifer-lopez-blast-paparazzi-and-celebrity-culture-ellebrity-trailer-703966|title=Jennifer Aniston, Jennifer Lopez Blast Paparazzi And Celebrity Culture In ?$ellebrity? [Trailer]|work=[[International Business Times]]|date=June 22, 2012|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Cavan|last=Sieczkowski}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2013 | ''We're the Millers'' | Sarah "Rose" O'Reilly | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ew.com/gallery/stars-strippers/sarah-rose-oreilly-jennifer-aniston|title=Stars as Strippers|work=Entertainment Weekly|date=September 29, 2015|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Dawnie|last=Walton|archivedate=2017-10-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001031043/http://ew.com/gallery/stars-strippers/sarah-rose-oreilly-jennifer-aniston/}}</ref> |- | ''Life of Crime'' | Margaret "Mickey" Dawson | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2013/film/reviews/life-of-crime-review-toronto-1200604872/|title=Toronto Film Review: ‘Life of Crime’|work=Variety|date=September 9, 2013|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Dennis|last=Harvey}}</ref> |- | rowspan="4" |2014 | ''Horrible Bosses 2'' | Dr. Julia Harris | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1997620/jennifer-aniston-horrible-bosses-2-interview/|title=Jennifer Aniston Tells Us How She Made Her 'Horrible Bosses 2' Character Even Raunchier|work=[[MTV]]|date=November 14, 2014|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Shaunna|last=Murphy|archive-date=2017-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929135955/http://www.mtv.com/news/1997620/jennifer-aniston-horrible-bosses-2-interview/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | ''She's Funny That Way'' | Jane Claremont | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vulture.com/2015/08/shes-funny-that-way-isnt-a-return-to-form.html|title=She’s Funny That Way Has Old-School Charm and Some Shrill Attempts at Humor|work=[[Vulture (magazine)|Vulture]]|date=August 23, 2015|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first= Bilge |last=Ebiri}}</ref> |- | ''Cake'' | Claire Simmons | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2014/film/festivals/toronto-film-review-cake-1201301547/|title=Toronto Film Review: ‘Cake’|work=Variety|date=September 9, 2014|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Justin|last=Chang}}</ref> |- | ''Journey to Sundance'' | Mwenyewe | rowspan="2" | Documentary film |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wsm.wsu.edu/s/index.php?id=794|title=Cougs behind the camera|work=[[Washington State Magazine]]|publisher=[[Washington State University]]|date=2010|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first= Larry |last=Clark}}</ref> |- | 2015 | ''Unity'' | Sauti |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2015/film/news/documentary-unity-set-for-aug-12-release-with-100-star-narrators-1201477200/|title=Documentary ‘Unity’ Set for Aug. 12 Release with 100 Star Narrators|work=Variety|date=May 13, 2016|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first= Dave|last=McNary}}</ref> |- | rowspan="3" |2016 | ''Mother's Day'' | Sandy Newhouse | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesfnews.com/mothers-day-is-no-treat/26731|title="Mother’s Day" Is No Treat|work=[[San Francisco News]]|date=May 13, 2016|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=David|last=Miller|location=Hollywood}}</ref> |- | ''Storks'' | Sarah Gardner (sauti) | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heraldcourier.com/community/storks/article_82aea622-800c-11e6-be01-2b30514c95b0.html|title='Storks' Features|work=[[Bristol Herald Courier]]|date=September 23, 2016|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first= Katie |last= Walsh}}</ref> |- | ''Office Christmas Party'' | Carol Vanstone | |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/office-christmas-party-comedy-made-by-smutty-elves/2016/12/08/cde3cbaa-b990-11e6-959c-172c82123976_story.html|title=‘Office Christmas Party’: Comedy, made by smutty elves|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=December 8, 2016|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first= Michael |last= O'Sullivan}}</ref> |- | 2017 | ''The Yellow Birds'' | Maureen Murphy | |<ref>Sources: *{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2017/film/news/jennifer-aniston-yellow-birds-sundance-tabloids-tv-1201963897/|title=Jennifer Aniston on Sundance Drama ‘The Yellow Birds,’ Returning to TV and Tabloid Culture|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=January 19, 2017|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first= Ramin|last= Setoodeh}} *{{cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/review/yellow-birds-review-967072|title='The Yellow Birds': Film Review {{!}} Sundance 2017|work=The Hollywood Reporter|date=January 21, 2017|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Todd|last=McCarthy}}</ref> |- | 2018 | ''Dumplin''' | Rosie Dickson | |<ref>Sources: * {{cite web|url=http://people.com/movies/jennifer-aniston-has-bangs-on-set-photos/|title=Jennifer Aniston Has Bangs! The Actress Steps Out On Set of Dumplin' Looking Like a Suburban Mom|work=[[People (magazine)|People]]|date=September 7, 2017|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Ale|last=Russian}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/jun/15/danielle-macdonald-up-and-coming-australian-to-star-with-jennifer-aniston-in-dumplin|title=Danielle Macdonald: up-and-coming Australian to star with Jennifer Aniston in Dumplin'|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=June 15, 2017|accessdate=September 28, 2017|first=Steph |last=Harmon}}</ref> |- | 2019 | Murder Mystery | | |<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://variety.com/2018/film/news/jennifer-aniston-adam-sandler-netflix-murder-mystery-1202739436/|title=Adam Sandler, Jennifer Aniston Reunite for Netflix ‘Murder Mystery’|last=Kroll|first=Justin|date=2018-03-29|work=Variety|access-date=2018-08-12|language=en-US}}</ref> |} ===Tamthilia=== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Mwaka ! Tamthilia ! Aliigiza kama ! class="unsortable" | Maelezo ! class="unsortable" | Marejeo |- | rowspan="2" | 1990 | ''Molloy'' | Courtney Walker | Vipindi 7 |<ref>Sources: * {{cite web|url=http://people.com/tv/jennifer-aniston-mayim-bialik-wins-throwback-thursday-with-molloy-instagram/|title=Mayim Bialik Wins #TBT with Vintage Photo of Jennifer Aniston from Their 1990 Sitcom|work=People|date=December 3, 2015|first=Michele|last=Corriston|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/tv/flashback/mayim-bialik-shares-adorable-photos-with-jen-aniston-from-the-1990s/news-story/73d3a28375993a576db17cff7c32f6b4|title=Mayim Bialik shares adorable photos with Jen Aniston from the 1990s|work=[[News.com.au]]|publisher=[[News Corp Australia]]|date=December 4, 2015|first=|last=|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} </ref> |- | ''Camp Cucamonga'' | Ava Schector | Filamu |<ref>Sources: * {{cite web|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/briangalindo/camp-cucamonga-pretty-much-the-most-90s-tv-movie-ever|title='Camp Cucamonga': Pretty Much The Most '90s TV Movie Ever|work=[[BuzzFeed]]|date=February 27, 2013|first=Brian|last=Galindo|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.eonline.com/news/523263/90s-flashback-danica-mckellar-teaches-candace-cameron-bure-how-to-dance-and-jennifer-aniston-makes-a-cameo-watch-now|title='90s Flashback! Danica McKellar Teaches Candace Cameron Bure How to Dance—and Jennifer Aniston Makes a Cameo: Watch Now!|work=E! News|date=March 21, 2014|first=Alyssa|last=Toomey|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} </ref> |- | 1990–1991 | ''Ferris Bueller'' | Jeannie Bueller | Vipindi 13 |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metro.co.uk/2016/06/11/15-things-you-might-not-know-about-ferris-buellers-day-off-5890176/|title=Ferris Bueller’s Day Off 30th anniversary: 15 things you might not know about the film|work=[[Metro (website)|Metro]]|date=June 11, 2016|first=Jon|last=O'Brian|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 1992 | ''Quantum Leap'' | Kiki Wilson | Kipindi: "Nowhere to Run" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/quantum-leap/cast/100362/|title=Cast & Characters: Quantum Leap (Season 5, Episode: 'Nowhere to Run')|work=[[TV Guide]]|date=|first=|last=|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 1992–1993 | ''The Edge '' | | Vipindi 20 |<ref>Sources: * {{cite web|url=http://www.vulture.com/2013/08/4-shows-jennifer-aniston-was-on-before-friends.html|title=The Four TV Shows Jennifer Aniston Was on Before Friends|work=[[Vulture (magazine)|Vulture]]|date=August 7, 2013|first=Kyle|last=Buchanan|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/the-edge/cast/204899/|title='The Edge' Cast & Characters|work=TV Guide|date=|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 1992–1993 | ''Herman's Head'' | Suzie Brooks | Vipindi 2 |<ref>Sources: * For "Twisted Sister": {{cite web|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/hermans-head/episode-25-season-1/twisted-sister/201965/|title=Season 1, Episode 25 'Twisted Sister'|work=TV Guide|date=|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * For "Jay Is for Jealous": {{cite web|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/hermans-head/episode-8-season-3/jay-is-for-jealous/201965/|title=Season 3, Episode 8 'Jay Is for Jealous'|work=TV Guide|date=|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 1993 | ''Sunday Funnies'' | | Filamu |<ref>Sources: * {{cite web|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=CjIQmp2llUQC&pg=PA126&lpg=PA126&dq=sunday+funnies+aniston&source=bl&ots=zRuRy4Nlz_&sig=wSf0xG2tZfnn_pW6w5XEqPbTKSM&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGzf_Y2IHYAhUGIMAKHcXgDmYQ6AEITzAK#v=onepage&q=sunday%20funnies%20aniston&f=false|title=Jennifer Aniston: The Unauthorized Biography}}</ref> |- | 1994 | ''Muddling Through'' | Madeline Drego Cooper | Vipindi 10 |<ref>Sources: * {{cite web|url=http://www.vulture.com/2013/08/4-shows-jennifer-aniston-was-on-before-friends.html|title=The Four TV Shows Jennifer Aniston Was on Before Friends|work=[[Vulture (magazine)|Vulture]]|date=August 7, 2013|first=Kyle|last=Buchanan|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/muddling-through/cast/203259/|title='Muddling Through' Cast & Characters|work=TV Guide|date=|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 1994–2004 | ''Friends'' | Rachel Green | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1560842/Jennifer-Aniston |title=Jennifer Aniston |last= |first= |date= |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518074454/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1560842/Jennifer-Aniston |archive-date=May 18, 2015 |dead-url=yes |accessdate=April 28, 2015 |df= }}</ref> |- | 1994 | ''Burke's Law'' | Linda Campbell | Kipindi: "Who Killed the Beauty Queen?" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heart.co.uk/lifestyle/beauty-style/fashion/changing-styles/jennifer-aniston/2/|title=Jennifer Aniston in Burke's Law – Changing styles: Jennifer Aniston|work=[[Heart (radio network)|Heart]]|date=|first=|last=|accessdate=September 28, 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001044119/http://www.heart.co.uk/lifestyle/beauty-style/fashion/changing-styles/jennifer-aniston/2/|archivedate=October 1, 2017|deadurl=no}}</ref> |- | 1995 | ''The Larry Sanders Show'' | Mwenyewe | Kipindi: "Conflict of Interest" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allmovie.com/movie/the-larry-sanders-show-conflict-of-interest-v281997|title=The Larry Sanders Show: Conflict of Interest (1995)|work=[[Allmovie]]|date=|first=Jason|last= Buchanan|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 1995–2016 |''Saturday Night Live'' | Mwenyewe | Vipindi 4 |<ref name=":0">Sources: * For "[[Saturday Night Live (season 42)|Emma Stone / Shawn Mendes]]": {{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/jennifer-aniston-friends-saturday-night-live-snl-rachel-green-impression-a7456461.html|title=Jennifer Aniston takes to SNL to declare it's time 'to move on' from Friends|last=Loughrey|first=Clarisse|date=December 5, 2016|work=[[The Independent]]|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * For "[[Saturday Night Live (season 25)|Jennifer Aniston / Sting]]": {{cite news|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/saturday-night-live/episode-6-season-25/jennifer-aniston-sting/100385/|title=Saturday Night Live: Season 25, Episode 6 – Jennifer Aniston; Sting|last=|first=|date=|work=TV Guide|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * For "[[Saturday Night Live (season 29)|Jennifer Aniston / Black Eyed Peas]]": {{cite news|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/saturday-night-live/episode-9-season-29/jennifer-aniston-black-eyed-peas/100385/|title=Saturday Night Live: Season 29, Episode 9 Jennifer Aniston; Black Eyed Peas|last=|first=|date=|work=TV Guide|accessdate=September 28, 2017}} * For "[[Saturday Night Live (season 21)|David Schwimmer / Natalie Merchant]]": {{cite news|url=http://www.tv.com/shows/saturday-night-live/david-schwimmer-natalie-merchant-102118/cast/|title=Saturday Night Live: Season 21, Episode 3: David Schwimmer / Natalie Merchant (Cast & Crew)|last=|first=|date=|work=TV.com|accessdate=September 28, 2017|archivedate=2017-10-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015202253/http://www.tv.com/shows/saturday-night-live/david-schwimmer-natalie-merchant-102118/cast/}}</ref> |- | 1996 | ''Partners'' | CPA Suzanne | Kipindi: "Follow the Clams?" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/partners/episode-879475/203675/|title=Partners: Follow the Clams?|work=TV Guide|date=|first=|last=|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 1998 | ''Disney's Hercules'' | Galatea (sauti) | Kipindi: "Hercules and the Dream Date" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tv.com/shows/disneys-hercules/hercules-and-the-dream-date-65730/cast/|title=Disney's Hercules — Season 1 Episode 27: 'Hercules and the Dream Date' (Cast & Crew)|work=[[TV.com]]|date=|first=|last=|accessdate=September 28, 2017|archivedate=2017-10-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013225436/http://www.tv.com/shows/disneys-hercules/hercules-and-the-dream-date-65730/cast/}}</ref> |- | 1999 | ''South Park'' | Mrs. Stevens (sauti) | Kipindi: "Rainforest Shmainforest" |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://books.google.com.vn/books?id=xWIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA43|title='Tooning Out: Gayest Cultural Event to Hit Town|work=[[Out (magazine)|Out]]|date=March 2003|page=43|first=Ronni|last=Radner|accessdate=September 28, 2017|issn=1062-7928|volume=11|number=9}}</ref> |- | 2003 | ''King of the Hill'' | Pepperoni Sue / Stephanie (sauti) | Kipindi: "Queasy Rider" |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.awn.com/news/king-hill-big-series-finale|title=King of the Hill Big Series Finale|work=[[Animation World Network]]|date=September 6, 2009|first=Craig|last=Parish|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 2007 | ''Dirt'' | Tina Harrod | Kipindi: "Ita Missa Est" |<ref>{{cite news|url=http://people.com/tv/jennifer-aniston-tv-roles-after-friends/dirt-2007|title=Screen Queen: All About Jennifer Aniston's TV Roles After Friends – Dirt (2007)|work=Entertainment Weekly|date=August 3, 2010|first=Benjamin|last=Vanhoose|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 2008 | ''30 Rock'' | Claire Harper | Kipindi: "The One with the Cast of Night Court" |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://tv.avclub.com/30-rock-the-one-with-the-cast-of-night-court-1798205378|title=30 Rock: 'The One With The Cast of Night Court'|work=[[The A.V. Club]]|date=November 13, 2008|first=Nathan|last=Robin|accessdate=September 28, 2017|archivedate=2017-10-05|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005051213/https://tv.avclub.com/30-rock-the-one-with-the-cast-of-night-court-1798205378}}</ref> |- | 2010 | ''Cougar Town'' | Glenn | Kipindi: "All Mixed Up" |<ref>{{cite news|url=http://ew.com/recap/cougar-town-recap-season-2-episode-1/|title=Cougar Town season premiere recap: Scooby-Doo the Right Thing|work=Entertainment Weekly|date=September 23, 2010|first=Annie|last=Barrett|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 2011 | ''Five'' | | Mtayarishaji <br>Television film <br>Segment: "Mia" |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/10/arts/television/five-directed-by-jennifer-aniston-and-alicia-keys-review.html|title=One Disease, Many Faces and Many Personal Paths|work=The New York Times|date=October 9, 2011|first=Neil|last=Genzlinger|accessdate=September 28, 2017|page=C9|edition=New York}}</ref> |- | 2012 | ''Burning Love'' | Dana | Vipindi 2 |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/tv-movies/jennifer-aniston-stars-bachelor-spoof-web-series-burning-love-article-1.1090488|title=Jennifer Aniston stars in ‘Bachelor’ spoof web series ‘Burning Love’|work=New York Daily News|date= June 5, 2012|first=Sasha|last=Panaram|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 2013 | ''Call Me Crazy: A Five Film'' | | Filamu |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2013/04/19/five-jennifer-aniston-produced-shorts-are-crazy/|title=Five Jennifer Aniston-produced shorts are ‘Crazy’|work=New York Post|date=April 19, 2013|first=Linda|last=Stasi|accessdate=September 28, 2017}}</ref> |- | 2017 | ''The Gong Show'' | Mwenyewe | Kipindi: "Will Arnett/Jennifer Aniston/Jack Black" |<ref>{{Citation|title=Will Arnett/Jennifer Aniston/Jack Black|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7188918/|access-date=2018-08-26}}</ref> |- | 2019 | ''The Morning Show'' | | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://deadline.com/2017/11/apple-reese-witherspoon-jennifer-aniston-morning-show-series-2-season-order-amazing-stories-reboot-1202204293/|title=Apple Gives Reese Witherspoon-Jennifer Aniston Morning Show Series 2-Season Order, Confirms ‘Amazing Stories’ Reboot|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]|date=November 8, 2017|first= Nellie|last= Andreeva|accessdate=November 8, 2017}}</ref> |} ==Tuzo== === Directors Guild of America Award=== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |64th Directors Guild of America Awards |''Five'' |Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film |Aliteuliwa | |} === Golden Globe Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |59th Golden Globe Awards | rowspan="2" |''Friends'' |Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or a Motion Picture Made for Television |Aliteuliwa | |- |60th Golden Globe Awards |Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy |Alishinda | |- |72nd Golden Globe Awards |''Cake'' |Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama |Aliteuliwa | |} === Primetime Emmy Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |52nd Primetime Emmy Awards | rowspan="5" |''Friends'' | rowspan="2" |Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa | |- |53rd Primetime Emmy Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |54th Primetime Emmy Awards | rowspan="3" |Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series |Alishinda | |- |55th Primetime Emmy Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |56th Primetime Emmy Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |61st Primetime Emmy Awards |''30 Rock'' |Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa | |} === Screen Actors Guild Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Maka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"|Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2nd Screen Actors Guild Awards | rowspan="9" |''Friends'' | rowspan="4" |Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series |Alishinda | |- |5th Screen Actors Guild Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |6th Screen Actors Guild Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |7th Screen Actors Guild Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- | rowspan="2" |8th Screen Actors Guild Awards |Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- |Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="2" |9th Screen Actors Guild Awards |Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- | rowspan="2" |Screen Actors Guild Awards |Aliteuliwa |- |10th Screen Actors Guild Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |21st Screen Actors Guild Awards |''Cake'' |Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role |Aliteuliwa | |} === [[JoBlo.com|Golden Schmoes Awards]] === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2011 |''Horrible Bosses'' | rowspan="2" |Best T&A of the Year |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0003023/2011/1/|title=Golden Schmoes Awards (2011)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2013 |''We're the Millers'' |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0003023/2013/1/|title=Golden Schmoes Awards (2013)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} ===Guy's Choice Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2011 | |Decade of Hotness |Alishinda | |} === MTV Movie & TV Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- | rowspan="2" |2004 MTV Movie Awards |''Bruce Almighty'' |MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss (<small>pamoja na [[Jim Carrey]]</small>) |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- |''Along Came Polly'' |MTV Movie Award for Best Dance Sequence(<small> pamoja na [[Ben Stiller]]</small>) |Aliteuliwa |- |2011 MTV Movie Awards |''Just Go with It'' |MTV Movie Award for Best Actor in a Movie |Aliteuliwa | |- |2012 MTV Movie Awards |''Horrible Bosses'' |MTV Movie Award for Best Villain - Best On-Screen Dirt Bag |Alishinda | |- | rowspan="3" |2014 MTV Movie Awards | rowspan="3" |''We're the Millers'' |MTV Movie Award for Best Actor in a Movie - Best Female Performance |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="3" | |- |MTV Movie Award for Best Shirtless Performance - Best Shirtless Performance |Aliteuliwa |- |MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss (<small>pamoja na [[Will Poulter]] & [[Emma Roberts]]</small>) |Alishinda |} === Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |1997 Kids' Choice Awards | rowspan="6" |''Friends'' | rowspan="2" |Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Female TV Star |Aliteuliwa | |- |1999 Kids' Choice Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |2000 Kids' Choice Awards |Favorite Television Friends (<small>pamoja na [[Courteney Cox]] & [[Lisa Kudrow]]</small>) |Aliteuliwa | |- |2002 Kids' Choice Awards | rowspan="3" |Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Female TV Star |Aliteuliwa | |- |2003 Kids' Choice Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |2004 Kids' Choice Awards |Aliteuliwa | |- |2009 Kids' Choice Awards |''Marley & Me'' |Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards - Favorite Movie Actress |Aliteuliwa | |} === People's Choice Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |27th People's Choice Awards | rowspan="4" |''Friends'' | rowspan="4" |People's Choice Awards: Favorite Female Television Performer |Alishinda | |- |28th People's Choice Awards |Alishinda | |- |29th People's Choice Awards |Alishinda | |- |30th People's Choice Awards |Alishinda | |- |32nd People's Choice Awards | |People's Choice Awards: Favorite Olay Total Effects Make-Up Look |Alishinda | |- | rowspan="2" |33rd People's Choice Awards | rowspan="2" |''The Break-Up'' |People's Choice Awards: Favorite Female Movie Star |Alishinda | rowspan="2" | |- |People's Choice Awards: Favorite On-Screen Match-Up(<small>pamoja na [[Vince Vaughn]]</small>) |Aliteuliwa |- |36th People's Choice Awards |''He's Just Not That into You'' | rowspan="3" |People's Choice Awards: Favorite Movie Actress |Aliteuliwa | |- |37th People's Choice Awards |''The Switch'' |Aliteuliwa | |- | rowspan="2" |38th People's Choice Awards |''Just Go with It'' |{Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- |''Just Go with It''<br/>''Horrible Bosses'' | rowspan="2" |People's Choice Awards: Favorite Comedic Movie Actress |Aliteuliwa |- |39th People's Choice Awards |''Wanderlust'' |Alishinda | |- | rowspan="3" |40th People's Choice Awards | rowspan="3" |''We're the Millers'' |People's Choice Awards: Favorite Movie Actress |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="3" | |- |People's Choice Awards: Favorite Comedic Movie Actress |Aliteuliwa |- |People's Choice Awards: Favorite Movie Duo (<small>pamoja na [[Jason Sudeikis]]</small>) |Aliteuliwa |} === Teen Choice Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- | rowspan="2" |2002 Teen Choice Awards | |Hottie - Female |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- | rowspan="2" |''Friends'' | rowspan="2" |Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Actress Comedy |Alishinda |- | rowspan="5" |2003 Teen Choice Awards |Alishinda | rowspan="5" | |- | rowspan="3" |''The Good Girl'' |Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie Actress - Drama/Action-Adventure |Alishinda |- |Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie - Liar |Aliteuliwa |- |Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie - Liplock (<small>pamoja na [[Jake Gyllenhaal]]</small>) |Aliteuliwa |- |''Bruce Almighty'' |Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy |Aliteuliwa |- |2004 Teen Choice Awards |''Friends'' |Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Actress Comedy |Alishinda | |- | rowspan="2" |2006 Teen Choice Awards | rowspan="2" |''The Break-Up'' |Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- |Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie - Chemistry (<small>pamoja na [[Vince Vaughn]]</small>) |Alishinda |- |2009 Teen Choice Awards |''Marley & Me ''<br/>''He's Just Not That into You'' |Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy |Aliteuliwa | |- | rowspan="2" |2011 Teen Choice Awards | rowspan="2" |''Just Go with It'' |Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- |Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie - Chemistry (<small>pamoja na [[Adam Sandler]]</small>) |Alishinda |- |2014 Teen Choice Awards |''We're the Millers'' |Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie - Liplock (<small>pamoja na [[Will Poulter]] & [[Emma Roberts]]</small>) |Aliteuliwa | |- |2016 Teen Choice Awards |''Mother's Day'' |Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress – Comedy |Aliteuliwa | |} === Alliance of Women Film Journalists=== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2011 |''The Bounty Hunter'' | rowspan="4" |Actress Most In Need of a New Agent |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001984/2011/1/|title=Alliance of Women Film Journalists (2011)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2012 |''Just Go with It'' |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001984/2012/1/|title=Alliance of Women Film Journalists (2012)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2015 |''Horrible Bosses 2'' |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001984/2015/1/|title=Alliance of Women Film Journalists (2015)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2017 |''Mother's Day''<br/>''Office Christmas Party'' |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001984/2017/1/|title=Alliance of Women Film Journalists (2017)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Critics' Choice Movie Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |20th Critics' Choice Awards |''Cake'' |Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress |Aliteuliwa | |} === GLAAD Media Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |- |2007 | |GLAAD Vanguard Award |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000286/2007/1/|title=GLAAD Media Awards (2007)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === [http://ofta.cinemasight.com/ Online Film & Television Association Awards] {{Wayback|url=http://ofta.cinemasight.com/ |date=20160222120254 }} === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- | rowspan="2" |1997 | rowspan="10" |''Friends'' |Best Ensemble in a Series |ALiteuliwa | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oftaawards.com/television-awards/1st-annual-tv-awards-1996-97/|title=1st Annual TV Awards (1996-97) - Online Film & Television Association|website=www.oftaawards.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |Best Ensemble in a Comedy Series |Alishinda |- | rowspan="2" |1998 |Best Ensemble in a Series |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oftaawards.com/television-awards/2nd-annual-tv-awards-1997-98/|title=2nd Annual TV Awards (1997-98) - Online Film & Television Association|website=www.oftaawards.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |Best Ensemble in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa |- |1999 |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oftaawards.com/television-awards/3rd-annual-tv-awards-1998-99/|title=3rd Annual TV Awards (1998-99) - Online Film & Television Association|website=www.oftaawards.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2000 |Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oftaawards.com/television-awards/4th-annual-tv-awards-1999-2000/|title=4th Annual TV Awards (1999-2000) - Online Film & Television Association|website=www.oftaawards.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |Best Ensemble in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="2" |2001 |Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oftaawards.com/television-awards/5th-annual-tv-awards-2000-01/|title=5th Annual TV Awards (2000-01) - Online Film & Television Association|website=www.oftaawards.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |Best Ensemble in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa |- |2002 |Best Lead Actress in a Comedy Series |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oftaawards.com/television-awards/6th-annual-tv-awards-2001-02/|title=6th Annual TV Awards (2001-02) - Online Film & Television Association|website=www.oftaawards.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2009 |''30 Rock'' |Best Guest Actress in a Comedy Series |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oftaawards.com/television-awards/13th-annual-tv-awards-2008-09/|title=13th Annual TV Awards (2008-09) - Online Film & Television Association|website=www.oftaawards.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Online Film Critics Society Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |Online Film Critics Society Awards 2002 |''The Good Girl'' |Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Actress|Best Lead Actress |Aliteuliwa | |} === Women's Image Network Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2011 |''The Switch'' |Women's Image Network Awards: Actress Feature Film |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0002887/2010/1/|title=Women's Image Network Awards (2010)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Capri-Hollywood International Film Festival Awards=== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2014 |''Cake'' |Capri Hollywood International Film Festival: Best Actress |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001243/2014/1/|title=Capri, Hollywood (2014)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} ===CineVegas International Film Festival Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2007 |''Room 10'' |CineVegas: Best Short Film |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000959/2007/1/|title=CineVegas International Film Festival (2007)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Giffoni Film Festival Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2016 |{{n/a}} |Giffoni Film Festival: Experience Award |Alishinda | |} === Hollywood Film Festival Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2002 |''The Good Girl'' |Hollywood Film Awards:Actress of the Year |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000326/2002/1/|title=Hollywood Film Awards (2002)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Santa Barbara International Film Festival Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2015 |''Cake'' |Santa Barbara International Film Festival: Montecito Award |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000589/2015/1/|title=Santa Barbara International Film Festival (2015)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === National Association of Theatre Owners: ShoWest Convention Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2005 | |Female Star of the Year |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000608/2005/1/|title=ShoWest Convention, USA (2005)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Aftonbladet TV Prize Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2001 | rowspan="4" |''Friends'' | rowspan="4" |Best Foreign Television Personality - Female |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000880/2001/1/|title=Aftonbladet TV Prize, Sweden (2001)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2002 |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000880/2002/1/|title=Aftonbladet TV Prize, Sweden (2002)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2003 |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000880/2003/1/|title=Aftonbladet TV Prize, Sweden (2003)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2004 |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000880/2004/1/|title=Aftonbladet TV Prize, Sweden (2004)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === American Comedy Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |1996 | rowspan="3" |''Friends'' | rowspan="3" |Funniest Supporting Female Performer in a Television Series |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000019/1996/1/|title=American Comedy Awards, USA (1996)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |1999 |ALiteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000019/1999/1/|title=American Comedy Awards, USA (1999)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |2001 |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000019/2001/1/|title=American Comedy Awards, USA (2001)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Jupiter Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2016 |''She's Funny That Way'' |Jupiter Award: Best International Actress |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0002256/2016/1/|title=Jupiter Award (2016)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Logie Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2004 |''Friends'' |Logie Award for Most Popular Actress: Most Popular Overseas Star |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000401/2004/1/|title=Logie Awards (2004)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === National Movie Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2011 |''Just Go with It'' |National Movie Awards: Best Performance of the Year |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001537/2011/1/|title=National Movie Awards, UK (2011)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Russian National Movie Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2012 |''Just Go with It'' | rowspan="2" |Russian National Movie Awards: Best Foreign Actress of the Year |ALiteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0004399/2012/1/|title=Russian National Movie Awards (2012)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2014 |''We're the Millers'' |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0004399/2014/1/|title=Russian National Movie Awards (2014)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- | |Russian National Movie Awards: Best Foreign Actress of the Decade |Aliteuliwa |} === Yoga Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2011 |''Love Happens''<br/>''The Bounty Hunter''<br/>''The Switch'' |Worst Foreign Actress |ALishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0003647/2011/1/|title=Yoga Awards (2011)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Elle Women in Hollywood Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2011 |Woman of the Year |Alishinda | |} === Gold Derby Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2015 |''Cake'' |Gold Derby Award for Best Actress: Best Actress |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0003547/2015/1/|title=Gold Derby Awards (2015)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Golden Raspberry Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- | 17th Golden Raspberry Awards | ''She's the One'' | Golden Raspberry Award for Worst New Star | Aliteuliwa | |- | rowspan="3"| 31st Golden Raspberry Awards | ''The Bounty Hunter'' | rowspan="2"| Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress | rowspan="2" Aliteuliwa | rowspan="3"| |- | ''The Switch'' |- | ''The Bounty Hunter '' | Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Combo (<small>pamoja na [[Gerard Butler]]</small>) | Aliteuliwa |- | 32nd Golden Raspberry Awards | ''Just Go with It'' | Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Combo (<small>pamoja na [[Adam Sandler]]</small>) | {Aliteuliwa | |- | 36th Golden Raspberry Awards | ''Cake'' | The Razzie Redeemer Award | Aliteuliwa | |} === Gracie Allen Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2012 |''Five'' |Gracie Awards: Outstanding Drama |ALishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000966/2012/1/|title=Gracie Allen Awards (2012)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === Independent Spirit Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |18th Independent Spirit Awards |''The Good Girl'' |Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead |Aliteuliwa | |} === [[People Magazine Awards]] === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |People Magazine Awards |''Cake'' |Movie Performance of the Year - Female |Alishinda | |} === Satellite Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |4th Golden Satellite Awards | rowspan="2" |''Friends'' | rowspan="2" |Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy|Best Actress in a Series - Comedy or Musical |Aliteuliwa | |- | rowspan="2" |7th Golden Satellite Awards |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- |''The Good Girl'' |Satellite Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture - Comedy or Musical |Aliteuliwa |} === TV Guide Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2000 |''Friends'' |TV Guide Award: Editor's Choice Award |Alishinda |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000664/2000/1/|title=TV Guide Awards (2000)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |} === TV Land Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2005 | rowspan="5" |''Friends'' | rowspan="2" |Little Screen/Big Screen Star |ALiteuliwa |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001221/2005/1/|title=TV Land Awards (2005)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" |2006 |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001221/2006/1/|title=TV Land Awards (2006)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |Most Memorable Kiss (<small>shared with [[David Schwimmer]]</small>) |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="2" |2007 |Little Screen/Big Screen Star |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0001221/2007/1/|title=TV Land Awards (2007)|website=IMDb|access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> |- |Break-Up That Was So Bad It Was Good (<small>pamoja na David Schwimmer</small>) |Aliteuliwa |} === Hollywood Walk of Fame Star === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2012 | |270 Hollywood, Blvd. - Motion Picture |Alishinda | |} === Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Filamu ! scope="col" style="width:39em;"| Tuzo ! scope="col" style="width:5em;"| Matokeo ! scope="col" style="width:2em;" class="unsortable"| Marejeo |- |2009 | |Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards: Crystal Award |Alishinda | |} == References == {{reflist|2}} {{mbegu-igiza-filamu}} {{BD|1969|}} [[Jamii:Waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] 304feexa7j3sb7pxlxkktlrq6mrax27 4 131860 1361778 1136687 2024-11-08T10:26:55Z CommonsDelinker 234 Replacing Joe_Biden_official_portrait_2013_cropped.jpg with [[File:Joe_Biden_official_portrait_2013_(cropped)_2.jpg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR4|Criterion 4]] (harmonizing names of 1361778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Makala ya wiki |jina= Joe Biden |picha= Joe Biden official portrait 2013 (cropped) 2.jpg |nakala ya picha = Joe Biden, Rais mteule wa Marekani |makala = [[Joe Biden|'''Joseph Robinette "Joe" Biden Jr.''']] (amezaliwa [[20 Novemba]] [[1942]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] wa [[Marekani]]. Kuanzia [[mwaka]] wa [[1973]] hadi [[2009]] alikuwa [[mbunge]] wa [[Senati ya Marekani]] akiwakilisha [[Majimbo ya Marekani|jimbo]] la [[Delaware]]. Halafu alikuwa [[Makamu wa Rais wa Marekani]] chini ya [[Rais]] [[Barack Obama]] kuanzia mwaka wa 2009 hadi [[2017]], akiwa [[Mkatoliki]] wa kwanza na pia Mdelaware wa kwanza kuwa Kaimu Rais. Mnamo [[Machi]] wa mwaka [[2019]], Biden alitangaza kugombea nafasi ya [[Rais wa Marekani]] mwaka [[2020]]. Biden alishinda uchaguzi mkuu kwenye Novemba 2020 dhidi ya rais aliyetangulia [[Donald Trump]]. }} hmqxnscu6a55n0bbwz2fuurxjab4ex6 0 147114 1361814 1320788 2024-11-08T11:39:00Z Makenzis 34368 1361814 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Isma Mugulusi''' (alizaliwa [[10 Oktoba]] [[2003]]) ni [[Mpira wa miguu|mwanasoka]] wa kulipwa kutoka [[Uganda]] ambaye anacheza kama [[Kiungo (michezo)|kiungo]] wa klabu ya Ligi Kuu ya [[URA FC]] na [[timu ya taifa]] ya [[Uganda]]<ref name=":0">https://kawowo.com/2021/08/08/isma-mugulusi-joining-sports-club-villa-was-my-careers-easiest-decision/</ref><ref>https://www.national-football-teams.com/player/82964.html</ref>. == Maisha binafsi == Kaka yake Isma Ibrahim pia ni mwanasoka. <ref name=":0" /> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 2003]] [[Jamii:wachezaji mpira wa Uganda]] [[Jamii:Arusha Women in Wiki]] oeb9s9zvh839mzxm9hr7a8ajqnpfcux 1361816 1361814 2024-11-08T11:41:30Z Makenzis 34368 1361816 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Isma Mugulusi''' (alizaliwa [[10 Oktoba]] [[2003]]) ni [[Mpira wa miguu|mwanasoka]] wa kulipwa kutoka [[Uganda]] ambaye anacheza kama [[Kiungo (michezo)|kiungo]] wa klabu ya Ligi Kuu ya [[Uganda Revenue Authority SC|URA]] na [[timu ya taifa]] ya [[Uganda]]<ref name=":0">https://kawowo.com/2021/08/08/isma-mugulusi-joining-sports-club-villa-was-my-careers-easiest-decision/</ref><ref>https://www.national-football-teams.com/player/82964.html</ref>. == Maisha binafsi == Kaka yake Isma Ibrahim pia ni mwanasoka. <ref name=":0" /> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 2003]] [[Jamii:wachezaji mpira wa Uganda]] [[Jamii:Arusha Women in Wiki]] dn73xxc4os52tjhc6or8z3vdfuowjqn 0 147703 1361634 1215699 2024-11-07T20:15:37Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361634 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ju Li''' (alizaliwa mwaka [[1975]]) ni mwanasayansi wa [[Marekani]], mhandisi, na kwa sasa ni Profesa wa Muungano wa Nishati ya Battelle wa Sayansi ya Nyuklia, Uhandisi wa Sayansi ya Nyenzo na Uhandisi katika [[Chuo cha Teknolojia cha Massachusetts|Taasisi ya Teknolojia ya Massachusetts]] . <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://li.mit.edu/|title=Li Lab|publisher=mit.edu|accessdate=November 27, 2017}}</ref> Mtaalamu aliyetajwa sana katika taaluma yake, <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=SHVhdhoAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao|title=Ju Li|accessdate=November 27, 2017}}</ref> yeye pia ni Mshirika wa Jumuiya ya Utafiti wa Nyenzo na Jumuiya ya Amerika([[:en:Materials_Research_Society|Materials Research Society]] and [[:en:American_Physical_Society|American Physical Society]]) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aps.org/programs/honors/fellowships/archive-all.cfm?initial=&year=2014&unit_id=&institution=|title=APS Fellow Archive|work=www.aps.org|language=en|accessdate=2018-09-22}}</ref> == Elimu == Ju Li alipata BS yake kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha Sayansi na Teknolojia cha China mwaka [[1994]] na Ph.D. kutoka [[Chuo cha Teknolojia cha Massachusetts|Taasisi ya Teknolojia ya Massachusetts]] mwaka wa [[2000]]. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/nse/people/faculty/li.html|title=Ju Li|publisher=mit.edu|accessdate=November 27, 2017}}</ref> == Heshima na tuzo == ** [[:en:Clarivate_Highly_Cited_Researchers|Clarivate Highly Cited Researchers]] 2018 in Materials Science field <ref name="mit.edu2">http://li.mit.edu/Archive/Papers/BriefCV.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> ** Fellow of the [[:en:Materials_Research_Society|Materials Research Society]] (2017) <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mrs.org/mrs-fellows-list|title=List of MRS Fellows – Materials science awards|website=www.mrs.org|accessdate=2022-03-17|archive-date=2020-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210191938/http://mrs.org/mrs-fellows-list|url-status=dead}}</ref> ** Fellow of the [[:en:American_Physical_Society|American Physical Society]] (2014) <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aps.org/programs/honors/fellowships/archive-all.cfm|title=APS Fellow Archive|website=www.aps.org}}</ref> ** [[:en:Thomson_Reuters_Highly_Cited_Researchers|Thomson Reuters Highly Cited Researchers]] 2014, among 147 scientists worldwide in Materials Science category based on papers published between 2002–2012, and among “[[:en:The_World’s_Most_Influential_Scientific_Minds|The World’s Most Influential Scientific Minds]] 2014” <ref name="mit.edu2" /> ** Lee Hsun Young Scientist Lecture Series on Materials Science, [[:en:Institute_of_Metal_Research|Institute of Metal Research]], [[:en:Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences|Chinese Academy of Sciences]] (2011) ** [[:en:Chinese_Ministry_of_Education|Chinese Ministry of Education]] and [[:en:Li_Ka_Shing_Foundation|Li Ka Shing Foundation]] [[:en:Chang_Jiang_Scholar|Chang Jiang Scholar]] Award (2009) ** TMS Robert Lansing Hardy Award (2009) <ref name="mit.edu2" /> ** [[:en:Technology_Review|Technology Review]] [[:en:TR35|TR35]] award (2007) <ref name="mit.edu2" /> ** [[:en:National_Academy_of_Engineering|National Academy of Engineering]] U.S. Frontiers of Engineering Symposium (Microsoft Research, Sept. 2007) and German-American Frontiers of Engineering Symposium (Oak Ridge, April 2010) co-sponsored by the [[:en:Alexander_von_Humboldt_Foundation|Alexander von Humboldt Foundation]]<ref name="mit.edu2" /> ** [[:en:Materials_Research_Society|Materials Research Society]] (MRS) 2006 [[:en:Outstanding_Young_Investigator_Award|Outstanding Young Investigator Award]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mrs.org/oyi|title=Outstanding Young Investigator Award – MRS Awards|website=www.mrs.org}}</ref> ** [[:en:Ohio_State_University|Ohio State University]] College of Engineering Lumley Research Award 2006 <ref name="mit.edu2" /> ** [[:en:Presidential_Early_Career_Award_for_Scientists_and_Engineers|Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers]] (PECASE) 2005 <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/awards/PECASE/results.jsp|title=The Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers: Recipient Search Results – NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov}}</ref> ** [[:en:Materials_Research_Society|Materials Research Society]] (MRS) Graduate Student Silver Medalist 1998 <ref name="mit.edu2" /> ** [[:en:MIT_Nuclear_Engineering_Department|MIT Nuclear Engineering Department]] Manson Benedict Fellowship 1996–1997 <ref name="mit.edu2" /> * == Marejeleo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1975]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wahandisi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Uchina]] [[Jamii:Afrocuration Project 2022 Tanzania]] 1uaza3vnrwd1zjp9kyueof2m8m80sbs 0 164522 1361591 1268389 2024-11-07T16:05:43Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361591 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jemal Abdu''' ni mwanasoka wa [[Eritrea]] ambaye mara ya mwisho alichezea Western Strikers katika [[Ligi Kuu]] ya FFSA . Alipokuwa akishiriki Kombe la CECAFA la 2009 nchini [[Kenya]] alikuwa sehemu ya timu ya taifa ya Eritrea ambayo ilishindwa kurejea nyumbani baada ya kushiriki mashindano ya kanda ya [[Nairobi]] . <ref>http://edition.cnn.com/2009/SPORT/football/12/15/football.cecafa.eritrea.kenya/index.html {{Wayback|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/SPORT/football/12/15/football.cecafa.eritrea.kenya/index.html |date=20200105042008 }} 12 Eritrean soccer players sought in Kenya</ref> Baada ya kupata hifadhi ya kisiasa kutoka kwa [[serikali]] ya Australia, ilihamia timu ya Adelaide, [[Australia]]. <ref name="adelaidenow.com.au3">http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/sport/out-of-africa-its-a-whole-new-ball-game/story-e6frecj3-1226036645661 Out of Africa, it's a whole new ball game</ref> == Kazi ya klabu == Mnamo mwaka 2011, alisaini [[mkataba]] na klabu ya FFSA Super League Croydon Kings baada ya kupewa hifadhi ya kisiasa na serikali ya Australia. <ref name="adelaidenow.com.au">http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/sport/out-of-africa-its-a-whole-new-ball-game/story-e6frecj3-1226036645661 Out of Africa, it's a whole new ball game</ref> Abdu alicheza Kombe la CECAFA mwaka wa [[2009]] nchini [[Kenya]], akitokea katika mechi ya kundi lililofungwa 2-1 na [[Timu ya taifa ya kandanda ya Rwanda|Rwanda]] . <ref name="michezonet">{{Cite news|url=http://michezonet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=83%3Arwanda-through-to-quarter-finals&catid=35%3Ademo-content2&Itemid=29|title=Rwanda through to Quarter Finals|last=Okinyo|first=Collins|date=4 December 2009|publisher=michezo net|accessdate=2023-02-15|archivedate=2011-07-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727082222/http://michezonet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=83:rwanda-through-to-quarter-finals&catid=35:demo-content2&Itemid=29}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-michezo}} [[Jamii:waliozaliwa 1992]] [[Jamii:wachezaji mpira wa Eritrea]] cxqdhyhu896q9n42lw75axa6zr81fpg 0 186954 1361821 1354247 2024-11-08T11:51:00Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361821 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Into the Jaws of Death 23-0455M edit (cropped 4-3).jpg|thumb|Picha maarufu iliyopewa jina la Ndani ya Taya za Mauti (Into the Jaws of Death) ikionyesha wanajeshi wa Marekani na washirika wake wakishuka kutoka katika chombo wakiwasilia katika fukwe ya Omaha. ]] [[Faili:Into the Jaws of Death 23-0455M edit (cropped).jpg|thumb|Hapa wakiwa ndani ya maji tayari kwenda kukabiliana na majeshi ya Kijerumani.]] '''Ufukwe wa Omaha''' likuwa mojawapo ya fukwe tano zilizotumika wakati wa [[Mapigano ya Normandy]] mnamo tarehe 6 Juni, 1944, wakati wa [[Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia]], tukio maarufu kama [[D-Day]]. Uvamizi huu ulifanywa na vikosi vya washirika wakiongozwa na [[Marekani]], [[Uingereza]], [[Kanada]] na mataifa mengine ya Muungano ili kuanzisha mashambulizi makubwa dhidi ya [[Ujerumani]] ya [[NSDAP|Kinazi]] ambayo ilikuwa imevamia maeneo mengi ya [[Ulaya]]. Ufukwe wa Omaha lilikuwa eneo la kusini mwa [[Jangwa la Normandy]] huko nchini [[Ufaransa]]. Wakati huo lilikuwa chini ya [[Wajerumani]] waliokuwa wameweka kambi yenye ulinzi mkali. Eneo lilizungushiwa kwa maboma, mizinga, mitego, minara ya ulinzi na mabomu yaliyozikwa ardhini. Uvamizi huu ulifanywa na wanajeshi wa Marekani kutoka Divisheni ya 1 na Divisheni ya 29, wakisaidiwa na meli za kivita na ndege za washirika. Pamoja na uvamizi huu, kuwasili kwa wanajeshi kwenye fukwe kulikumbwa na matatizo mengi. Ikiwa ni pamoja na hali mbaya ya hewa, mawimbi makali, na vizuizi vingi vya kiulinzi vilivyowekwa na Wajerumani. Wakati wakiwasili kwenye fukwe, wanajeshi walikabiliwa na upinzani mkali kutoka kwa vikosi vya Ujerumani vilivyojificha kwenye ngome na milima inayozunguka fukwe hizo. Mapigano hayo yalikuwa ya kinyama sana. Wanajeshi wengi walipoteza maisha kutokana na mashambulizi makali ya risasi kutoka kwa wanajeshi wa Kijerumani. Achilia mbali mitego na milipuko ya mabomu iliyofutikwa ardhini. Hadi wanafanikiwa kulitwa eneo la fukwe, takribani wanajeshi wa Marekani walipoteza maisha zaidi ya watu 2,000 katika mapigano ya siku moja pekee. Uvamizi wa Omaha ulikuwa mojawapo ya hatua muhimu zaidi za mabadiliko katika Vita ya Pili ya Dunia na ulifanya kuwa mwanzo wa mwisho wa utawala wa Ujerumani ya Nazi barani Ulaya. Hadi leo, Omaha inabaki kuwa kumbukumbu ya mashujaa na kujitoa kwa kiasi kikubwa kwa wanajeshi washirika kwa ajili ya uhuru wa dunia. Eneo hili ni sehemu ya kumbukumbu ya vita, ambapo makaburi na makumbusho yamejengwa ili kuenzi wanajeshi waliokufa, pamoja na kuwapa heshima wale waliopigana na kushinda vita dhidi ya utawala wa kiimla wa Nazi. == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Omaha Beach}} * [http://www.omaha-beach-memorial.org Omaha Beach Memorial] {{Wayback|url=http://www.omaha-beach-memorial.org/ |date=20220128165153 }} * [http://www.29infantrydivision.org 29th Infantry Division Historical Society] * [http://www.americandday.org American D-Day: Omaha Beach, Utah Beach & Pointe du Hoc] {{Wayback|url=http://www.americandday.org/ |date=20200806214942 }} * [http://www.omaha-beach.org/US-Version/352/352US.html 352nd Infantrie Division History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428205915/http://www.omaha-beach.org/US-Version/352/352US.html |date=2007-04-28 }} * [http://6juin.omaha.free.fr/ Omaha Beach Mémoire] * [http://www.6juin1944.com/assaut/omaha/en_index.php D-Day : Etat des Lieux : Omaha Beach] * [http://www.dday50.com/omaha.html Photos of Omaha Beach and the American Cemetery, with text by Ernie Pyle and President Clinton] * [http://www.ixengineercommand.com IX Engineer Command] * [https://archive.today/20121211082358/http://content.library.ccsu.edu/u?/VHP,5568 Oral history interview with Franklyn Johnson. from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University.] * ''[https://itunes.apple.com/no/app/omaha-beach/id1242113984?l=nb&mt=8 Omaha Beach. H-Hour on Easy Red & Fox Green]'' Free Mobile Augmented Reality app for use on location below WN62 by the Colleville draw (developed by the [http://www.sitsim.no SitsimLab–project] at the University of Oslo). * [https://www.therafatomahabeach.com The RAF at Omaha Beach] {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Vita Vikuu vya Pili]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ulaya]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Marekani]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ujerumani]] [[Jamii:historia ya Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:1944]] hzdpcdyny2zsarim9p3wwje554h6mc5 3 187722 1361601 1356019 2024-11-07T16:44:33Z SALMA A MOHAMEDI 70381 /* Fasihi linganishi */ mjadala mpya 1361601 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Karibu}} '''[[Mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|EdwardJacobo42]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|majadiliano]])''' 17:18, 10 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) :Shukrani sana kiongozi '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 10:51, 12 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) == Fasihi linganishi == Fasihi linganishi, ni taaluma iliyojikita katika uchambuzi na uchunguzi wa mfanano na msigano uliopo baina ya kazi mbili za fasihi au zaidi, fasihi za ndani na nje ya nchi, fasihi na fani nyinginezo (mfano uchoraji). Kazi hizo za fasihi huweza kuwa fasihi andishi au fasihi simulizi ambazo zinahusisha vipengele tofauti vya kitamaduni, itikadi na historia. Fasihi linganishi husaidia kubaini utofauti na mfanano uliopo baina ya kazi za fasihi mbili au zaidi kama vile riwaya na tamthiliya, kazi fasihi za nje na ndani ya nchi. Pia husaidia kuibua na kuongeza maarifa mapya kutoka katika nchi zingine kupitia filamu mbalimbali kama vile filamuza Kizungu, Kikorea, Kichina, Kihindi pamoja na kazi mbalimbali za fasihi andishi. '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 16:44, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) mwe6k2u7el53h15sbahhoyhxr13y1ws 1361605 1361601 2024-11-07T18:14:30Z SALMA A MOHAMEDI 70381 /* Fonolojia Arudhi */ mjadala mpya 1361605 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Karibu}} '''[[Mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|EdwardJacobo42]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|majadiliano]])''' 17:18, 10 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) :Shukrani sana kiongozi '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 10:51, 12 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) == Fasihi linganishi == Fasihi linganishi, ni taaluma iliyojikita katika uchambuzi na uchunguzi wa mfanano na msigano uliopo baina ya kazi mbili za fasihi au zaidi, fasihi za ndani na nje ya nchi, fasihi na fani nyinginezo (mfano uchoraji). Kazi hizo za fasihi huweza kuwa fasihi andishi au fasihi simulizi ambazo zinahusisha vipengele tofauti vya kitamaduni, itikadi na historia. Fasihi linganishi husaidia kubaini utofauti na mfanano uliopo baina ya kazi za fasihi mbili au zaidi kama vile riwaya na tamthiliya, kazi fasihi za nje na ndani ya nchi. Pia husaidia kuibua na kuongeza maarifa mapya kutoka katika nchi zingine kupitia filamu mbalimbali kama vile filamuza Kizungu, Kikorea, Kichina, Kihindi pamoja na kazi mbalimbali za fasihi andishi. '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 16:44, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) == Fonolojia Arudhi == Fonolojia Arudhi, ni aina ya fonolojia ambayo inajishughulisha na uchunguzi na uchambuzi wa  sifa za kimatamshi zinazoambatanishwa kwenye sauti za lugha ya mwanadamu, sifa hizi huitambulisha sauti kimatamshi zaidi na husaidia kubainisha taarifa za msingi kama hali ya msemaji, hisia za msemaji na umbali. Baadhi ya viarudhi hivyo ni kama ifuatavyo:- Lafudhi,  ni matamshi ya msemaji wa lugha fulani ambayo yanatokana na athari za kimazingira. Mazingira hayo yanaweza kuwa eneo atokalo mtu, mahali alikosomea au kiwango chake cha elimu. Shadda/mkazo, ni utaratibu wa utamkaji wa maneno ambapo silabi fulani hutamkwa kwa nguvu nyingi zaidi kuliko ilivyo katika silabi nyingine za neno hilohilo. Mkazo unaweza kuchukuliwa kama kilele cha kupanda na kushuka kwa sauti katika utamkaji wa neno. Silabi yenye mkazo inakuwa na msikiko mzito zaidi kuliko silabi nyingine za neno hilohilo, mkazo huwa katika silabi  ya pili kutoka mwisho. Lugha nyingi hasa za kibantu hazitumii mkazo, Lugha nyingi hutumia toni, Kiswahili sanifu hakitumii toni na zaidi hutumia mkazo. Toni, ni kipamba sauti ambacho huonesha athari zinazojitokeza wakati wa utamkaji wa sauti mbalimbali za lugha. Katika lugha ya kiswahili hakuna toni, Toni hupatikana katika lugha za kibantu. Kidatu, ni kiwango cha hali ya msikiko wa sauti kuwa chini, juu au katikati.   Kiarudhi hiki hubainisha kipimo cha mtetemo wa nyuzi za sauti ambao unaweza kuwa juu, kati au chini. Kimsingi kidatu hupimwa kwa kuhesabu mizunguko ambayo hufanywa na nyuzi sauti katika nukta moja ya mzunguko. Kidatu huweza kubainisha jinsia yaani kwa kawaida mwanamke huzungumza kwa kidatu cha juu na mwanaume huzungumza kwa kidatu cha chini. Kiimbo, ni utaratibu maalumu wa upandaji na ushukaji wa mawimbi ya sauti unaojitokeza katika utamkaji wa lugha fulani. Kiimbo hujulisha hili ni swali, ombi, amri, mshangao, au taarifa. Katika utaratibu wa utamkaji dhana ya kiimbo huandamana pia na dhana ya kidatu (yaani, kiwango cha juu, cha kati au cha chini cha sauti katika usemaji), Kwa hivyo ni muhimu hapa kueleza tofauti zilizopo baina ya kiimbo na kidatu. Wakati kiimbo kina maana ya kupanda na kushuka kwa mawimbi ya sauti wakati wa utamkaji, kidatu kina maana ya kiwango cha sauti isikikayo, wakati wa utamkaji huweza kuwa juu, katikati au chini. Othografia, neno othografia lina asili ya kigiriki na maana yake ni  utaratibu wa kutumia alama au michoro ya maandishi kuwakilisha sauti zisikikazo katika lugha. Kila lugha ina mfumo tofauti wa usemaji na hutumia mfumo tofauti wa sauti, kila lugha haina budi kubuni mfumo wake wa kuziwakilisha sauti zake katika maandishi, mfumo huo wa maandishi ndio ujulikanao kama othografia. Mfumo huu huwa unawasilisha herufi maalumu zinazobuniwa ili kuwakilisha sauti za lugha inayohusika kimaandishi. Mfano /p/, /b/, /d/                   Marejeleo Mgullu, R. S (1999), Mtalaa wa Isimu, Fonetiki na Fonolojia ya Lugha ya Kiswahili: Nairobi. Longhorn Publishers Massamba na wenzake (2004), Fonolojia ya Kiswahili Sanifu (FOKISA).DSM:IKS. Matinde, R.S (2012), Dafina ya Lugha, Isimu na Nadharia. Serengeti Education Publisher (T) LTD:                                                                                          Mwanza '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 18:14, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) 6efywco3aafd1vf5zr1am7quyjj5s9h 1361607 1361605 2024-11-07T18:17:16Z SALMA A MOHAMEDI 70381 /* Fonolojia Arudhi */ 1361607 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Karibu}} '''[[Mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|EdwardJacobo42]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|majadiliano]])''' 17:18, 10 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) :Shukrani sana kiongozi '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 10:51, 12 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) == Fasihi linganishi == Fasihi linganishi, ni taaluma iliyojikita katika uchambuzi na uchunguzi wa mfanano na msigano uliopo baina ya kazi mbili za fasihi au zaidi, fasihi za ndani na nje ya nchi, fasihi na fani nyinginezo (mfano uchoraji). Kazi hizo za fasihi huweza kuwa fasihi andishi au fasihi simulizi ambazo zinahusisha vipengele tofauti vya kitamaduni, itikadi na historia. Fasihi linganishi husaidia kubaini utofauti na mfanano uliopo baina ya kazi za fasihi mbili au zaidi kama vile riwaya na tamthiliya, kazi fasihi za nje na ndani ya nchi. Pia husaidia kuibua na kuongeza maarifa mapya kutoka katika nchi zingine kupitia filamu mbalimbali kama vile filamuza Kizungu, Kikorea, Kichina, Kihindi pamoja na kazi mbalimbali za fasihi andishi. '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 16:44, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) == Fonolojia Arudhi == Fonolojia Arudhi, ni aina ya fonolojia ambayo inajishughulisha na uchunguzi na uchambuzi wa  sifa za kimatamshi zinazoambatanishwa kwenye sauti za lugha ya mwanadamu, sifa hizi huitambulisha sauti kimatamshi zaidi na husaidia kubainisha taarifa za msingi kama hali ya msemaji, hisia za msemaji na umbali. Baadhi ya viarudhi hivyo ni kama ifuatavyo:- Lafudhi, ni matamshi ya msemaji wa lugha fulani ambayo yanatokana na athari za kimazingira. Mazingira hayo yanaweza kuwa eneo analotoka au analoishi mtu, mahali alikosomea au kiwango chake cha elimu. Shadda/mkazo, ni utaratibu wa utamkaji wa maneno ambapo silabi fulani hutamkwa kwa nguvu nyingi zaidi kuliko ilivyo katika silabi nyingine za neno hilohilo. Mkazo unaweza kuchukuliwa kama kilele cha kupanda na kushuka kwa sauti katika utamkaji wa neno. Silabi yenye mkazo inakuwa na msikiko mzito zaidi kuliko silabi nyingine za neno hilohilo, mkazo huwa katika silabi  ya pili kutoka mwisho. Lugha nyingi hasa za kibantu hazitumii mkazo, Lugha nyingi hutumia toni, Kiswahili sanifu hakitumii toni na zaidi hutumia mkazo. Toni, ni kipamba sauti ambacho huonesha athari zinazojitokeza wakati wa utamkaji wa sauti mbalimbali za lugha. Katika lugha ya kiswahili hakuna toni, Toni hupatikana katika lugha za kibantu. Kidatu, ni kiwango cha hali ya msikiko wa sauti kuwa chini, juu au katikati.   Kiarudhi hiki hubainisha kipimo cha mtetemo wa nyuzi za sauti ambao unaweza kuwa juu, kati au chini. Kimsingi kidatu hupimwa kwa kuhesabu mizunguko ambayo hufanywa na nyuzi sauti katika nukta moja ya mzunguko. Kidatu huweza kubainisha jinsia yaani kwa kawaida mwanamke huzungumza kwa kidatu cha juu na mwanaume huzungumza kwa kidatu cha chini. Kiimbo, ni utaratibu maalumu wa upandaji na ushukaji wa mawimbi ya sauti unaojitokeza katika utamkaji wa lugha fulani. Kiimbo hujulisha hili ni swali, ombi, amri, mshangao, au taarifa. Katika utaratibu wa utamkaji dhana ya kiimbo huandamana pia na dhana ya kidatu (yaani, kiwango cha juu, cha kati au cha chini cha sauti katika usemaji), Kwa hivyo ni muhimu hapa kueleza tofauti zilizopo baina ya kiimbo na kidatu. Wakati kiimbo kina maana ya kupanda na kushuka kwa mawimbi ya sauti wakati wa utamkaji, kidatu kina maana ya kiwango cha sauti isikikayo, wakati wa utamkaji huweza kuwa juu, katikati au chini. Othografia, neno othografia lina asili ya kigiriki na maana yake ni  utaratibu wa kutumia alama au michoro ya maandishi kuwakilisha sauti zisikikazo katika lugha. Kila lugha ina mfumo tofauti wa usemaji na hutumia mfumo tofauti wa sauti, kila lugha haina budi kubuni mfumo wake wa kuziwakilisha sauti zake katika maandishi, mfumo huo wa maandishi ndio ujulikanao kama othografia. Mfumo huu huwa unawasilisha herufi maalumu zinazobuniwa ili kuwakilisha sauti za lugha inayohusika kimaandishi. Mfano /p/, /b/, /d/                   Marejeleo Mgullu, R. S (1999), Mtalaa wa Isimu, Fonetiki na Fonolojia ya Lugha ya Kiswahili: Nairobi. Longhorn Publishers Massamba na wenzake (2004), Fonolojia ya Kiswahili Sanifu (FOKISA).DSM:IKS. Matinde, R.S (2012), Dafina ya Lugha, Isimu na Nadharia. Serengeti Education Publisher (T) LTD:                                                                                          Mwanza '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 18:14, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) t9dmh9n14vxvv7xdcfndacvtma0q9z6 1361608 1361607 2024-11-07T18:19:18Z SALMA A MOHAMEDI 70381 /* Fonolojia Arudhi */ 1361608 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Karibu}} '''[[Mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|EdwardJacobo42]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|majadiliano]])''' 17:18, 10 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) :Shukrani sana kiongozi '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 10:51, 12 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) == Fasihi linganishi == Fasihi linganishi, ni taaluma iliyojikita katika uchambuzi na uchunguzi wa mfanano na msigano uliopo baina ya kazi mbili za fasihi au zaidi, fasihi za ndani na nje ya nchi, fasihi na fani nyinginezo (mfano uchoraji). Kazi hizo za fasihi huweza kuwa fasihi andishi au fasihi simulizi ambazo zinahusisha vipengele tofauti vya kitamaduni, itikadi na historia. Fasihi linganishi husaidia kubaini utofauti na mfanano uliopo baina ya kazi za fasihi mbili au zaidi kama vile riwaya na tamthiliya, kazi fasihi za nje na ndani ya nchi. Pia husaidia kuibua na kuongeza maarifa mapya kutoka katika nchi zingine kupitia filamu mbalimbali kama vile filamuza Kizungu, Kikorea, Kichina, Kihindi pamoja na kazi mbalimbali za fasihi andishi. '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 16:44, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) [[Jamii:]]== Fonolojia Arudhi == Fonolojia Arudhi, ni aina ya fonolojia ambayo inajishughulisha na uchunguzi na uchambuzi wa  sifa za kimatamshi zinazoambatanishwa kwenye sauti za lugha ya mwanadamu, sifa hizi huitambulisha sauti kimatamshi zaidi na husaidia kubainisha taarifa za msingi kama hali ya msemaji, hisia za msemaji na umbali. Baadhi ya viarudhi hivyo ni kama ifuatavyo:- Lafudhi, ni matamshi ya msemaji wa lugha fulani ambayo yanatokana na athari za kimazingira. Mazingira hayo yanaweza kuwa eneo analotoka au analoishi mtu, mahali alikosomea au kiwango chake cha elimu. Shadda/mkazo, ni utaratibu wa utamkaji wa maneno ambapo silabi fulani hutamkwa kwa nguvu nyingi zaidi kuliko ilivyo katika silabi nyingine za neno hilohilo. Mkazo unaweza kuchukuliwa kama kilele cha kupanda na kushuka kwa sauti katika utamkaji wa neno. Silabi yenye mkazo inakuwa na msikiko mzito zaidi kuliko silabi nyingine za neno hilohilo, mkazo huwa katika silabi  ya pili kutoka mwisho. Lugha nyingi hasa za kibantu hazitumii mkazo, Lugha nyingi hutumia toni, Kiswahili sanifu hakitumii toni na zaidi hutumia mkazo. Toni, ni kipamba sauti ambacho huonesha athari zinazojitokeza wakati wa utamkaji wa sauti mbalimbali za lugha. Katika lugha ya kiswahili hakuna toni, Toni hupatikana katika lugha za kibantu. Kidatu, ni kiwango cha hali ya msikiko wa sauti kuwa chini, juu au katikati.   Kiarudhi hiki hubainisha kipimo cha mtetemo wa nyuzi za sauti ambao unaweza kuwa juu, kati au chini. Kimsingi kidatu hupimwa kwa kuhesabu mizunguko ambayo hufanywa na nyuzi sauti katika nukta moja ya mzunguko. Kidatu huweza kubainisha jinsia yaani kwa kawaida mwanamke huzungumza kwa kidatu cha juu na mwanaume huzungumza kwa kidatu cha chini. Kiimbo, ni utaratibu maalumu wa upandaji na ushukaji wa mawimbi ya sauti unaojitokeza katika utamkaji wa lugha fulani. Kiimbo hujulisha hili ni swali, ombi, amri, mshangao, au taarifa. Katika utaratibu wa utamkaji dhana ya kiimbo huandamana pia na dhana ya kidatu (yaani, kiwango cha juu, cha kati au cha chini cha sauti katika usemaji), Kwa hivyo ni muhimu hapa kueleza tofauti zilizopo baina ya kiimbo na kidatu. Wakati kiimbo kina maana ya kupanda na kushuka kwa mawimbi ya sauti wakati wa utamkaji, kidatu kina maana ya kiwango cha sauti isikikayo, wakati wa utamkaji huweza kuwa juu, katikati au chini. Othografia, neno othografia lina asili ya kigiriki na maana yake ni  utaratibu wa kutumia alama au michoro ya maandishi kuwakilisha sauti zisikikazo katika lugha. Kila lugha ina mfumo tofauti wa usemaji na hutumia mfumo tofauti wa sauti, kila lugha haina budi kubuni mfumo wake wa kuziwakilisha sauti zake katika maandishi, mfumo huo wa maandishi ndio ujulikanao kama othografia. Mfumo huu huwa unawasilisha herufi maalumu zinazobuniwa ili kuwakilisha sauti za lugha inayohusika kimaandishi. Mfano /p/, /b/, /d/                   Marejeleo Mgullu, R. S (1999), Mtalaa wa Isimu, Fonetiki na Fonolojia ya Lugha ya Kiswahili: Nairobi. Longhorn Publishers Massamba na wenzake (2004), Fonolojia ya Kiswahili Sanifu (FOKISA).DSM:IKS. Matinde, R.S (2012), Dafina ya Lugha, Isimu na Nadharia. Serengeti Education Publisher (T) LTD: Mwanza. '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 18:14, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) n070o5djeer84aj9t08vqi7pjkioewg 1361609 1361608 2024-11-07T18:23:33Z SALMA A MOHAMEDI 70381 /* Fasihi linganishi */ 1361609 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Karibu}} '''[[Mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|EdwardJacobo42]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:EdwardJacobo42|majadiliano]])''' 17:18, 10 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) :Shukrani sana kiongozi '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 10:51, 12 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) == Fasihi linganishi == Fasihi linganishi, ni taaluma iliyojikita katika uchambuzi na uchunguzi wa mfanano na msigano uliopo baina ya kazi mbili za fasihi au zaidi, fasihi za ndani na nje ya nchi, fasihi na fani nyinginezo (mfano uchoraji). Kazi hizo za fasihi huweza kuwa fasihi andishi au fasihi simulizi ambazo zinahusisha vipengele tofauti vya kitamaduni, itikadi na historia. Fasihi linganishi husaidia kubaini utofauti na mfanano uliopo baina ya kazi za fasihi mbili au zaidi kama vile riwaya na tamthiliya, kazi fasihi za nje na ndani ya nchi. Pia husaidia kuibua na kuongeza maarifa mapya kutoka katika nchi zingine kupitia filamu mbalimbali kama vile filamuza Kizungu, Kikorea, Kichina, Kihindi pamoja na kazi mbalimbali za fasihi andishi. '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 16:44, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) [[Jamii:]]== Fonolojia Arudhi == Fonolojia Arudhi, ni aina ya fonolojia ambayo inajishughulisha na uchunguzi na uchambuzi wa  sifa za kimatamshi zinazoambatanishwa kwenye sauti za lugha ya mwanadamu, sifa hizi huitambulisha sauti kimatamshi zaidi na husaidia kubainisha taarifa za msingi kama hali ya msemaji, hisia za msemaji na umbali. Baadhi ya viarudhi hivyo ni kama ifuatavyo:- Lafudhi, ni matamshi ya msemaji wa lugha fulani ambayo yanatokana na athari za kimazingira. Mazingira hayo yanaweza kuwa eneo analotoka au analoishi mtu, mahali alikosomea au kiwango chake cha elimu. Shadda/mkazo, ni utaratibu wa utamkaji wa maneno ambapo silabi fulani hutamkwa kwa nguvu nyingi zaidi kuliko ilivyo katika silabi nyingine za neno hilohilo. Mkazo unaweza kuchukuliwa kama kilele cha kupanda na kushuka kwa sauti katika utamkaji wa neno. Silabi yenye mkazo inakuwa na msikiko mzito zaidi kuliko silabi nyingine za neno hilohilo, mkazo huwa katika silabi ya pili kutoka mwisho. Lugha nyingi hasa za kibantu hazitumii mkazo, Lugha nyingi hutumia toni, Kiswahili sanifu hakitumii toni bali zaidi hutumia mkazo. Toni, ni kipamba sauti ambacho huonesha athari zinazojitokeza wakati wa utamkaji wa sauti mbalimbali za lugha. Katika lugha ya kiswahili hakuna toni, Toni hupatikana katika lugha za kibantu. Kidatu, ni kiwango cha hali ya msikiko wa sauti kuwa chini, juu au katikati.   Kiarudhi hiki hubainisha kipimo cha mtetemo wa nyuzi za sauti ambao unaweza kuwa juu, kati au chini. Kimsingi kidatu hupimwa kwa kuhesabu mizunguko ambayo hufanywa na nyuzi sauti katika nukta moja ya mzunguko. Kidatu huweza kubainisha jinsia yaani kwa kawaida mwanamke huzungumza kwa kidatu cha juu na mwanaume huzungumza kwa kidatu cha chini. Kiimbo, ni utaratibu maalumu wa upandaji na ushukaji wa mawimbi ya sauti unaojitokeza katika utamkaji wa lugha fulani. Kiimbo hujulisha hili ni swali, ombi, amri, mshangao, au taarifa. Katika utaratibu wa utamkaji dhana ya kiimbo huandamana pia na dhana ya kidatu (yaani, kiwango cha juu, cha kati au cha chini cha sauti katika usemaji), Kwa hivyo ni muhimu hapa kueleza tofauti zilizopo baina ya kiimbo na kidatu. Wakati kiimbo kina maana ya kupanda na kushuka kwa mawimbi ya sauti wakati wa utamkaji, kidatu kina maana ya kiwango cha sauti isikikayo, wakati wa utamkaji huweza kuwa juu, katikati au chini. Othografia, neno othografia lina asili ya kigiriki na maana yake ni  utaratibu wa kutumia alama au michoro ya maandishi kuwakilisha sauti zisikikazo katika lugha. Kila lugha ina mfumo tofauti wa usemaji na hutumia mfumo tofauti wa sauti, kila lugha haina budi kubuni mfumo wake wa kuziwakilisha sauti zake katika maandishi, mfumo huo wa maandishi ndio ujulikanao kama othografia. Mfumo huu huwa unawasilisha herufi maalumu zinazobuniwa ili kuwakilisha sauti za lugha inayohusika kimaandishi. Mfano /p/, /b/, /d/                   Marejeleo Mgullu, R. S (1999), Mtalaa wa Isimu, Fonetiki na Fonolojia ya Lugha ya Kiswahili: Nairobi. Longhorn Publishers Massamba na wenzake (2004), Fonolojia ya Kiswahili Sanifu (FOKISA).DSM:IKS. Matinde, R.S (2012), Dafina ya Lugha, Isimu na Nadharia. Serengeti Education Publisher (T) LTD: Mwanza. '''[[Mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI|SALMA A MOHAMEDI]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SALMA A MOHAMEDI#top|majadiliano]])''' 18:14, 7 Novemba 2024 (UTC) aq7qpk5hp2milxmfieou8bnehb66vdo 0 187771 1361602 1355926 2024-11-07T16:55:32Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361602 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jermano wa Talloires [[O.S.B.]]''' (labda [[Ubelgiji]], [[karne ya 10]] - [[Talloires]], [[Savoie]], leo nchini Ufaransa, [[1066]]/[[1080]]) alikuwa [[msomi]] aliyemlea [[Bernardo wa Menthon]], halafu akawa [[mmonaki]] huko Savigny, [[abati]] wa [[monasteri]] mpya ya [[Benedikto wa Nursia|Kibenedikto]] huko Talloires<ref>Bernard Secret, BSS, vol. XII (1969), col. 111.</ref>, na hatimaye kwa miaka mingi [[mkaapweke]] kama alivyotamani<ref name="bss">Bernard Secret, BSS, vol. XII (1969), col. 112.</ref><ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/92888</ref>. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Papa Leo XIII]] alithibitisha [[heshima]] hiyo [[tarehe]] [[9 Mei]] [[1889]]<ref>''Index ac status causarum'' (1999), p. 429.</ref>. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] [[28 Oktoba]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref> ==Tazama pia== *[[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} == Marejeo == * Chanoine Vincent Brasier, ''Vie de saint Germain de Talloires'', impr. J. Niérat, 1889, 208 pages (réimprimé en 2010, par BiblioBazaar, 314 p., {{ISBN|978-1-1451-0378-8}}) ; * Séverin-Georges Couneson, Les Saints nos frères, [[Éditions Beauchesne]], 1970; * Chanoine Vincent Brasier, ''Étude sur saint Germain, moine bénédictin d’abord prieur de Talloires ensuite solitaire'', Annecy, Imprimerie de François Abry, 1879. * Congregatio de Causis Sanctorum, ''Index ac status causarum'', Città del Vaticano 1999. * Filippo Caraffa e Giuseppe Morelli (curr.), ''Bibliotheca Sanctorum'' (BSS), 12 voll., Istituto Giovanni XXIII nella Pontificia Università Lateranense, Roma 1961-1969. ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.ermitage-saintgermain.org/ Site de l'ermitage] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ermitage-saintgermain.org/ |date=20121105035449 }} de Saint-Germain sur [[Talloires]]. * [http://www.diocese-annecy.fr/rubriques/haut/haute-savoie/haut-lieux-spirituels/st-germain-sur-talloires/document {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa karne ya 11]] [[Category:Waliofariki 1066]] [[Jamii:wamonaki]] [[Category:Wabenedikto]] [[Category:Watawa waanzilishi]] [[Jamii:wakaapweke]] [[Jamii:watakatifu wa Ubelgiji]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Ufaransa]] 20v9nj5o183l8li87qa1y8ea66z5431 0 187789 1361596 1359092 2024-11-07T16:22:55Z Dee Soulza 66446 Wikilinks 1361596 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File: IAF - Operation New Order - 04.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|ndege ya Jeshi la Anga la Israeli F-15I iliyobeba mabomu yaliyoboreshewa ulengaji shabaha ikipaa kwenda kushambulia mnamo Sept. 27,2024]] [[Viongozi]] wa [[Hezbollah]] waliouawa na [[Israel|Israeli]] mwaka 2024 wamefikia saba. Makamanda hao waliouawa kisiasa kupitia mashambulizi ya anga ya [[Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli|jeshi la Israeli]] ni pamoja na [[Kiongozi|Kiongozi Mkuu]] wa [[Kundi la kijeshi|kundi hilo la kijeshi]], [[Hassan Nasrallah]] ambaye alipouawa alikuwa kwenye [[makao makuu]] yake yaliyojengwa ardhini huko [[Beirut]].<ref>https://apnews.com/article/hezbollah-lebanon-nasrallah-israel-8b2ae56a54d641c6910a79e9e5699824</ref> [[Shambulio|Mashambulizi]] hayo yaliyofanywa na Israeli yanaipa Hezbollah, kundi linalofadhiliwa na [[Uajemi|Iran]], pigo kubwa kuliko lolote lililowahi kulipata tangu liasisiwe mwaka 1982. == Orodha yao na udadavuzi mfupi == <big>'''Fu'ad Shukr''' (Aliuawa Julai 30, 2024)</big> [[File: Fuad shukr 1.png|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Fuad_shukr]] Alikuwa ni mmoja wa makamanda waandamizi wa Hezbollah na mjumbe wa Baraza la Jihad. Fuad alitazamwa kama mrithi wa baadae wa [[Hassan Nasrallah]]. Kabla ya kuuawa, serikali ya [[Marekani]] ilitangaza dau la dola milioni tano kwa yeyote ambaye angetoa taarifa za kuwezesha kukamatwa kwake. Aliuawa Kwa shambulio la droni (ndege isiyo na rubani) kwenye viunga vya jiji la Beirut.<ref>https://crisis24.garda.com/alerts/2024/07/lebanon-israeli-airstrike-targets-senior-lebanese-hizballah-commander-in-haret-hreik-area-in-dahieh-suburbs-of-beirut-on-evening-of-july-30</ref> <big>'''Ibrahim Aqil''' (Aliuawa Sept. 20, 2024)</big> [[File: Ibrahim Aqil (Hezbollah).webp|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Ibrahim Aqil]] Aqil alikuwa Kamanda Mkuu na muasisi wa Jeshi la Kisomi la Radwan la Hezbollah. Serikali ya Marekani ilimwekea dau la dola milioni saba mtu ambaye angewezesha kupatikana kwake sababu ikiwa ni kushukiwa kwake kuhusika na tukio la kuulipua ubalozi wa Marekani huko Beirut, Lebanon, mwaka 1983 na ulipuaji wa kambi za wanajeshi wanamaji wa jiji hilo. Aliuawa akiwa na makamanda wengine kwenye jengo moja maeneo ya Dahiyeh karibu na Beirut.<ref>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/20/who-is-ibrahim-aqil-the-hezbollah-commander-targeted-by-israel</ref> <big>'''Ahmad Wehbe''' (Aliuawa Sept. 20, 2024)</big> Alikuwa kamanda mwandamizi wa Jeshi la Radwan la Hezbollah. Aliuawa pamoja na Aqil wilayani Dehiyeh. <big>'''Ibrahim Kobeissi''' (Aliuawa Sept. 25, 2024)</big> Alikuwa kamanda wa kitengo cha makombora cha Hezbollah. Aliuawa kwa kombora kwenye viunga vya kusini mwa jiji la Beirut.<ref>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/20/who-is-ibrahim-aqil-the-hezbollah-commander-targeted-by-israel</ref> <big>'''Mohammad Surour''' (Aliuawa Sept. 26, 2024)</big> Surour alikuwa mkuu wa kitengo kipya cha droni cha Hezbollah na ndiye aliyepanga mashambulizi ya makombora dhidi ya Israeli kutokea Lebanon. Aliuawa kwa shambulio la anga akiwa Beirut.<ref>https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/30/middleeast/hezbollah-leaders-assassinated-israel-intl/index.html</ref> <big>'''Hassan Nasrallah ''' (Aliuawa Sept. 27, 2024)</big> [[File: Sayyid Hassan Nasrallah 04.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Sayyid [[Hassan Nasrallah]]]] Nasrallah alichukua uongozi wa Hezbollah mnamo mwaka 1992 baada ya mtangulizi wake Abbas al-Musawi kuuawa kisiasa kwa shambulio la [[helikopta]] ya Israeli. Yeye ndiye aliyetengeneza [[mageuzi]] makubwa ya chama chake na kuwa ni nguzo yenye nguvu kwenye siasa za Lebanoni. Aliuawa kwa shambulio la Israeli akiwa ndani ya [[makao makuu]] yake yaliyokuwa ya chini kwa chini kusini mwa Beirut, pamoja na maafisa wengine 20.<ref> https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/30/middleeast/hezbollah-leaders-assassinated-israel-intl/index.html</ref> <big>'''Nabil Qaouk''' (Aliuawa Sept. 29, 2024) [[File: Sheikh Nabil Qaouk.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text| Sheikh Nabil Qaouk]] Alikuwa kamanda wa Hezbollah wa kitengo cha kujihami kiusalama na mjumbe wa Baraza Kuu la Hezbollah. Marekani ilimtaja kama gaidi wa kimataifa mnamo Oktoba 2020 na akawekewa vikwazo. Aliuawa na shambulio la Israeli kwenye eneo la mbali na Beirut la Chyah.<ref>https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/hezbollah-confirms-senior-official-nabil-qaouk-killed-in-israeli-airsrike/</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Lebanoni]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Israeli]] [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Mashariki ya Kati]] p2x879rshuj4j1p5nxu85mglhe7rxu3 1361597 1361596 2024-11-07T16:24:00Z Dee Soulza 66446 1361597 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File: IAF - Operation New Order - 04.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|ndege ya Jeshi la Anga la Israeli F-15I iliyobeba mabomu yaliyoboreshewa ulengaji shabaha ikipaa kwenda kushambulia mnamo Sept. 27,2024]] [[Viongozi]] wa [[Hezbollah]] waliouawa na [[Israel|Israeli]] mwaka 2024 wamefikia saba. Makamanda hao waliouawa kisiasa kupitia mashambulizi ya anga ya [[Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli|jeshi la Israeli]] ni pamoja na [[Kiongozi|Kiongozi Mkuu]] wa [[Kundi la kijeshi|kundi hilo la kijeshi]], [[Hassan Nasrallah]] ambaye alipouawa alikuwa kwenye [[makao makuu]] yake yaliyojengwa ardhini huko [[Beirut]].<ref>https://apnews.com/article/hezbollah-lebanon-nasrallah-israel-8b2ae56a54d641c6910a79e9e5699824</ref> Mashambulizi hayo yaliyofanywa na Israeli yanaipa Hezbollah, kundi linalofadhiliwa na [[Uajemi|Iran]], pigo kubwa kuliko lolote lililowahi kulipata tangu liasisiwe mwaka 1982. == Orodha yao na udadavuzi mfupi == <big>'''Fu'ad Shukr''' (Aliuawa Julai 30, 2024)</big> [[File: Fuad shukr 1.png|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Fuad_shukr]] Alikuwa ni mmoja wa makamanda waandamizi wa Hezbollah na mjumbe wa Baraza la Jihad. Fuad alitazamwa kama mrithi wa baadae wa [[Hassan Nasrallah]]. Kabla ya kuuawa, serikali ya [[Marekani]] ilitangaza dau la dola milioni tano kwa yeyote ambaye angetoa taarifa za kuwezesha kukamatwa kwake. Aliuawa Kwa shambulio la droni (ndege isiyo na rubani) kwenye viunga vya jiji la Beirut.<ref>https://crisis24.garda.com/alerts/2024/07/lebanon-israeli-airstrike-targets-senior-lebanese-hizballah-commander-in-haret-hreik-area-in-dahieh-suburbs-of-beirut-on-evening-of-july-30</ref> <big>'''Ibrahim Aqil''' (Aliuawa Sept. 20, 2024)</big> [[File: Ibrahim Aqil (Hezbollah).webp|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Ibrahim Aqil]] Aqil alikuwa Kamanda Mkuu na muasisi wa Jeshi la Kisomi la Radwan la Hezbollah. Serikali ya Marekani ilimwekea dau la dola milioni saba mtu ambaye angewezesha kupatikana kwake sababu ikiwa ni kushukiwa kwake kuhusika na tukio la kuulipua ubalozi wa Marekani huko Beirut, Lebanon, mwaka 1983 na ulipuaji wa kambi za wanajeshi wanamaji wa jiji hilo. Aliuawa akiwa na makamanda wengine kwenye jengo moja maeneo ya Dahiyeh karibu na Beirut.<ref>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/20/who-is-ibrahim-aqil-the-hezbollah-commander-targeted-by-israel</ref> <big>'''Ahmad Wehbe''' (Aliuawa Sept. 20, 2024)</big> Alikuwa kamanda mwandamizi wa Jeshi la Radwan la Hezbollah. Aliuawa pamoja na Aqil wilayani Dehiyeh. <big>'''Ibrahim Kobeissi''' (Aliuawa Sept. 25, 2024)</big> Alikuwa kamanda wa kitengo cha makombora cha Hezbollah. Aliuawa kwa kombora kwenye viunga vya kusini mwa jiji la Beirut.<ref>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/20/who-is-ibrahim-aqil-the-hezbollah-commander-targeted-by-israel</ref> <big>'''Mohammad Surour''' (Aliuawa Sept. 26, 2024)</big> Surour alikuwa mkuu wa kitengo kipya cha droni cha Hezbollah na ndiye aliyepanga mashambulizi ya makombora dhidi ya Israeli kutokea Lebanon. Aliuawa kwa shambulio la anga akiwa Beirut.<ref>https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/30/middleeast/hezbollah-leaders-assassinated-israel-intl/index.html</ref> <big>'''Hassan Nasrallah ''' (Aliuawa Sept. 27, 2024)</big> [[File: Sayyid Hassan Nasrallah 04.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Sayyid [[Hassan Nasrallah]]]] Nasrallah alichukua uongozi wa Hezbollah mnamo mwaka 1992 baada ya mtangulizi wake Abbas al-Musawi kuuawa kisiasa kwa shambulio la [[helikopta]] ya Israeli. Yeye ndiye aliyetengeneza [[mageuzi]] makubwa ya chama chake na kuwa ni nguzo yenye nguvu kwenye siasa za Lebanoni. Aliuawa kwa shambulio la Israeli akiwa ndani ya [[makao makuu]] yake yaliyokuwa ya chini kwa chini kusini mwa Beirut, pamoja na maafisa wengine 20.<ref> https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/30/middleeast/hezbollah-leaders-assassinated-israel-intl/index.html</ref> <big>'''Nabil Qaouk''' (Aliuawa Sept. 29, 2024) [[File: Sheikh Nabil Qaouk.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text| Sheikh Nabil Qaouk]] Alikuwa kamanda wa Hezbollah wa kitengo cha kujihami kiusalama na mjumbe wa Baraza Kuu la Hezbollah. Marekani ilimtaja kama gaidi wa kimataifa mnamo Oktoba 2020 na akawekewa vikwazo. Aliuawa na shambulio la Israeli kwenye eneo la mbali na Beirut la Chyah.<ref>https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/hezbollah-confirms-senior-official-nabil-qaouk-killed-in-israeli-airsrike/</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Lebanoni]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Israeli]] [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Mashariki ya Kati]] oxrwm1syo42sc8552khipcj2fhxff0r 1361598 1361597 2024-11-07T16:31:07Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Orodha yao na udadavuzi mfupi */Wikilinks 1361598 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File: IAF - Operation New Order - 04.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|ndege ya Jeshi la Anga la Israeli F-15I iliyobeba mabomu yaliyoboreshewa ulengaji shabaha ikipaa kwenda kushambulia mnamo Sept. 27,2024]] [[Viongozi]] wa [[Hezbollah]] waliouawa na [[Israel|Israeli]] mwaka 2024 wamefikia saba. Makamanda hao waliouawa kisiasa kupitia mashambulizi ya anga ya [[Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli|jeshi la Israeli]] ni pamoja na [[Kiongozi|Kiongozi Mkuu]] wa [[Kundi la kijeshi|kundi hilo la kijeshi]], [[Hassan Nasrallah]] ambaye alipouawa alikuwa kwenye [[makao makuu]] yake yaliyojengwa ardhini huko [[Beirut]].<ref>https://apnews.com/article/hezbollah-lebanon-nasrallah-israel-8b2ae56a54d641c6910a79e9e5699824</ref> Mashambulizi hayo yaliyofanywa na Israeli yanaipa Hezbollah, kundi linalofadhiliwa na [[Uajemi|Iran]], pigo kubwa kuliko lolote lililowahi kulipata tangu liasisiwe mwaka 1982. == Orodha yao na udadavuzi mfupi == <big>'''Fu'ad Shukr''' (Aliuawa Julai 30, 2024)</big> [[File: Fuad shukr 1.png|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Fuad_shukr]] Alikuwa ni mmoja wa [[Kamanda|makamanda waandamizi]] wa Hezbollah na mjumbe wa Baraza la Jihad. Fuad alitazamwa kama [[mrithi]] wa baadae wa [[Hassan Nasrallah]]. Kabla ya kuuawa, serikali ya [[Marekani]] ilitangaza dau la dola milioni tano kwa yeyote ambaye angetoa taarifa za kuwezesha kukamatwa kwake. Aliuawa Kwa shambulio la droni (ndege isiyo na rubani) kwenye viunga vya jiji la [[Beirut]].<ref>https://crisis24.garda.com/alerts/2024/07/lebanon-israeli-airstrike-targets-senior-lebanese-hizballah-commander-in-haret-hreik-area-in-dahieh-suburbs-of-beirut-on-evening-of-july-30</ref> <big>'''Ibrahim Aqil''' (Aliuawa Sept. 20, 2024)</big> [[File: Ibrahim Aqil (Hezbollah).webp|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Ibrahim Aqil]] Aqil alikuwa Kamanda Mkuu na muasisi wa Jeshi la Kisomi la Radwan la Hezbollah. Serikali ya Marekani ilimwekea dau la dola milioni saba mtu ambaye angewezesha kupatikana kwake sababu ikiwa ni kushukiwa kwake kuhusika na tukio la kuulipua ubalozi wa Marekani huko Beirut, Lebanon, mwaka 1983 na ulipuaji wa kambi za wanajeshi wanamaji wa jiji hilo. Aliuawa akiwa na makamanda wengine kwenye jengo moja maeneo ya Dahiyeh karibu na Beirut.<ref>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/20/who-is-ibrahim-aqil-the-hezbollah-commander-targeted-by-israel</ref> <big>'''Ahmad Wehbe''' (Aliuawa Sept. 20, 2024)</big> Alikuwa kamanda mwandamizi wa Jeshi la Radwan la Hezbollah. Aliuawa pamoja na Aqil wilayani Dehiyeh. <big>'''Ibrahim Kobeissi''' (Aliuawa Sept. 25, 2024)</big> Alikuwa kamanda wa kitengo cha makombora cha Hezbollah. Aliuawa kwa kombora kwenye viunga vya kusini mwa jiji la Beirut.<ref>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/20/who-is-ibrahim-aqil-the-hezbollah-commander-targeted-by-israel</ref> <big>'''Mohammad Surour''' (Aliuawa Sept. 26, 2024)</big> Surour alikuwa mkuu wa kitengo kipya cha droni cha Hezbollah na ndiye aliyepanga mashambulizi ya makombora dhidi ya Israeli kutokea Lebanon. Aliuawa kwa shambulio la anga akiwa Beirut.<ref>https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/30/middleeast/hezbollah-leaders-assassinated-israel-intl/index.html</ref> <big>'''Hassan Nasrallah ''' (Aliuawa Sept. 27, 2024)</big> [[File: Sayyid Hassan Nasrallah 04.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text|Sayyid [[Hassan Nasrallah]]]] Nasrallah alichukua uongozi wa Hezbollah mnamo mwaka 1992 baada ya mtangulizi wake Abbas al-Musawi kuuawa kisiasa kwa shambulio la [[helikopta]] ya Israeli. Yeye ndiye aliyetengeneza [[mageuzi]] makubwa ya chama chake na kuwa ni nguzo yenye nguvu kwenye siasa za Lebanoni. Aliuawa kwa shambulio la Israeli akiwa ndani ya [[makao makuu]] yake yaliyokuwa ya chini kwa chini kusini mwa Beirut, pamoja na maafisa wengine 20.<ref> https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/30/middleeast/hezbollah-leaders-assassinated-israel-intl/index.html</ref> <big>'''Nabil Qaouk''' (Aliuawa Sept. 29, 2024) [[File: Sheikh Nabil Qaouk.jpg|thumb|right|Alt = alternative text| Sheikh Nabil Qaouk]] Alikuwa kamanda wa Hezbollah wa kitengo cha kujihami kiusalama na mjumbe wa Baraza Kuu la Hezbollah. Marekani ilimtaja kama gaidi wa kimataifa mnamo Oktoba 2020 na akawekewa vikwazo. Aliuawa na shambulio la Israeli kwenye eneo la mbali na Beirut la Chyah.<ref>https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/hezbollah-confirms-senior-official-nabil-qaouk-killed-in-israeli-airsrike/</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Lebanoni]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Israeli]] [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Mashariki ya Kati]] k1liaffptud5d1t3ih28g6rwu06d9n6 0 188447 1361565 1357788 2024-11-07T14:21:32Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361565 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jakob "Jacques" Person''' ([[1 Mei]] [[1889]] - [[15 Julai]] [[1915]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Ujerumani]] ambaye alishiriki katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1912]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Jacques Person |url=http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/pe/jacques-person-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-17 |archive-date=2016-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203191831/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/pe/jacques-person-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Mwaka 1912 aliondolewa katika nusu fainali ya shindano la mita 400. Katika mbio za mita 800 alitolewa katika raundi ya kwanza.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/70445 |title=Jacques Person |work=Olympedia |access-date=18 April 2021}}</ref> Aliuawa wakati wa Vita ya Kwanza ya dunia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Olympians Who Were Killed or Missing in Action or Died as a Result of War |url=http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/friv/lists.cgi?id=65 |accessdate=2024-10-17 |archive-date=2017-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227111046/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/friv/lists.cgi?id=65 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1889|1915}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Ujerumani]] e3ykp7lajfkmft7n9uvyv94ja88bzld 0 188601 1361600 1357644 2024-11-07T16:43:55Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361600 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jenny Annette Derek''' ni mwanamitindo na malkia wa urembo kutoka [[Australia]] ambaye alitawazwa kuwa ''Miss International'' mwaka 1981 na alikua Mswahili wa pili kutoka Australia kushinda taji la ''Miss International''.<ref name="tribune">{{cite news|title=People|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/635603572.html?dids=635603572:635603572&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+08,+1981&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=People&pqatl=google|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629055135/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/635603572.html?dids=635603572:635603572&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+08,+1981&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=People&pqatl=google|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 29, 2011|accessdate=2 November 2010|newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]]|date=September 8, 1981|quote=Jenny Annette Derek, Miss Australia, is the new Miss International and her favorite sports are jogging playing squash and cycling.|archivedate=2011-06-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629055135/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/635603572.html?dids=635603572:635603572&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+08,+1981&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=People&pqatl=google}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanamitindo wa Australia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Australia]] ktnfq0ckvsejujkp6vue117rrju7rg6 0 188610 1361564 1357659 2024-11-07T14:20:39Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361564 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacques Fellice''' (alizaliwa [[Pointe-a-Pitre]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[8 Februari]] [[1955]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Ufaransa]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za kupokezana za mita 4 x 400. Fellice alishiriki katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] mwaka 1980 na [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Jacques Fellice |url=http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/fe/jacques-fellice-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-18 |archive-date=2011-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923050943/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/fe/jacques-fellice-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1955]] 6ekoiysly7v8kqymseepjo12kgk0uso 0 188612 1361583 1357661 2024-11-07T15:46:38Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361583 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Louis Rapnouil''' (alizaliwa [[Fort-de-France]], [[Martinique]], [[24 Januari]] [[1966]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Ufaransa]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 400. Rapnouil alishiriki katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] mwaka [[1992]] na [[1996]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Jean-Louis Rapnouil |url=http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ra/jean-louis-rapnouil-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-18 |archive-date=2012-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105142432/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ra/jean-louis-rapnouil-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1966]] kmqe9rieifmoyvxln9628cydj138xhh 0 188667 1361610 1358204 2024-11-07T18:28:27Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361610 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joanne Lesley Palmer''' (alizaliwa '''Dick''', hapo awali '''Cornish'''; amezaliwa tarehe [[10 Aprili]] [[1971]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] wa [[Australia]] na aliyekuwa [[Mwandishi wa habari|mwanahabari wa runinga]] na [[mtangazaji]] wa habari. Palmer alizaliwa huko Christchurch, [[New Zealand]] na alihamia [[Tasmania]] akiwa mtoto baada ya kukataliwa na familia kutoka Australia.<ref name="kiwis">{{cite news |last1=Palmer |first1=Jo |title=Kiwis are our kindred spirits |url=https://www.examiner.com.au/story/5647131/friend-foe-all-in-one/ |work=The Examiner|accessdate=11 August 2020 |date=15 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="ontrack">{{cite news |title=Former Miss Australia Joanne Palmer on track for poll victory |url=https://www.themercury.com.au/news/political-career-looms-for-former-news-anchor-and-miss-australia-joanne-palmer/news-story/8446cc68177bf4736906b5017eb8238e |accessdate=11 August 2020 |work=The Mercury |date=3 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nma.gov.au/exhibitions/miss_australia_a_nations_quest/miss_australia_national_titleholders |title=''Miss Australia: A Nation's Quest - National Titleholders'', National Museum of Australia |accessdate=2024-10-18 |archive-date=2018-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221152332/http://www.nma.gov.au/exhibitions/miss_australia_a_nations_quest/miss_australia_national_titleholders |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanamitindo wa Australia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Australia]] bzyhvctl5xzpn3fk5rzxwmfd71ysudv 0 188860 1361582 1358312 2024-11-07T15:45:54Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361582 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha: Behm Jean-Jacques 2016-10-14 Lyon-CBJ.jpg|thumb|Jean-Jacques Behm ]] '''Jean-Jacques Behm''' (alizaliwa [[4 Mei]] [[1942]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Ufaransa]] aliyebobea katika mbio za kuruka viunzi. Alishiriki katika mbio za wanaume za mita 400 kuruka viunzi kwenye Michezo ya [[Olimpiki]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jean-Jacques Behm Bio, Stats, and Results {{!}} Olympics at Sports-Reference.com|url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/be/jean-jacques-behm-1.html|work=web.archive.org|date=2020-04-17|accessdate=2024-10-20|archive-date=2020-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417195726/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/be/jean-jacques-behm-1.html|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> == Marejeo == [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1942]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Ufaransa]] <references />{{Mbegu-mtu}} bozmciz2ng8rb4z1locrlh7qvyg5a7l 0 188970 1361579 1358748 2024-11-07T15:12:47Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361579 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Jane Suuto.JPG|thumbnail|right|200px|Jane Suuto]] '''Jane Suuto''' (alizaliwa [[Mbale]], [[8 Agosti]] [[1978]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Uganda]] wa mbio ndefu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jane Suuto |url=http://www.london2012.com/athlete/suuto-jane-1043823/ |accessdate=2024-10-22 |archive-date=2012-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730151938/http://www.london2012.com/athlete/suuto-jane-1043823/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathoni]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] mwaka [[2012]], akishika nafasi ya 93 kwa muda wa 2:44:46.<ref>{{cite web|title=Women's Marathon: Results|url=http://www.london2012.com/athletics/event/women-marathon/index.html?v=20120806-055117400|publisher=London 2012|accessdate=2012-08-09|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121205100448/www.london2012.com/athletics/event/women-marathon/index.html?v=20120806-055117400|archivedate=2012-12-05}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Uganda]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1978]] 9hs67owhxpgdg1t9rxbmvgzrbbebl6g 0 189079 1361571 1359031 2024-11-07T14:48:52Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361571 wikitext text/x-wiki '''James Odongo Oduka''' (alizaliwa [[4 Desemba]] [[1944]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Uganda]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=James Odongo |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/od/james-odongo-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-23 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011336/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/od/james-odongo-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Uganda]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1944]] o71290lxxpjft99saok9dfqyzjjwuqq 0 189081 1361541 1359034 2024-11-07T12:43:34Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361541 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Irene P. M. Muyanga''' (alizaliwa [[12 Novemba]] [[1943]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Uganda]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Irene Muyanga |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mu/irene-muyanga-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-23 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418015649/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mu/irene-muyanga-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kuwakilisha Uganda katika Olimpiki.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.olympedia.org/lists/99/manual |title=First female competitors at the Olympics by country }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Uganda]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1943]] pvgt6zlnu0e3kups0h5vd1ev0at7k62 0 189086 1361627 1359042 2024-11-07T19:50:08Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361627 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Ssali''' ([[26 Desemba]] [[1967]] – [[18 Novemba]] [[2003]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Uganda]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200311180295.html |title=Uganda: Ex-Sprint Star Ssali Dead |date=2003-11-18 |website=New Vision (Kampala) |access-date=2018-02-21}}</ref> Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka[[1988]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joseph Ssali |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ss/joseph-ssali-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-23 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011607/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ss/joseph-ssali-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1967|2003}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Uganda]] kwdiazjt2vhv97rubc056ljnjro9bkk 0 189102 1361586 1359066 2024-11-07T15:49:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361586 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean Baptiste Okello''' (alizaliwa [[Lira]], [[Mkoa wa Kaskazini, Uganda]] [[10 Aprili]] [[1940]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani. Akiwania Uganda katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1960]], alifika nusu fainali ya mbio za mita 110 kuruka viunzi, na alikuwa sehemu ya kikosi cha mbio za mita 4 × 100 cha kupokezana vijiti.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jean Baptiste Okello |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ok/jean-baptiste-okello-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-23 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050635/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ok/jean-baptiste-okello-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Uganda]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1940]] ow35d5hrgiz248zok4f1ybcalzonpzr 0 189112 1361618 1359081 2024-11-07T19:34:27Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361618 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jorem Ochana''' (alizaliwa [[21 Juni]] [[1935]]) ni mkimbiaji wa [[Uganda]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za kuruka viunzi katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Jorem Ochana Olympic Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/oc/jorem-ochana-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-23 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418123212/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/oc/jorem-ochana-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Uganda]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1935]] ovtqdu0tp33nofyip5wud28zkifymo8 0 189138 1361636 1359284 2024-11-07T20:21:05Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361636 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Judit Bognár''' ([[28 Januari]] [[1939]] – [[26 Novemba]] [[2011]]) alikuwa mchezaji wa riadha kutoka [[Hungaria]]. Alishiriki katika kurushia shot katika [[Olimpiki]] za majira ya joto za mwaka 1964, 1968 na 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Judit Bognár Bio, Stats, and Results {{!}} Olympics at Sports-Reference.com|url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bo/judit-bognar-1.html|work=web.archive.org|date=2020-04-18|accessdate=2024-10-23|archive-date=2020-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093716/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bo/judit-bognar-1.html|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1939]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2011]] [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Hungaria]] 33s7z710mf37td5ds9pdg4nhp10qc96 0 189191 1361585 1360355 2024-11-07T15:48:39Z Dee Soulza 66446 Kuongeza jamii 1361585 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | name = Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli | native_name = {{Noitalics|{{Script/Hebrew|צבא ההגנה לישראל}}}} | image = [[File:Badge of the Israeli Defense Forces 2022 version.svg|150px]] | alt = | caption = Nembo ya Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli | image2 = [[File:Flag of the Israel Defense Forces.svg|200px]] | caption2 = Bendera ya Israeli na Nembo }} '''Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] '''Israel Defense Forces''', kifupi: '''IDF'''; <small>{{lang-he|צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל}}</small> {{Audio|He-Israeli Defense Forces.ogg|''Tsva ha-Hagana le-Yisra'el''}}, kwa ufafanuzi wa neno kwa neno: ''Jeshi la Ulinzi wa Waisraeli '', pia hutajwa kwa finyanzo la [[Kiebrania]] '''Tzahal''' ({{Lang|he|צה״ל}}), ni jeshi la ulinzi la [[taifa]] la [[Israel|Israeli]]. ''IDF'' ni jeshi lenye sehemu kuu tatu: Jeshi la Askari wa Miguu la Israeli, Jeshi la Anga la Israeli na Jeshi la Wanamaji la Israeli.<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=THE STATE: Israel Defense Forces (IDF)|url=https://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/aboutisrael/state/pages/the%20state-%20israel%20defense%20forces%20-idf-.aspx#:~:text=The%20IDF's%20three%20service%20branches,to%20the%20minister%20of%20defense.|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs|quote=The IDF's three service branches (ground forces, air force, and navy) function under a unified command, headed by the Chief of the General Staff, with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is responsible to the minister of defence.|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818074136/https://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/aboutisrael/state/pages/the%20state-%20israel%20defense%20forces%20-idf-.aspx#:~:text=The%20IDF's%20three%20service%20branches,to%20the%20minister%20of%20defense.|url-status=live}}</ref> Ndio tawi pekee la kijeshi la vikosi vya ulinzi na usalawa vya taifa la Israeli. IDF huongozwa na Mkuu wa Jeshi, ambaye huwa chini ya Waziri wa Ulinzi wa Israeli. Chini ya maelekezo ya Waziri Mkuu wa kwanza David Ben-Gurion, IDF ilianzishwa mnamo tarehe 26 Mei 1948 na lilianza kwa kutumikisha watu kisheria , huku wasajiliwa wake wa awali kabisa wakiwa ni askari ambao tayari walikuwepo, wa [[kundi la kijeshi]] la ''Yishuv'' — maarufu kama ''Haganah'', [Irgun], na kundi lingine lililojulikana kama ''Lehi''. Lilianzishwa muda mfupi baada ya Israeli kujitangazia uhuru wake na limeshiriki katika kila mgogoro wa kivita ambamo Israeli ilihusika. Ndani ya vipindi vya mikataba ya amani; kati ya Israeli na Misri wa 1979 na ule wa Israel na Jordan wa 1994, IDF ilifanya mabadiliko makubwa ya kimkakati. Hapo kabla, jeshi hilo lilikuwa likisambazwa kwenye maeneo mbalimbali ya mstari wa mbele —[[Lebanon]] na [[Syria]] upande wa kaskazini, [[Jordan]] na [[Iraq]] upande wa mashariki, na [[Misri]] upande wa kusini — IDF ikahamishia umakinifu wake kwenye maeneo inayoyakalia ya kusini mwa Lebanoni na kwenye kuzikalia kimabavu himaya za Palestina za [[Ukanda wa Gaza]] na Ukingo wa Magharibi, ikijumuisha [[Yerusalemu]] ya [[Mashariki]]. Mnamo mwaka 2000, IDF iliondoka kusini mwa Lebanoni na mnamo 2005 iliondoka Gaza. Mizozo kati ya Israeli na makundi ya Kiislamu ya Gaza, hususan [[Hamas]], imekuwa ikiendelea tangia wakati huo. Zaidi ya hayo, mgogoro mwingine uliotikisa ni ule wa Israel na Syria, ambao ulikuwa ukifukuta mara kwa mara tangu 2011, kutokana na hali tete ya Mashariki ya Kati inayosababishwa na vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe huko Syria. Tangu mwaka 1967, IDF imekuwa ikijenga uhusiano wa karibu wa masuala ya kiusalama na [[Marekani]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Mahler, Gregory S. |title=Israel After Begin |page=45 |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-7914-0367-9}}</ref> wakishirikiana pia katika masuala ya utafiti wa maendeleo, wakiweka juhudi za pamoja kwenye uundaji wa ''McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle'' au F-15I na makombora ya kujilindia ya ''Arrow'' , miongoni mwa mambo mengine . Pia inashukiwa kuwa IDF imejitengenezea na inamiliki silaha za kinyuklia tangia mwaka 1967, ikiwa na vichwa vya silaza hizo kati ya 80 na 400.<ref name="israelcohen">There is a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see [[Avner Cohen]], ''The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb'' (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.</ref> IDF inazidhibiti himaya za Palestina zinazokaliwa kimabavu na Israeli kupitia ukandamizaji, ubaguzi uliorasmishwa na uporaji wa haki za binadamu (za Wapalestina) na unyanyasaji wa kikatili; mambo ambayo yamekumbana na ukosoji mkubwa kote duniani.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Israel, West Bank and Gaza |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306132629/https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/ |archive-date=6 March 2024 |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-01 |title=Israel's apartheid against Palestinians: a cruel system of domination and a crime against humanity |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/02/israels-apartheid-against-palestinians-a-cruel-system-of-domination-and-a-crime-against-humanity/ |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == [[Jamii:siasa ya Israeli]] [[Jamii:historia ya Mashariki ya Kati]] [[Jamii:jeshi]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Israeli] [[Jamii:2024]] mredzglr44b14k56ad5zadint6ju80t 1361758 1361585 2024-11-08T09:10:36Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361758 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | name = Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli | native_name = {{Noitalics|{{Script/Hebrew|צבא ההגנה לישראל}}}} | image = [[File:Badge of the Israeli Defense Forces 2022 version.svg|150px]] | alt = | caption = Nembo ya Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli | image2 = [[File:Flag of the Israel Defense Forces.svg|200px]] | caption2 = Bendera ya Israeli na Nembo }} '''Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] '''Israel Defense Forces''', [[kifupi]]: '''IDF'''; <small>{{lang-he|צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל}}</small> {{Audio|He-Israeli Defense Forces.ogg|''Tsva ha-Hagana le-Yisra'el''}}, kwa ufafanuzi wa neno kwa neno: ''Jeshi la Ulinzi wa Waisraeli'', pia hutajwa kwa finyanzo la [[Kiebrania]] '''Tzahal''' ({{Lang|he|צה״ל}}), ni jeshi la ulinzi la [[taifa]] la [[Israel|Israeli]]. ''IDF'' ni jeshi lenye sehemu kuu tatu: Jeshi la Askari wa Miguu la Israeli, Jeshi la Anga la Israeli na Jeshi la Wanamaji la Israeli.<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=THE STATE: Israel Defense Forces (IDF)|url=https://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/aboutisrael/state/pages/the%20state-%20israel%20defense%20forces%20-idf-.aspx#:~:text=The%20IDF's%20three%20service%20branches,to%20the%20minister%20of%20defense.|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs|quote=The IDF's three service branches (ground forces, air force, and navy) function under a unified command, headed by the Chief of the General Staff, with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is responsible to the minister of defence.|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818074136/https://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/aboutisrael/state/pages/the%20state-%20israel%20defense%20forces%20-idf-.aspx#:~:text=The%20IDF's%20three%20service%20branches,to%20the%20minister%20of%20defense.|url-status=live}}</ref> Ndio tawi pekee la kijeshi la vikosi vya ulinzi na usalawa vya taifa la Israeli. IDF huongozwa na Mkuu wa Jeshi, ambaye huwa chini ya Waziri wa Ulinzi wa Israeli. Chini ya maelekezo ya Waziri Mkuu wa kwanza David Ben-Gurion, IDF ilianzishwa mnamo tarehe 26 Mei 1948 na lilianza kwa kutumikisha watu kisheria , huku wasajiliwa wake wa awali kabisa wakiwa ni askari ambao tayari walikuwepo, wa [[kundi la kijeshi]] la ''Yishuv'' — maarufu kama ''Haganah'', [Irgun], na kundi lingine lililojulikana kama ''Lehi''. Lilianzishwa muda mfupi baada ya Israeli kujitangazia uhuru wake na limeshiriki katika kila mgogoro wa kivita ambamo Israeli ilihusika. Ndani ya vipindi vya mikataba ya amani; kati ya Israeli na Misri wa 1979 na ule wa Israel na Jordan wa 1994, IDF ilifanya mabadiliko makubwa ya kimkakati. Hapo kabla, jeshi hilo lilikuwa likisambazwa kwenye maeneo mbalimbali ya mstari wa mbele —[[Lebanon]] na [[Syria]] upande wa kaskazini, [[Jordan]] na [[Iraq]] upande wa mashariki, na [[Misri]] upande wa kusini — IDF ikahamishia umakinifu wake kwenye maeneo inayoyakalia ya kusini mwa Lebanoni na kwenye kuzikalia kimabavu himaya za Palestina za [[Ukanda wa Gaza]] na Ukingo wa Magharibi, ikijumuisha [[Yerusalemu]] ya [[Mashariki]]. Mnamo mwaka 2000, IDF iliondoka kusini mwa Lebanoni na mnamo 2005 iliondoka Gaza. Mizozo kati ya Israeli na makundi ya Kiislamu ya Gaza, hususan [[Hamas]], imekuwa ikiendelea tangia wakati huo. Zaidi ya hayo, mgogoro mwingine uliotikisa ni ule wa Israel na Syria, ambao ulikuwa ukifukuta mara kwa mara tangu 2011, kutokana na hali tete ya Mashariki ya Kati inayosababishwa na vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe huko Syria. Tangu mwaka 1967, IDF imekuwa ikijenga uhusiano wa karibu wa masuala ya kiusalama na [[Marekani]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Mahler, Gregory S. |title=Israel After Begin |page=45 |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-7914-0367-9}}</ref> wakishirikiana pia katika masuala ya utafiti wa maendeleo, wakiweka juhudi za pamoja kwenye uundaji wa ''McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle'' au F-15I na makombora ya kujilindia ya ''Arrow'' , miongoni mwa mambo mengine . Pia inashukiwa kuwa IDF imejitengenezea na inamiliki silaha za kinyuklia tangia mwaka 1967, ikiwa na vichwa vya silaza hizo kati ya 80 na 400.<ref name="israelcohen">There is a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see [[Avner Cohen]], ''The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb'' (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.</ref> IDF inazidhibiti himaya za Palestina zinazokaliwa kimabavu na Israeli kupitia ukandamizaji, ubaguzi uliorasmishwa na uporaji wa haki za binadamu (za Wapalestina) na unyanyasaji wa kikatili; mambo ambayo yamekumbana na ukosoji mkubwa kote duniani.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Israel, West Bank and Gaza |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306132629/https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/ |archive-date=6 March 2024 |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-01 |title=Israel's apartheid against Palestinians: a cruel system of domination and a crime against humanity |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/02/israels-apartheid-against-palestinians-a-cruel-system-of-domination-and-a-crime-against-humanity/ |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} [[Jamii:siasa ya Israeli]] [[Jamii:historia ya Mashariki ya Kati]] [[Jamii:jeshi]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Israeli] nboc8112wf652zafbf42kgja38xexlb 0 189279 1361623 1359597 2024-11-07T19:44:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361623 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Gikonyo Mukinyi''' (alizaliwa [[7 Februari]] [[1965]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 na 200. Alikuwa mshikilizi wa rekodi ya Kenya katika masafa yote mawili kwa sekunde 10.28 na sekunde 20.43 mtawalia. Rekodi ya kitaifa ya mita 100 tangu wakati huo imevunjwa na Tom Musinde, ambaye alikimbia 10.26 katika [[Michezo ya Afrika Nzima]] mwaka [[2007]].<ref>Africathle.com: [http://www.africathle.com/perso/events/ALGER_2007/ALGER_2007.html 2007 All-Africa Games, July 18-23, Algiers]</ref>Pia alishiriki katika mbio za mita 200 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1996]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joseph Gikonyo Olympic Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/gi/joseph-gikonyo-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-25 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418102153/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/gi/joseph-gikonyo-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Mwaka [[2002]], Gikonyo alielezewa kama mwanariadha mstaafu.<ref>Daily Nation, May 18, 2002: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927014624/http://www.nationaudio.com/News/DailyNation/18052002/Sports/Sports6.html Mutola and Fredericks awaited at Kasarani]</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1965]] 4df2d0w8h32t69hkrkr70my326xdru4 0 189305 1361624 1359674 2024-11-07T19:48:33Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361624 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Mwengi Mutua''' (alizaliwa [[Machakos]], uliokuwa [[Mkoa wa Mashariki (Kenya)|Mkoa wa Mashariki]], [[10 Desemba]] [[1978]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] kutoka [[Kenya]] ambaye ni mtaalamu wa mbio za mita 800. Wakati wake bora zaidi wa kibinafsi ni dakika 1:43.33, iliyofikiwa mnamo [[Agosti]] [[2002]] huko [[Zürich]]. Anashikilia rekodi ya ndani ya Kiafrika katika mita 800 kwa dakika 1:44.71, iliyofikiwa [[Januari]] 2004 huko [[Stuttgart]].<ref>[http://www.iaaf.org/statistics/records/gender=M/location=I/recordsType=AR/eventCatCode=/junior=N/area=AFR/index.html Area Indoor Records - Men - Africa] - IAAF.org</ref> Alishiriki mara mbili katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]]. Mwaka [[2000]], alishindwa kusonga mbele katika mbio za mita 800, lakini alikuwa sehemu ya timu ya Kenya ya mbio za mita 4*400 za kupokezana vijiti iliyofika nusu fainali. Katika Olimpiki ya Majira ya 2004, alifika nusu fainali ya mita 800.<ref>{{cite web |title=Joseph Mutua |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mu/joseph-mutua-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-26 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418025244/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mu/joseph-mutua-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Alishinda ubingwa wa kitaifa wa Kenya mwaka [[2002]], [[2003]] na [[2004]]. Alikuwa sehemu ya timu ya relay ya 4 × 800 m ambaye kwa sasa anashikilia rekodi ya ulimwengu. == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1978]] ji4kt5itayhh2es0r79065cj80ivs28 0 189395 1361670 1359915 2024-11-08T01:59:01Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361670 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Keith Alvin Saint Hope Gardner''' ([[6 Septemba]] [[1929]] - [[25 Mei]] [[2012]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Jamaika]] ambaye alishindana katika mbio za mita 110 kuruka viunzi, mita 100, 200 na mita 400. Alishindania British West Indies katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1960]] iliyofanyika [[Roma]], [[Italia]] katika mbio za kupokezana za mita 4 x 400 ambapo alishinda medali ya shaba akiwa na wachezaji wenzake Malcolm Spence, James Wedderburn, na George Kerr.<ref>{{cite web |title=Keith Gardner |url=http://www.golocaljamaica.com/readarticle.Profile |accessdate=2024-10-27 |archive-date=2007-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928031323/http://www.golocaljamaica.com/readarticle.Profile |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1929|2012}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Jamaika]] 70m1oybtamco3s92cryjd5ara22oqbf 0 189506 1361705 1360212 2024-11-08T02:50:52Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361705 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Kevin Healey (autism activist).jpg|thumb|Kevin Healey (mwanaharakati wa autism)]] '''Kevin Healey''' (alizaliwa [[27 Mei]] [[1974]]) ni [[mwanaharakati]] wa [[autism]]. Pia anapambana dhidi ya unyanyasaji. == Harakati ya Autism == Mnamo mwaka wa 2001, Healey alianzisha North Staffordshire Asperger's & Autism Association (NSAAA).<ref name="sentinel-2015">{{cite news|last1=Ault|first1=Richard|title=Autism campaigner Kevin Healey: 'Hate crimes aren't taken seriously enough'|url=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Autism-campaigner-Kevin-Healey-Hate-crimes-aren-t/story-26656709-detail/story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715120856/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Autism-campaigner-Kevin-Healey-Hate-crimes-aren-t/story-26656709-detail/story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 July 2015|accessdate=6 November 2015|work=[[The Sentinel (Staffordshire)|The Sentinel]]|date=8 June 2015|archivedate=2015-07-15|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715120856/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Autism-campaigner-Kevin-Healey-Hate-crimes-aren-t/story-26656709-detail/story.html}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2007, Healey alianzisha Staffordshire Adults Autistic Society (SAAS), ambayo inatoa msaada kwa watu wazima wenye autism, ikiwa ni pamoja na shughuli kama vile matembezi pamoja na mipango ya elimu na huduma za simu za msaada.<ref name="sentinel-2012">{{cite news|title=Group reaches out to adults who are living with autism|url=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Group-reaches-adults-living-autism/story-16574184-detail/story.html|accessdate=6 November 2015|work=The Sentinel|date=21 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032001/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Group-reaches-adults-living-autism/story-16574184-detail/story.html|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=dead|archivedate=2015-11-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032001/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Group-reaches-adults-living-autism/story-16574184-detail/story.html}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1974]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] si4hbadzshvihpjc7aathq1ieogjg4z 0 189681 1361625 1360541 2024-11-07T19:49:06Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361625 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Nzau''' (alizaliwa [[Aprili 14]], [[1949]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio ndefu ambaye aliwakilisha nchi yake kwenye [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] mwaka [[1984]] huko [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]. Nzau alishinda mbio za Chicago Marathon mwaka [[1983]] na Belgrade Marathon mwaka [[1990]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joseph Nzau |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/nz/joseph-nzau-1.html |accessdate=2024-10-31 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050250/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/nz/joseph-nzau-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1949]] tiwomnvfqmpm6mllv1kdenv2f49a2m6 0 189756 1361572 1360712 2024-11-07T14:50:32Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361572 wikitext text/x-wiki '''James Sabulei''' (alizaliwa [[12 Aprili]] [[1969]]) ni mrukaji mara tatu wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] mwaka [[1992]].<ref>{{cite web |title=James Sabulei |url=http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sa/james-sabulei-1.html |accessdate=2024-11-01 |archive-date=2012-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121217004704/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sa/james-sabulei-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1969]] c4lsma3xfa7t9lpypbfzje6rzg1199g 0 189758 1361562 1360714 2024-11-07T14:14:25Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361562 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacob Katonon''' (alizaliwa [[5 Oktoba]] [[1969]]) ni mrukaji mara tatu wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] mara tatu ambaye alishiriki katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] mwaka [[1996]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Jacob Katonon |url=http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ka/jacob-katonon-1.html |accessdate=2024-11-01 |archive-date=2012-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113180712/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ka/jacob-katonon-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1969]] gv6ffp0tvrdega3wzz74vriu33sg0th 0 189773 1361632 1360747 2024-11-07T20:07:14Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361632 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joy Nakhumicha Sakari''' (alizaliwa [[Chepkoya]], [[Kenya]], [[6 Juni]] [[1986]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye ni mtaalamu wa mbio za mita 400. Aliwakilisha Kenya katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2012]].<ref>[http://www.london2012.com/athlete/sakari-joy-nakhumicha-1126993/ London 2012 profile] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530162157/http://www.london2012.com/athlete/sakari-joy-nakhumicha-1126993/ |date=2013-05-30 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Joy Nakhumicha Sakari Bio, Stats, and Results|url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sa/joy-nakhumicha-sakari-1.html|accessdate=2024-11-01|archive-date=2020-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418085540/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sa/joy-nakhumicha-sakari-1.html|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> Siku moja baada ya kuboresha rekodi ya Kenya katika Mashindano ya Dunia mwaka [[2015]], alifeli majaribio ya dawa za kusisimua misuli.<ref>{{cite web |title=athletics: Two Kenyan sprinters fail doping test in Beijing |url=http://sportsnewsarena.com/two-kenyan-sprinters-fail-doping-test-in-beijing- |accessdate=2024-11-01 |archive-date=2015-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828205400/http://sportsnewsarena.com/two-kenyan-sprinters-fail-doping-test-in-beijing- |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1986]] 8e69t9fsmynuvoa1ou8vlno6747bb0o 0 189887 1361560 1361152 2024-11-07T14:06:27Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361560 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:JaLynn_Prince_2023.jpg|thumb|Prince mnamo 2023.]] '''JaLynn Rasmussen Prince''' ni mfadhili, mpiga [[picha]], na [[mwanamke]] wa biashara kutoka [[Marekani]]. Yeye ni [[rais]] na mwanzilishi wa Taasisi ya Madison House Autism Foundation.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Johnson, Page|title=Black Heritage Month at the Washington D.C. Temple Visitors' Center|date=February 13, 2004|work=[[Meridian Magazine]]|url=http://www.meridianmagazine.com/churchupdate/040213month.html|accessdate=May 17, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100207040321/http://meridianmagazine.com/churchupdate/040213month.html|archive-date=February 7, 2010|url-status=dead|archivedate=2010-02-07|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100207040321/http://meridianmagazine.com/churchupdate/040213month.html}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 4696osep3vhmjxrdjhe692nhsl81453 0 189966 1361544 1361536 2024-11-07T13:02:53Z Dee Soulza 66446 Kuendelea makala 1361544 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Ujio wa kushangaza=== Donald Trump anakuwa rais wa 47 wa Marekani, Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na Kisha kupata muhula wa pili usio mtawalia. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka Washington kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua matokeo ya uchaguzi wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wa umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. 5384s4w0der9501vkoc486phw0wj0ch 1361546 1361544 2024-11-07T13:11:17Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Ujio wa kushangaza */Kuongeza taarifa 1361546 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Ujio wa kushangaza=== Donald Trump anakuwa rais wa 47 wa Marekani, Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata muhula wa pili usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka Washington kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua matokeo ya uchaguzi wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wa umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. 2p5s6srjjd8rodo0vsvoexw033eww11 1361547 1361546 2024-11-07T13:12:47Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Trump ashinda urais 2024 */Rejea 1361547 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Ujio wa kushangaza=== Donald Trump anakuwa rais wa 47 wa Marekani, Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata muhula wa pili usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka Washington kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua matokeo ya uchaguzi wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wa umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. 99zwguckac4cauqmvyoifpkxbwwge6p 1361551 1361547 2024-11-07T13:33:29Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Ujio wa kushangaza */Wikilinks 1361551 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Ujio wa kushangaza=== [[Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Doald Trump|rais wa 47]] wa Marekani, Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka Washington kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua matokeo ya uchaguzi wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wa umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ic303vg0yzbw4f44oi91wyl5o5wki35 1361554 1361551 2024-11-07T13:41:03Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Ujio wa kushangaza */Wikilinks 1361554 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Ujio wa kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. 2a60m7m44tq50xaenqb91flqmswza19 1361568 1361554 2024-11-07T14:28:18Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Rejea ya kushangaza */Habari na rejea 1361568 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== Ushindi wa kishindo wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakik, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke (wagombea urais wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> e6yrx7020x9bmf3buqdp01fgipgjuau 1361569 1361568 2024-11-07T14:34:54Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Maswali mazito */ 1361569 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> exevsp4zwta4ztfrew2tdjxwau5zu0j 1361573 1361569 2024-11-07T14:53:22Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Maswali mazito */Taarifa na link 1361573 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa chama cha Ripabliki, Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "Wapiga kura walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika utawala wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> 9g0ijd4cl1yrsw7wi8h26t9h1karlyf 1361574 1361573 2024-11-07T14:59:58Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Maswali mazito */Wiki link 1361574 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> sni9p49tcrzc45atwhov461azpahava 1361575 1361574 2024-11-07T15:01:01Z Dee Soulza 66446 Dee Soulza alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Mtumiaji:Dee Soulza/11]] hadi [[Trump ashinda urais 2024]] 1361574 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Trump ashinda urais 2024== <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> sni9p49tcrzc45atwhov461azpahava 1361577 1361575 2024-11-07T15:01:56Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Rejea ya kushangaza */Kuondoa kichwa cha ziada 1361577 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> 4raj91mqrtv63xv8d8sbcopglfvyfnt 1361604 1361577 2024-11-07T18:02:49Z Dee Soulza 66446 1361604 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = 2024 United States presidential election | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> hzjn79rw58gigu7l1h4fe85uh28f8s0 1361751 1361604 2024-11-08T08:50:39Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361751 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani 2024 | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] ryrbm2gdxhv0088xbpbbdvoipcv0kth 1361752 1361751 2024-11-08T08:52:10Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Trump ashinda urais 2024]] hadi [[Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, 2024]]: usahihi wa jina 1361751 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani 2024 | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''[[Donald Trump|Trump]] ashinda urais wa [[Marekani]] 2024''', kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] ryrbm2gdxhv0088xbpbbdvoipcv0kth 1361754 1361752 2024-11-08T08:53:26Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361754 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani 2024 | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, 2024''' ulimfanya [[Donald Trump]] ashinde kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua, majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] ehv540juy7v3ctmbwhfvrvdesi7roay 1361780 1361754 2024-11-08T10:41:55Z Dee Soulza 66446 Wikilink 1361780 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani 2024 | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, 2024''' ulimfanya [[Donald Trump]] ashinde kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua: likiwamo [[Jaribio la kumuua Donald Trump|jaribio alilonusurika na risasi la Julai 13, 2024]], majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] 8ms0paqi8yg5j0513g7g65e3doe16uy 1361803 1361780 2024-11-08T11:27:22Z Dee Soulza 66446 Kuongeza taarifa 1361803 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani 2024 | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, 2024''' ulimfanya [[Donald Trump]] ashinde kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua: likiwamo [[Jaribio la kumuua Donald Trump|jaribio alilonusurika na risasi la Julai 13, 2024]], majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> ===Ilivyokuwa=== Mwanzoni,rais anayeondoka madarakani, [[Joe Biden]] wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, alikuwa kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha urais akiwa na Harris,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/25/joe-biden-announces-2024-reelection-campaign.html |title=Biden launches 2024 reelection campaign, promising to fulfill economic policy vision |author=Kinery, Emma |date=April 25, 2023 |publisher=CNBC|access-date=April 25, 2023|archive-date=April 25, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425102004/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/25/joe-biden-announces-2024-reelection-campaign.html|url-status=live}}</ref> na wakawa wagombea wateule wa chama chao waliopita hata kabla ya mkutano maalum wa kuwapitisha wakikutana na kaupinzani kadogo sana;<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Gold |first1=Michael |last2=Nehamas |first2=Nicholas |date=March 13, 2024 |title=Donald Trump and Joe Biden Clinch Their Party Nominations |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/12/us/politics/trump-republican-nomination.html |access-date=March 13, 2024 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=March 13, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313034919/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/12/us/politics/trump-republican-nomination.html |url-status=live}}</ref> hata hivyo, kile kilichoonekana kuwa ni kufanya vibaya kwenye mdahalo wa urais wa June 2024 dhidi ya Trump, kiliongeza shinikizo kutoka kwa chama chake la kumtaka ajitoe kutokana na utu uzima alionao pamoja na mdororo wa afya yake.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Quinn |first1=Melissa |last2=Kim |first2=Ellis |title=More Democrats join wave of lawmakers calling on Biden to drop out of 2024 race |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/democrats-biden-drop-out-2024/ |publisher=CBS News|access-date=August 7, 2024 |date=July 19, 2024|archive-date=July 26, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726234941/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/democrats-biden-drop-out-2024/|url-status=live}}</ref> Ingawa mwanzoni aliushikilia msimamo wake wa kubaki akigombea, baadae ikatangazwa kuwa [[Kujitoa kwa Joe Biden kwenye uchaguzi mkuu wa Marekani|Biden ajitoa kwenye uchaguzi mkuu wa Marekani 2024]] mnamo Julai 21, na kuwa rais wa kwanza aliye madarakani na kupitishwa kugombea tena kisha kujitoa, tangia kujitoa kwa [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] kwenye uchaguzi wa 1968. Biden akairithisha tiketi yake kwa [[Makamu wa rais|makamu wake wa rais]] [[Kamala Harris]], ambaye alishapitishwa hapo kabla kuwa mgombea mwenza wa Biden kwenye uchaguzi huohuo mnamo Agosti 5, 2024. Harris akamteua Walz kuwa mgombea mwenza wake. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] c0ljsxvk5qlzroo5jjyvqsamemdedp5 1361810 1361803 2024-11-08T11:33:52Z Dee Soulza 66446 /* Ilivyokuwa */ 1361810 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="display: flex; justify-content: center; gap: 5px;"> <div style="float: left;">[[File:Donald Trump August 19, 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|170px|alt= alternative text|Donald Trump]]</div> <div style="float: right;">[[File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|alt= alternative text|Kamala Harris]]</div> </div> {{Infobox | <!-- infobox content here --> }} {{Infobox election | election_name = Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani 2024 | country = United States | type = presidential | opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 2024 United States presidential election | college_voted = no | reporting = 87 | last_update = 1:59 pm, 6 November 2024 | time_zone = EST | previous_election= 2020 United States presidential election | previous_year = 2020 | next_election = 2028 United States presidential election | next_year = 2028 | election_date = November 5, 2024 | votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College | needed_votes = 270 electoral | map_image = Map of USA MA.svg | image1 = [[File: Donald Trump official portrait (3x4a).jpg]] | image_size = 200x200px | nominee1 = Donald Trump | home_state1 = Florida | running_mate1 = JD Vance | electoral_vote1 = 291 | states_carried1 = 27 + ME-02 | popular_vote1 = 71,880,307 | percentage1 = 51.0% | image2 = [[File: Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg]] | nominee2 = Kamala Harris | home_state2 = California | running_mate2 = Tim Walz | electoral_vote2 = 224 | states_carried2 = 18 + DC + NE-02 | popular_vote2 = 67,030,608 | percentage2 = 47.5% | map_caption = USA Map }} '''Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, 2024''' ulimfanya [[Donald Trump]] ashinde kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha vuta nikuvute dhidi ya mpinzani wake ambaye ni [[makamu wa rais]] aliye madarakani wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, [[Kamala Harris]]. [[Uchaguzi]] huo ni wa 60 katika [[historia]] ya chaguzi za nchi hiyo za mihula ya miaka minne-minne, uliofanyika Jumanne, Novemba 5, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Election Day a federal holiday? What to know before decision day 2024.|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tens-millions-early-votes-cast-election-day/story?id=115272249|website=USA Today|date=November 1, 2024|accessdate=November 3, 2024|author=Munson, Olivia}}</ref> Karibu vyombo vyote vikubwa vya habari vilimtabiria ushindi rais wa zamani wa nchi hiyo, Trump, wa chama cha Ripabliki na mgombea mwenza wake, seneta wa Ohio, [[Makamu wa rais|JD Vance]] dhidi ya [[Kamala Harris]] na [[Minnesota|Gavana wa Minnesota ]] Tim Walz.<ref name="APWin">{{Cite news |title=Trump wins the US Presidency |publisher=AP News |date=2024-11-06 |url= https://apnews.com/live/trump-harris-election-updates-11-5-2024 |accessdate=2024-11-06}}</ref> ===Rejea ya kushangaza=== [[rais|Donald Trump]] anakuwa [[Donald Trump|rais wa 47 wa Marekani]], Mmarekani wa pili kurejea kuwa rais baada ya kuupoteza hapo katikati na kisha kupata [[muhula|muhula wa pili]] usio mtawalia. Kwa maana hiyo, Trump anashika namba mbili kwenye awamu za marais wa taifa hilo: 45 na 47<ref>https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref>. Miaka minne baada ya kuondoka [[Washington]] kama mtu aliyesuswa kufuatia jaribio lake la kutaka kupindua [[uchaguzi|matokeo ya uchaguzi]] wa 2020 ili asalie madarakani, ushindi wake umeyashinda majaribio mawili ya kutaka kumuua: likiwamo [[Jaribio la kumuua Donald Trump|jaribio alilonusurika na risasi la Julai 13, 2024]], majaribio mawili ya kumng'oa madarakani na msururu wa mashitaka ya jinai juu yake<ref>https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/06/politics/trump-wins-election/index.html?iid=cnn_buildContentRecirc_end_recirc</ref>. ===Maswali mazito=== [[Ushindi|Ushindi wa kishindo]] wa Trump umezua maswali mengi yasiyo na majibu ya uhakika, ikiwemo, kama Kamala ameshindwa kwa kuwa yeye ni mwanamke ([[Uchaguzi mkuu|wagombea urais]] wa kike wa Marekani hawajawahi kushinda kiti hicho hata wakiwa bora vipi na kutengeneza imani kuwa wamarekani hawataki kuongozwa na mwanamke), au licha ya Wamarekani kuhubiriwa kwa vigezo na sababu kadhaa mbona bado walimchagua Trump au ni kwa kuwa Trump ni tajiri sana kulinganisha na Harris au ni ''ofa'' za tajiri mkubwa duniani [[Elon Musk]] zilibadili mwelekeo wa kura.<ref> https://time.com/6234562/nonconsecutive-terms-president-grover-cleveland-donald-trump/</ref> Moja ya majibu yanayokubalika lilitoka kwa mpiga kura mkongwe wa [[Chama cha siasa|chama cha Ripabliki]], Frank Luntz aliyesema kuwa Kamala Harris ameshindwa uchaguzi kwa kuwa alikazania zaidi kwenye kumshambulia Trump kuliko kwenye kutangaza sera zake. "[[Kura|Wapiga kura]] walikuwa wanayajua yote kumhusu Trump – lakini bado walitaka kujua zaidi kuhusu nini Haris angefanya kwenye siku yake ya kwanza, mwezi wake wa kwanza na mwaka wake wa kwanza katika [[utawala]] wake kama rais."<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjr4l5j2v9do</ref> ===Ilivyokuwa=== Mwanzoni, rais anayeondoka madarakani, [[Joe Biden]] wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia, alikuwa kwenye kinyang'anyiro cha urais akiwa na Harris,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/25/joe-biden-announces-2024-reelection-campaign.html |title=Biden launches 2024 reelection campaign, promising to fulfill economic policy vision |author=Kinery, Emma |date=April 25, 2023 |publisher=CNBC|access-date=April 25, 2023|archive-date=April 25, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425102004/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/25/joe-biden-announces-2024-reelection-campaign.html|url-status=live}}</ref> na wakawa wagombea wateule wa chama chao waliopita hata kabla ya mkutano maalum wa kuwapitisha wakikutana na kaupinzani kadogo sana;<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Gold |first1=Michael |last2=Nehamas |first2=Nicholas |date=March 13, 2024 |title=Donald Trump and Joe Biden Clinch Their Party Nominations |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/12/us/politics/trump-republican-nomination.html |access-date=March 13, 2024 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=March 13, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313034919/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/12/us/politics/trump-republican-nomination.html |url-status=live}}</ref> hata hivyo, kile kilichoonekana kuwa ni kufanya vibaya kwenye mdahalo wa urais wa June 2024 dhidi ya Trump, kiliongeza shinikizo kutoka kwa chama chake la kumtaka ajitoe kutokana na utu uzima alionao pamoja na mdororo wa afya yake.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Quinn |first1=Melissa |last2=Kim |first2=Ellis |title=More Democrats join wave of lawmakers calling on Biden to drop out of 2024 race |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/democrats-biden-drop-out-2024/ |publisher=CBS News|access-date=August 7, 2024 |date=July 19, 2024|archive-date=July 26, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726234941/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/democrats-biden-drop-out-2024/|url-status=live}}</ref> Ingawa mwanzoni aliushikilia msimamo wake wa kubaki akigombea, baadae ikatangazwa kuwa [[Kujitoa kwa Joe Biden kwenye uchaguzi mkuu wa Marekani|Biden ajitoa kwenye uchaguzi mkuu wa Marekani 2024]] mnamo Julai 21, na kuwa rais wa kwanza aliye madarakani na kupitishwa kugombea tena kisha kujitoa, tangia kujitoa kwa [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] kwenye uchaguzi wa 1968. Biden akairithisha tiketi yake kwa [[Makamu wa rais|makamu wake wa rais]] [[Kamala Harris]], ambaye alishapitishwa hapo kabla kuwa mgombea mwenza wa Biden kwenye uchaguzi huohuo mnamo Agosti 5, 2024. Harris akamteua Walz kuwa mgombea mwenza wake. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:2024]] [[Jamii:chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] sga3c2uckfibx9ush2am3c0oqa5jl82 0 189986 1361540 2024-11-07T12:31:25Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[picha:Ricky Stuart Canberra.jpg|thumb|Ricky Stuart Canberra]] '''Ricky John Stuart AM''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Januari]] [[1967]]) ni mtaalamu wa kocha wa mchezo wa rugby ligi kutoka [[Australia]] ambaye kwa sasa ni kocha mkuu wa Canberra Raiders katika Ligi ya Kitaifa ya Rugby (NRL), na pia alikuwa mchezaji wa zamani wa rugby ligi aliyeyocheza kama halfback katika miaka ya [[1980]], [[1990|1990,]] na [[2000|2000.]] <ref>{{cite news|format=Fee required|t...' 1361540 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Ricky Stuart Canberra.jpg|thumb|Ricky Stuart Canberra]] '''Ricky John Stuart AM''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Januari]] [[1967]]) ni mtaalamu wa kocha wa mchezo wa rugby ligi kutoka [[Australia]] ambaye kwa sasa ni kocha mkuu wa Canberra Raiders katika Ligi ya Kitaifa ya Rugby (NRL), na pia alikuwa mchezaji wa zamani wa rugby ligi aliyeyocheza kama halfback katika miaka ya [[1980]], [[1990|1990,]] na [[2000|2000.]] <ref>{{cite news|format=Fee required|title=Stuart given honour of addressing Wallabies|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-87203669.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516182246/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-87203669.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 May 2011|access-date=12 August 2007|date=14 November 2003|publisher=AAP Sports News (Australia)}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1967]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Australia]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 0qxmn4ii4slfird6j0idzjrpvc7ma6o 1361704 1361540 2024-11-08T02:34:45Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361704 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Ricky Stuart Canberra.jpg|thumb|Ricky Stuart Canberra]] '''Ricky John Stuart AM''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Januari]] [[1967]]) ni kocha wa mchezo wa [[rugby]] ligi kutoka [[Australia]] ambaye kwa sasa ni kocha mkuu wa ''Canberra Raiders'' katika Ligi ya Kitaifa ya Rugby (NRL), na pia alikuwa mchezaji wa zamani wa rugby ligi aliyeyocheza kama halfback katika miaka ya [[1980]], [[1990|1990,]] na [[2000|2000.]] <ref>{{cite news|format=Fee required|title=Stuart given honour of addressing Wallabies|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-87203669.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516182246/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-87203669.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 May 2011|access-date=12 August 2007|date=14 November 2003|publisher=AAP Sports News (Australia)}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1967]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Australia]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] icl5s42wg71i0zhyxfzucxlfdxaq0cp 0 189987 1361542 2024-11-07T12:49:34Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[picha:Robert Smigel.jpg|thumb|Robert Smigel]] '''Robert Smigel''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Februari]] [[1960]]) ni muigizaji, mchekeshaji, mwandishi, mkurugenzi, mtayarishaji, na mchezaji wa vichekesho kutoka [[Marekani]], anajulikana kwa vichupo vya michoro vya TV Funhouse alivyovifanya kwa kipindi cha "Saturday Night Live" na pia kama mchezaji wa vinyago na sauti ya "Triumph the Insult Comic Dog". Vilevile, aliandika pamoja na wenzake filamu mbili za mwan...' 1361542 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Robert Smigel.jpg|thumb|Robert Smigel]] '''Robert Smigel''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Februari]] [[1960]]) ni muigizaji, mchekeshaji, mwandishi, mkurugenzi, mtayarishaji, na mchezaji wa vichekesho kutoka [[Marekani]], anajulikana kwa vichupo vya michoro vya TV Funhouse alivyovifanya kwa kipindi cha "Saturday Night Live" na pia kama mchezaji wa vinyago na sauti ya "Triumph the Insult Comic Dog". Vilevile, aliandika pamoja na wenzake filamu mbili za mwanzo za hotel Transylania, "You Don't Mess with the Zohan" na "Leo", zote zilizoongozwa na '''Adam Sandler''' <ref>{{cite web|title=Happy? Good? Conan's big Chicago show|url=http://featuresblogs.chicagotribune.com/entertainment_tv/2006/05/happy_good_cona.html|access-date=January 22, 2016}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1960]] [[Jamii:Waigizaji wa sauti wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 0ao4l49mfcppke1gftsdtkv8yxb0ilw 1361703 1361542 2024-11-08T02:33:48Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361703 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Robert Smigel.jpg|thumb|Robert Smigel]] '''Robert Smigel''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Februari]] [[1960]]) ni [[Mwigizaji|muigizaji]], [[mchekeshaji]], [[mwandishi]], [[mkurugenzi]], [[mtayarishaji]], na [[mchezaji]] wa vichekesho kutoka [[Marekani]], anajulikana kwa vichupo vya michoro vya TV Funhouse alivyovifanya kwa kipindi cha "Saturday Night Live" na pia kama mchezaji wa vinyago na sauti ya "Triumph the Insult Comic Dog". Vilevile, aliandika pamoja na wenzake filamu mbili za mwanzo za hotel Transylania, "You Don't Mess with the Zohan" na "Leo", zote zilizoongozwa na '''Adam Sandler''' <ref>{{cite web|title=Happy? Good? Conan's big Chicago show|url=http://featuresblogs.chicagotribune.com/entertainment_tv/2006/05/happy_good_cona.html|access-date=January 22, 2016}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1960]] [[Jamii:Waigizaji wa sauti wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] fs2l6garnzmincjl1qy39rzfpx4m006 0 189988 1361543 2024-11-07T13:00:05Z Praygod mwanga 39272 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[Faili:Ingeborg Rapoport.jpg|thumb|Rapoport mwaka 1985]] '''Ingeborg Rapoport''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 2 Septemba 1912 – Alifariki tarehe 23 Machi 2017) alikuwa daktari wa watoto wa [[Ujerumani]] ambaye alikuwa mtu mashuhuri katika tiba ya Ujerumani Mashariki na akiwa na umri wa miaka 102 alikuwa mtu mwenye umri mkubwa zaidi kupokea shahada ya uzamivu.<ref name="infmor">[http://www.verwaltungsvorschriften-im-internet.de/bsvwvbund_20012015_RSII2170272.htm ''...' 1361543 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Ingeborg Rapoport.jpg|thumb|Rapoport mwaka 1985]] '''Ingeborg Rapoport''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 2 Septemba 1912 – Alifariki tarehe 23 Machi 2017) alikuwa daktari wa watoto wa [[Ujerumani]] ambaye alikuwa mtu mashuhuri katika tiba ya Ujerumani Mashariki na akiwa na umri wa miaka 102 alikuwa mtu mwenye umri mkubwa zaidi kupokea shahada ya uzamivu.<ref name="infmor">[http://www.verwaltungsvorschriften-im-internet.de/bsvwvbund_20012015_RSII2170272.htm ''Einflussfaktoren auf das Geschlechtsverhältnis der Neugeborenen unter besonderer Betrachtung der Wirkung ionisierender Strahlung'' (see fig. 2)], verwaltungsvorschriften-im-internet.de; retrieved 13 May 2016.{{in lang|de}}</ref><ref name="dgkj">Prof. Dr. Roland R. Wauer, [http://www.dgkj.de/ueber_uns/personalia/meldung/meldungsdetail/ingeborg_rapoport_zum_100_geburtstag ''Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin e.V. (DGKJ)''], 31 August 2012.</ref><ref name="wsj">James Graff, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/from-nazi-germany-a-tale-of-redemption-1431576062 Ingeborg Rapoport to Become Oldest Recipient of Doctorate After Nazi Injustice is Righted], ''The Wall Street Journal'', 14 May 2015.</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1912]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2017]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] oeicy8tv8k3e4dlsh6z5ylundw37w38 1361702 1361543 2024-11-08T02:32:57Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361702 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Ingeborg Rapoport.jpg|thumb|Rapoport mwaka 1985]] '''Ingeborg Rapoport''' (Alizaliwa tarehe [[2 Septemba]] [[1912]] – Alifariki tarehe [[23 Machi]] [[2017]]) alikuwa [[daktari]] wa watoto wa [[Ujerumani]] ambaye alikuwa mtu mashuhuri katika tiba ya Ujerumani Mashariki na akiwa na umri wa miaka 102 alikuwa mtu mwenye umri mkubwa zaidi kupokea shahada ya uzamivu.<ref name="infmor">[http://www.verwaltungsvorschriften-im-internet.de/bsvwvbund_20012015_RSII2170272.htm ''Einflussfaktoren auf das Geschlechtsverhältnis der Neugeborenen unter besonderer Betrachtung der Wirkung ionisierender Strahlung'' (see fig. 2)], verwaltungsvorschriften-im-internet.de; retrieved 13 May 2016.{{in lang|de}}</ref><ref name="dgkj">Prof. Dr. Roland R. Wauer, [http://www.dgkj.de/ueber_uns/personalia/meldung/meldungsdetail/ingeborg_rapoport_zum_100_geburtstag ''Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin e.V. (DGKJ)''], 31 August 2012.</ref><ref name="wsj">James Graff, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/from-nazi-germany-a-tale-of-redemption-1431576062 Ingeborg Rapoport to Become Oldest Recipient of Doctorate After Nazi Injustice is Righted], ''The Wall Street Journal'', 14 May 2015.</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1912]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2017]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] 60peraxyla62ehjixipcg14hr3pd4bl 1361732 1361702 2024-11-08T07:08:04Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361732 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Ingeborg Rapoport.jpg|thumb|Rapoport mwaka 1985]] '''Ingeborg Rapoport''' ([[2 Septemba]] [[1912]] – [[23 Machi]] [[2017]]) alikuwa [[daktari]] wa watoto wa [[Ujerumani]] ambaye alikuwa mashuhuri katika tiba ya Ujerumani Mashariki na akiwa na umri wa miaka 102 alikuwa mtu mwenye umri mkubwa zaidi kupokea shahada ya [[uzamivu]].<ref name="infmor">[http://www.verwaltungsvorschriften-im-internet.de/bsvwvbund_20012015_RSII2170272.htm ''Einflussfaktoren auf das Geschlechtsverhältnis der Neugeborenen unter besonderer Betrachtung der Wirkung ionisierender Strahlung'' (see fig. 2)], verwaltungsvorschriften-im-internet.de; retrieved 13 May 2016.{{in lang|de}}</ref><ref name="dgkj">Prof. Dr. Roland R. Wauer, [http://www.dgkj.de/ueber_uns/personalia/meldung/meldungsdetail/ingeborg_rapoport_zum_100_geburtstag ''Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin e.V. (DGKJ)''], 31 August 2012.</ref><ref name="wsj">James Graff, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/from-nazi-germany-a-tale-of-redemption-1431576062 Ingeborg Rapoport to Become Oldest Recipient of Doctorate After Nazi Injustice is Righted], ''The Wall Street Journal'', 14 May 2015.</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasayansi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1912]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2017]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] 69zhkkvod5w6sgjpa3e0y7kcxo89fw3 0 189989 1361545 2024-11-07T13:09:58Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Janet L. Duprey''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[27 Novemba]] [[1945|1945)]] alikua mjumbe wa chama cha Republican katika bunge la jimbo la '''[[New York]]''', akiwakilisha Jimbo la Bunge la 115, ambalo linajumuisha kaunti zote za Clinton na Franklin, pamoja na sehemu ya Kaunti ya St. Lawrence. Yeye ni mzaliwa wa Plattsburg'''.''' Duprey alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mjumbe wa Bunge tarehe [[7 Novemba]] [[2006]]. Aligombea bila upinzani katika uchaguzi...' 1361545 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Janet L. Duprey''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[27 Novemba]] [[1945|1945)]] alikua mjumbe wa chama cha Republican katika bunge la jimbo la '''[[New York]]''', akiwakilisha Jimbo la Bunge la 115, ambalo linajumuisha kaunti zote za Clinton na Franklin, pamoja na sehemu ya Kaunti ya St. Lawrence. Yeye ni mzaliwa wa Plattsburg'''.''' Duprey alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mjumbe wa Bunge tarehe [[7 Novemba]] [[2006]]. Aligombea bila upinzani katika uchaguzi mkuu wa [[Novemba]] [[2008]]. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/02/28/the-pro-freedom-republicans-are-coming-131-sign-gay-marriage-brief.html|title=The Pro-Freedom Republicans Are Coming: 131 Sign Gay Marriage Brief|newspaper=The Daily Beast|date=28 February 2013|last1=Avlon|first1=John}}</ref> == Marejeo == [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1945]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] nxm5of1iu6o1cen5u7uhjz3q9c6o55v 1361701 1361545 2024-11-08T02:30:55Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361701 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Janet L. Duprey''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[27 Novemba]] [[1945|1945)]] alikua mjumbe wa [[Chama cha Jamhuri cha Marekani|chama cha Republican]] katika bunge la jimbo la '''[[New York]]''', akiwakilisha Jimbo la Bunge la 115, ambalo linajumuisha kaunti zote za Clinton na Franklin, pamoja na sehemu ya Kaunti ya St. Lawrence. Yeye ni mzaliwa wa Plattsburg'''.''' Duprey alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mjumbe wa Bunge tarehe [[7 Novemba]] [[2006]]. Aligombea bila upinzani katika uchaguzi mkuu wa [[Novemba]] [[2008]]. <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/02/28/the-pro-freedom-republicans-are-coming-131-sign-gay-marriage-brief.html|title=The Pro-Freedom Republicans Are Coming: 131 Sign Gay Marriage Brief|newspaper=The Daily Beast|date=28 February 2013|last1=Avlon|first1=John}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1945]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] nbk8qtgilcd5ygnffisfarm7uhl6s6z 0 189990 1361548 2024-11-07T13:14:57Z Praygod mwanga 39272 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[Faili:Fotothek df roe-neg 0006505 036 Portrait von Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß.jpg|thumb|Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß]] '''Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 22 Februari 1918 - Alifariki tarehe 28 Mei 2000) alikuwa mwandishi wa [[Ujerumani]]. Kazi zake zilijumuisha riwaya, hadithi fupi, mashairi, nyimbo, michezo ya redio na tamthilia za televisheni. Vitabu vingi vya kwake vilitokana na utafiti wake wa kina katika maeneo mbalimbali na vinasimulia h...' 1361548 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Fotothek df roe-neg 0006505 036 Portrait von Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß.jpg|thumb|Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß]] '''Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 22 Februari 1918 - Alifariki tarehe 28 Mei 2000) alikuwa mwandishi wa [[Ujerumani]]. Kazi zake zilijumuisha riwaya, hadithi fupi, mashairi, nyimbo, michezo ya redio na tamthilia za televisheni. Vitabu vingi vya kwake vilitokana na utafiti wake wa kina katika maeneo mbalimbali na vinasimulia hadithi za wanawake waliopata au kushindwa kupata haki za wanawake.<ref name=AmFensterlautMP>{{cite web|title=5.000 Stunden "Am Fenster"|url=https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article382690/5-000-Stunden-Am-Fenster.html|date=6 April 2002|author=Michael Pilz, Redakteur Feuilleton |publisher=Axel Springer SE (Welt), Berlin| accessdate=10 December 2018}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1918]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2000]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] 0ge9g1sqjp24akq6vyuc4e7umiyj0po 1361700 1361548 2024-11-08T02:29:55Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361700 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Fotothek df roe-neg 0006505 036 Portrait von Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß.jpg|thumb|Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß]] '''Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß''' (Alizaliwa tarehe [[22 Februari]] [[1918]] - Alifariki tarehe [[28 Mei]] [[2000]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi]] wa [[Ujerumani]]. Kazi zake zilijumuisha [[riwaya]], [[hadithi]] fupi, [[mashairi]], [[nyimbo]], michezo ya redio na [[tamthilia]] za [[televisheni]]. [[Vitabu]] vingi vya kwake vilitokana na utafiti wake wa kina katika maeneo mbalimbali na vinasimulia hadithi za wanawake waliopata au kushindwa kupata haki za wanawake.<ref name=AmFensterlautMP>{{cite web|title=5.000 Stunden "Am Fenster"|url=https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article382690/5-000-Stunden-Am-Fenster.html|date=6 April 2002|author=Michael Pilz, Redakteur Feuilleton |publisher=Axel Springer SE (Welt), Berlin| accessdate=10 December 2018}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1918]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2000]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] o9cvje619stqbno3vwxi5osdr2l9qk8 1361733 1361700 2024-11-08T07:09:23Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361733 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Fotothek df roe-neg 0006505 036 Portrait von Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß.jpg|thumb|Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß]] '''Hildegard Maria Rauchfuß''' ([[22 Februari]] [[1918]] - [[28 Mei]] [[2000]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi]] wa [[Ujerumani]]. Kazi zake zilijumuisha [[riwaya]], [[hadithi]] fupi, [[mashairi]], [[nyimbo]], michezo ya redio na [[tamthilia]] za [[televisheni]]. [[Vitabu]] vingi vya kwake vilitokana na utafiti wake wa kina katika maeneo mbalimbali na vinasimulia hadithi za wanawake waliopata au kushindwa kupata haki za wanawake.<ref name=AmFensterlautMP>{{cite web|title=5.000 Stunden "Am Fenster"|url=https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article382690/5-000-Stunden-Am-Fenster.html|date=6 April 2002|author=Michael Pilz, Redakteur Feuilleton |publisher=Axel Springer SE (Welt), Berlin| accessdate=10 December 2018}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1918]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2000]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] [[Jamii:waandishi wa Ujerumani]] isbgrgc78tf8dwb1flxmbs569ujyokk 0 189991 1361549 2024-11-07T13:21:15Z Praygod mwanga 39272 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Margaretha Reichardt''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 6 Machi 1907 – Alifariki tarehe 25 Mei 1984), pia anajulikana kama '''Grete Reichardt''', alikuwa msanii wa nguo, mfumaji na mbunifu wa michoro kutoka [[Erfurt]], [[Ujerumani]].<ref name=MRM>[http://www.erfurt.de/ef/de/erleben/kunst/museen/108325.html Angermuseum Erfurt (2015) Margaretha-Reichardt-Haus] (in German). Retrieved 19 October 2016</ref><ref>[http://www.erfurt-web.de/Margaretha_Reichardt ''Margaretha...' 1361549 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Margaretha Reichardt''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 6 Machi 1907 – Alifariki tarehe 25 Mei 1984), pia anajulikana kama '''Grete Reichardt''', alikuwa msanii wa nguo, mfumaji na mbunifu wa michoro kutoka [[Erfurt]], [[Ujerumani]].<ref name=MRM>[http://www.erfurt.de/ef/de/erleben/kunst/museen/108325.html Angermuseum Erfurt (2015) Margaretha-Reichardt-Haus] (in German). Retrieved 19 October 2016</ref><ref>[http://www.erfurt-web.de/Margaretha_Reichardt ''Margaretha Reichardt''. Erfurt-web.de ] (in German). Retrieved 24 October 2016.</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1907]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1984]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] g8oirot38edjprmrh921l55fjvbj5x2 1361699 1361549 2024-11-08T02:28:17Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361699 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Margaretha Reichardt''' (Alizaliwa tarehe [[6 Machi]] [[1907]] – Alifariki tarehe [[25 Mei]] [[1984]]), pia anajulikana kama '''Grete Reichardt''', alikuwa [[msanii]] wa nguo, mfumaji na [[Michoro|mbunifu wa michoro]] kutoka [[Erfurt]], [[Ujerumani]].<ref name=MRM>[http://www.erfurt.de/ef/de/erleben/kunst/museen/108325.html Angermuseum Erfurt (2015) Margaretha-Reichardt-Haus] (in German). Retrieved 19 October 2016</ref><ref>[http://www.erfurt-web.de/Margaretha_Reichardt ''Margaretha Reichardt''. Erfurt-web.de ] (in German). Retrieved 24 October 2016.</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1907]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1984]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] gzqi114h19j2brukyj8i5djvkr8y50z 1361734 1361699 2024-11-08T07:09:58Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361734 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Margaretha Reichardt''' (pia anajulikana kama '''Grete Reichardt''', [[6 Machi]] [[1907]] – [[25 Mei]] [[1984]]) alikuwa [[msanii]] wa nguo, mfumaji na [[Michoro|mbunifu wa michoro]] kutoka [[Erfurt]], [[Ujerumani]].<ref name=MRM>[http://www.erfurt.de/ef/de/erleben/kunst/museen/108325.html Angermuseum Erfurt (2015) Margaretha-Reichardt-Haus] (in German). Retrieved 19 October 2016</ref><ref>[http://www.erfurt-web.de/Margaretha_Reichardt ''Margaretha Reichardt''. Erfurt-web.de ] (in German). Retrieved 24 October 2016.</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1907]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1984]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] sncfo3uz94ij8x89dgqare40ut5zka4 0 189992 1361550 2024-11-07T13:24:55Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[File:NoahMcCourt-StateCapitol2018.jpg|thumb|Noah McCourt]] '''Noah McCourt''' (alizaliwa [[1994]]) ni mhamasishaji wa haki za watu wenye ulemavu na mtetezi wa haki za watu wenye usonji kutoka [[Marekani]], pia ni mwanasiasa na mkosoaji wa kijamii ambaye alitunukiwa tuzo na Umoja wa Mataifa mwaka [[2016]]. McCourt alikuwa mjumbe wa zamani wa Baraza la Gavana la [[Minnesota]] kuhusu Ulemavu wa Maendeleo na pia alikuwemo katika Baraza la Ushauri la Jimbo...' 1361550 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:NoahMcCourt-StateCapitol2018.jpg|thumb|Noah McCourt]] '''Noah McCourt''' (alizaliwa [[1994]]) ni mhamasishaji wa haki za watu wenye ulemavu na mtetezi wa haki za watu wenye usonji kutoka [[Marekani]], pia ni mwanasiasa na mkosoaji wa kijamii ambaye alitunukiwa tuzo na Umoja wa Mataifa mwaka [[2016]]. McCourt alikuwa mjumbe wa zamani wa Baraza la Gavana la [[Minnesota]] kuhusu Ulemavu wa Maendeleo na pia alikuwemo katika Baraza la Ushauri la Jimbo kuhusu Afya ya Akili, ambapo alihudumu kama mwenyekiti wa Kamati Ndogo ya Jimbo kuhusu Afya ya Akili ya Watoto. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://mn.gov/mnddc/council/gcddmembers/mccourt.html|title=The Minnesota Governor's Council on Developmental Disabilities: Noah McCourt|website=mn.gov|access-date=2019-03-24}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1994]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 45vbv9nycaxhe9selz9u2yy4vokj48r 1361698 1361550 2024-11-08T02:26:58Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361698 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:NoahMcCourt-StateCapitol2018.jpg|thumb|Noah McCourt]] '''Noah McCourt''' (alizaliwa [[1994]]) ni mhamasishaji wa [[Haki za binadamu|haki za watu wenye ulemavu]] na mtetezi wa haki za watu wenye [[usonji]] kutoka [[Marekani]], pia ni [[mwanasiasa]] na mkosoaji wa kijamii ambaye alitunukiwa tuzo na Umoja wa Mataifa mwaka [[2016]]. McCourt alikuwa mjumbe wa zamani wa Baraza la [[Gavana]] la [[Minnesota]] kuhusu Ulemavu wa Maendeleo na pia alikuwemo katika Baraza la Ushauri la Jimbo kuhusu [[Afya ya akili|Afya ya Akili]], ambapo alihudumu kama mwenyekiti wa Kamati Ndogo ya Jimbo kuhusu Afya ya Akili ya Watoto. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://mn.gov/mnddc/council/gcddmembers/mccourt.html|title=The Minnesota Governor's Council on Developmental Disabilities: Noah McCourt|website=mn.gov|access-date=2019-03-24}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1994]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] mxq8q8v8jeisd5f00e0ws79sir0tly1 0 189993 1361552 2024-11-07T13:34:03Z Praygod mwanga 39272 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[Faili:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E1209-0026-001, Berlin, Lesung Brigitte Reimann, Walter Lewerenz.jpg|thumb|Reimann akiongea mbele ya Kamati ya Utendaji ya Baraza la Kitaifa la GDR, mwaka 1963]] '''Brigitte Reimann''' (alizaliwa tarehe 21 Julai 1933, Burg bei Magdeburg, akafariki tarehe 22 Februari 1973, Berlin Mashariki) alikuwa mwandishi wa [[Ujerumani]] anayejulikana sana kwa riwaya yake iliyochapishwa baada ya kifo chake, ''Franziska Linkerhand''.<ref na...' 1361552 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E1209-0026-001, Berlin, Lesung Brigitte Reimann, Walter Lewerenz.jpg|thumb|Reimann akiongea mbele ya Kamati ya Utendaji ya Baraza la Kitaifa la GDR, mwaka 1963]] '''Brigitte Reimann''' (alizaliwa tarehe 21 Julai 1933, Burg bei Magdeburg, akafariki tarehe 22 Februari 1973, Berlin Mashariki) alikuwa mwandishi wa [[Ujerumani]] anayejulikana sana kwa riwaya yake iliyochapishwa baada ya kifo chake, ''Franziska Linkerhand''.<ref name="Ges">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brigittereimann.de/biographie_burg.php|title=Brigitte Reimann /Biographie/Burg|website=www.brigittereimann.de}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1933]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1973]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] n4hq2l80qi3k69eb03dk0nzvh63zl3w 1361697 1361552 2024-11-08T02:25:08Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361697 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E1209-0026-001, Berlin, Lesung Brigitte Reimann, Walter Lewerenz.jpg|thumb|Reimann akiongea mbele ya Kamati ya Utendaji ya Baraza la Kitaifa la GDR, mwaka 1963]] '''Brigitte Reimann''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[21 Julai]] [[1933]], Burg bei Magdeburg, akafariki tarehe [[22 Februari]] [[1973]], Berlin Mashariki) alikuwa [[mwandishi]] wa [[Ujerumani]] anayejulikana sana kwa [[riwaya]] yake iliyochapishwa baada ya kifo chake, ''Franziska Linkerhand''.<ref name="Ges">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brigittereimann.de/biographie_burg.php|title=Brigitte Reimann /Biographie/Burg|website=www.brigittereimann.de}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1933]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1973]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] tfb421z5syfuslyvjamtgvp4ohnxb9e 1361735 1361697 2024-11-08T07:11:16Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361735 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-E1209-0026-001, Berlin, Lesung Brigitte Reimann, Walter Lewerenz.jpg|thumb|Reimann akiongea mbele ya Kamati ya Utendaji ya Baraza la Kitaifa la GDR, mwaka 1963]] '''Brigitte Reimann''' (Burg bei Magdeburg, [[21 Julai]] [[1933]] - Berlin Mashariki, [[22 Februari]] [[1973]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi]] wa [[Ujerumani]] anayejulikana sana kwa [[riwaya]] yake iliyochapishwa baada ya kifo chake, ''Franziska Linkerhand''.<ref name="Ges">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brigittereimann.de/biographie_burg.php|title=Brigitte Reimann /Biographie/Burg|website=www.brigittereimann.de}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1933]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1973]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] [[Jamii:waandishi wa Ujerumani]] sq9428gzu64p9aiwtuwhsb4np3mbc84 0 189994 1361553 2024-11-07T13:40:10Z Praygod mwanga 39272 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[Faili:Annett Renneberg 2014.jpg|thumb|Annett Renneberg (2014)]] '''Annett Renneberg''' (alizaliwa tarehe 16 Machi 1978 huko Rudolstadt) ni mwigizaji na mwimbaji wa [[Ujerumani]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-21 |title=„In aller Freundschaft”: TV-Ärztin liest im Landestheater Neustrelitz {{!}} Nordkurier.de |url=https://www.nordkurier.de/neustrelitz/tv-aerztin-liest-im-landestheater-neustrelitz-2147909904.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=www.no...' 1361553 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Annett Renneberg 2014.jpg|thumb|Annett Renneberg (2014)]] '''Annett Renneberg''' (alizaliwa tarehe 16 Machi 1978 huko Rudolstadt) ni mwigizaji na mwimbaji wa [[Ujerumani]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-21 |title=„In aller Freundschaft”: TV-Ärztin liest im Landestheater Neustrelitz {{!}} Nordkurier.de |url=https://www.nordkurier.de/neustrelitz/tv-aerztin-liest-im-landestheater-neustrelitz-2147909904.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=www.nordkurier.de |language=de}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1978|}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] kz1w7v674rtsn3w09v65v65zch0dc4w 1361696 1361553 2024-11-08T02:23:56Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361696 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Annett Renneberg 2014.jpg|thumb|Annett Renneberg (2014)]] '''Annett Renneberg''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[16 Machi]] [[1978]] huko Rudolstadt) ni [[mwigizaji]] na [[mwimbaji]] wa [[Ujerumani]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-21 |title=„In aller Freundschaft”: TV-Ärztin liest im Landestheater Neustrelitz {{!}} Nordkurier.de |url=https://www.nordkurier.de/neustrelitz/tv-aerztin-liest-im-landestheater-neustrelitz-2147909904.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=www.nordkurier.de |language=de}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1978|}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] s61tzqa23cwp7uidgrmqhhqzt5kgugy 1361736 1361696 2024-11-08T07:12:23Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361736 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Annett Renneberg 2014.jpg|thumb|Annett Renneberg (2014)]] '''Annett Renneberg''' (alizaliwa huko [[Rudolstadt]], [[16 Machi]] [[1978]]) ni [[mwigizaji]] na [[mwimbaji]] wa [[Ujerumani]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-21 |title=„In aller Freundschaft”: TV-Ärztin liest im Landestheater Neustrelitz {{!}} Nordkurier.de |url=https://www.nordkurier.de/neustrelitz/tv-aerztin-liest-im-landestheater-neustrelitz-2147909904.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=www.nordkurier.de |language=de}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-igiza-filamu}} {{BD|1978|}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Ujerumani]] [[Jamii:waimbaji wa Ujerumani]] g73xlptkw0ljl7qco1gw7ozta43bnt8 0 189995 1361555 2024-11-07T13:50:57Z Praygod mwanga 39272 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Jutta Resch-Treuwerth''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 30 Aprili 1941 - Alifariki tarehe 18 Februari 2015) alikuwa mwandishi wa habari wa [[Ujerumani]]. Alijulikana sana katika Ujerumani Mashariki kama mshauri wa ndoa na mahusiano.<ref name=JRTlautJRT>{{cite web|title=Ich über mich|url=http://www.jutta-resch-treuwerth.de/portraet.html|author=Jutta Resch-Treuwerth|work=Im Gedenken an Jutta Resch-Treuwerth - meiner Mutter - bleibt diese Website mit ihrem Kolumnen un...' 1361555 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jutta Resch-Treuwerth''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 30 Aprili 1941 - Alifariki tarehe 18 Februari 2015) alikuwa mwandishi wa habari wa [[Ujerumani]]. Alijulikana sana katika Ujerumani Mashariki kama mshauri wa ndoa na mahusiano.<ref name=JRTlautJRT>{{cite web|title=Ich über mich|url=http://www.jutta-resch-treuwerth.de/portraet.html|author=Jutta Resch-Treuwerth|work=Im Gedenken an Jutta Resch-Treuwerth - meiner Mutter - bleibt diese Website mit ihrem Kolumnen und Büchern erhalten.|publisher=Unter vier Augen|accessdate=16 December 2017}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1941]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2015]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] i6hsmdr552rca11cx4gdl9hii4f6f55 1361695 1361555 2024-11-08T02:23:18Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361695 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jutta Resch-Treuwerth''' (Alizaliwa tarehe [[30 Aprili]] [[1941]] - Alifariki tarehe [[18 Februari]] [[2015]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi wa habari]] wa [[Ujerumani]]. Alijulikana sana katika Ujerumani Mashariki kama mshauri wa [[ndoa]] na mahusiano.<ref name=JRTlautJRT>{{cite web|title=Ich über mich|url=http://www.jutta-resch-treuwerth.de/portraet.html|author=Jutta Resch-Treuwerth|work=Im Gedenken an Jutta Resch-Treuwerth - meiner Mutter - bleibt diese Website mit ihrem Kolumnen und Büchern erhalten.|publisher=Unter vier Augen|accessdate=16 December 2017}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1941]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2015]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] o7zco4h12uasaibejbqbye5gdi6eift 1361737 1361695 2024-11-08T07:12:49Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361737 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jutta Resch-Treuwerth''' ([[30 Aprili]] [[1941]] - [[18 Februari]] [[2015]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi wa habari]] wa [[Ujerumani]]. Alijulikana sana katika Ujerumani Mashariki kama mshauri wa [[ndoa]] na mahusiano.<ref name=JRTlautJRT>{{cite web|title=Ich über mich|url=http://www.jutta-resch-treuwerth.de/portraet.html|author=Jutta Resch-Treuwerth|work=Im Gedenken an Jutta Resch-Treuwerth - meiner Mutter - bleibt diese Website mit ihrem Kolumnen und Büchern erhalten.|publisher=Unter vier Augen|accessdate=16 December 2017}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1941]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2015]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] 2c0emawkngccdu2rq5o6203obi76yfl 0 189996 1361556 2024-11-07T13:51:27Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[picha:Daryl Strawberry (29297363126).jpg|thumb|Daryl Strawberry]] '''Darryl Eugene Strawberry''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[12 Machi|12 Mach]]<nowiki/>i [[1962]]) ni mchezaji wa zamani wa [[baseball]] kutoka [[Marekani]] ambaye alicheza kama right fielder kwa misimu 17 katika Major League Baseball (MLB). Katika kipindi chote cha keria yake, Strawberry alikuwa mmoja wa wapiga mipira hatari zaidi katika mchezo, akijulikana kwa mipira yake mikubwa ya nyumbani na u...' 1361556 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Daryl Strawberry (29297363126).jpg|thumb|Daryl Strawberry]] '''Darryl Eugene Strawberry''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[12 Machi|12 Mach]]<nowiki/>i [[1962]]) ni mchezaji wa zamani wa [[baseball]] kutoka [[Marekani]] ambaye alicheza kama right fielder kwa misimu 17 katika Major League Baseball (MLB). Katika kipindi chote cha keria yake, Strawberry alikuwa mmoja wa wapiga mipira hatari zaidi katika mchezo, akijulikana kwa mipira yake mikubwa ya nyumbani na uwepo wake wa kutisha kwenye batter's box akitumia umbo lake la urefu wa futi 6 na inchi 6 (1.98 m) na mtindo wake mrefu wa kupiga ambao ulileta kulinganishwa na '''Ted Williams'''. <ref name="SI-80">{{Cite magazine|url=https://vault.si.com/vault/1980/04/07/next-pick-strawberry|magazine=[[Sports Illustrated]]|date=April 7, 1980|last=Jares|first=Joe|title=Next Pick: Strawberry|location=New York City|publisher=Time|access-date=September 22, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fazzone|first1=Amanda|last2=Derfner|first2=Jeremy|last3=Gibby|first3=Siân|date=April 13, 2001|title=Hawk Me a China|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/other_magazines/2001/04/hawk_me_a_china.html|journal=Slate}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist|2}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1962]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] lq3p4i3kbw1biw2g5qvgytcwkbwem2f 1361694 1361556 2024-11-08T02:21:56Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361694 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Daryl Strawberry (29297363126).jpg|thumb|Daryl Strawberry]] '''Darryl Eugene Strawberry''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[12 Machi|12 Mach]]<nowiki/>i [[1962]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa zamani wa [[baseball]] kutoka [[Marekani]] ambaye alicheza kama ''right fielder'' kwa misimu 17 katika ''Major League Baseball'' (MLB). Katika kipindi chote cha keria yake, Strawberry alikuwa mmoja wa wapiga mipira hatari zaidi katika mchezo, akijulikana kwa mipira yake mikubwa ya nyumbani na uwepo wake wa kutisha kwenye batter's box akitumia umbo lake la urefu wa futi 6 na inchi 6 (1.98 m) na mtindo wake mrefu wa kupiga ambao ulileta kulinganishwa na '''Ted Williams'''. <ref name="SI-80">{{Cite magazine|url=https://vault.si.com/vault/1980/04/07/next-pick-strawberry|magazine=[[Sports Illustrated]]|date=April 7, 1980|last=Jares|first=Joe|title=Next Pick: Strawberry|location=New York City|publisher=Time|access-date=September 22, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fazzone|first1=Amanda|last2=Derfner|first2=Jeremy|last3=Gibby|first3=Siân|date=April 13, 2001|title=Hawk Me a China|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/other_magazines/2001/04/hawk_me_a_china.html|journal=Slate}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist|2}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1962]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] cl527qxxoivyd7pk5dl8gkact3wkmq2 1361738 1361694 2024-11-08T07:13:36Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361738 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Daryl Strawberry (29297363126).jpg|thumb|Daryl Strawberry]] '''Darryl Eugene Strawberry''' (alizaliwa [[12 Machi]] [[1962]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa zamani wa [[baseball]] kutoka [[Marekani]] ambaye alicheza kama ''right fielder'' kwa misimu 17 katika ''Major League Baseball'' (MLB). Katika kipindi chote cha keria yake, Strawberry alikuwa mmoja wa wapiga mipira hatari zaidi katika mchezo, akijulikana kwa mipira yake mikubwa ya nyumbani na uwepo wake wa kutisha kwenye batter's box akitumia umbo lake la urefu wa futi 6 na inchi 6 (1.98 m) na mtindo wake mrefu wa kupiga ambao ulileta kulinganishwa na '''Ted Williams'''. <ref name="SI-80">https://vault.si.com/vault/1980/04/07/next-pick-strawberry</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fazzone|first1=Amanda|last2=Derfner|first2=Jeremy|last3=Gibby|first3=Siân|date=April 13, 2001|title=Hawk Me a China|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/other_magazines/2001/04/hawk_me_a_china.html|journal=Slate}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist|2}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1962]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 03c1964gwzb1m1gwjzo0hvp8qif2pgi 0 189997 1361557 2024-11-07T13:52:20Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China''' (kwa Kichina: 中国天主教神哲学院) ni [[Chuo Kikuu|chuo kikuu]] cha Kikatoliki kilichopo Wilaya ya Daxing, [[Beijing]], mji mkuu wa [[China]].<ref>http://www.chinacatholic.cn/html/report/18091678-1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2013-10/30/content_2517722.htm</ref> == Historia == Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China ilianzishwa mnamo Septemba [[1983]]. Ufunguzi rasmi wa...' 1361557 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China''' (kwa Kichina: 中国天主教神哲学院) ni [[Chuo Kikuu|chuo kikuu]] cha Kikatoliki kilichopo Wilaya ya Daxing, [[Beijing]], mji mkuu wa [[China]].<ref>http://www.chinacatholic.cn/html/report/18091678-1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2013-10/30/content_2517722.htm</ref> == Historia == Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China ilianzishwa mnamo Septemba [[1983]]. Ufunguzi rasmi wa chuo kikuu hicho ulifanyika tarehe 24 Septemba, 1983. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-dini}} [[Jamii:Shule]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] fp2rnjw20hd2zf83wwj31cie87b7paq 1361558 1361557 2024-11-07T13:54:24Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361558 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:National Seminary of Catholic Church in China (20230224110027).jpg|thumb|Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China]] '''Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China''' (kwa Kichina: 中国天主教神哲学院) ni [[Chuo Kikuu|chuo kikuu]] cha Kikatoliki kilichopo Wilaya ya Daxing, [[Beijing]], mji mkuu wa [[China]].<ref>http://www.chinacatholic.cn/html/report/18091678-1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2013-10/30/content_2517722.htm</ref> == Historia == Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China ilianzishwa mnamo Septemba [[1983]]. Ufunguzi rasmi wa chuo kikuu hicho ulifanyika tarehe 24 Septemba, 1983. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-dini}} [[Jamii:Shule]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] 9n5n5ay8s97pht74ny5nuvn57go9sbg 1361693 1361558 2024-11-08T02:20:55Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361693 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:National Seminary of Catholic Church in China (20230224110027).jpg|thumb|Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China]] '''Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China''' (kwa Kichina: 中国天主教神哲学院) ni [[Chuo Kikuu|chuo kikuu]] cha [[Kikatoliki]] kilichopo [[Wilaya]] ya Daxing, [[Beijing]], mji mkuu wa [[China]].<ref>http://www.chinacatholic.cn/html/report/18091678-1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2013-10/30/content_2517722.htm</ref> == Historia == Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China ilianzishwa mnamo Septemba [[1983]]. Ufunguzi rasmi wa chuo kikuu hicho ulifanyika tarehe 24 Septemba, 1983. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-dini}} [[Jamii:Shule]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] fldg53p0so0x35zpl5ggjhlv9iumlxt 1361739 1361693 2024-11-08T07:14:39Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361739 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:National Seminary of Catholic Church in China (20230224110027).jpg|thumb|Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China]] '''Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China''' (kwa Kichina: 中国天主教神哲学院) ni [[Chuo Kikuu|chuo kikuu]] cha [[Kikatoliki]] kilichopo [[Wilaya]] ya Daxing, [[Beijing]], mji mkuu wa [[China]].<ref>http://www.chinacatholic.cn/html/report/18091678-1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2013-10/30/content_2517722.htm</ref> == Historia == Seminari ya Kitaifa ya Kanisa Katoliki nchini China ilianzishwa mnamo Septemba [[1983]]. Ufunguzi rasmi wa chuo kikuu hicho ulifanyika tarehe 24 Septemba, 1983. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-katoliki}} [[Jamii:Kanisa Katoliki]] f7qhp6szc49a0439siwmlo3dg1arjaa 0 189998 1361559 2024-11-07T14:00:44Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[Faili:Melchor_de_Talamantes.jpg|thumb|268x268px|Ndugu Melchor de Talamantes, O.deM.]] '''Melchor de Talamantes''' alizaliwa tarehe [[10 Januari]] [[1765]] mjini [[Lima]], katika Enzi ya Viceroyalty ya Peru, na alifariki tarehe [[9 Mei]] [[1809]] huko [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]], [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Alikuwa mcha [[Mungu]] wa Mercedarian na kuhani, mtetezi wa kisiasa wa mabadiliko, na kiongozi katika harakati za uhuru wa Mexico kutoka kwa utawala wa ...' 1361559 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Melchor_de_Talamantes.jpg|thumb|268x268px|Ndugu Melchor de Talamantes, O.deM.]] '''Melchor de Talamantes''' alizaliwa tarehe [[10 Januari]] [[1765]] mjini [[Lima]], katika Enzi ya Viceroyalty ya Peru, na alifariki tarehe [[9 Mei]] [[1809]] huko [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]], [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Alikuwa mcha [[Mungu]] wa Mercedarian na kuhani, mtetezi wa kisiasa wa mabadiliko, na kiongozi katika harakati za uhuru wa Mexico kutoka kwa utawala wa [[Kihispania]].<ref>Guedea, Virginia. "Melchor de Talamantes" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 5, p. 196. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1765]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1809]] [[Jamii:Wafiadini]] ais314t1arsw0pc7qv0s7y6yxti8etd 1361692 1361559 2024-11-08T02:20:08Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361692 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Melchor_de_Talamantes.jpg|thumb|268x268px|Ndugu Melchor de Talamantes, O.deM.]] '''Melchor de Talamantes''' alizaliwa tarehe [[10 Januari]] [[1765]] mjini [[Lima]], katika Enzi ya Viceroyalty ya Peru, na alifariki tarehe [[9 Mei]] [[1809]] huko [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]], [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Alikuwa mcha [[Mungu]] wa Mercedarian na [[kuhani]], mtetezi wa kisiasa wa mabadiliko, na kiongozi katika harakati za [[Uhuru|uhuru wa Mexico]] kutoka kwa utawala wa [[Kihispania]].<ref>Guedea, Virginia. "Melchor de Talamantes" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 5, p. 196. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1765]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1809]] [[Jamii:Wafiadini]] l4mbmc2mxeo4u5an29k85lvm42l1xzq 1361741 1361692 2024-11-08T07:17:30Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361741 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Melchor_de_Talamantes.jpg|thumb|268x268px|Ndugu Melchor de Talamantes, O.deM.]] '''Melchor de Talamantes''' ( [[Lima]], [[Peru]], [[10 Januari]] [[1765]] - [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]], [[Meksiko|Mexico]], [[9 Mei]] [[1809]]) alikuwa [[mtawa]] wa [[Wamersedari]] na [[padri]], mtetezi wa kisiasa wa mabadiliko, na kiongozi katika harakati za [[Uhuru|uhuru wa Mexico]] kutoka kwa utawala wa [[Kihispania]].<ref>Guedea, Virginia. "Melchor de Talamantes" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 5, p. 196. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1765]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1809]] [[Jamii:mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wamersedari]] 5d6xb70rqb824xbp0xu65bhfjmkyvjg 0 189999 1361561 2024-11-07T14:10:19Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Miguel Zugastegui y Verduzco''', [[O.F.M.]] alizaliwa tarehe [[14 Februari]] [[1773]] na alifariki tarehe [[3 Mei]] [[1809]]. Alikuwa mcha Mungu wa Franciscan na mtetezi wa [[mageuzi]], ambaye alishiriki katika hatua za awali za harakati za uhuru wa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Anaenziwa nchini Mexico kama shahidi wa mapambano ya uhuru kutoka kwa utawala wa [[Kihispania]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://euskalkazeta.com/ek/?p=1691|work=EuskalKazetta.com|title=Basque...' 1361561 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Miguel Zugastegui y Verduzco''', [[O.F.M.]] alizaliwa tarehe [[14 Februari]] [[1773]] na alifariki tarehe [[3 Mei]] [[1809]]. Alikuwa mcha Mungu wa Franciscan na mtetezi wa [[mageuzi]], ambaye alishiriki katika hatua za awali za harakati za uhuru wa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Anaenziwa nchini Mexico kama shahidi wa mapambano ya uhuru kutoka kwa utawala wa [[Kihispania]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://euskalkazeta.com/ek/?p=1691|work=EuskalKazetta.com|title=Basques in the Americas 1792-1893|last=Bass|first=Steve|date=10 September 2009|accessdate=25 February 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1773]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1809]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] dg003n5os1010c2au344o5lvtj6f67y 1361691 1361561 2024-11-08T02:19:04Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361691 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Miguel Zugastegui y Verduzco''', [[O.F.M.]] alizaliwa tarehe [[14 Februari]] [[1773]] na alifariki tarehe [[3 Mei]] [[1809]]. Alikuwa mcha [[Mungu]] wa Franciscan na mtetezi wa [[mageuzi]], ambaye alishiriki katika hatua za awali za harakati za uhuru wa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Anaenziwa nchini Mexico kama shahidi wa mapambano ya uhuru kutoka kwa utawala wa [[Kihispania]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://euskalkazeta.com/ek/?p=1691|work=EuskalKazetta.com|title=Basques in the Americas 1792-1893|last=Bass|first=Steve|date=10 September 2009|accessdate=25 February 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1773]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1809]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] sdg8c4kespassyx9rj1y900oyjhqo3g 1361742 1361691 2024-11-08T07:19:21Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361742 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Miguel Zugastegui y Verduzco''', [[O.F.M.]] ([[14 Februari]] [[1773]] - [[3 Mei]] [[1809]]) alikuwa [[mtawa]] wa [[Wafransisko]] na mtetezi wa [[mageuzi]], ambaye alishiriki katika hatua za awali za harakati za uhuru wa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Anaenziwa nchini Mexico kama shahidi wa mapambano ya uhuru kutoka kwa utawala wa [[Kihispania]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://euskalkazeta.com/ek/?p=1691|work=EuskalKazetta.com|title=Basques in the Americas 1792-1893|last=Bass|first=Steve|date=10 September 2009|accessdate=25 February 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1773]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1809]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] [[Jamii:Wafransisko]] 2qktn7k4e78y6yo943t1qck5mwf6p2d 0 190000 1361563 2024-11-07T14:17:27Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361563 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:José María Luis Mora.png|thumb|José María Luis Mora]] '''José María Luis Mora Lamadrid''' (alizaliwa [[12 Oktoba]] [[1794]] – [[14 Julai]] [[1850]]) alikuwa [[padre]], wakili, mchronicler, [[mwanasiasa]] na mtaalamu wa ideolojia ya kisiasa ya kisasa. Anaonekana kama mmoja wa wafuasi wa kwanza wa liberalismu nchini [[Meksiko|Mexico]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/m/mora_jose_maria_luis.htm|title=Biografia de José María Luis Mora|website=www.biografiasyvidas.com|access-date=2016-10-15}}</ref> Alipigania utenganisho kati ya kanisa na serikali. Mora anahusishwa na kuwa<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schroeder|first1=Susan|date=January 1994|title=Father José María Luis Mora, Liberalism, and the British and Foreign Bible Society in Nineteenth-Century Mexico|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/americas/article/father-jose-maria-luis-mora-liberalism-and-the-british-and-foreign-bible-society-in-nineteenth-century-mexico/1FFE814F639F2EC58051A62B10BE173E|journal=The Americas|volume=50|issue=3|pages=377–397|doi=10.2307/1007166|jstor=1007166|s2cid=147683881}}</ref> "msemaji muhimu zaidi wa liberalismu kwa kizazi chake, na mawazo yake yanawakilisha muundo na mwelekeo mkuu wa liberalismu ya Mexico."<ref>Charles A. Hale, ''Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, 1821–1853''. New Haven: Yale University Press 1968, p. 8.</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1794]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1850]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 90o8545bzum0dbowgp54jkx1q6ntc4q 1361690 1361563 2024-11-08T02:18:11Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361690 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:José María Luis Mora.png|thumb|José María Luis Mora]] '''José María Luis Mora Lamadrid''' (alizaliwa [[12 Oktoba]] [[1794]] – [[14 Julai]] [[1850]]) alikuwa [[padre]], wakili, mchronicler, [[mwanasiasa]] na mtaalamu wa ideolojia ya kisiasa. Anaonekana kama mmoja wa wafuasi wa kwanza wa [[Liberalism|liberalismu]] nchini [[Meksiko|Mexico]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/m/mora_jose_maria_luis.htm|title=Biografia de José María Luis Mora|website=www.biografiasyvidas.com|access-date=2016-10-15}}</ref> Alipigania utenganisho kati ya kanisa na serikali. Mora anahusishwa na kuwa<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schroeder|first1=Susan|date=January 1994|title=Father José María Luis Mora, Liberalism, and the British and Foreign Bible Society in Nineteenth-Century Mexico|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/americas/article/father-jose-maria-luis-mora-liberalism-and-the-british-and-foreign-bible-society-in-nineteenth-century-mexico/1FFE814F639F2EC58051A62B10BE173E|journal=The Americas|volume=50|issue=3|pages=377–397|doi=10.2307/1007166|jstor=1007166|s2cid=147683881}}</ref> "msemaji muhimu zaidi wa liberalismu kwa kizazi chake, na mawazo yake yanawakilisha muundo na mwelekeo mkuu wa liberalismu ya Mexico."<ref>Charles A. Hale, ''Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, 1821–1853''. New Haven: Yale University Press 1968, p. 8.</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1794]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1850]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] rg4spqkr4lblmovetkn34pnfmpdp8wu 1361743 1361690 2024-11-08T07:20:06Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361743 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:José María Luis Mora.png|thumb|José María Luis Mora]] '''José María Luis Mora Lamadrid''' ([[12 Oktoba]] [[1794]] – [[14 Julai]] [[1850]]) alikuwa [[padre]], wakili, mchronicler, [[mwanasiasa]] na mtaalamu wa ideolojia ya kisiasa. Anaonekana kama mmoja wa wafuasi wa kwanza wa [[Uliberali]] nchini [[Meksiko|Mexico]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/m/mora_jose_maria_luis.htm|title=Biografia de José María Luis Mora|website=www.biografiasyvidas.com|access-date=2016-10-15}}</ref> Alipigania utenganisho kati ya kanisa na serikali. Mora anahusishwa na kuwa<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schroeder|first1=Susan|date=January 1994|title=Father José María Luis Mora, Liberalism, and the British and Foreign Bible Society in Nineteenth-Century Mexico|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/americas/article/father-jose-maria-luis-mora-liberalism-and-the-british-and-foreign-bible-society-in-nineteenth-century-mexico/1FFE814F639F2EC58051A62B10BE173E|journal=The Americas|volume=50|issue=3|pages=377–397|doi=10.2307/1007166|jstor=1007166|s2cid=147683881}}</ref> "msemaji muhimu zaidi wa liberalismu kwa kizazi chake, na mawazo yake yanawakilisha muundo na mwelekeo mkuu wa liberalismu ya Mexico."<ref>Charles A. Hale, ''Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, 1821–1853''. New Haven: Yale University Press 1968, p. 8.</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1794]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1850]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] atmkr1lfjkx62klhub9qcbedswhq6g6 0 190001 1361566 2024-11-07T14:22:42Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361566 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:José de Herrera.jpg|thumb|V]] '''José Manuel de Herrera''' (alizaliwa [[27 Machi]] [[1776]] – [[17 Septemba]] [[1831]]) alikuwa [[padre]] wa [[Kikatoliki]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]], [[mwandishi]], [[mwanasiasa]] na [[profesa]] katika New Spain. Aliungana na waasi wakati wa Vita vya Uhuru vya Mexico. Aliongoza gazeti la ''Correo Americano del Sur'', lililokuwa na mchango muhimu katika kueneza mawazo ya uhuru na mabadiliko ya kisiasa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Antología del Centenario|last=Henríquez Ureña|first=Pedro|publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México|year=1985|isbn=968-837-513-6|location=Mexico|chapter=José Manuel de Herrera. Escritor político y religioso|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaaDTMXRhZEC&q=%22Jos%C3%A9+Manuel+de+Herrera%22&pg=PA291}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1776]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1831]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 5ahs6i4qtri4ionaib6hta6ybewoumk 1361567 1361566 2024-11-07T14:22:54Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 1361567 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:José de Herrera.jpg|thumb|José Manuel de Herrera]] '''José Manuel de Herrera''' (alizaliwa [[27 Machi]] [[1776]] – [[17 Septemba]] [[1831]]) alikuwa [[padre]] wa [[Kikatoliki]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]], [[mwandishi]], [[mwanasiasa]] na [[profesa]] katika New Spain. Aliungana na waasi wakati wa Vita vya Uhuru vya Mexico. Aliongoza gazeti la ''Correo Americano del Sur'', lililokuwa na mchango muhimu katika kueneza mawazo ya uhuru na mabadiliko ya kisiasa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Antología del Centenario|last=Henríquez Ureña|first=Pedro|publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México|year=1985|isbn=968-837-513-6|location=Mexico|chapter=José Manuel de Herrera. Escritor político y religioso|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaaDTMXRhZEC&q=%22Jos%C3%A9+Manuel+de+Herrera%22&pg=PA291}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1776]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1831]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] a0i14owgsbbn9aisvd5ptlzkahgy97x 1361689 1361567 2024-11-08T02:17:21Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361689 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:José de Herrera.jpg|thumb|José Manuel de Herrera]] '''José Manuel de Herrera''' (alizaliwa [[27 Machi]] [[1776]] – [[17 Septemba]] [[1831]]) alikuwa [[padre]] wa [[Kikatoliki]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]], [[mwandishi]], [[mwanasiasa]] na [[profesa]] katika New Spain. Aliungana na waasi wakati wa Vita vya Uhuru vya Mexico. Aliongoza gazeti la ''Correo Americano del Sur'', lililokuwa na mchango muhimu katika kueneza mawazo ya uhuru na mabadiliko ya kisiasa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Antología del Centenario|last=Henríquez Ureña|first=Pedro|publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México|year=1985|isbn=968-837-513-6|location=Mexico|chapter=José Manuel de Herrera. Escritor político y religioso|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaaDTMXRhZEC&q=%22Jos%C3%A9+Manuel+de+Herrera%22&pg=PA291}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1776]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1831]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] gxpihsysz2yu4qrv13jtcc0850fplnj 1361744 1361689 2024-11-08T07:21:04Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361744 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:José de Herrera.jpg|thumb|José Manuel de Herrera]] '''José Manuel de Herrera''' ([[27 Machi]] [[1776]] – [[17 Septemba]] [[1831]]) alikuwa [[padre]] wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]], [[mwandishi]], [[mwanasiasa]] na [[profesa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Aliungana na waasi wakati wa [[Vita vya Uhuru vya Mexico]]. Aliongoza gazeti la ''Correo Americano del Sur'', lililokuwa na mchango muhimu katika kueneza mawazo ya uhuru na mabadiliko ya kisiasa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Antología del Centenario|last=Henríquez Ureña|first=Pedro|publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México|year=1985|isbn=968-837-513-6|location=Mexico|chapter=José Manuel de Herrera. Escritor político y religioso|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaaDTMXRhZEC&q=%22Jos%C3%A9+Manuel+de+Herrera%22&pg=PA291}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1776]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1831]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 4ioc1imr85h9tbi5fb1tn54yyk4mr9q 2 190002 1361576 2024-11-07T15:01:02Z Dee Soulza 66446 Dee Soulza alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Mtumiaji:Dee Soulza/11]] hadi [[Trump ashinda urais 2024]] 1361576 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Trump ashinda urais 2024]] r5nhnpahgt4yurb2oz1v2pbllngz8u5 0 190003 1361578 2024-11-07T15:11:18Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[Faili:José_E._de_Cárdenas.jpg|right|thumb|Cárdenas statue]] '''José Eduardo de Cárdenas''' (alizaliwa [[1765]]–[[1821]]) alikuwa [[padre]], mtaalamu wa [[teolojia]], [[mwanasiasa]], mshairi na [[mwandishi]] kutoka New Spain (sasa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]). Alikuwa [[profesa]] wa [[Kilatini]] katika [[seminari]] ya San Ildefonso huko Mérida, Yucatán na naibu mkuu wa Colegio de San Juan de Letrán mjini Mexico City. Alikuwa pia padre wa mji wa Cunduacá...' 1361578 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:José_E._de_Cárdenas.jpg|right|thumb|Cárdenas statue]] '''José Eduardo de Cárdenas''' (alizaliwa [[1765]]–[[1821]]) alikuwa [[padre]], mtaalamu wa [[teolojia]], [[mwanasiasa]], mshairi na [[mwandishi]] kutoka New Spain (sasa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]). Alikuwa [[profesa]] wa [[Kilatini]] katika [[seminari]] ya San Ildefonso huko Mérida, Yucatán na naibu mkuu wa Colegio de San Juan de Letrán mjini Mexico City. Alikuwa pia padre wa mji wa Cunduacán, vikao vya heshima vya vikaristi kwa Tabasco na Kamishna wa Inkuizisheni Takatifu katika [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref name="mexicomaxico.org">{{cite web|access-date=7 February 2013|author=Aguirre Botello Manuel. México Mágico|title=Las Estatuas del Paseo de la Reforma|url=http://www.mexicomaxico.org/Reforma/reformaEstatuas.htm}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1765]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1821]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] c9p2dog3cs7qk9hfx1h5mrl4hytss24 1361687 1361578 2024-11-08T02:15:04Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361687 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:José_E._de_Cárdenas.jpg|right|thumb|Cárdenas statue]] '''José Eduardo de Cárdenas''' (alizaliwa [[1765]]–[[1821]]) alikuwa [[padre]], mtaalamu wa [[teolojia]], [[mwanasiasa]], mshairi na [[mwandishi]] kutoka New Spain (sasa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]). Alikuwa [[profesa]] wa [[Kilatini]] katika [[seminari]] ya San Ildefonso huko Mérida, Yucatán na naibu mkuu wa Colegio de San Juan de Letrán mjini Mexico City. Alikuwa pia padre wa mji wa Cunduacán, vikao vya heshima vya vikaristi kwa Tabasco na Kamishna wa Inkuizisheni Takatifu katika [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref name="mexicomaxico.org">{{cite web|access-date=7 February 2013|author=Aguirre Botello Manuel. México Mágico|title=Las Estatuas del Paseo de la Reforma|url=http://www.mexicomaxico.org/Reforma/reformaEstatuas.htm}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> == Marejeo == {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1765]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1821]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 5h9g5f7agh6u8nd6lga9znd4e1caudv 1361755 1361687 2024-11-08T09:08:05Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361755 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:José_E._de_Cárdenas.jpg|right|thumb|[[Sanamu]] ya Cárdenas.]] '''José Eduardo de Cárdenas''' ([[1765]] – [[1821]]) alikuwa [[padre]], mtaalamu wa [[teolojia]], [[mwanasiasa]], [[Ushairi|mshairi]] na [[mwandishi]] kutoka [[Hispania Mpya]] (sasa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]). Alikuwa [[profesa]] wa [[Kilatini]] katika [[seminari]] ya San Ildefonso huko Mérida, Yucatán na naibu mkuu wa Colegio de San Juan de Letrán mjini Mexico City. Alikuwa pia padre wa mji wa Cunduacán, vikao vya heshima vya vikaristi kwa Tabasco na Kamishna wa Inkuizisheni Takatifu katika [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref name="mexicomaxico.org">{{cite web|access-date=7 February 2013|author=Aguirre Botello Manuel. México Mágico|title=Las Estatuas del Paseo de la Reforma|url=http://www.mexicomaxico.org/Reforma/reformaEstatuas.htm}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> == Marejeo == {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1765]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1821]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] e7a5y8l1qnl5imziz0l0n804f5kamtb 1361757 1361755 2024-11-08T09:08:42Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361757 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:José_E._de_Cárdenas.jpg|right|thumb|[[Sanamu]] ya Cárdenas.]] '''José Eduardo de Cárdenas''' ([[1765]] – [[1821]]) alikuwa [[padre]], mtaalamu wa [[teolojia]], [[mwanasiasa]], [[Ushairi|mshairi]] na [[mwandishi]] kutoka [[Hispania Mpya]] (sasa [[Meksiko|Mexico]]). Alikuwa [[profesa]] wa [[Kilatini]] katika [[seminari]] ya San Ildefonso huko Mérida, Yucatán na naibu mkuu wa Colegio de San Juan de Letrán mjini Mexico City. Alikuwa pia padre wa mji wa Cunduacán, vikao vya heshima vya vikaristi kwa Tabasco na Kamishna wa Inkuizisheni Takatifu katika [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref name="mexicomaxico.org">{{cite web|access-date=7 February 2013|author=Aguirre Botello Manuel. México Mágico|title=Las Estatuas del Paseo de la Reforma|url=http://www.mexicomaxico.org/Reforma/reformaEstatuas.htm}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1765]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1821]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 1gtjrfkr39jis2qy6rcifnbjvq9goix 0 190004 1361580 2024-11-07T15:36:06Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361580 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Foto Lorena Beaurregard.jpg|thumb| Lorena Beaurregard]] '''Lorena Beaurregard de los Santos''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[8 Septemba]] [[1962]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Taasisi (PRI). Kuanzia mwaka [[2000]] hadi [[2003]], alihudumu kama [[mbunge]] wa plurinominal katika Bunge la 58, akimwakilisha eneo la tatu la uchaguzi, ambalo linajumuisha jimbo lake la asili la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil: Dip. Lorena Beaurregard de los Santos, LVIII Legislatura|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=1107|publisher=[[Secretariat of the Interior|SEGOB]]|website=Sistema de Información Legislativa (SIL)|accessdate=31 March 2015}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1962]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Mexiko]] jn8rh107xqqg7tb68d3dyt3eo8oaocy 1361686 1361580 2024-11-08T02:14:16Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361686 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Foto Lorena Beaurregard.jpg|thumb| Lorena Beaurregard]] '''Lorena Beaurregard de los Santos''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[8 Septemba]] [[1962]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Taasisi (PRI). Kuanzia mwaka [[2000]] hadi [[2003]], alihudumu kama [[mbunge]] wa plurinominal katika Bunge la 58, akimwakilisha eneo la tatu la uchaguzi, ambalo linajumuisha jimbo lake la asili la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil: Dip. Lorena Beaurregard de los Santos, LVIII Legislatura|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=1107|publisher=[[Secretariat of the Interior|SEGOB]]|website=Sistema de Información Legislativa (SIL)|accessdate=31 March 2015}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1962]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Mexiko]] leb49lejgz74mm84qkp4752sxf6jb0d 0 190005 1361581 2024-11-07T15:38:48Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Carlos Manuel Rovirosa Ramírez''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[19 Mei]] [[1953]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Taasisi (PRI). Kuanzia mwaka [[2014]], alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LIX la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la Tabasco.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=569206|publisher=Legislative Informat...' 1361581 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Carlos Manuel Rovirosa Ramírez''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[19 Mei]] [[1953]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Taasisi (PRI). Kuanzia mwaka [[2014]], alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LIX la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la Tabasco.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=569206|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=4 June 2014}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1953]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] koitph9dop8hrp4r57sx4bc9r4xqezi 1361685 1361581 2024-11-08T02:13:42Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361685 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Carlos Manuel Rovirosa Ramírez''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[19 Mei]] [[1953]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Taasisi (PRI). Kuanzia mwaka [[2014]], alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LIX la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=569206|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=4 June 2014}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1953]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 963pyvk907yufau22hbqcld9ka1hofh 0 190006 1361584 2024-11-07T15:48:27Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''José del Pilar Córdova Hernández''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[12 Oktoba]] [[1959]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Taasisi (PRI). Kuanzia mwaka 2009 hadi 2012, alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LXI la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]], na hapo awali alihudumu katika Bunge la Tabasco.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Libre...' 1361584 wikitext text/x-wiki '''José del Pilar Córdova Hernández''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[12 Oktoba]] [[1959]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Taasisi (PRI). Kuanzia mwaka 2009 hadi 2012, alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LXI la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]], na hapo awali alihudumu katika Bunge la Tabasco.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9214366|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=1 December 2014}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1959]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] ptzs3mzm4zs9h6ydj1t5t4c60lbcpkd 1361684 1361584 2024-11-08T02:13:05Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361684 wikitext text/x-wiki '''José del Pilar Córdova Hernández''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[12 Oktoba]] [[1959]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Taasisi (PRI). Kuanzia mwaka [[2009]] hadi [[2012]], alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LXI la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]], na hapo awali alihudumu katika Bunge la Tabasco.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9214366|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=1 December 2014}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1959]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] gok7t67ihz2ew2al64wlt4p79fo4g70 0 190007 1361587 2024-11-07T15:51:31Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Leonor Romero Sevilla''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Septemba]] [[1958]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Kitaifa cha Utekelezaji (PAN). Kuanzia mwaka [[2013]], alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LXII la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la Tlaxcala.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9217386|publisher=Legislative Informati...' 1361587 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Leonor Romero Sevilla''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Septemba]] [[1958]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Kitaifa cha Utekelezaji (PAN). Kuanzia mwaka [[2013]], alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LXII la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la Tlaxcala.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9217386|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=5 December 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1958]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 1yy4njlejqshno1dtae81hl0hvpmqlu 1361683 1361587 2024-11-08T02:12:05Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361683 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Leonor Romero Sevilla''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[7 Septemba]] [[1958]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye ni mwanachama wa Chama cha Kitaifa cha Utekelezaji (PAN). Kuanzia mwaka [[2013]], alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la LXII la Mexico, akiwakilisha jimbo la [[Tlaxcala (jimbo)|Tlaxcala]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9217386|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=5 December 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1958]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] cpptohrv7959g1gn54rc8ncy286mt19 0 190008 1361588 2024-11-07T15:56:15Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361588 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Luis Cessa.jpg|thumb|Luis Cessa]] '''Luis Enrique Cessa''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[25 Aprili]] [[1992]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[baseball]] wa kitaalamu kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye kwa sasa ni mchezaji huru. Amewahi kucheza katika Ligi Kuu ya Baseball (MLB) kwa timu za New York Yankees na Cincinnati Reds.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ashley Marshall|date=April 12, 2015|url=http://www.milb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20150412&content_id=117855296&fext=.jsp&vkey=news_milb|title=Binghamton Mets right-hander Luis Cessa spins seven one-hit innings|work=MiLB.com|access-date=October 9, 2016}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1992]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] tdiol1vyywkhrmb71jvkq27rnj4d7pf 1361682 1361588 2024-11-08T02:11:25Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361682 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Luis Cessa.jpg|thumb|Luis Cessa]] '''Luis Enrique Cessa''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[25 Aprili]] [[1992]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[baseball]] wa kitaalamu kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye kwa sasa ni mchezaji huru. Amewahi kucheza katika Ligi Kuu ya Baseball (MLB) kwa timu za'' New York Yankees'' na ''Cincinnati Reds''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ashley Marshall|date=April 12, 2015|url=http://www.milb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20150412&content_id=117855296&fext=.jsp&vkey=news_milb|title=Binghamton Mets right-hander Luis Cessa spins seven one-hit innings|work=MiLB.com|access-date=October 9, 2016}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1992]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 7e2xuiboblprhmnxxf43e3l8u1oyhic 1361759 1361682 2024-11-08T09:11:29Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361759 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Luis Cessa.jpg|thumb|Luis Cessa]] '''Luis Enrique Cessa''' (alizaliwa [[25 Aprili]] [[1992]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[baseball]] wa kitaalamu kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye kwa sasa ni mchezaji huru. Amewahi kucheza katika Ligi Kuu ya Baseball (MLB) kwa timu za'' New York Yankees'' na ''Cincinnati Reds''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ashley Marshall|date=April 12, 2015|url=http://www.milb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20150412&content_id=117855296&fext=.jsp&vkey=news_milb|title=Binghamton Mets right-hander Luis Cessa spins seven one-hit innings|work=MiLB.com|access-date=October 9, 2016}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1992]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Mexiko]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] eg9fjc2xubvbsqampp35top3p81gi07 0 190009 1361589 2024-11-07T15:59:49Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Tomás Brito Lara''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[11 Januari]] [[1958]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[siasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] anayehusiana na chama cha PRD. Kwa sasa anahudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika [[Bunge]] la Mexico la LXII, akiwakilisha [[jimbo]] la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9216441|publisher=Legislative Information System|acces...' 1361589 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tomás Brito Lara''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[11 Januari]] [[1958]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[siasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] anayehusiana na chama cha PRD. Kwa sasa anahudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika [[Bunge]] la Mexico la LXII, akiwakilisha [[jimbo]] la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9216441|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=4 September 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1958]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] e7jqv4zoc4zxw68gw8o2yyk62v7u0h6 1361680 1361589 2024-11-08T02:10:11Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361680 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tomás Brito Lara''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[11 Januari]] [[1958]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] wa chama cha PRD. Kwa sasa anahudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika [[Bunge]] la Mexico la LXII, akiwakilisha [[jimbo]] la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9216441|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=4 September 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1958]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] ea19njqv6qgaywqr6rvz2jmo3ycj6xf 1361681 1361680 2024-11-08T02:10:22Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361681 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tomás Brito Lara''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[11 Januari]] [[1958]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] wa chama cha PRD. Kwa sasa anahudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika [[Bunge]] la Mexico la LXII, akiwakilisha [[jimbo]] la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=9216441|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=4 September 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1958]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] shzmqbtqpcnzw3025h6vm1u2cdsr1ye 0 190010 1361590 2024-11-07T16:03:30Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Rafael Domínguez Gamas''' (alizaliwa Cárdenas, [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]], [[14 Februari|Februari 14]], [[1883]] - kufariki [[Veracruz (jimbo)|Veracruz]], Veracruz, [[23 Januari|Januari 23]], [[1959]]) alikuwa mtaalamu wa masomo, [[mwanahabari]], wakili, na [[mwandishi]] kutoka Mexico. Alikuwa mwanafunzi na mshiriki wa Academia Mexicana de la Lengua. Alisoma sheria katika Instituto Juárez, ambapo pia alikuwa mhadhiri. Alisimamia shule kadhaa katika...' 1361590 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rafael Domínguez Gamas''' (alizaliwa Cárdenas, [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]], [[14 Februari|Februari 14]], [[1883]] - kufariki [[Veracruz (jimbo)|Veracruz]], Veracruz, [[23 Januari|Januari 23]], [[1959]]) alikuwa mtaalamu wa masomo, [[mwanahabari]], wakili, na [[mwandishi]] kutoka Mexico. Alikuwa mwanafunzi na mshiriki wa Academia Mexicana de la Lengua. Alisoma sheria katika Instituto Juárez, ambapo pia alikuwa mhadhiri. Alisimamia shule kadhaa katika miji ya Tabasco. Alikuwa mchangiaji wa makala katika magazeti kama vile Alba, El Renacimiento, na El Eco de Tabasco. Mnamo mwaka 1914, alihamia Veracruz, ambapo alifanya kazi katika gazeti la El Dictamen.<ref name="Tabasco">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nMn_o47zM8C&pg=PA234|title=Diccionario institucional|author=Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco|publisher=Univ. J. Autónoma de Tabasco|year=2007|isbn=978-968-9024-35-4|page=234}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1883]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1959]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] 8g5561rqs0jaz00eqk8fw7o890hsqke 1361679 1361590 2024-11-08T02:08:38Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361679 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rafael Domínguez Gamas''' (alizaliwa Cárdenas, [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]], [[14 Februari|Februari 14]], [[1883]] - kufariki [[Veracruz (jimbo)|Veracruz]], Veracruz, [[23 Januari|Januari 23]], [[1959]]) alikuwa mtaalamu wa masomo, [[mwanahabari]], [[Mwanasheria|wakili]], na [[mwandishi]] kutoka Mexico. Alikuwa mwanafunzi na mshiriki wa Academia Mexicana de la Lengua. Alisoma sheria katika Instituto Juárez, ambapo pia alikuwa [[Mnadhiri|mhadhiri]]. Alisimamia shule kadhaa katika miji ya Tabasco. Alikuwa mchangiaji wa makala katika magazeti kama vile Alba, El Renacimiento, na El Eco de Tabasco. Mnamo mwaka 1914, alihamia Veracruz, ambapo alifanya kazi katika gazeti la El Dictamen.<ref name="Tabasco">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nMn_o47zM8C&pg=PA234|title=Diccionario institucional|author=Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco|publisher=Univ. J. Autónoma de Tabasco|year=2007|isbn=978-968-9024-35-4|page=234}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1883]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1959]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] fcvmoqvy6bqrxwvrgnyny3k861tz7ho 1361760 1361679 2024-11-08T09:12:38Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361760 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rafael Domínguez Gamas''' (Cárdenas, [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]], [[14 Februari]] [[1883]] - [[Veracruz (jimbo)|Veracruz]], Veracruz, [[23 Januari]] [[1959]]) alikuwa mtaalamu wa masomo, [[mwanahabari]], [[wakili]], na [[mwandishi]] kutoka Mexico. Alikuwa mwanafunzi na mshiriki wa Academia Mexicana de la Lengua. Alisoma sheria katika Instituto Juárez, ambapo pia alikuwa [[Mnadhiri|mhadhiri]]. Alisimamia shule kadhaa katika miji ya Tabasco. Alikuwa mchangiaji wa makala katika magazeti kama vile Alba, El Renacimiento, na El Eco de Tabasco. Mnamo mwaka 1914, alihamia Veracruz, ambapo alifanya kazi katika gazeti la El Dictamen.<ref name="Tabasco">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nMn_o47zM8C&pg=PA234|title=Diccionario institucional|author=Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco|publisher=Univ. J. Autónoma de Tabasco|year=2007|isbn=978-968-9024-35-4|page=234}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1883]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1959]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Mexiko]] iqn8smqh63cytg110ym5aly0hddvv6t 1361761 1361760 2024-11-08T09:12:54Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361761 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rafael Domínguez Gamas''' (Cárdenas, [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]], [[14 Februari]] [[1883]] - [[Veracruz (jimbo)|Veracruz]], Veracruz, [[23 Januari]] [[1959]]) alikuwa mtaalamu wa masomo, [[mwanahabari]], [[wakili]], na [[mwandishi]] kutoka Mexico. Alikuwa mwanafunzi na mshiriki wa Academia Mexicana de la Lengua. Alisoma sheria katika Instituto Juárez, ambapo pia alikuwa [[Mnadhiri|mhadhiri]]. Alisimamia shule kadhaa katika miji ya Tabasco. Alikuwa mchangiaji wa makala katika magazeti kama vile Alba, El Renacimiento, na El Eco de Tabasco. Mnamo mwaka 1914, alihamia Veracruz, ambapo alifanya kazi katika gazeti la El Dictamen.<ref name="Tabasco">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nMn_o47zM8C&pg=PA234|title=Diccionario institucional|author=Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco|publisher=Univ. J. Autónoma de Tabasco|year=2007|isbn=978-968-9024-35-4|page=234}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1883]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1959]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Mexiko]] sztjvzz74l4g4os4i1y834q0caxgnpd 0 190011 1361592 2024-11-07T16:08:14Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361592 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Violento Jack 20.06.10.jpg|thumb|Violento Jack]] '''Violento Jack''' ni mwelekezi wa mapigano ya kitaalamu kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye kwa sasa anafanya kazi katika promosheni ya [[Japani]], Pro Wrestling Freedoms. Yeye ni bingwa wa zamani wa King of Freedom World Championship katika promosheni hii.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.profightdb.com/wrestlers/violento-jack-14050.html|title=Violento Jack Profile & Match Listing|work=profightdb.com|author=''InternetWrestling Database (IWD)''|access-date=February 2, 2023}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1989]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] 4rsuocj74e7f1qko8lw6844xlm6dp1p 1361678 1361592 2024-11-08T02:07:00Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361678 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Violento Jack 20.06.10.jpg|thumb|Violento Jack]] '''Violento Jack''' ni mwelekezi wa mapigano ya kitaalamu kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye kwa sasa anafanya kazi katika promosheni ya [[Japani]], Pro Wrestling Freedoms. Yeye ni bingwa wa zamani wa King of Freedom World Championship katika promosheni hii.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.profightdb.com/wrestlers/violento-jack-14050.html|title=Violento Jack Profile & Match Listing|work=profightdb.com|author=''InternetWrestling Database (IWD)''|access-date=February 2, 2023}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1989]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] 7rytz4mj5bz8m6mx1wu4vzvqmsb4xis 1361762 1361678 2024-11-08T09:13:28Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361762 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Violento Jack 20.06.10.jpg|thumb|Violento Jack]] '''Violento Jack''' ni mwelekezi wa mapigano ya kitaalamu kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye kwa sasa anafanya kazi katika promosheni ya [[Japani]], Pro Wrestling Freedoms. Yeye ni bingwa wa zamani wa King of Freedom World Championship katika promosheni hii.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.profightdb.com/wrestlers/violento-jack-14050.html|title=Violento Jack Profile & Match Listing|work=profightdb.com|author=''InternetWrestling Database (IWD)''|access-date=February 2, 2023}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1989]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Mexiko]] rf8bjuqopusii7i348igq6kho9pziap 0 190012 1361593 2024-11-07T16:12:13Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Aníbal Zurdo Rodríguez''' (alizaliwa [[3 Desemba]] [[1982]]) ni mchezaji wa soka kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] anayechezewa kama mshambuliaji. Pia ana uraia wa [[Uhispania|Hispania]].<ref name="FCWC 2014">{{cite web|title=FIFA Club World Cup Morocco 2014: List of Players|url=http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|publisher=FIFA|page=2|date=15 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711154142/http://www.f...' 1361593 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Aníbal Zurdo Rodríguez''' (alizaliwa [[3 Desemba]] [[1982]]) ni mchezaji wa soka kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] anayechezewa kama mshambuliaji. Pia ana uraia wa [[Uhispania|Hispania]].<ref name="FCWC 2014">{{cite web|title=FIFA Club World Cup Morocco 2014: List of Players|url=http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|publisher=FIFA|page=2|date=15 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711154142/http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|archive-date=11 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1982]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] 8acdhfsboo4kue6w69pzqj1enkt8i24 1361676 1361593 2024-11-08T02:05:58Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361676 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Aníbal Zurdo Rodríguez''' (alizaliwa [[3 Desemba]] [[1982]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[Mpira wa miguu|soka]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] anayechezewa kama mshambuliaji. Pia ana [[uraia]] wa [[Uhispania|Hispania]].<ref name="FCWC 2014">{{cite web|title=FIFA Club World Cup Morocco 2014: List of Players|url=http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|publisher=FIFA|page=2|date=15 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711154142/http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|archive-date=11 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1982]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Meksiko]] 6cil6y9f7p3ofv0q8sgyxug02uwsxm3 1361677 1361676 2024-11-08T02:06:25Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361677 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Aníbal Zurdo Rodríguez''' (alizaliwa [[3 Desemba]] [[1982]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[Mpira wa miguu|soka]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] anayechezewa kama mshambuliaji. Pia ana [[uraia]] wa [[Uhispania|Hispania]].<ref name="FCWC 2014">{{cite web|title=FIFA Club World Cup Morocco 2014: List of Players|url=http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|publisher=FIFA|page=2|date=15 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711154142/http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|archive-date=11 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1982]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Mexiko]] nwjm3ol72cx63rdygv9ht4b48sajqmb 1361763 1361677 2024-11-08T09:13:59Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361763 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Aníbal Zurdo Rodríguez''' (alizaliwa [[3 Desemba]] [[1982]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[Mpira wa miguu|soka]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] anayechezewa kama mshambuliaji. Pia ana [[uraia]] wa [[Uhispania|Hispania]].<ref name="FCWC 2014">{{cite web|title=FIFA Club World Cup Morocco 2014: List of Players|url=http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|publisher=FIFA|page=2|date=15 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711154142/http://www.fifadata.com/document/FCWC/2014/pdf/FCWC_2014_SquadLists.pdf|archive-date=11 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1982]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji mpira wa Mexiko]] [[Jamii:wachezaji mpira wa Hispania]] m8vugx05pk0ez1jru9iuzthgeusbg5g 0 190013 1361594 2024-11-07T16:15:43Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Amalin Yabur Elías''' (alizaliwa [[7 Septemba]] [[1951]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka chama cha Institutional Revolutionary Party cha [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Kuanzia mwaka [[2003]] hadi [[2006]] alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la 59 la Mexico akiwakilisha jimbo la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=569147|publisher=Legislative Inform...' 1361594 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Amalin Yabur Elías''' (alizaliwa [[7 Septemba]] [[1951]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka chama cha Institutional Revolutionary Party cha [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Kuanzia mwaka [[2003]] hadi [[2006]] alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la 59 la Mexico akiwakilisha jimbo la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=569147|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=20 December 2014}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1951]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] r2i6jzh6r6s83fp70q90qq21wx93cie 1361675 1361594 2024-11-08T02:03:55Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361675 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Amalin Yabur Elías''' (alizaliwa [[7 Septemba]] [[1951]]) ni [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka chama cha Institutional Revolutionary Party cha [[Meksiko|Mexico]]. Kuanzia mwaka [[2003]] hadi [[2006]] alihudumu kama [[Mbunge]] katika Bunge la 59 la Mexico akiwakilisha jimbo la [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Perfil del legislador|url=http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Librerias/pp_PerfilLegislador.php?SID=&Referencia=569147|publisher=Legislative Information System|accessdate=20 December 2014}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1951]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 9cge4vlz2ee8muypkvhp3i5e7j54qcw 0 190014 1361599 2024-11-07T16:31:36Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Mario Trujillo García''' (alizaliwa [[21 Januari|Januari 21]], [[1920]] – alifariki [[10 Januari|Januari 10]], [[2007]]) alikuwa [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye alihudumu kama [[Gavana]] wa [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]]. Trujillo alihudumu kama mbunge katika [[Bunge]] la Chini la Mexico. Mnamo mwaka 1971, baada ya kuchaguliwa, alikalia wadhifa wa Gavana wa Tabasco ([[1971]]–[[1977]]).<ref>{{Cite news|date=23 January 2020|title=El vis...' 1361599 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mario Trujillo García''' (alizaliwa [[21 Januari|Januari 21]], [[1920]] – alifariki [[10 Januari|Januari 10]], [[2007]]) alikuwa [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye alihudumu kama [[Gavana]] wa [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]]. Trujillo alihudumu kama mbunge katika [[Bunge]] la Chini la Mexico. Mnamo mwaka 1971, baada ya kuchaguliwa, alikalia wadhifa wa Gavana wa Tabasco ([[1971]]–[[1977]]).<ref>{{Cite news|date=23 January 2020|title=El visionario de Tabasco. Recuerdan legado de Mario Trujillo|work=Rumbo Nuevo|url=https://www.rumbonuevo.com.mx/el-visionario-de-tabasco-recuerdan-legado-de-mario-trujillo/|access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1920]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2007]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] hhqb43wvehg1y3y1ge6h3c0ssntu3b7 1361674 1361599 2024-11-08T02:03:11Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361674 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mario Trujillo García''' (alizaliwa [[21 Januari|Januari 21]], [[1920]] – alifariki [[10 Januari|Januari 10]], [[2007]]) alikuwa [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye alihudumu kama [[Gavana]] wa [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]]. Trujillo alihudumu kama mbunge katika [[Bunge]] la Chini la Mexico. Mnamo mwaka 1971, baada ya kuchaguliwa, alikalia wadhifa wa Gavana wa Tabasco ([[1971]]–[[1977]]).<ref>{{Cite news|date=23 January 2020|title=El visionario de Tabasco. Recuerdan legado de Mario Trujillo|work=Rumbo Nuevo|url=https://www.rumbonuevo.com.mx/el-visionario-de-tabasco-recuerdan-legado-de-mario-trujillo/|access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1920]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2007]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 68hr9myq1kcv9zozg9kf6ghao9j6apd 1361764 1361674 2024-11-08T09:14:42Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361764 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mario Trujillo García''' ([[21 Januari]] [[1920]] – [[10 Januari]] [[2007]]) alikuwa [[mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Meksiko|Mexico]] ambaye alihudumu kama [[Gavana]] wa [[Tabasco (jimbo)|Tabasco]]. Trujillo alihudumu kama mbunge katika [[Bunge]] la Chini la Mexico. Mnamo mwaka 1971, baada ya kuchaguliwa, alikalia wadhifa wa Gavana wa Tabasco ([[1971]]–[[1977]]).<ref>{{Cite news|date=23 January 2020|title=El visionario de Tabasco. Recuerdan legado de Mario Trujillo|work=Rumbo Nuevo|url=https://www.rumbonuevo.com.mx/el-visionario-de-tabasco-recuerdan-legado-de-mario-trujillo/|access-date=17 May 2022}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1920]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2007]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 5z7h5ikq23v5hp22r4aqx9fpjojxjvg 0 190015 1361603 2024-11-07T17:14:25Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[picha:DavidMiedzianik (cropped).jpg|thumb|David Miedzianik]] '''David Christopher Miedzianik''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[24 Julai]] [[1956]]) ni mshairi na mwandishi kutoka [[Uingereza]] mwenye usonji. Maandishi yake yanaonyesha nyuso ngumu za usonji. Zaidi ya hayo, mashairi yake mengi yanazingatia ugumu wa kijamii ambao anaupata. Yeye ni mtu asiye na ajira, lakini anaandika kuhusu jinsi anavyotamani kupata kazi na upendo. Miedzianik anaandika kuhusu mifano m...' 1361603 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:DavidMiedzianik (cropped).jpg|thumb|David Miedzianik]] '''David Christopher Miedzianik''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[24 Julai]] [[1956]]) ni mshairi na mwandishi kutoka [[Uingereza]] mwenye usonji. Maandishi yake yanaonyesha nyuso ngumu za usonji. Zaidi ya hayo, mashairi yake mengi yanazingatia ugumu wa kijamii ambao anaupata. Yeye ni mtu asiye na ajira, lakini anaandika kuhusu jinsi anavyotamani kupata kazi na upendo. Miedzianik anaandika kuhusu mifano maalum inayohusiana na matamanio hayo. Kazi za Miedzianik zimechunguzwa kwa kina na wataalamu maarufu wa utafiti wa usonji, ambao wanielezea uandishi wake kama wa kina, wa hali ya juu, na unaoonyesha ufanisi wa kipekee katika kuelewa ugumu wake wa kijamii.<ref name="Osborne">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bPdBgAAQBAJ|title=American Normal: The Hidden World of Asperger Syndrome|last1=Osborne|first1=Lawrence|date=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9780387218076|pages=161, 163|language=en|access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1956]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 865do4csngajlf26josf640if0xh7li 1361673 1361603 2024-11-08T02:02:26Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361673 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:DavidMiedzianik (cropped).jpg|thumb|David Miedzianik]] '''David Christopher Miedzianik''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[24 Julai]] [[1956]]) ni mshairi na [[mwandishi]] kutoka [[Uingereza]] mwenye [[usonji]]. Maandishi yake yanaonyesha nyuso ngumu za usonji. Zaidi ya hayo, mashairi yake mengi yanazingatia ugumu wa kijamii ambao anaupata. Yeye ni mtu asiye na ajira, lakini anaandika kuhusu jinsi anavyotamani kupata kazi na upendo. Miedzianik anaandika kuhusu mifano maalumu inayohusiana na matamanio hayo. Kazi za Miedzianik zimechunguzwa kwa kina na wataalamu maarufu wa utafiti wa usonji, ambao wanielezea uandishi wake kama wa kina, wa hali ya juu, na unaoonyesha ufanisi wa kipekee katika kuelewa ugumu wake wa kijamii.<ref name="Osborne">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bPdBgAAQBAJ|title=American Normal: The Hidden World of Asperger Syndrome|last1=Osborne|first1=Lawrence|date=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9780387218076|pages=161, 163|language=en|access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1956]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] oie8xwo2mnayi5bk1we58y23fqzozrb 1361767 1361673 2024-11-08T09:15:49Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361767 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:DavidMiedzianik (cropped).jpg|thumb|David Miedzianik]] '''David Christopher Miedzianik''' (alizaliwa [[24 Julai]] [[1956]]) ni [[Ushairi|mshairi]] na [[mwandishi]] kutoka [[Uingereza]] mwenye [[usonji]]. Maandishi yake yanaonyesha nyuso ngumu za usonji. Zaidi ya hayo, mashairi yake mengi yanazingatia ugumu wa kijamii ambao anaupata. Yeye ni mtu asiye na ajira, lakini anaandika kuhusu jinsi anavyotamani kupata kazi na upendo. Miedzianik anaandika kuhusu mifano maalumu inayohusiana na matamanio hayo. Kazi za Miedzianik zimechunguzwa kwa kina na wataalamu maarufu wa utafiti wa usonji, ambao wanielezea uandishi wake kama wa kina, wa hali ya juu, na unaoonyesha ufanisi wa kipekee katika kuelewa ugumu wake wa kijamii.<ref name="Osborne">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bPdBgAAQBAJ|title=American Normal: The Hidden World of Asperger Syndrome|last1=Osborne|first1=Lawrence|date=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9780387218076|pages=161, 163|language=en|access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1956]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] c165ht1g9n62df85bj7zlmvekzoqmp8 0 190016 1361606 2024-11-07T18:17:03Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Alex Sampao''' (alizaliwa [[31 Desemba]] [[1996]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]]. Alishinda [[dhahabu]] katika [[Michezo]] ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[2015]] kama sehemu ya timu ya mbio za mita 4x400 za kupokezana vijiti.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nation.co.ke/sports/Kenya-relay-team-win-gold/1090-2876494-esi8lm/index.html |title=Kenya's golden quartet too hot for Botswana to handle down |publisher=Nation Media Group Limited |date= |accessdate=2017-...' 1361606 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alex Sampao''' (alizaliwa [[31 Desemba]] [[1996]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]]. Alishinda [[dhahabu]] katika [[Michezo]] ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[2015]] kama sehemu ya timu ya mbio za mita 4x400 za kupokezana vijiti.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nation.co.ke/sports/Kenya-relay-team-win-gold/1090-2876494-esi8lm/index.html |title=Kenya's golden quartet too hot for Botswana to handle down |publisher=Nation Media Group Limited |date= |accessdate=2017-06-25}}</ref> Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2016]]. <ref>{{cite web |title=Alex Sampao |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826090245/https://www.rio2016.com/en/athlete/alexander-lerionka-sampao }} </ref> Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 800 za mwanamume za Gavardo Memorial Max Corso (ITA) mwaka [[2017]]. <ref>{{cite web |title=Alex Sampao |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/-/14590695}} </ref><ref>[http://www.fidal.it/risultati/2017/COD5989/GaraL008.htm Results table for 800man Gavardo race]</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1996]] hx0xdvzhxllbynfz95u0y41xrih8fgt 1361671 1361606 2024-11-08T02:00:43Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361671 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alex Sampao''' (alizaliwa [[31 Desemba]] [[1996]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]]. Alishinda [[dhahabu]] katika [[Michezo]] ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[2015]] kama sehemu ya timu ya mbio za mita 4x400 za kupokezana vijiti.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nation.co.ke/sports/Kenya-relay-team-win-gold/1090-2876494-esi8lm/index.html |title=Kenya's golden quartet too hot for Botswana to handle down |publisher=Nation Media Group Limited |date= |accessdate=2017-06-25}}</ref>Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2016]]. <ref>{{cite web |title=Alex Sampao |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826090245/https://www.rio2016.com/en/athlete/alexander-lerionka-sampao }} </ref> Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 800 za mwanamume za Gavardo Memorial Max Corso (ITA) mwaka [[2017]]. <ref>{{cite web |title=Alex Sampao |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/-/14590695}} </ref><ref>[http://www.fidal.it/risultati/2017/COD5989/GaraL008.htm Results table for 800man Gavardo race]</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1996]] lwsxfm5bolzpp5a92a93zyyu9ezsvq1 1361672 1361671 2024-11-08T02:00:57Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361672 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alex Sampao''' (alizaliwa [[31 Desemba]] [[1996]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]]. Alishinda [[dhahabu]] katika [[Michezo]] ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[2015]] kama sehemu ya timu ya mbio za mita 4x400 za kupokezana vijiti.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nation.co.ke/sports/Kenya-relay-team-win-gold/1090-2876494-esi8lm/index.html |title=Kenya's golden quartet too hot for Botswana to handle down |publisher=Nation Media Group Limited |date= |accessdate=2017-06-25}}</ref> Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2016]]. <ref>{{cite web |title=Alex Sampao |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826090245/https://www.rio2016.com/en/athlete/alexander-lerionka-sampao }} </ref> Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 800 za mwanamume za Gavardo Memorial Max Corso (ITA) mwaka [[2017]]. <ref>{{cite web |title=Alex Sampao |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/-/14590695}} </ref><ref>[http://www.fidal.it/risultati/2017/COD5989/GaraL008.htm Results table for 800man Gavardo race]</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1996]] 6071gp4iqqmz7k444lypvffp1wpsot5 0 190017 1361611 2024-11-07T18:45:39Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Jane Ngotho Wanjiku''' (alizaliwa [[29 Novemba]] [[1969]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio ndefu ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 3000, na matukio ya mita 10,000. Alishinda [[medali]] tatu katika matoleo mawili tofauti ya Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] mwaka [[1989]] na [[1990]], ikiwa ni pamoja na [[dhahabu]] moja katika mita 10,000 katika Mashindano ya Afrika mwaka [[1989]] katika Riadha huko [[Lagos]]. Alishiriki pia Kenya katika Mic...' 1361611 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jane Ngotho Wanjiku''' (alizaliwa [[29 Novemba]] [[1969]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio ndefu ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 3000, na matukio ya mita 10,000. Alishinda [[medali]] tatu katika matoleo mawili tofauti ya Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] mwaka [[1989]] na [[1990]], ikiwa ni pamoja na [[dhahabu]] moja katika mita 10,000 katika Mashindano ya Afrika mwaka [[1989]] katika Riadha huko [[Lagos]]. Alishiriki pia Kenya katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1992]] katika mita 3,000, lakini hakufuzu hadi fainali.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jane Ngotho |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418073733/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ng/jane-ngotho-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1969]] nr3m0nnvrty7uhnixjswyzd4pzlroff 1361669 1361611 2024-11-08T01:58:18Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361669 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jane Ngotho Wanjiku''' (alizaliwa [[29 Novemba]] [[1969]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio ndefu ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 3000, na matukio ya mita 10,000. Alishinda [[medali]] tatu katika matoleo mawili tofauti ya Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] mwaka [[1989]] na [[1990]], ikiwa ni pamoja na [[dhahabu]] moja katika mita 10,000 katika Mashindano ya Afrika mwaka [[1989]] huko [[Lagos]]. Alishiriki pia Kenya katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1992]] katika mita 3,000, lakini hakufuzu hadi fainali.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jane Ngotho |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418073733/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ng/jane-ngotho-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1969]] g1xqagodp8tqpuyq6gvmf2ufpzf8cub 0 190018 1361612 2024-11-07T18:52:43Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Justina Chepchirchir''' (alizaliwa [[20 Oktoba]] [[1968]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio za kati ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 800,1500, na 3000. Alishinda [[medali]] za [[dhahabu]] katika Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[1982]] katika riadha katika mita 1500 na 3000. Katika toleo la mwaka [[1984]] alihifadhi taji lake katika mita 1500 na akashinda dhahabu nyingine katika mita 800. Alishiriki pia Kenya katika Michezo ya Ol...' 1361612 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justina Chepchirchir''' (alizaliwa [[20 Oktoba]] [[1968]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio za kati ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 800,1500, na 3000. Alishinda [[medali]] za [[dhahabu]] katika Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[1982]] katika riadha katika mita 1500 na 3000. Katika toleo la mwaka [[1984]] alihifadhi taji lake katika mita 1500 na akashinda dhahabu nyingine katika mita 800. Alishiriki pia Kenya katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]] katika mita 1500, lakini hakufuzu hadi fainali.<ref>{{cite web |title=Justina Chepchirchir |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050304/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ch/justina-chepchirchir-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1968]] auiq39vdpv9xk0u51gc1ol95f0osr7d 1361668 1361612 2024-11-08T01:57:18Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361668 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justina Chepchirchir''' (alizaliwa [[20 Oktoba]] [[1968]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio za kati ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 800,1500, na 3000. Alishinda [[medali]] za [[dhahabu]] katika Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[1982]] katika riadha za mita 1500 na 3000. Kwenye toleo la mwaka [[1984]] alihifadhi taji lake katika mita 1500 na akashinda [[dhahabu]] nyingine kwenye mita 800. Alishiriki pia Kenya katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]] katika mita 1500, lakini hakufuzu hadi fainali.<ref>{{cite web |title=Justina Chepchirchir |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050304/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ch/justina-chepchirchir-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1968]] ram7iqvlgpc2ttcq1yreth3taf3qmw3 0 190019 1361614 2024-11-07T19:00:56Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Simon Muriithi Wachira''' (alizaliwa [[6 Mei]] [[1984]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za kilomita 20 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2016]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Simon Wachira |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922201226/https://www.rio2016.com/en/athlete/simon-wachira}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya...' 1361614 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Simon Muriithi Wachira''' (alizaliwa [[6 Mei]] [[1984]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za kilomita 20 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2016]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Simon Wachira |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922201226/https://www.rio2016.com/en/athlete/simon-wachira}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1984]] sgnjlgwi7hetqw4j2vf1e3xaj19844t 1361667 1361614 2024-11-08T01:54:53Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361667 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Simon Muriithi Wachira''' (alizaliwa [[6 Mei]] [[1984]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za kilomita 20 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2016]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Simon Wachira |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922201226/https://www.rio2016.com/en/athlete/simon-wachira}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1984]] 60sgwoere363pw8t35infvf8en94v2v 0 190020 1361615 2024-11-07T19:09:26Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Abraham Kibiwot''' (alizaliwa [[4 Juni]] [[1996]]) mkimbiaji wa mbio za kuruka viunzi kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishinda [[medali]] za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 3000 kuruka viunzi katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2024]], Mashindano ya Dunia mwaka [[2023]], na Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[2016]]. Ubora wake wa kibinafsi ni dakika 8:05.51, iliyowekwa mwaka 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Abraham Kibiwot |url=https://worldat...' 1361615 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Abraham Kibiwot''' (alizaliwa [[4 Juni]] [[1996]]) mkimbiaji wa mbio za kuruka viunzi kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishinda [[medali]] za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 3000 kuruka viunzi katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2024]], Mashindano ya Dunia mwaka [[2023]], na Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[2016]]. Ubora wake wa kibinafsi ni dakika 8:05.51, iliyowekwa mwaka 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Abraham Kibiwot |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/-/14657344}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1996]] gzxx72k6xc2x9b4pf3zqbsqtujinafj 1361666 1361615 2024-11-08T01:54:32Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361666 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Abraham Kibiwot''' (alizaliwa [[4 Juni]] [[1996]]) mkimbiaji wa mbio za [[kuruka viunzi]] kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishinda [[medali]] za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 3000 kuruka viunzi katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2024]], Mashindano ya [[Dunia]] mwaka [[2023]], na Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[2016]]. Ubora wake wa kibinafsi umerekodiwa kuwa dakika 8:05.51, rekodi iliyowekwa mwaka 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Abraham Kibiwot |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/-/14657344}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1996]] ov2872noyhnfde0nynllgxc2odbt8fk 0 190021 1361616 2024-11-07T19:17:29Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''William Koskei''' (alizaliwa [[28 Desemba]] [[1947]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 400 kuruka viunzi na mbio za kupokezana vijiti za mita 4 × 400.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bill Koskei |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418071429/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ko/bill-koskei-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]]...' 1361616 wikitext text/x-wiki '''William Koskei''' (alizaliwa [[28 Desemba]] [[1947]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 400 kuruka viunzi na mbio za kupokezana vijiti za mita 4 × 400.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bill Koskei |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418071429/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ko/bill-koskei-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1947]] fkgqe5eil900uf0pwvrx1dkfaj9wmjx 1361665 1361616 2024-11-08T01:52:58Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361665 wikitext text/x-wiki '''William Koskei''' (alizaliwa [[28 Desemba]] [[1947]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 400 kuruka viunzi na mbio za kupokezana vijiti za mita 4 × 400.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bill Koskei |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418071429/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ko/bill-koskei-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1947]] 6r2q8evcey4lnlcfdpm3g3z1zsrxmza 0 190022 1361617 2024-11-07T19:25:32Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Juma Ndiwa''' (alizaliwa [[28 Novemba]] [[1960]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio za kati kutoka [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 800.<ref>{{cite web |title=Juma Ndiwa |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/-/14353275}} </ref> Aliwakilisha nchi yake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]] na [[1988]] na vile vile Mashindano ya Dunia mwaka [[1983]]. Alishinda [[dhahabu]] katika Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] mwaka 1...' 1361617 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Juma Ndiwa''' (alizaliwa [[28 Novemba]] [[1960]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio za kati kutoka [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 800.<ref>{{cite web |title=Juma Ndiwa |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/-/14353275}} </ref> Aliwakilisha nchi yake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]] na [[1988]] na vile vile Mashindano ya Dunia mwaka [[1983]]. Alishinda [[dhahabu]] katika Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] mwaka [[1982]] na [[shaba]] katika toleo la mwaka [[1985]]. Mchezaji bora wake binafsi katika hafla hiyo ni seti 1:44.20 mjini [[Munich]] mwaka 1983. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1960]] cpupgrbdxdpe2nywenncri4u680jfl2 1361664 1361617 2024-11-08T01:52:16Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361664 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Juma Ndiwa''' (alizaliwa [[28 Novemba]] [[1960]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio za kati kutoka [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 800.<ref>{{cite web |title=Juma Ndiwa |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/-/14353275}} </ref> Aliwakilisha nchi yake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]] na [[1988]] na vile vile Mashindano ya [[Dunia]] mwaka [[1983]]. Alishinda [[dhahabu]] katika Mashindano ya [[Afrika]] mwaka [[1982]] na [[shaba]] katika toleo la mwaka [[1985]]. Mchezaji bora wake binafsi katika hafla hiyo ni seti 1:44.20 mjini [[Munich]] mwaka 1983. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1960]] 8r7o595uikwamcy2awbr4wg2wixjdl5 0 190023 1361619 2024-11-07T19:34:44Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Eugene Levy CC''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[17 Desemba]] [[1946]]) ni mchekeshaji na mwigizaji kutoka [[Kanada]]. Anajulikana kwa kuchezeshwa wahusika wanaoshikwa na wasiwasi na wasiokuwa wa kawaida. Levy ameshinda tuzo nyingi katika taaluma yake, ikiwa ni pamoja na Tuzo nne za Emmy za Primetime, Tuzo ya Grammy, na Tuzo ya Shirikisho la Wamigizaji wa Filamu. Aliteuliwa katika agizo la Kanada mwaka [[2011]], na aliteuliwa kuwa Mshirika wa Agizo la Kanada mwaka...' 1361619 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Eugene Levy CC''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[17 Desemba]] [[1946]]) ni mchekeshaji na mwigizaji kutoka [[Kanada]]. Anajulikana kwa kuchezeshwa wahusika wanaoshikwa na wasiwasi na wasiokuwa wa kawaida. Levy ameshinda tuzo nyingi katika taaluma yake, ikiwa ni pamoja na Tuzo nne za Emmy za Primetime, Tuzo ya Grammy, na Tuzo ya Shirikisho la Wamigizaji wa Filamu. Aliteuliwa katika agizo la Kanada mwaka [[2011]], na aliteuliwa kuwa Mshirika wa Agizo la Kanada mwaka [[2022]][[2022.|.]] <ref>{{cite web|title=Eugene Levy biography|url=http://ggpaa.ca/award-recipients/2008/levy-eugene.aspx|publisher=Governor General's Performing Arts Awards Foundation|access-date=February 10, 2015}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1946]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waigizaji filamu wa Kanada]] f5u4zl2ug409wqi9lpbcxqc11d5xrhh 1361621 1361619 2024-11-07T19:39:47Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 1361621 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Eugene Levy 2011.jpg|thumb|Eugene Levy]] '''Eugene Levy CC''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[17 Desemba]] [[1946]]) ni mchekeshaji na mwigizaji kutoka [[Kanada]]. Anajulikana kwa kuchezeshwa wahusika wanaoshikwa na wasiwasi na wasiokuwa wa kawaida. Levy ameshinda tuzo nyingi katika taaluma yake, ikiwa ni pamoja na Tuzo nne za Emmy za Primetime, Tuzo ya Grammy, na Tuzo ya Shirikisho la Wamigizaji wa Filamu. Aliteuliwa katika agizo la Kanada mwaka [[2011]], na aliteuliwa kuwa Mshirika wa Agizo la Kanada mwaka [[2022]][[2022.|.]] <ref>{{cite web|title=Eugene Levy biography|url=http://ggpaa.ca/award-recipients/2008/levy-eugene.aspx|publisher=Governor General's Performing Arts Awards Foundation|access-date=February 10, 2015}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1946]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waigizaji filamu wa Kanada]] i5a23ar76bdw30j5c8f1hri85h0usya 1361662 1361621 2024-11-08T01:50:28Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361662 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Eugene Levy 2011.jpg|thumb|Eugene Levy]] '''Eugene Levy CC''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[17 Desemba]] [[1946]]) ni [[mchekeshaji]] na [[mwigizaji]] kutoka [[Kanada]]. Anajulikana kwa kuchezeshwa kama wahusika wanaoshikwa na wasiwasi na wasiokuwa wa kawaida. Levy ameshinda tuzo nyingi katika taaluma yake, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[Tuzo]] nne za Emmy za Primetime, [[Tuzo ya Grammy]], na Tuzo ya Shirikisho la Waigizaji wa Filamu. Aliteuliwa katika agizo la Kanada mwaka [[2011]], na aliteuliwa kuwa Mshirika wa Agizo la Kanada mwaka [[2022]][[2022.|.]] <ref>{{cite web|title=Eugene Levy biography|url=http://ggpaa.ca/award-recipients/2008/levy-eugene.aspx|publisher=Governor General's Performing Arts Awards Foundation|access-date=February 10, 2015}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1946]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waigizaji filamu wa Kanada]] l57sqjg5m2zvsnhhhqp3hawjy5dp8us 0 190024 1361620 2024-11-07T19:36:41Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Andrew Soi''' (alizaliwa [[1938]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Andrew Soi Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418103319/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/so/andrew-soi-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} Jamii:Wan...' 1361620 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrew Soi''' (alizaliwa [[1938]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Andrew Soi Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418103319/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/so/andrew-soi-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1938]] 86eed75k660qusrmaka7uhcibqugcwm 1361663 1361620 2024-11-08T01:50:56Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361663 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrew Soi''' (alizaliwa [[1938]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Andrew Soi Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418103319/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/so/andrew-soi-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1938]] 3vlv7x37vh6zybvkgeoxshzb91nvpru 0 190025 1361622 2024-11-07T19:44:02Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Chrisantus Nyakwayo''' (alizaliwa [[1944]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chrisantus Nyakwayo Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418065646/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ny/chrisantus-nyakwayo-1.html }} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mw...' 1361622 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Chrisantus Nyakwayo''' (alizaliwa [[1944]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chrisantus Nyakwayo Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418065646/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ny/chrisantus-nyakwayo-1.html }} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1944]] 19glb5jpjy2r0kzhynpcuwe1tbwmhzb 1361661 1361622 2024-11-08T01:48:11Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361661 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Chrisantus Nyakwayo''' (alizaliwa [[1944]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1964]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chrisantus Nyakwayo Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418065646/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ny/chrisantus-nyakwayo-1.html }} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1944]] dwrq0uut1ir2buzv1mv5hlflfuwf6td 0 190026 1361626 2024-11-07T19:49:52Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Paul Mose''' (alizaliwa [[15 Mei]] [[1949]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1968]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul Mose Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418123933/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mo/paul-mose-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} Ja...' 1361626 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Paul Mose''' (alizaliwa [[15 Mei]] [[1949]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1968]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul Mose Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418123933/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mo/paul-mose-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1949]] dlww7f8a9ky887c21887x1b95rm3503 1361660 1361626 2024-11-08T01:47:36Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361660 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Paul Mose''' (alizaliwa [[15 Mei]] [[1949]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1968]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul Mose Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418123933/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mo/paul-mose-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1949]] m2jmv5lxofr66jwqpoloxxooct0cuc2 0 190027 1361628 2024-11-07T19:56:40Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Richard Juma''' (alizaliwa [[19 Julai]] [[1945]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1972]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Richard Juma Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418100535/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ju/richard-juma-1.html}} </ref> Juma alishinda [[medali]] za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 10,...' 1361628 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Richard Juma''' (alizaliwa [[19 Julai]] [[1945]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1972]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Richard Juma Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418100535/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ju/richard-juma-1.html}} </ref> Juma alishinda [[medali]] za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 10,000 katika [[Michezo ya Afrika Nzima]] mwaka [[1973]] na katika Michezo ya [[Jumuiya ya Madola]] ya [[Uingereza]] ya [[1974]]. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1945]] 0lg7ciizxm23na9yry0h1surlsb4ffn 1361659 1361628 2024-11-08T01:47:11Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361659 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Richard Juma''' (alizaliwa [[19 Julai]] [[1945]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1972]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Richard Juma Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418100535/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ju/richard-juma-1.html}} </ref> Juma alishinda [[medali]] za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 10,000 katika [[Michezo ya Afrika Nzima]] mwaka [[1973]] na katika Michezo ya [[Jumuiya ya Madola]] ya [[Uingereza]] ya [[1974]]. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1945]] q6u4iveulgav8fb6w7rknm2sz6we8cu 0 190028 1361629 2024-11-07T19:59:52Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[picha:Scott_Mellanby.jpg|thumb|Scott_Mellanby]] '''Scott Edgar Mellanby''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[11 Juni]] [[1966]]) ni mchezaji wa zamani wa [[hoki]] wa kitaalamu kutoka [[Kanada]], pia ni kocha na mtendaji. Alikuwa akicheza hasa kama mchezaji wa beki wa kulia (right wing) katika ligi kuu ya (NHL), ingawa mara kwa mara alihamia upande wa kushoto. Yeye ni mtoto wa '''Ralph Mellanby''', ambaye alikuwa mtayarishaji wa kipindi cha "Hockey Night in Canada". <r...' 1361629 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Scott_Mellanby.jpg|thumb|Scott_Mellanby]] '''Scott Edgar Mellanby''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[11 Juni]] [[1966]]) ni mchezaji wa zamani wa [[hoki]] wa kitaalamu kutoka [[Kanada]], pia ni kocha na mtendaji. Alikuwa akicheza hasa kama mchezaji wa beki wa kulia (right wing) katika ligi kuu ya (NHL), ingawa mara kwa mara alihamia upande wa kushoto. Yeye ni mtoto wa '''Ralph Mellanby''', ambaye alikuwa mtayarishaji wa kipindi cha "Hockey Night in Canada". <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.publicationsports.com/ressources/files/439/Joueurs_Pro.pdf|title=Pee-Wee players who have reached NHL or WHA|year=2018|website=Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament|access-date=2019-01-15}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1966]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Kanada]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 1d8o68yhmnkp6zvrb07sl7dmbg80gvf 1361658 1361629 2024-11-08T01:46:29Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361658 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Scott_Mellanby.jpg|thumb|Scott_Mellanby]] '''Scott Edgar Mellanby''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[11 Juni]] [[1966]]) ni mchezaji wa zamani wa [[hoki]] kutoka [[Kanada]], pia ni kocha na mtendaji. Alikuwa akicheza hasa kama beki wa kulia (right wing) katika ligi kuu ya (NHL), ingawa mara kwa mara alihamia upande wa kushoto. Yeye ni mtoto wa '''[[Ralph Mellanby]]''', ambaye alikuwa [[mtayarishaji]] wa kipindi cha "Hockey Night in Canada". <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.publicationsports.com/ressources/files/439/Joueurs_Pro.pdf|title=Pee-Wee players who have reached NHL or WHA|year=2018|website=Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament|access-date=2019-01-15}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1966]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Kanada]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] bep3uun460hhngzbg0xywd3ooy83lwe 1361768 1361658 2024-11-08T09:18:04Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361768 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Scott_Mellanby.jpg|thumb|Scott_Mellanby]] '''Scott Edgar Mellanby''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[11 Juni]] [[1966]]) ni mchezaji wa zamani wa [[hoki]] kutoka [[Kanada]], pia ni kocha na mtendaji. Alikuwa akicheza hasa kama beki wa kulia (right wing) katika ligi kuu ya (NHL), ingawa mara kwa mara alihamia upande wa kushoto. Yeye ni mtoto wa [[Ralph Mellanby]], ambaye alikuwa [[mtayarishaji]] wa kipindi cha "Hockey Night in Canada". <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.publicationsports.com/ressources/files/439/Joueurs_Pro.pdf|title=Pee-Wee players who have reached NHL or WHA|year=2018|website=Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament|access-date=2019-01-15}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1966]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Kanada]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] ceuwfr0972l4he4g4pildf9ffmustph 0 190029 1361630 2024-11-07T20:01:27Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Kimurgor Ngeny''' (alizaliwa [[10 Julai]] [[1951]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kimurgor Ngeny Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050302/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ng/kimurgor-ngeny-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanar...' 1361630 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kimurgor Ngeny''' (alizaliwa [[10 Julai]] [[1951]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kimurgor Ngeny Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050302/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ng/kimurgor-ngeny-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1951]] p9kfot2j8lp5v2ej6a0m6lmsmcch7tq 1361657 1361630 2024-11-08T01:44:21Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361657 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kimurgor Ngeny''' (alizaliwa [[10 Julai]] [[1951]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kimurgor Ngeny Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050302/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ng/kimurgor-ngeny-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1951]] 0jjubcon31zros642s1poiek7a20gy4 0 190030 1361631 2024-11-07T20:06:42Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Joseph Otieno''' (alizaliwa [[19 Mei]] [[1958]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joseph Otieno Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050300/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ot/joseph-otieno-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadh...' 1361631 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Otieno''' (alizaliwa [[19 Mei]] [[1958]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joseph Otieno Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050300/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ot/joseph-otieno-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1958]] 35cjpm2mb6kj0xvgsnmbnz7sr0tp0j5 1361656 1361631 2024-11-08T01:44:01Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361656 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Otieno''' (alizaliwa [[19 Mei]] [[1958]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joseph Otieno Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050300/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ot/joseph-otieno-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1958]] apodqxo80ockn6g8xem78qvy36a7m4i 0 190031 1361633 2024-11-07T20:12:00Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Mary Wagaki''' (alizaliwa [[20 Juni]] [[1954]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Mary Wagaki Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050244/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/wa/mary-wagaki-1.html }} </ref> Wagaki alishinda [[medali]] ya [[fedha]] katika mbio...' 1361633 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mary Wagaki''' (alizaliwa [[20 Juni]] [[1954]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Mary Wagaki Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050244/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/wa/mary-wagaki-1.html }} </ref> Wagaki alishinda [[medali]] ya [[fedha]] katika mbio za mita 1500 kwenye [[Michezo ya Afrika Nzima]] mwaka [[1973]]. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1954]] genikm3sxnhkx9tl1vn2wo3dmrwux82 1361655 1361633 2024-11-08T01:43:39Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361655 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mary Wagaki''' (alizaliwa [[20 Juni]] [[1954]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa mbio ndefu kutoka [[Kenya]]. Alishiriki katika mbio za [[marathon]] za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Mary Wagaki Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050244/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/wa/mary-wagaki-1.html }} </ref> Wagaki alishinda [[medali]] ya [[fedha]] katika mbio za mita 1500 kwenye [[Michezo ya Afrika Nzima]] mwaka [[1973]]. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1954]] 3otxlz59al7h7p1wvonbiaocpt32hlp 0 190032 1361635 2024-11-07T20:16:28Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Lydia Stephens''' (alizaliwa [[1 Novemba]] [[1945]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1968]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lydia Stephens Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418115501/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/st/lydia-stephens-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariad...' 1361635 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lydia Stephens''' (alizaliwa [[1 Novemba]] [[1945]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1968]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lydia Stephens Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418115501/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/st/lydia-stephens-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1945]] re2s471b8vnof9aq4eali8f9o7p1ld6 1361654 1361635 2024-11-08T01:43:09Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361654 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lydia Stephens''' (alizaliwa [[1 Novemba]] [[1945]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1968]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lydia Stephens Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418115501/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/st/lydia-stephens-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1945]] 5qqm1bdmnq8t2xxuw7w9eh6hdayj9oa 0 190033 1361637 2024-11-07T20:22:19Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''John Mwebi''' (alizaliwa [[18 Januari]] [[1950]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1972]].<ref>{{cite web |title=John Mwebi Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011415/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mw/john-mwebi-1.html}} </ref> Alishinda [[medali]] ya [[fedha]] katika mbio za mita 100 kwenye Michezo...' 1361637 wikitext text/x-wiki '''John Mwebi''' (alizaliwa [[18 Januari]] [[1950]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1972]].<ref>{{cite web |title=John Mwebi Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011415/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mw/john-mwebi-1.html}} </ref> Alishinda [[medali]] ya [[fedha]] katika mbio za mita 100 kwenye Michezo ya [[Jumuiya ya Madola]] ya [[Uingereza]] mwaka [[1974]]. Mwebi pia alishinda medali za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 100 na 200 katika Michezo ya [[Afrika]] ya mwaka [[1973]]. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1950]] 287wf0e13l042d8fn1k4otdx079djb2 1361638 1361637 2024-11-07T20:23:05Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 1361638 wikitext text/x-wiki '''John Mwebi''' (alizaliwa [[18 Januari]] [[1950]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1972]].<ref>{{cite web |title=John Mwebi Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011415/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mw/john-mwebi-1.html}} </ref> Alishinda [[medali]] ya [[fedha]] katika mbio za mita 100 kwenye Michezo ya [[Jumuiya ya Madola]] ya [[Uingereza]] mwaka [[1974]]. Mwebi pia alishinda medali za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 100 na 200 katika [[Michezo ya Afrika Nzima]] ya mwaka [[1973]]. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1950]] 3e5ub4rj36zkg2wz5nq8i7qwcqe4hu3 1361653 1361638 2024-11-08T01:42:43Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361653 wikitext text/x-wiki '''John Mwebi''' (alizaliwa [[18 Januari]] [[1950]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1972]].<ref>{{cite web |title=John Mwebi Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011415/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mw/john-mwebi-1.html}} </ref> Alishinda [[medali]] ya [[fedha]] katika mbio za mita 100 kwenye Michezo ya [[Jumuiya ya Madola]] ya [[Uingereza]] mwaka [[1974]]. Mwebi pia alishinda [[medali]] za [[shaba]] katika mbio za mita 100 na 200 katika [[Michezo ya Afrika Nzima]] ya mwaka [[1973]]. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1950]] c9lric4vz7mrgyyk06rh47nfa3ftln1 0 190034 1361639 2024-11-07T20:29:00Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Peter Wekesa''' (alizaliwa [[22 Septemba]] [[1961]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1988]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Peter Wekesa Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011601/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/we/peter-wekesa-1.html }} </ref> Ubora wake wa binafsi ulikuwa sekunde 10 mwaka 1988. <ref>{{Cite...' 1361639 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Peter Wekesa''' (alizaliwa [[22 Septemba]] [[1961]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1988]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Peter Wekesa Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011601/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/we/peter-wekesa-1.html }} </ref> Ubora wake wa binafsi ulikuwa sekunde 10 mwaka 1988. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Olympics Peter Wekesa Biography |url=https://olympics.com/en/athletes/peter-wekesa |website=Olympics.com}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1961]] e7mdu3hvbb84ea526hd2n5kiz98dyss 1361652 1361639 2024-11-08T01:42:03Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361652 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Peter Wekesa''' (alizaliwa [[22 Septemba]] [[1961]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1988]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Peter Wekesa Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418011601/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/we/peter-wekesa-1.html }} </ref> Ubora wake wa binafsi ulirekodiwa kuwa sekunde 10 mwaka 1988. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Olympics Peter Wekesa Biography |url=https://olympics.com/en/athletes/peter-wekesa |website=Olympics.com}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1961]] 0n8pysfl3ul0nrthar7g5ta044j6t54 0 190035 1361640 2024-11-07T20:34:18Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Joyce Odhiambo''' (alizaliwa [[29 Juni]] [[1963]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 100. Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1988]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joyce Odhiambo Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093136/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/od/joyce-odhiambo-1.html }} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}...' 1361640 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joyce Odhiambo''' (alizaliwa [[29 Juni]] [[1963]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 100. Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1988]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joyce Odhiambo Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093136/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/od/joyce-odhiambo-1.html }} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1963]] jsn9nif8ww7vtf47hkkqpgyupxiky01 1361651 1361640 2024-11-08T01:41:02Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361651 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joyce Odhiambo''' (alizaliwa [[29 Juni]] [[1963]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alibobea katika mbio za mita 100. Alishiriki katika mbio za mita 100 za wanawake katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1988]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Joyce Odhiambo Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093136/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/od/joyce-odhiambo-1.html }} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1963]] 1xvq2rh0zavqnrq5gtywlvlobxkswa0 0 190036 1361641 2024-11-07T20:38:55Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Alfred Nyambane''' (alizaliwa [[15 Juni]] [[1956]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 200 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Alfred Nyambane Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050259/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ny/alfred-nyambane-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-...' 1361641 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alfred Nyambane''' (alizaliwa [[15 Juni]] [[1956]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 200 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Alfred Nyambane Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050259/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ny/alfred-nyambane-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1956]] tvaiyfwqtcb1xuwtkxw3l02fxlc89mc 1361650 1361641 2024-11-08T01:40:37Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361650 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alfred Nyambane''' (alizaliwa [[15 Juni]] [[1956]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 200 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Alfred Nyambane Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050259/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ny/alfred-nyambane-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1956]] fadbd63uc9s5dm3397771evl6qnj0ly 0 190037 1361642 2024-11-07T20:43:22Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Josephat Muraya''' ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio za masafa za kati wa [[Olimpiki]]. Aliwakilisha nchi yake katika mbio za mita 1500 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]]. Wakati wake ulikuwa 3:51.61 katika joto la kwanza.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050254/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mu/josephat-muraya-1.html Josephat Muraya at Sports Reference] Sports Reference</r...' 1361642 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Josephat Muraya''' ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio za masafa za kati wa [[Olimpiki]]. Aliwakilisha nchi yake katika mbio za mita 1500 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]]. Wakati wake ulikuwa 3:51.61 katika joto la kwanza.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050254/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mu/josephat-muraya-1.html Josephat Muraya at Sports Reference] Sports Reference</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1957]] m5p3g1bh9i2ldhmzgej6apljgd5vnbx 1361649 1361642 2024-11-08T01:39:58Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361649 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Josephat Muraya''' ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] wa mbio za masafa ya kati wa [[Olimpiki]]. Aliwakilisha nchi yake katika mbio za mita 1500 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]]. Wakati wake ulikuwa 3:51.61 katika joto la kwanza.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050254/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/mu/josephat-muraya-1.html Josephat Muraya at Sports Reference] Sports Reference</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1957]] mo7itc33endhyhn0hgkyjqw0t4fda8x 0 190038 1361643 2024-11-07T20:50:41Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Geoffrey Sila Kibet Boit''' ([[1934]] – [[14 Oktoba]] [[1980]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1956]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kibet Boit Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093801/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bo/kibet-boit-1.html}} </ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kibet Boit |url=https://www....' 1361643 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Geoffrey Sila Kibet Boit''' ([[1934]] – [[14 Oktoba]] [[1980]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1956]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kibet Boit Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093801/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bo/kibet-boit-1.html}} </ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kibet Boit |url=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/72743 |website=}}</ref> Boit alifariki tarehe 14 Oktoba 1980.<ref>{{cite web |title=Environment & Land Case E035 of 2023 |url=https://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/276633/ |website=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=In re Estate of Richard Kipchumba Boit |url=https://new.lesotholii.org/akn/ke/judgment/kehc/2024/1177/eng@2024-02-13 |website=}}</ref> ==References== == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} {{BD|1934|1980}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] 1vw5noa04pz2nyc9sx7xwgmq0nyfaal 1361648 1361643 2024-11-08T01:39:03Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361648 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Geoffrey Sila Kibet Boit''' ([[1934]] – [[14 Oktoba]] [[1980]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1956]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kibet Boit Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093801/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bo/kibet-boit-1.html}} </ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kibet Boit |url=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/72743 |website=}}</ref> Boit alifariki tarehe 14 Oktoba 1980.<ref>{{cite web |title=Environment & Land Case E035 of 2023 |url=https://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/276633/ |website=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=In re Estate of Richard Kipchumba Boit |url=https://new.lesotholii.org/akn/ke/judgment/kehc/2024/1177/eng@2024-02-13 |website=}}</ref> ==References== == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} {{BD|1934|1980}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] l6e24f9k8kmql71hsf52y8egutpaxce 1361720 1361648 2024-11-08T05:29:33Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1361720 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Geoffrey Sila Kibet Boit''' ([[1934]] – [[14 Oktoba]] [[1980]]) alikuwa [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1956]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kibet Boit Olympic Results |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bo/kibet-boit-1.html |accessdate=2024-11-07 |archive-date=2020-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093801/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bo/kibet-boit-1.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kibet Boit |url=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/72743 |website=}}</ref> Boit alifariki tarehe 14 Oktoba 1980.<ref>{{cite web |title=Environment & Land Case E035 of 2023 |url=https://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/276633/ |website=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=In re Estate of Richard Kipchumba Boit |url=https://new.lesotholii.org/akn/ke/judgment/kehc/2024/1177/eng@2024-02-13 |website=}}</ref> ==References== == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} {{BD|1934|1980}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] atunblmq9zgk3qanin537sjalofhgun 0 190039 1361644 2024-11-07T20:54:46Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Kamau Wanyoke''' (alizaliwa [[1924]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1956]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kamau Wanyoke Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418055640/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/wa/kamau-wanyoke-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} Jamii:...' 1361644 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kamau Wanyoke''' (alizaliwa [[1924]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1956]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kamau Wanyoke Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418055640/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/wa/kamau-wanyoke-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1924]] 3avdv9mc74c25v23rmtdy80av9xqeun 1361647 1361644 2024-11-08T01:38:39Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361647 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kamau Wanyoke''' (alizaliwa [[1924]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1956]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kamau Wanyoke Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418055640/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/wa/kamau-wanyoke-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1924]] 8lykwbepjjyfhtcneedmg7cqfyqj5c4 0 190040 1361645 2024-11-07T20:59:23Z Kimwali mmbaga 69489 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''James Atuti''' (alizaliwa [[19 Machi]] [[1954]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=James Atuti Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050254/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/at/james-atuti-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadh...' 1361645 wikitext text/x-wiki '''James Atuti''' (alizaliwa [[19 Machi]] [[1954]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=James Atuti Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050254/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/at/james-atuti-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} <references /> {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1954]] rygh0evr28dnt30at969zayk98lb7gq 1361646 1361645 2024-11-08T01:38:06Z Justine Msechu 45962 1361646 wikitext text/x-wiki '''James Atuti''' (alizaliwa [[19 Machi]] [[1954]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa zamani wa [[Kenya]] ambaye alishiriki katika mbio za mita 400 za wanaume katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[1984]].<ref>{{cite web |title=James Atuti Olympic Results |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418050254/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/at/james-atuti-1.html}} </ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanariadha-kenya}} [[Jamii:Wanariadha wa Kenya]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1954]] 7n5zoxnqq4kok7kuysgbwug6t2pcbge 0 190041 1361709 2024-11-08T04:18:25Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Ari Daniel Ne'eman''' (alizaliwa [[10 Desemba|Desemba 10]], [[1987]]) ni mtetezi mashuhuri wa haki za watu wenye ulemavu na mtafiti kutoka [[Marekani]], ambaye ni miongoni mwa waanzilishi wa ''Autistic Self Advocacy Network'' (ASAN) mwaka [[2006]]. ASAN ni shirika linalolenga kukuza haki za watu wenye usonji na utetezi wa watu wenye hali hiyo.<ref name="Kalb">{{cite news|title=Erasing Autism|last=Kalb|first=Claudia|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2009/05/15...' 1361709 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ari Daniel Ne'eman''' (alizaliwa [[10 Desemba|Desemba 10]], [[1987]]) ni mtetezi mashuhuri wa haki za watu wenye ulemavu na mtafiti kutoka [[Marekani]], ambaye ni miongoni mwa waanzilishi wa ''Autistic Self Advocacy Network'' (ASAN) mwaka [[2006]]. ASAN ni shirika linalolenga kukuza haki za watu wenye usonji na utetezi wa watu wenye hali hiyo.<ref name="Kalb">{{cite news|title=Erasing Autism|last=Kalb|first=Claudia|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2009/05/15/erasing-autism.html|newspaper=[[Newsweek]]|date=May 15, 2009|access-date=April 10, 2012}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist|2}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1987]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] i3k5a0wv3xphv97ag230u2ephqx3cdt 0 190042 1361710 2024-11-08T04:49:48Z Joeangatia 39839 Created by translating the page [[:mdwiki:Special:Redirect/revision/1415074|Terconazole]] to:sw #mdwikicx 1361710 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|Verifiedfields=changed|Watchedfields=changed|verifiedrevid=470602308|image=Terconazole structure.svg|width=300 <!-- Names -->|pronounce=|tradename=Terazol|synonyms=|IUPAC_name=1-[4-[ [(2''S'',4''S'')-2-(2,4-Dichlorophenyl)-2-(1,2,4-triazol-1-ylmethyl)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl]methoxy]phenyl]-4-propan-2-yl-piperazine <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Azole antifungal]]<ref name=AHFS2021/>|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|terconazole}}|MedlinePlus=a688022 <!-- Legal data -->|legal_status=<!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=94.9%|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=<!-- Chemical and physical data -->|C=26|Cl=2|H=31|N=5|O=3|SMILES=Clc1ccc(c(Cl)c1)[C@@]4(O[C@@H](COc3ccc(N2CCN(C(C)C)CC2)cc3)CO4)Cn5ncnc5|StdInChI=1S/C26H31Cl2N5O3/c1-19(2)31-9-11-32(12-10-31)21-4-6-22(7-5-21)34-14-23-15-35-26(36-23,16-33-18-29-17-30-33)24-8-3-20(27)13-25(24)28/h3-8,13,17-19,23H,9-12,14-16H2,1-2H3/t23-,26-/m0/s1|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChIKey=BLSQLHNBWJLIBQ-OZXSUGGESA-N|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}}} '''Terconazole''', inayouzwa kwa jina la chapa '''Terazol''' miongoni mwa zingine, ni dawa inayotumika kutibu maambukizi ya kuvu ukeni,<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}</ref> n ni matibabu ya mstari wa kwanza kwa matumizi haya.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Dawa hii inatumika ndani ya [[Kuma|uke]] kama losheni au au tembe ya kuweka ukeni.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na kuwasha, maumivu ya tumbo, na hedhi chungu.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html "Terconazole Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html Archived] from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha [[Mzio|athari za mzio]].<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Usalama wa matumizi yake katika ujauzito hauko wazi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Terconazole topical Use During Pregnancy|url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/terconazole-topical.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=25 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125083024/https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/terconazole-topical.html}}</ref> Dawa hii inafanya kazi kwa kuvuruga [[utando wa seli]] ya [[kuvu]] fulani.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Ina wigo mpana wa shughuli za kitiba.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Terconazole iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 1987<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html "Terconazole Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html Archived] from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> na inapatikana kama dawa ya kawaida.<ref name="GX2021" /> Nchini Marekani, bomba moja linagharimu takriban dola 20 za Kimarekani.<ref name="GX2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Prices, Coupons & Savings Tips - GoodRx|url=https://www.goodrx.com/terconazole|work=GoodRx|accessdate=29 September 2021|archivedate=10 October 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010082345/http://www.goodrx.com/terconazole}}</ref> == Marejeleo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] ha5k7prn6vs4dg5e0yffxuz3egybvxy 1361711 1361710 2024-11-08T04:51:43Z Joeangatia 39839 1361711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|Verifiedfields=changed|Watchedfields=changed|verifiedrevid=470602308|image=Terconazole structure.svg|width=300 <!-- Names -->|pronounce=|tradename=Terazol|synonyms=|IUPAC_name=1-[4-[ [(2''S'',4''S'')-2-(2,4-Dichlorophenyl)-2-(1,2,4-triazol-1-ylmethyl)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl]methoxy]phenyl]-4-propan-2-yl-piperazine <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Azole antifungal]]<ref name=AHFS2021/>|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|terconazole}}|MedlinePlus=a688022 <!-- Legal data -->|legal_status=<!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=94.9%|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=<!-- Chemical and physical data -->|C=26|Cl=2|H=31|N=5|O=3|SMILES=Clc1ccc(c(Cl)c1)[C@@]4(O[C@@H](COc3ccc(N2CCN(C(C)C)CC2)cc3)CO4)Cn5ncnc5|StdInChI=1S/C26H31Cl2N5O3/c1-19(2)31-9-11-32(12-10-31)21-4-6-22(7-5-21)34-14-23-15-35-26(36-23,16-33-18-29-17-30-33)24-8-3-20(27)13-25(24)28/h3-8,13,17-19,23H,9-12,14-16H2,1-2H3/t23-,26-/m0/s1|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChIKey=BLSQLHNBWJLIBQ-OZXSUGGESA-N|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}}} '''Terconazole''', inayouzwa kwa jina la chapa '''Terazol''' miongoni mwa zingine, ni dawa inayotumika kutibu maambukizi ya kuvu ukeni,<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}</ref> na ni matibabu ya mstari wa kwanza kwa matumizi haya.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Dawa hii inatumika ndani ya [[Kuma|uke]] kama losheni au au tembe ya kuweka ukeni.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na kuwasha, maumivu ya tumbo, na hedhi chungu.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html "Terconazole Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html Archived] from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha [[Mzio|athari za mzio]].<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Usalama wa matumizi yake katika ujauzito hauko wazi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Terconazole topical Use During Pregnancy|url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/terconazole-topical.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=25 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125083024/https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/terconazole-topical.html}}</ref> Dawa hii inafanya kazi kwa kuvuruga [[utando wa seli]] ya [[kuvu]] fulani.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Ina wigo mpana wa shughuli za kitiba.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Terconazole iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 1987<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html "Terconazole Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html Archived] from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> na inapatikana kama dawa ya kawaida.<ref name="GX2021" /> Nchini Marekani, bomba moja linagharimu takriban dola 20 za Kimarekani.<ref name="GX2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Prices, Coupons & Savings Tips - GoodRx|url=https://www.goodrx.com/terconazole|work=GoodRx|accessdate=29 September 2021|archivedate=10 October 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010082345/http://www.goodrx.com/terconazole}}</ref> == Marejeleo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] n7ww6w5srwk3fbvn7vabzicsilofza2 1361712 1361711 2024-11-08T04:55:23Z Joeangatia 39839 1361712 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|Verifiedfields=changed|Watchedfields=changed|verifiedrevid=470602308|image=Terconazole structure.svg|width=300 <!-- Names -->|pronounce=|tradename=Terazol|synonyms=|IUPAC_name=1-[4-[ [(2''S'',4''S'')-2-(2,4-Dichlorophenyl)-2-(1,2,4-triazol-1-ylmethyl)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl]methoxy]phenyl]-4-propan-2-yl-piperazine <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Azole antifungal]]<ref name=AHFS2021/>|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|terconazole}}|MedlinePlus=a688022 <!-- Legal data -->|legal_status=<!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=94.9%|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=<!-- Chemical and physical data -->|C=26|Cl=2|H=31|N=5|O=3|SMILES=Clc1ccc(c(Cl)c1)[C@@]4(O[C@@H](COc3ccc(N2CCN(C(C)C)CC2)cc3)CO4)Cn5ncnc5|StdInChI=1S/C26H31Cl2N5O3/c1-19(2)31-9-11-32(12-10-31)21-4-6-22(7-5-21)34-14-23-15-35-26(36-23,16-33-18-29-17-30-33)24-8-3-20(27)13-25(24)28/h3-8,13,17-19,23H,9-12,14-16H2,1-2H3/t23-,26-/m0/s1|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChIKey=BLSQLHNBWJLIBQ-OZXSUGGESA-N|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}}} '''Terconazole''', inayouzwa kwa jina la chapa '''Terazol''' miongoni mwa zingine, ni dawa inayotumika kutibu maambukizi ya kuvu ukeni,<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}</ref> na ni matibabu ya mstari wa kwanza kwa matumizi haya.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Dawa hii inatumika ndani ya [[Kuma|uke]] kama losheni au tembe ya kuweka ukeni.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na kuwasha, maumivu ya tumbo, na hedhi chungu.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html "Terconazole Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html Archived] from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha [[Mzio|athari za mzio]].<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Usalama wa matumizi yake katika ujauzito hauko wazi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Terconazole topical Use During Pregnancy|url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/terconazole-topical.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=25 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125083024/https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/terconazole-topical.html}}</ref> Dawa hii inafanya kazi kwa kuvuruga [[utando wa seli]] ya [[kuvu]] fulani.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Ina wigo mpana wa shughuli za kitiba.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Terconazole iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 1987<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html "Terconazole Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html Archived] from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> na inapatikana kama dawa ya kawaida.<ref name="GX2021" /> Nchini Marekani, bomba moja linagharimu takriban dola 20 za Kimarekani.<ref name="GX2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Prices, Coupons & Savings Tips - GoodRx|url=https://www.goodrx.com/terconazole|work=GoodRx|accessdate=29 September 2021|archivedate=10 October 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010082345/http://www.goodrx.com/terconazole}}</ref> == Marejeleo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] tov07licd8zrf16mnxsrrr97nf0xnbb 1361713 1361712 2024-11-08T05:01:47Z Joeangatia 39839 1361713 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|Verifiedfields=changed|Watchedfields=changed|verifiedrevid=470602308|image=Terconazole structure.svg|width=300 <!-- Names -->|pronounce=|tradename=Terazol|synonyms=|IUPAC_name=1-[4-[ [(2''S'',4''S'')-2-(2,4-Dichlorophenyl)-2-(1,2,4-triazol-1-ylmethyl)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl]methoxy]phenyl]-4-propan-2-yl-piperazine <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Azole antifungal]]<ref name=AHFS2021/>|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|terconazole}}|MedlinePlus=a688022 <!-- Legal data -->|legal_status=<!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=94.9%|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=<!-- Chemical and physical data -->|C=26|Cl=2|H=31|N=5|O=3|SMILES=Clc1ccc(c(Cl)c1)[C@@]4(O[C@@H](COc3ccc(N2CCN(C(C)C)CC2)cc3)CO4)Cn5ncnc5|StdInChI=1S/C26H31Cl2N5O3/c1-19(2)31-9-11-32(12-10-31)21-4-6-22(7-5-21)34-14-23-15-35-26(36-23,16-33-18-29-17-30-33)24-8-3-20(27)13-25(24)28/h3-8,13,17-19,23H,9-12,14-16H2,1-2H3/t23-,26-/m0/s1|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChIKey=BLSQLHNBWJLIBQ-OZXSUGGESA-N|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}}} '''Terconazole''', inayouzwa kwa jina la chapa '''Terazol''' miongoni mwa zingine, ni dawa inayotumika kutibu maambukizi ya kuvu ukeni,<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}</ref> na ni matibabu ya mstari wa kwanza kwa matumizi haya.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Dawa hii inatumika ndani ya [[Kuma|uke]] kama losheni au tembe ya kuweka ukeni.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na kuwasha, maumivu ya tumbo na hedhi chungu.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html "Terconazole Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html Archived] from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha [[Mzio|athari za mzio]].<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Usalama wa matumizi yake katika ujauzito hauko wazi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Terconazole topical Use During Pregnancy|url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/terconazole-topical.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=25 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125083024/https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/terconazole-topical.html}}</ref> Dawa hii inafanya kazi kwa kuvuruga [[utando wa seli]] ya [[kuvu]] fulani.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Ina wigo mpana wa shughuli za kitiba.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Terconazole iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 1987<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=29 September 2021|language=en|archivedate=23 January 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html "Terconazole Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123054036/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/terconazole.html Archived] from the original on 23 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> na inapatikana kama dawa ya kawaida.<ref name="GX2021" /> Nchini Marekani, bomba moja linagharimu takriban dola 20 za Kimarekani.<ref name="GX2021">{{Cite web|title=Terconazole Prices, Coupons & Savings Tips - GoodRx|url=https://www.goodrx.com/terconazole|work=GoodRx|accessdate=29 September 2021|archivedate=10 October 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010082345/http://www.goodrx.com/terconazole}}</ref> == Marejeleo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] gvi7ypli1m1y9r10mdhr6cohjyh2008 0 190044 1361715 2024-11-08T05:14:44Z Joeangatia 39839 Created by translating the page [[:mdwiki:Special:Redirect/revision/1414583|Ibrexafungerp]] to:sw #mdwikicx 1361715 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|drug_name=|INN=|image=Ibrexafungerp.svg|width=|alt=|caption=|type=<!-- empty --> <!-- Names -->|pronounce={{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˌ|b|r|ɛ|k|s|ə|ˈ|f|ʌ|n|dʒ|ɜːr|p}}<br />{{respell|eye|BREKS|ə|FUN|jurp}}|tradename=Brexafemme|synonyms=SCY-078|IUPAC_name=(1''R'',5''S'',6''R'',7''R'',10''R'',11''R'',14''R'',15''S'',20''R'',21''R'')-21-[(2''R'')-2-amino-2,3,3-trimethylbutoxy]-5,7,10,15-tetramethyl-7-[(2''R'')-3-methylbutan-2-yl]-20-(5-pyridin-4-yl-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-17-oxapentacyclo[13.3.3.01,14.02,11.05,10]henicos-2-ene-6-carboxylic acid <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Antifungal]]|pregnancy_AU=<!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X -->|pregnancy_AU_comment=|pregnancy_category=Haipendekezwi<ref name=PI2022 />|routes_of_administration=[[oral administration|kwa njia ya mdomo]], [[kupitia mshipa]]|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{Drugs.com|monograph|ibrexafungerp}}|MedlinePlus=<!-- Legal data -->|legal_AU=<!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled -->|legal_AU_comment=|legal_BR=<!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F -->|legal_BR_comment=|legal_CA=<!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII -->|legal_CA_comment=|legal_DE=<!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled -->|legal_DE_comment=|legal_EU=|legal_EU_comment=|legal_NZ=<!-- Class A, B, C -->|legal_NZ_comment=|legal_UN=<!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV -->|legal_UN_comment=|legal_UK=<!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C -->|legal_UK_comment=|legal_US=Rx-peke yake|legal_US_comment=<ref name=PI2022/>|legal_status=<!-- For countries not listed above -->|DailyMedID=Ibrexafungerp|licence_US=<!-- FDA may use generic or brand name (generic name preferred) -->|licence_EU=<!-- EMA uses INN (or special INN_EMA) --> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=>99%<ref name=PI2022 />|metabolism=[[Hidroksilishaji]] ([[CYP3A4]]) kisha [[conjugation (biochemistry)|muunganiko]] ([[glukuronidishaji]], [[sulfatishaji]])<ref name=PI2022 />|metabolites=|elimination_half-life=Masaa 20 <ref name=PI2022 />|excretion=<!-- Chemical and physical data -->|C=44|H=67|N=5|O=4|SMILES=CC(C)[C@@H](C)[C@@]1(C)CC[C@]2(C)[C@H]3CC[C@H]4[C@@]5(C)COC[C@@]4(C[C@@H](n4ncnc4-c4ccncc4)[C@@H]5OC[C@](C)(N)C(C)(C)C)C3=CC[C@@]2(C)[C@@H]1C(=O)O|StdInChI=1S/C44H67N5O4/c1-27(2)28(3)39(7)18-19-41(9)30-12-13-33-40(8)23-52-25-44(33,31(30)14-17-42(41,10)34(39)37(50)51)22-32(35(40)53-24-43(11,45)38(4,5)6)49-36(47-26-48-49)29-15-20-46-21-16-29/h14-16,20-21,26-28,30,32-35H,12-13,17-19,22-25,45H2,1-11H3,(H,50,51)/t28-,30+,32-,33+,34-,35+,39-,40-,41-,42+,43+,44+/m1/s1|StdInChI_comment=|StdInChIKey=BODYFEUFKHPRCK-ZCZMVWJSSA-N|density=|density_notes=|melting_point=|melting_high=|melting_notes=|boiling_point=|boiling_notes=|solubility=|sol_units=|specific_rotation=|index2_label=as citrate}} '''Ibrexafungerp''', inayouzwa chini ya jina la chapa '''Brexafemme''', ni dawa ya kuzuia ukungu inayotumika kutibu maambukizi ya kuvu ukeni.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}</ref> Inaweza kutumika kwa wanawake baada ya kuanza kwa [[hedhi]],<ref name="PI2022" /> na inachukuliwa kwa mdomo.<ref name="PI2022" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na [[kuhara]], kichefuchefu, maumivu ya tumbo na kizunguzungu.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb "Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated"]. ''DailyMed''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb Archived] from the original on 12 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Matumizi yake wakati wa ujauzito yanaweza kumdhuru mtoto.<ref name="PI2022" /> Hii ni dawa ya kuua fangasi ya aina ya triterpenoid, na hufanya kazi kwa kuzuia glucan synthase, ambayo huzuia uundaji wa ukuta wa seli ya ukungu.<ref name="PI2022" /> Ibrexafungerp iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2021.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb "Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated"]. ''DailyMed''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb Archived] from the original on 12 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Dawa hii haikuwa imeidhinishwa barani Ulaya au Uingereza kufikia mwaka wa 2022.<ref name="SPS2022">{{Cite web|title=Ibrexafungerp|url=https://www.sps.nhs.uk/medicines/ibrexafungerp/|work=SPS - Specialist Pharmacy Service|accessdate=29 October 2022|date=2 August 2018|archivedate=8 December 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208122027/https://www.sps.nhs.uk/medicines/ibrexafungerp/}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, kozi ya kimatibabu iligharimu takriban dola 500 kufikia mwaka wa 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibrexafungerp|url=https://www.goodrx.com/ibrexafungerp|accessdate=29 October 2022|archivedate=29 October 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221029103403/https://www.goodrx.com/ibrexafungerp}}</ref> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] ddp8hyc5nzrhqdmue8hvpj3hekhdofk 1361718 1361715 2024-11-08T05:20:55Z Joeangatia 39839 1361718 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox | drug_name = | INN = | image = Ibrexafungerp.svg | width = | alt = | caption = | type = <!-- empty --> <!-- Names -->| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˌ|b|r|ɛ|k|s|ə|ˈ|f|ʌ|n|dʒ|ɜːr|p}}<br />{{respell|eye|BREKS|ə|FUN|jurp}} | tradename = Brexafemme | synonyms = SCY-078 | IUPAC_name = (1''R'',5''S'',6''R'',7''R'',10''R'',11''R'',14''R'',15''S'',20''R'',21''R'')-21-[(2''R'')-2-amino-2,3,3-trimethylbutoxy]-5,7,10,15-tetramethyl-7-[(2''R'')-3-methylbutan-2-yl]-20-(5-pyridin-4-yl-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-17-oxapentacyclo[13.3.3.01,14.02,11.05,10]henicos-2-ene-6-carboxylic acid <!-- Clinical data -->| class = [[Antifungal]] | pregnancy_AU = <!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X --> | pregnancy_AU_comment = | pregnancy_category = Haipendekezwi<ref name=PI2022 /> | routes_of_administration = [[oral administration|Kwa njia ya mdomo]], [[kupitia mshipa]] | onset = | duration_of_action = | Drugs.com = {{Drugs.com|monograph|ibrexafungerp}} | MedlinePlus = <!-- Legal data --> | legal_AU = <!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled --> | legal_AU_comment = | legal_BR = <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F --> | legal_BR_comment = | legal_CA = <!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII --> | legal_CA_comment = | legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled --> | legal_DE_comment = | legal_EU = | legal_EU_comment = | legal_NZ = <!-- Class A, B, C --> | legal_NZ_comment = | legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV --> | legal_UN_comment = | legal_UK = <!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C --> | legal_UK_comment = | legal_US = Rx-peke yake | legal_US_comment = <ref name=PI2022/> | legal_status = <!-- For countries not listed above --> | DailyMedID = Ibrexafungerp | licence_US = <!-- FDA may use generic or brand name (generic name preferred) --> | licence_EU = <!-- EMA uses INN (or special INN_EMA) --> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->| bioavailability = | protein_bound = >99%<ref name=PI2022 /> | metabolism = [[Hidroksilishaji]] ([[CYP3A4]]) kisha [[conjugation (biochemistry)|muunganiko]] ([[glukuronidishaji]], [[sulfatishaji]])<ref name=PI2022 /> | metabolites = | elimination_half-life = Masaa ishirini <ref name=PI2022 /> | excretion = <!-- Chemical and physical data --> | C = 44 | H = 67 | N = 5 | O = 4 | SMILES = CC(C)[C@@H](C)[C@@]1(C)CC[C@]2(C)[C@H]3CC[C@H]4[C@@]5(C)COC[C@@]4(C[C@@H](n4ncnc4-c4ccncc4)[C@@H]5OC[C@](C)(N)C(C)(C)C)C3=CC[C@@]2(C)[C@@H]1C(=O)O | StdInChI = 1S/C44H67N5O4/c1-27(2)28(3)39(7)18-19-41(9)30-12-13-33-40(8)23-52-25-44(33,31(30)14-17-42(41,10)34(39)37(50)51)22-32(35(40)53-24-43(11,45)38(4,5)6)49-36(47-26-48-49)29-15-20-46-21-16-29/h14-16,20-21,26-28,30,32-35H,12-13,17-19,22-25,45H2,1-11H3,(H,50,51)/t28-,30+,32-,33+,34-,35+,39-,40-,41-,42+,43+,44+/m1/s1 | StdInChI_comment = | StdInChIKey = BODYFEUFKHPRCK-ZCZMVWJSSA-N | density = | density_notes = | melting_point = | melting_high = | melting_notes = | boiling_point = | boiling_notes = | solubility = | sol_units = | specific_rotation = | index2_label = as citrate }} '''Ibrexafungerp''', inayouzwa chini ya jina la chapa '''Brexafemme''', ni dawa ya kuzuia ukungu inayotumika kutibu maambukizi ya kuvu ukeni.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}</ref> Inaweza kutumika kwa wanawake baada ya kuanza kwa [[hedhi]],<ref name="PI2022" /> na inachukuliwa kwa mdomo.<ref name="PI2022" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na [[kuhara]], kichefuchefu, maumivu ya tumbo na kizunguzungu.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb "Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated"]. ''DailyMed''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb Archived] from the original on 12 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Matumizi yake wakati wa ujauzito yanaweza kumdhuru mtoto.<ref name="PI2022" /> Hii ni dawa ya kuua fangasi ya aina ya triterpenoid, na hufanya kazi kwa kuzuia glucan synthase, ambayo huzuia uundaji wa ukuta wa seli ya ukungu.<ref name="PI2022" /> Ibrexafungerp iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2021.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb "Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated"]. ''DailyMed''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb Archived] from the original on 12 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Dawa hii haikuwa imeidhinishwa barani Ulaya au Uingereza kufikia mwaka wa 2022.<ref name="SPS2022">{{Cite web|title=Ibrexafungerp|url=https://www.sps.nhs.uk/medicines/ibrexafungerp/|work=SPS - Specialist Pharmacy Service|accessdate=29 October 2022|date=2 August 2018|archivedate=8 December 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208122027/https://www.sps.nhs.uk/medicines/ibrexafungerp/}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, kozi ya kimatibabu iligharimu takriban dola 500 kufikia mwaka wa 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibrexafungerp|url=https://www.goodrx.com/ibrexafungerp|accessdate=29 October 2022|archivedate=29 October 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221029103403/https://www.goodrx.com/ibrexafungerp}}</ref> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] 02raouzjboxh3nrtaiafm5rqwlp36rt 1361782 1361718 2024-11-08T10:59:39Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361782 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox | drug_name = | INN = | image = Ibrexafungerp.svg | width = | alt = | caption = | type = <!-- empty --> <!-- Names -->| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˌ|b|r|ɛ|k|s|ə|ˈ|f|ʌ|n|dʒ|ɜːr|p}}<br />{{respell|eye|BREKS|ə|FUN|jurp}} | tradename = Brexafemme | synonyms = SCY-078 | IUPAC_name = (1''R'',5''S'',6''R'',7''R'',10''R'',11''R'',14''R'',15''S'',20''R'',21''R'')-21-[(2''R'')-2-amino-2,3,3-trimethylbutoxy]-5,7,10,15-tetramethyl-7-[(2''R'')-3-methylbutan-2-yl]-20-(5-pyridin-4-yl-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-17-oxapentacyclo[13.3.3.01,14.02,11.05,10]henicos-2-ene-6-carboxylic acid <!-- Clinical data -->| class = [[Antifungal]] | pregnancy_AU = <!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X --> | pregnancy_AU_comment = | pregnancy_category = Haipendekezwi<ref name=PI2022 /> | routes_of_administration = [[oral administration|Kwa njia ya mdomo]], [[kupitia mshipa]] | onset = | duration_of_action = | Drugs.com = {{Drugs.com|monograph|ibrexafungerp}} | MedlinePlus = <!-- Legal data --> | legal_AU = <!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled --> | legal_AU_comment = | legal_BR = <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F --> | legal_BR_comment = | legal_CA = <!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII --> | legal_CA_comment = | legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled --> | legal_DE_comment = | legal_EU = | legal_EU_comment = | legal_NZ = <!-- Class A, B, C --> | legal_NZ_comment = | legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV --> | legal_UN_comment = | legal_UK = <!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C --> | legal_UK_comment = | legal_US = Rx-peke yake | legal_US_comment = <ref name=PI2022/> | legal_status = <!-- For countries not listed above --> | DailyMedID = Ibrexafungerp | licence_US = <!-- FDA may use generic or brand name (generic name preferred) --> | licence_EU = <!-- EMA uses INN (or special INN_EMA) --> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->| bioavailability = | protein_bound = >99%<ref name=PI2022 /> | metabolism = [[Hidroksilishaji]] ([[CYP3A4]]) kisha [[conjugation (biochemistry)|muunganiko]] ([[glukuronidishaji]], [[sulfatishaji]])<ref name=PI2022 /> | metabolites = | elimination_half-life = Masaa ishirini <ref name=PI2022 /> | excretion = <!-- Chemical and physical data --> | C = 44 | H = 67 | N = 5 | O = 4 | SMILES = CC(C)[C@@H](C)[C@@]1(C)CC[C@]2(C)[C@H]3CC[C@H]4[C@@]5(C)COC[C@@]4(C[C@@H](n4ncnc4-c4ccncc4)[C@@H]5OC[C@](C)(N)C(C)(C)C)C3=CC[C@@]2(C)[C@@H]1C(=O)O | StdInChI = 1S/C44H67N5O4/c1-27(2)28(3)39(7)18-19-41(9)30-12-13-33-40(8)23-52-25-44(33,31(30)14-17-42(41,10)34(39)37(50)51)22-32(35(40)53-24-43(11,45)38(4,5)6)49-36(47-26-48-49)29-15-20-46-21-16-29/h14-16,20-21,26-28,30,32-35H,12-13,17-19,22-25,45H2,1-11H3,(H,50,51)/t28-,30+,32-,33+,34-,35+,39-,40-,41-,42+,43+,44+/m1/s1 | StdInChI_comment = | StdInChIKey = BODYFEUFKHPRCK-ZCZMVWJSSA-N | density = | density_notes = | melting_point = | melting_high = | melting_notes = | boiling_point = | boiling_notes = | solubility = | sol_units = | specific_rotation = | index2_label = as citrate }} '''Ibrexafungerp''', inayouzwa kwa jina la chapa '''Brexafemme''', ni dawa ya kuzuia ukungu inayotumika kutibu maambukizi ya kuvu ukeni.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}</ref> Inaweza kutumika kwa wanawake baada ya kuanza kwa [[hedhi]],<ref name="PI2022" /> na inachukuliwa kwa mdomo.<ref name="PI2022" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na [[kuhara]], kichefuchefu, maumivu ya tumbo na kizunguzungu.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb "Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated"]. ''DailyMed''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb Archived] from the original on 12 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Matumizi yake wakati wa ujauzito yanaweza kumdhuru mtoto.<ref name="PI2022" /> Hii ni dawa ya kuua fangasi ya aina ya triterpenoid, na hufanya kazi kwa kuzuia glucan synthase, ambayo huzuia uundaji wa ukuta wa seli ya ukungu.<ref name="PI2022" /> Ibrexafungerp iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2021.<ref name="PI2022">{{Cite web|title=Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated|work=DailyMed|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb|accessdate=12 September 2021|archivedate=12 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb "Brexafemme- ibrexafungerp tablet, film coated"]. ''DailyMed''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210912224908/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=c33be3a1-c4fd-512c-e053-2995a90a63eb Archived] from the original on 12 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Dawa hii haikuwa imeidhinishwa barani Ulaya au Uingereza kufikia mwaka wa 2022.<ref name="SPS2022">{{Cite web|title=Ibrexafungerp|url=https://www.sps.nhs.uk/medicines/ibrexafungerp/|work=SPS - Specialist Pharmacy Service|accessdate=29 October 2022|date=2 August 2018|archivedate=8 December 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208122027/https://www.sps.nhs.uk/medicines/ibrexafungerp/}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, kozi ya kimatibabu iligharimu takriban dola 500 kufikia mwaka wa 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibrexafungerp|url=https://www.goodrx.com/ibrexafungerp|accessdate=29 October 2022|archivedate=29 October 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221029103403/https://www.goodrx.com/ibrexafungerp}}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] lsllgublqwj3qv7lbfrafztts27p5je 0 190045 1361721 2024-11-08T05:37:41Z Joeangatia 39839 Created by translating the page [[:mdwiki:Special:Redirect/revision/1433138|Letermovir]] to:sw #mdwikicx 1361721 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|image=Letermovir skeletal.svg|alt=|caption=<!-- Names -->|pronounce=|tradename=Prevymis|synonyms=AIC246; MK-8228|IUPAC_name={(4''S'')-8-Fluoro-2-[4-(3-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]-3-[2-methoxy-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-3,4-dihydro-4-quinazolinyl}acetic acid <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Antiviral drug|Antiviral]]|pregnancy_AU=B3|pregnancy_US=N|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=[[Oral administration|Kwa mdomo]], [[kwa mishipa]]|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|letermovir}}|MedlinePlus=a618006 <!-- Legal data -->|legal_AU=S4|legal_CA=<!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII -->|legal_EU=Rx-peke yake|legal_UK=<!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM -->|legal_US=Rx-peke yake|legal_status=|DailyMedID=Letermovir <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=37% (takriban)|protein_bound=98.2%|metabolism=[[Glukuronidishaji]] ([[UDP glucuronosyltransferase 1 family, polypeptide A1|UGT1A1]]/[[UGT1A3|1A3]]) kwa kiwango kidogo|elimination_half-life=Masaa kumi na mbili|excretion=93.3% kupitia kinyesi, <2% kupitia figo <!-- Chemical and physical data -->|C=29|F=4|H=28|N=4|O=4|SMILES=COC1=C(C=C(C=C1)C(F)(F)F)N2[C@H](C3=C(C(=CC=C3)F)N=C2N4CCN(CC4)C5=CC(=CC=C5)OC)CC(=O)O|StdInChI=1S/C29H28F4N4O4/c1-40-20-6-3-5-19(16-20)35-11-13-36(14-12-35)28-34-27-21(7-4-8-22(27)30)23(17-26(38)39)37(28)24-15-18(29(31,32)33)9-10-25(24)41-2/h3-10,15-16,23H,11-14,17H2,1-2H3,(H,38,39)/t23-/m0/s1|StdInChIKey=FWYSMLBETOMXAG-QHCPKHFHSA-N}} '''Letermovir''', inayouzwa chini ya jina la chapa '''Prevymis''', ni dawa ya kuzuia virusi inayotumika kuzuia uanzishaji upya wa cytomegalovirus (CMV) kufuatia upandikizaji wa seli za shina za alojeni.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=679}}</ref> Inatumika kwa wale ambao wamepatikana na kingamwili inayoonyesha wameambukizwa na CMV.<ref name="BNF81" /> Dawa hii inaweza kuchukuliwa kwa mdomo au sindano kwenye mshipa.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Letermovir Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=21 November 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html}}</ref> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na kichefuchefu, kuhara na kutapika.<ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Prevymis|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis|accessdate=21 November 2021|archivedate=12 July 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712181224/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis}}</ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha uvimbe, kikohozi, maumivu ya kichwa na uchovu.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Letermovir Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=21 November 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html "Letermovir Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html Archived] from the original on 22 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Dawa hii ni kizuizi cha mchanganyiko wa DNA terminase ya virusi vya cytomegalovirus.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=679}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">''BNF 81: March-September 2021''. BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press. 2021. p.&nbsp;679. [[Namba sanifu ya kimataifa ya vitabu|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0857114105|<bdi>978-0857114105</bdi>]].</cite></ref> Letermovir iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2017 na Ulaya mwaka wa 2018.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Letermovir Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=21 November 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html "Letermovir Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html Archived] from the original on 22 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Prevymis|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis|accessdate=21 November 2021|archivedate=12 July 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712181224/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis "Prevymis"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210712181224/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis Archived] from the original on 12 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Nchini Uingereza, iligharimu Huduma ya Afya ya Kitaifa (NHS) takriban £7,500 kwa wiki nne kufikia mwaka wa 2021.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=679}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">''BNF 81: March-September 2021''. BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press. 2021. p.&nbsp;679. [[Namba sanifu ya kimataifa ya vitabu|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0857114105|<bdi>978-0857114105</bdi>]].</cite></ref> Kiasi hiki nchini Marekani ni takriban dola 6,200 za Marekani.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prevymis Prices, Coupons & Savings Tips - GoodRx|url=https://www.goodrx.com/prevymis|work=GoodRx|accessdate=21 November 2021|archivedate=2 May 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502064638/https://www.goodrx.com/prevymis}}</ref> == Marejeleo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] eysvpxjidq5iyzhvrrvicqo384k92h1 1361783 1361721 2024-11-08T11:03:05Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|image=Letermovir skeletal.svg|alt=|caption=<!-- Names -->|pronounce=|tradename=Prevymis|synonyms=AIC246; MK-8228|IUPAC_name={(4''S'')-8-Fluoro-2-[4-(3-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]-3-[2-methoxy-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-3,4-dihydro-4-quinazolinyl}acetic acid <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Antiviral drug|Antiviral]]|pregnancy_AU=B3|pregnancy_US=N|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=[[Oral administration|Kwa mdomo]], [[kwa mishipa]]|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|letermovir}}|MedlinePlus=a618006 <!-- Legal data -->|legal_AU=S4|legal_CA=<!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII -->|legal_EU=Rx-peke yake|legal_UK=<!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM -->|legal_US=Rx-peke yake|legal_status=|DailyMedID=Letermovir <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=37% (takriban)|protein_bound=98.2%|metabolism=[[Glukuronidishaji]] ([[UDP glucuronosyltransferase 1 family, polypeptide A1|UGT1A1]]/[[UGT1A3|1A3]]) kwa kiwango kidogo|elimination_half-life=Masaa kumi na mbili|excretion=93.3% kupitia kinyesi, <2% kupitia figo <!-- Chemical and physical data -->|C=29|F=4|H=28|N=4|O=4|SMILES=COC1=C(C=C(C=C1)C(F)(F)F)N2[C@H](C3=C(C(=CC=C3)F)N=C2N4CCN(CC4)C5=CC(=CC=C5)OC)CC(=O)O|StdInChI=1S/C29H28F4N4O4/c1-40-20-6-3-5-19(16-20)35-11-13-36(14-12-35)28-34-27-21(7-4-8-22(27)30)23(17-26(38)39)37(28)24-15-18(29(31,32)33)9-10-25(24)41-2/h3-10,15-16,23H,11-14,17H2,1-2H3,(H,38,39)/t23-/m0/s1|StdInChIKey=FWYSMLBETOMXAG-QHCPKHFHSA-N}} '''Letermovir''', inayouzwa kwa jina la chapa '''Prevymis''', ni dawa ya kuzuia [[virusi]] inayotumika kuzuia uanzishaji upya wa cytomegalovirus (CMV) kufuatia upandikizaji wa seli za shina za alojeni.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=679}}</ref> Inatumika kwa wale ambao wamepatikana na kingamwili inayoonyesha wameambukizwa na CMV.<ref name="BNF81" /> Dawa hii inaweza kuchukuliwa kwa mdomo au sindano kwenye mshipa.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Letermovir Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=21 November 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html}}</ref> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na kichefuchefu, kuhara na kutapika.<ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Prevymis|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis|accessdate=21 November 2021|archivedate=12 July 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712181224/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis}}</ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha uvimbe, kikohozi, maumivu ya kichwa na uchovu.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Letermovir Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=21 November 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html "Letermovir Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html Archived] from the original on 22 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Dawa hii ni kizuizi cha mchanganyiko wa DNA terminase ya virusi vya cytomegalovirus.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=679}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">''BNF 81: March-September 2021''. BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press. 2021. p.&nbsp;679. [[Namba sanifu ya kimataifa ya vitabu|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0857114105|<bdi>978-0857114105</bdi>]].</cite></ref> Letermovir iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2017 na Ulaya mwaka wa 2018.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Letermovir Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=21 November 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html "Letermovir Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191810/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/letermovir.html Archived] from the original on 22 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Prevymis|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis|accessdate=21 November 2021|archivedate=12 July 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712181224/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis "Prevymis"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210712181224/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/prevymis Archived] from the original on 12 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Nchini Uingereza, iligharimu Huduma ya Afya ya Kitaifa (NHS) takriban £7,500 kwa wiki nne kufikia mwaka wa 2021.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=679}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">''BNF 81: March-September 2021''. BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press. 2021. p.&nbsp;679. [[Namba sanifu ya kimataifa ya vitabu|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0857114105|<bdi>978-0857114105</bdi>]].</cite></ref> Kiasi hiki nchini Marekani ni takriban dola 6,200 za Marekani.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prevymis Prices, Coupons & Savings Tips - GoodRx|url=https://www.goodrx.com/prevymis|work=GoodRx|accessdate=21 November 2021|archivedate=2 May 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502064638/https://www.goodrx.com/prevymis}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] 4c3vnuo82mioqefs09189kw61b0xrce 0 190046 1361722 2024-11-08T05:54:38Z Joeangatia 39839 Created by translating the page [[:mdwiki:Special:Redirect/revision/1410662|Pegaptanib]] to:sw #mdwikicx 1361722 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|Watchedfields=changed|verifiedrevid=464197562|drug_name=Pegaptanib sodium|image=Pegaptanib sodium skeletal.svg|width=300px <!-- Names -->|pronounce=|tradename=Macugen|synonyms=|IUPAC_name=RNA, ((2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-G_m-G_m-A-A-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-A_m-G_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-G_m-A_m-A_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-G_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-(2'-deoxy-2'fluoro)U-A_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-A_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-A_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-(2'deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-G_m-(3'→3')-dT), 5'-ester with α,α'-[4,12-dioxo-6<nowiki>[[</nowiki>[5-(phosphoonoxy)pentyl]amino]carbonyl]-3,13-dioxa-5,11-diaza-1,15-pentadecanediyl]bis[ω-methoxypoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl)], sodium salt<ref>Drug Information: [http://www.druginformation.com/RxDrugs/P/Pegaptanib%20Sodium%20Injection.html Pegaptanib Sodium Injection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214103351/http://www.druginformation.com/RxDrugs/P/Pegaptanib%20Sodium%20Injection.html |date=2013-12-14 }}</ref> <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF) inhibitor<ref name=AHFS2021/>|pregnancy_US=B|routes_of_administration=Sindano ya ndani ya [[vitreous (substansi inayofanana na geli ndani ya jicho)]]|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|macugen}}|MedlinePlus=a607057 <!-- Legal data -->|legal_US=Rx-peke yake <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=Siku kumi|excretion=<!-- Chemical and physical data -->|chemical_formula=C₂₉₄H₃₄₂F₁₃N₁₀₇Na₂₈O₁₈₈P₂₈[C₂H₄O]_(m+n) (m+n≈900)|molecular_weight=~50 kg/mol}} '''Pegaptanib''', inayouzwa chini ya jina la chapa '''Macugen''', ni dawa iliyotumika kutibu ugonjwa wa kuzorota kwa sehemu ya kati ya retina unaohusiana na umri na unaosababisha unyevunyevu (AMD).<ref name="EMA2010">{{Cite journal|title=Macugen (pegaptanib)|journal=European Medicines Agency|year=2010|pages=1–3|url=http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Summary_for_the_public/human/000620/WC500026216.pdf|access-date=2013-12-08|archive-date=2013-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213072603/http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Summary_for_the_public/human/000620/WC500026216.pdf}}</ref> Ilitumiwa kwa kudunga sindano kwenye jicho.<ref name="EMA2010" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na kutoona vizuri, [[Mtoto wa jicho|ukungu kwenye lenzi ya jicho, ambayo inaweza kusababisha upungufu wa kuona (ugonjwa wa mtoto wa jicho)]], kuvuja damu kwenye utando wa jicho, maumivu ya macho na kuongezeka kwa shinikizo la ndani ya jicho.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha shambulio la mzio mkali ([[Mmenyuko wa mzio|anaphylaxis)]] na maambukizi ya ndani ya jicho (endophthalmitis).<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Dawa hii inafanya kazi kwa kuzuia sababu ya ukuaji wa mishipa ya endothelial (VEGF).<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Pegaptanib Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/pegaptanib.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=26 October 2021|language=en|archivedate=3 June 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603055733/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/pegaptanib.html}}</ref> Pegaptanib iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya matibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2004.<ref name="PI2021">{{Cite web|title=MACUGEN- pegaptanib sodium injection, solution|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=45d03177-5d52-492c-b2e0-01afc7c8d2e0#nlm43685-7|work=dailymed.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=26 October 2021|archivedate=26 October 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026234628/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=45d03177-5d52-492c-b2e0-01afc7c8d2e0#nlm43685-7}}</ref> Ingawa iliidhinishwa barani Ulaya mnamo mwaka wa 2006, idhini hii iliondolewa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Macugen|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/macugen|accessdate=26 October 2021|archivedate=6 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506080540/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/macugen}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, chupa ya miligramu 0.3 inagharimu takriban dola 780 za Kimarekani. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Macugen Prices, Coupons & Patient Assistance Programs|url=https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/macugen|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=26 October 2021|language=en|archivedate=30 September 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930170758/https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/macugen}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka wa 2016, haikuwa ikipatikana tena nchini Marekani.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Wong|first=Randall|title=Ocular drug delivery systems|url=https://assets.bmctoday.net/retinatoday/pdfs/0116RT_Medical%20Wong.pdf|publisher=Retina Today|accessdate=26 October 2021|date=2016|archivedate=26 October 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026234531/https://assets.bmctoday.net/retinatoday/pdfs/0116RT_Medical%20Wong.pdf}}</ref> == Marejeleo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] gm6xjljbco4kpt3tk6bhvbhcetoq65p 1361784 1361722 2024-11-08T11:03:54Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|Watchedfields=changed|verifiedrevid=464197562|drug_name=Pegaptanib sodium|image=Pegaptanib sodium skeletal.svg|width=300px <!-- Names -->|pronounce=|tradename=Macugen|synonyms=|IUPAC_name=RNA, ((2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-G_m-G_m-A-A-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-A_m-G_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-G_m-A_m-A_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-G_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-(2'-deoxy-2'fluoro)U-A_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-A_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-A_m-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)U-(2'deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro)C-G_m-(3'→3')-dT), 5'-ester with α,α'-[4,12-dioxo-6<nowiki>[[</nowiki>[5-(phosphoonoxy)pentyl]amino]carbonyl]-3,13-dioxa-5,11-diaza-1,15-pentadecanediyl]bis[ω-methoxypoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl)], sodium salt<ref>Drug Information: [http://www.druginformation.com/RxDrugs/P/Pegaptanib%20Sodium%20Injection.html Pegaptanib Sodium Injection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214103351/http://www.druginformation.com/RxDrugs/P/Pegaptanib%20Sodium%20Injection.html |date=2013-12-14 }}</ref> <!-- Clinical data -->|class=[[Vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF) inhibitor<ref name=AHFS2021/>|pregnancy_US=B|routes_of_administration=Sindano ya ndani ya [[vitreous (substansi inayofanana na geli ndani ya jicho)]]|onset=|duration_of_action=|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|macugen}}|MedlinePlus=a607057 <!-- Legal data -->|legal_US=Rx-peke yake <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=Siku kumi|excretion=<!-- Chemical and physical data -->|chemical_formula=C₂₉₄H₃₄₂F₁₃N₁₀₇Na₂₈O₁₈₈P₂₈[C₂H₄O]_(m+n) (m+n≈900)|molecular_weight=~50 kg/mol}} '''Pegaptanib''', inayouzwa kwa jina la chapa '''Macugen''', ni dawa iliyotumika kutibu ugonjwa wa kuzorota kwa sehemu ya kati ya retina unaohusiana na umri na unaosababisha unyevunyevu (AMD).<ref name="EMA2010">{{Cite journal|title=Macugen (pegaptanib)|journal=European Medicines Agency|year=2010|pages=1–3|url=http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Summary_for_the_public/human/000620/WC500026216.pdf|access-date=2013-12-08|archive-date=2013-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213072603/http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Summary_for_the_public/human/000620/WC500026216.pdf}}</ref> Ilitumiwa kwa kudunga sindano kwenye jicho.<ref name="EMA2010" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na kutoona vizuri, [[Mtoto wa jicho|ukungu kwenye lenzi ya jicho, ambayo inaweza kusababisha upungufu wa kuona (ugonjwa wa mtoto wa jicho)]], kuvuja damu kwenye utando wa jicho, maumivu ya macho na kuongezeka kwa shinikizo la ndani ya jicho.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha shambulio la mzio mkali ([[Mmenyuko wa mzio|anaphylaxis)]] na maambukizi ya ndani ya jicho (endophthalmitis).<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Dawa hii inafanya kazi kwa kuzuia sababu ya ukuaji wa mishipa ya endothelial (VEGF).<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Pegaptanib Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/pegaptanib.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=26 October 2021|language=en|archivedate=3 June 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603055733/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/pegaptanib.html}}</ref> Pegaptanib iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya matibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2004.<ref name="PI2021">{{Cite web|title=MACUGEN- pegaptanib sodium injection, solution|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=45d03177-5d52-492c-b2e0-01afc7c8d2e0#nlm43685-7|work=dailymed.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=26 October 2021|archivedate=26 October 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026234628/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=45d03177-5d52-492c-b2e0-01afc7c8d2e0#nlm43685-7}}</ref> Ingawa iliidhinishwa barani Ulaya mnamo mwaka wa 2006, idhini hii iliondolewa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Macugen|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/macugen|accessdate=26 October 2021|archivedate=6 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506080540/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/macugen}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, chupa ya miligramu 0.3 inagharimu takriban dola 780 za Kimarekani. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Macugen Prices, Coupons & Patient Assistance Programs|url=https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/macugen|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=26 October 2021|language=en|archivedate=30 September 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930170758/https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/macugen}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka wa 2016, haikuwa ikipatikana tena nchini Marekani.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Wong|first=Randall|title=Ocular drug delivery systems|url=https://assets.bmctoday.net/retinatoday/pdfs/0116RT_Medical%20Wong.pdf|publisher=Retina Today|accessdate=26 October 2021|date=2016|archivedate=26 October 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026234531/https://assets.bmctoday.net/retinatoday/pdfs/0116RT_Medical%20Wong.pdf}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] f2henotjqmpap5xg7at45aps3zdn5di 0 190047 1361723 2024-11-08T06:20:29Z Joeangatia 39839 Created by translating the page [[:mdwiki:Special:Redirect/revision/1415722|Dexrazoxane]] to:sw #mdwikicx 1361723 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|verifiedrevid=460780226|image=Dexrazoxane.svg <!--Names-->|pronounce=|tradename=Zinecard, Cardioxane, na mengineyo|synonyms=Dexrazoxane hydrochloride|IUPAC_name=4-[(2''S'')-2-(3,5-Dioxopiperazin-1-yl)propyl]piperazine-2,6-dione <!--External links-->|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|dexrazoxane-hydrochloride}}|MedlinePlus=a609010 <!--Clinical data-->|class=|pregnancy_AU=<!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X -->|pregnancy_US=N|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=[[Intravenous therapy|Kwa mishipa]]|onset=|duration_of_action=|legal_EU=|legal_EU_comment=<!-- Legal status -->|legal_AU=<!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled -->|legal_AU_comment=|legal_BR=<!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F -->|legal_BR_comment=|legal_CA=<!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII -->|legal_CA_comment=|legal_DE=<!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled -->|legal_DE_comment=|legal_NZ=<!-- Class A, B, C -->|legal_NZ_comment=|legal_UK=<!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C -->|legal_UK_comment=|legal_US=Rx-peke yake|legal_US_comment=|legal_UN=<!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV -->|legal_UN_comment=|legal_status=<!-- For countries not listed above -->|DailyMedID=Dexrazoxane|licence_EU=yes|index2_label=as HCl <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=|excretion=<!--Chemical data-->|C=11|H=16|N=4|O=4|SMILES=O=C2NC(=O)CN(C[C@@H](N1CC(=O)NC(=O)C1)C)C2|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChI=1S/C11H16N4O4/c1-7(15-5-10(18)13-11(19)6-15)2-14-3-8(16)12-9(17)4-14/h7H,2-6H2,1H3,(H,12,16,17)(H,13,18,19)/t7-/m0/s1|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChIKey=BMKDZUISNHGIBY-ZETCQYMHSA-N}} '''Dexrazoxane''', inayouzwa chini ya jina la chapa '''Zinecard''' miongoni mwa zingine, ni dawa inayotumika kuzuia ugonjwa wa moyo (cardiomyopathy) unaosababishwa na doxorubicin na katika kutoka nje ya mshipa kwa anthracyclines.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}</ref> <ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}</ref> Inatolewa kwa njia ya sindano kwenye mshipa.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na maumivu kwenye mahali pa sindano, kichefuchefu na kuhara.<ref name="PI2021">{{Cite web|title=DailyMed - DEXRAZOXANE- dexrazoxane for injection injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e9550d22-6069-a6de-9968-6a18c9e0448f|work=dailymed.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=26 March 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326153657/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e9550d22-6069-a6de-9968-6a18c9e0448f}}</ref><ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html "Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html Archived] from the original on 8 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha kupunguka kwa uzalishaji wa seli za damu.<ref name="PI2021" /> Kwa watoto, inaweza kuongeza hatari ya saratani zaidi.<ref name="Kim2016">{{Cite book|last=Kim|first=Kyu-Won|last2=Roh|first2=Jae Kyung|last3=Wee|first3=Hee-Jun|last4=Kim|first4=Chan|title=Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History|date=14 November 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-024-0844-7|page=250|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250|language=en|access-date=23 December 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250}}</ref> Ni dawa ya kupinga athari mbaya za anthracyclines (madawa ya kutibu saratani).<ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene "Savene"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene Archived] from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Dexrazoxane iligunduliwa mwaka wa 1972. <ref name="Kim2016">{{Cite book|last=Kim|first=Kyu-Won|last2=Roh|first2=Jae Kyung|last3=Wee|first3=Hee-Jun|last4=Kim|first4=Chan|title=Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History|date=14 November 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-024-0844-7|page=250|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250|language=en|access-date=23 December 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFKimRohWeeKim2016">Kim, Kyu-Won; Roh, Jae Kyung; Wee, Hee-Jun; Kim, Chan (14 November 2016). [https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250 ''Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History'']. Springer. p.&nbsp;250. [[Namba sanifu ya kimataifa ya vitabu|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-94-024-0844-7|<bdi>978-94-024-0844-7</bdi>]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250 Archived] from the original on 11 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 1995, na Ulaya mwaka wa 2006.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html "Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html Archived] from the original on 8 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene "Savene"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene Archived] from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Nchini Marekani, miligramu 500 iligharimu takriban dola 420 kufikia 2021. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Prices, Coupons & Patient Assistance Programs|url=https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/dexrazoxane|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422010420/https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/dexrazoxane}}</ref> Kiasi hiki nchini Uingereza ni takriban £160.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=984}}</ref> == Marejeleo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] pij02409cl3nww9tyi5ee317fc3j7i9 1361725 1361723 2024-11-08T06:21:31Z Joeangatia 39839 1361725 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|verifiedrevid=460780226|image=Dexrazoxane.svg <!--Names-->|pronounce=|tradename=Zinecard, Cardioxane, na mengineyo|synonyms=Dexrazoxane hydrochloride|IUPAC_name=4-[(2''S'')-2-(3,5-Dioxopiperazin-1-yl)propyl]piperazine-2,6-dione <!--External links-->|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|dexrazoxane-hydrochloride}}|MedlinePlus=a609010 <!--Clinical data-->|class=|pregnancy_AU=<!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X -->|pregnancy_US=N|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=[[Intravenous therapy|Kwa mishipa]]|onset=|duration_of_action=|legal_EU=|legal_EU_comment=<!-- Legal status -->|legal_AU=<!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled -->|legal_AU_comment=|legal_BR=<!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F -->|legal_BR_comment=|legal_CA=<!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII -->|legal_CA_comment=|legal_DE=<!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled -->|legal_DE_comment=|legal_NZ=<!-- Class A, B, C -->|legal_NZ_comment=|legal_UK=<!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C -->|legal_UK_comment=|legal_US=Rx-peke yake|legal_US_comment=|legal_UN=<!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV -->|legal_UN_comment=|legal_status=<!-- For countries not listed above -->|DailyMedID=Dexrazoxane|licence_EU=yes|index2_label=as HCl <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=|excretion=<!--Chemical data-->|C=11|H=16|N=4|O=4|SMILES=O=C2NC(=O)CN(C[C@@H](N1CC(=O)NC(=O)C1)C)C2|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChI=1S/C11H16N4O4/c1-7(15-5-10(18)13-11(19)6-15)2-14-3-8(16)12-9(17)4-14/h7H,2-6H2,1H3,(H,12,16,17)(H,13,18,19)/t7-/m0/s1|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChIKey=BMKDZUISNHGIBY-ZETCQYMHSA-N}} '''Dexrazoxane''', inayouzwa chini ya jina la chapa '''Zinecard''' miongoni mwa zingine, ni dawa inayotumika kuzuia ugonjwa wa moyo (cardiomyopathy) unaosababishwa na doxorubicin na katika kutoka nje ya mshipa kwa anthracyclines.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}</ref><ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}</ref> Inatolewa kwa njia ya sindano kwenye mshipa.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na maumivu kwenye mahali pa sindano, kichefuchefu na kuhara.<ref name="PI2021">{{Cite web|title=DailyMed - DEXRAZOXANE- dexrazoxane for injection injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e9550d22-6069-a6de-9968-6a18c9e0448f|work=dailymed.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=26 March 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326153657/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e9550d22-6069-a6de-9968-6a18c9e0448f}}</ref><ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html "Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html Archived] from the original on 8 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha kupunguka kwa uzalishaji wa seli za damu.<ref name="PI2021" /> Kwa watoto, inaweza kuongeza hatari ya saratani zaidi.<ref name="Kim2016">{{Cite book|last=Kim|first=Kyu-Won|last2=Roh|first2=Jae Kyung|last3=Wee|first3=Hee-Jun|last4=Kim|first4=Chan|title=Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History|date=14 November 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-024-0844-7|page=250|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250|language=en|access-date=23 December 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250}}</ref> Ni dawa ya kupinga athari mbaya za anthracyclines (madawa ya kutibu saratani).<ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene "Savene"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene Archived] from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Dexrazoxane iligunduliwa mwaka wa 1972.<ref name="Kim2016">{{Cite book|last=Kim|first=Kyu-Won|last2=Roh|first2=Jae Kyung|last3=Wee|first3=Hee-Jun|last4=Kim|first4=Chan|title=Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History|date=14 November 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-024-0844-7|page=250|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250|language=en|access-date=23 December 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFKimRohWeeKim2016">Kim, Kyu-Won; Roh, Jae Kyung; Wee, Hee-Jun; Kim, Chan (14 November 2016). [https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250 ''Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History'']. Springer. p.&nbsp;250. [[Namba sanifu ya kimataifa ya vitabu|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-94-024-0844-7|<bdi>978-94-024-0844-7</bdi>]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250 Archived] from the original on 11 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 1995, na Ulaya mwaka wa 2006.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html "Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html Archived] from the original on 8 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene "Savene"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene Archived] from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Nchini Marekani, miligramu 500 iligharimu takriban dola 420 kufikia 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Prices, Coupons & Patient Assistance Programs|url=https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/dexrazoxane|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422010420/https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/dexrazoxane}}</ref> Kiasi hiki nchini Uingereza ni takriban £160.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=984}}</ref> == Marejeleo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] 9aaz4aofjqc432x74jl4bodf0qr408d 1361785 1361725 2024-11-08T11:04:43Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Drugbox|verifiedrevid=460780226|image=Dexrazoxane.svg <!--Names-->|pronounce=|tradename=Zinecard, Cardioxane, na mengineyo|synonyms=Dexrazoxane hydrochloride|IUPAC_name=4-[(2''S'')-2-(3,5-Dioxopiperazin-1-yl)propyl]piperazine-2,6-dione <!--External links-->|Drugs.com={{drugs.com|monograph|dexrazoxane-hydrochloride}}|MedlinePlus=a609010 <!--Clinical data-->|class=|pregnancy_AU=<!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X -->|pregnancy_US=N|pregnancy_category=|routes_of_administration=[[Intravenous therapy|Kwa mishipa]]|onset=|duration_of_action=|legal_EU=|legal_EU_comment=<!-- Legal status -->|legal_AU=<!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled -->|legal_AU_comment=|legal_BR=<!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F -->|legal_BR_comment=|legal_CA=<!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII -->|legal_CA_comment=|legal_DE=<!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled -->|legal_DE_comment=|legal_NZ=<!-- Class A, B, C -->|legal_NZ_comment=|legal_UK=<!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C -->|legal_UK_comment=|legal_US=Rx-peke yake|legal_US_comment=|legal_UN=<!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV -->|legal_UN_comment=|legal_status=<!-- For countries not listed above -->|DailyMedID=Dexrazoxane|licence_EU=yes|index2_label=as HCl <!-- Pharmacokinetic data -->|bioavailability=|protein_bound=|metabolism=|elimination_half-life=|excretion=<!--Chemical data-->|C=11|H=16|N=4|O=4|SMILES=O=C2NC(=O)CN(C[C@@H](N1CC(=O)NC(=O)C1)C)C2|StdInChI_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChI=1S/C11H16N4O4/c1-7(15-5-10(18)13-11(19)6-15)2-14-3-8(16)12-9(17)4-14/h7H,2-6H2,1H3,(H,12,16,17)(H,13,18,19)/t7-/m0/s1|StdInChIKey_Ref={{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}|StdInChIKey=BMKDZUISNHGIBY-ZETCQYMHSA-N}} '''Dexrazoxane''', inayouzwa kwa jina la chapa '''Zinecard''' miongoni mwa mengine, ni dawa inayotumika kuzuia ugonjwa wa moyo (cardiomyopathy) unaosababishwa na doxorubicin na katika kutoka nje ya mshipa kwa anthracyclines.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}</ref><ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}</ref> Inatolewa kwa njia ya sindano kwenye mshipa.<ref name="AHFS2021" /> Madhara yake ya kawaida ni pamoja na maumivu kwenye mahali pa sindano, kichefuchefu na kuhara.<ref name="PI2021">{{Cite web|title=DailyMed - DEXRAZOXANE- dexrazoxane for injection injection, powder, lyophilized, for solution|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e9550d22-6069-a6de-9968-6a18c9e0448f|work=dailymed.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=26 March 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326153657/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e9550d22-6069-a6de-9968-6a18c9e0448f}}</ref><ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html "Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html Archived] from the original on 8 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Madhara yake mengine yanaweza kujumuisha kupunguka kwa uzalishaji wa seli za damu.<ref name="PI2021" /> Kwa watoto, inaweza kuongeza hatari ya saratani zaidi.<ref name="Kim2016">{{Cite book|last=Kim|first=Kyu-Won|last2=Roh|first2=Jae Kyung|last3=Wee|first3=Hee-Jun|last4=Kim|first4=Chan|title=Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History|date=14 November 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-024-0844-7|page=250|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250|language=en|access-date=23 December 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250}}</ref> Ni dawa ya kupinga athari mbaya za anthracyclines (madawa ya kutibu saratani).<ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene "Savene"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene Archived] from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Dexrazoxane iligunduliwa mwaka wa 1972.<ref name="Kim2016">{{Cite book|last=Kim|first=Kyu-Won|last2=Roh|first2=Jae Kyung|last3=Wee|first3=Hee-Jun|last4=Kim|first4=Chan|title=Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History|date=14 November 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-024-0844-7|page=250|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250|language=en|access-date=23 December 2021|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFKimRohWeeKim2016">Kim, Kyu-Won; Roh, Jae Kyung; Wee, Hee-Jun; Kim, Chan (14 November 2016). [https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250 ''Cancer Drug Discovery: Science and History'']. Springer. p.&nbsp;250. [[Namba sanifu ya kimataifa ya vitabu|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-94-024-0844-7|<bdi>978-94-024-0844-7</bdi>]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220111114304/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Cancer_Drug_Discovery/BR9_DQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dexrazoxane+1972&pg=PA250 Archived] from the original on 11 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Iliidhinishwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kimatibabu nchini Marekani mwaka wa 1995, na Ulaya mwaka wa 2006.<ref name="AHFS2021">{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=8 May 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html "Dexrazoxane Monograph for Professionals"]. ''Drugs.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210508104403/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/dexrazoxane.html Archived] from the original on 8 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref><ref name="EPAR2021">{{Cite web|title=Savene|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene|accessdate=23 December 2021|archivedate=12 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene "Savene"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201112041346/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/savene Archived] from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite></ref> Nchini Marekani, miligramu 500 iligharimu takriban dola 420 kufikia 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dexrazoxane Prices, Coupons & Patient Assistance Programs|url=https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/dexrazoxane|work=Drugs.com|accessdate=23 December 2021|language=en|archivedate=22 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422010420/https://www.drugs.com/price-guide/dexrazoxane}}</ref> Kiasi hiki nchini Uingereza ni takriban £160.<ref name="BNF81">{{Cite book|title=BNF 81: March-September 2021|date=2021|publisher=BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0857114105|page=984}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Category:Madawa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] 9lqbgq654z6qwti9oh6c34xgeftz914 0 190048 1361724 2024-11-08T06:20:47Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Jodi DiPiazza''' (alizaliwa [[3 Oktoba|Oktoba 3]], [[2001|2001)]] ni mtunzi wa muziki, mtungaji, mwimbaji, na mhamasishaji wa masuala ya usonji. Aligundulika kuwa na usonji muda mfupi kabla ya kutimiza miaka miwili. Jodi ni mwenye kipaji cha pekee, akiwa na ufanisi wa sauti kamili (absolute pitch). Alijifunza kucheza piano akiwa na umri wa miaka mitatu, akiwa na uwezo wa kusikiliza wimbo na kuuzalisha. Anacheza pia vyombo vingine kama vile gitaa, klari...' 1361724 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jodi DiPiazza''' (alizaliwa [[3 Oktoba|Oktoba 3]], [[2001|2001)]] ni mtunzi wa muziki, mtungaji, mwimbaji, na mhamasishaji wa masuala ya usonji. Aligundulika kuwa na usonji muda mfupi kabla ya kutimiza miaka miwili. Jodi ni mwenye kipaji cha pekee, akiwa na ufanisi wa sauti kamili (absolute pitch). Alijifunza kucheza piano akiwa na umri wa miaka mitatu, akiwa na uwezo wa kusikiliza wimbo na kuuzalisha. Anacheza pia vyombo vingine kama vile gitaa, klarineti na ngoma, anapiga muziki katika aina mbalimbali za muziki. Hivi sasa ni mwanafunzi katika Chuo Kikuu cha Rollins kilichopo [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando Florida]], ambapo anasoma muziki. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/03/09/weird-al-autistic-childrens-choir-yoda_n_6831918.html|title=Weird Al And Autistic Children's Choir Perform 'Yoda' At 'Night Of Too Many Stars'|last=Goodman|first=Jessica|date=2015-03-09|work=Huffington Post|access-date=2017-03-19|language=en-US}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 2001]] [[Jamii:Wanamuziki]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] e5c40ni48lmlvs7aghfof3lno7fqq1c 1361786 1361724 2024-11-08T11:05:56Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361786 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jodi DiPiazza''' (alizaliwa [[3 Oktoba]] [[2001]]) ni mtunzi wa muziki, mtungaji, mwimbaji, na mhamasishaji wa masuala ya usonji huko [[Marekani]]. Aligundulika kuwa na usonji muda mfupi kabla ya kutimiza miaka miwili. Jodi ni mwenye kipaji cha pekee, akiwa na ufanisi wa sauti kamili (absolute pitch). Alijifunza kucheza piano akiwa na umri wa miaka mitatu, akiwa na uwezo wa kusikiliza wimbo na kuuzalisha. Anacheza pia vyombo vingine kama vile gitaa, klarineti na ngoma, anapiga muziki katika aina mbalimbali za muziki. Hivi sasa ni mwanafunzi katika Chuo Kikuu cha Rollins kilichopo [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando Florida]], ambapo anasoma muziki. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/03/09/weird-al-autistic-childrens-choir-yoda_n_6831918.html|title=Weird Al And Autistic Children's Choir Perform 'Yoda' At 'Night Of Too Many Stars'|last=Goodman|first=Jessica|date=2015-03-09|work=Huffington Post|access-date=2017-03-19|language=en-US}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 2001]] [[Jamii:Wanamuziki wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] g6y47v987yubre33ffw5rjkmhlmftu5 0 190049 1361727 2024-11-08T06:46:56Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Angélique Adrianna Govy''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[12 Aprili]] [[1981]] – alifariki tarehe [[18 Agosti]] [[2023]]), maarufu kwa jina la '''Govy''', alikuwa msanii kutoka [[Ufaransa]] aliyetambuliwa kuwa kwenye wigo wa usonji mwaka [[2013]]. Alikuwa mtetezi mkubwa wa harakati za ''neurodiversity'' (diversity ya kimaumbile ya ubongo). Kazi yake ya sanaa ilianza baada ya kuanzisha kipande cha sanaa kinachohusisha ushirikiani wa kipeke kiitwacho ''Photograph...' 1361727 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Angélique Adrianna Govy''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[12 Aprili]] [[1981]] – alifariki tarehe [[18 Agosti]] [[2023]]), maarufu kwa jina la '''Govy''', alikuwa msanii kutoka [[Ufaransa]] aliyetambuliwa kuwa kwenye wigo wa usonji mwaka [[2013]]. Alikuwa mtetezi mkubwa wa harakati za ''neurodiversity'' (diversity ya kimaumbile ya ubongo). Kazi yake ya sanaa ilianza baada ya kuanzisha kipande cha sanaa kinachohusisha ushirikiani wa kipeke kiitwacho ''Photographic Diary'' kilichotengenezwa kati ya mwaka [[2000]] na [[2001|2001.]] Kazi ya Govy, ikiwa ni pamoja na majina ya kisanii kama ''Kennedy James'' na ''Jimmy Owenns'', ilionyeshwa kimataifa katika maeneo maarufu kama Zendai MoMA ya [[Shanghai]], Triennale Design Museum ya [[Milano|Milan]], Wiels Contemporary Art Center ya [[Brussels]], Casoria Contemporary Art Museum ya [[Naples, Florida|Naples]], Rosario Museum of Contemporary Art ya Santa Fe [[Argentina]] na Nuit Blanche ya [[Paris|Paris.]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=13 March 2007|title=Videoformes 2007 Palmares|url=http://www.nat.fr/videoformes/FESTIVAL/2007/Palmares/palmares.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621084318/http://www.nat.fr/videoformes/FESTIVAL/2007/Palmares/palmares.html|archive-date=21 June 2008|access-date=1 November 2016|website=www.nat.fr}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=14 March 2005|title=Videoformes 2005 Palmares|url=http://www.nat.fr/videoformes/FESTIVAL/2005/sitefrancais/FESTIVAL/palmares2005.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103234220/http://www.nat.fr/videoformes/FESTIVAL/2005/sitefrancais/FESTIVAL/palmares2005.html|archive-date=3 November 2016|access-date=1 November 2016|website=www.nat.fr}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1981]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2023]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Ufaransa]] ppde5jy16wfyjj37er9f7kbfslo09af 1361787 1361727 2024-11-08T11:07:41Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361787 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Angélique Adrianna Govy''' (maarufu kwa jina la '''Govy''', [[12 Aprili]] [[1981]] – [[18 Agosti]] [[2023]]) alikuwa msanii kutoka [[Ufaransa]] aliyetambuliwa kuwa kwenye wigo wa usonji mwaka [[2013]]. Alikuwa mtetezi mkubwa wa harakati za ''neurodiversity'' (diversity ya kimaumbile ya ubongo). Kazi yake ya sanaa ilianza baada ya kuanzisha kipande cha sanaa kinachohusisha ushirikiani wa kipeke kiitwacho ''Photographic Diary'' kilichotengenezwa kati ya mwaka [[2000]] na [[2001|2001.]] Kazi ya Govy, ikiwa ni pamoja na majina ya kisanii kama ''Kennedy James'' na ''Jimmy Owenns'', ilionyeshwa kimataifa katika maeneo maarufu kama Zendai MoMA ya [[Shanghai]], Triennale Design Museum ya [[Milano|Milan]], Wiels Contemporary Art Center ya [[Brussels]], Casoria Contemporary Art Museum ya [[Naples, Florida|Naples]], Rosario Museum of Contemporary Art ya Santa Fe [[Argentina]] na Nuit Blanche ya [[Paris|Paris.]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=13 March 2007|title=Videoformes 2007 Palmares|url=http://www.nat.fr/videoformes/FESTIVAL/2007/Palmares/palmares.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621084318/http://www.nat.fr/videoformes/FESTIVAL/2007/Palmares/palmares.html|archive-date=21 June 2008|access-date=1 November 2016|website=www.nat.fr}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=14 March 2005|title=Videoformes 2005 Palmares|url=http://www.nat.fr/videoformes/FESTIVAL/2005/sitefrancais/FESTIVAL/palmares2005.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103234220/http://www.nat.fr/videoformes/FESTIVAL/2005/sitefrancais/FESTIVAL/palmares2005.html|archive-date=3 November 2016|access-date=1 November 2016|website=www.nat.fr}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1981]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2023]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Ufaransa]] 342ay6j2go3bsq9bytlugjca2mff114 0 190050 1361728 2024-11-08T07:00:33Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''James R. Laidler''' ni daktari wa usingizi kutoka [[Marekani]], anayeishi [[Portland, Oregon|Portland Oregon]], ambaye anajulikana kwa shughuli zake za kutetea na baadaye kupinga tiba mbadala za usonji. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://oregoniansforscienceandreason.org/events/fads-and-fallacies-in-autism/|title=Fads and Fallacies in Autism|publisher=Oregonians for Science and Reason|date=23 June 2005|access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Refl...' 1361728 wikitext text/x-wiki '''James R. Laidler''' ni daktari wa usingizi kutoka [[Marekani]], anayeishi [[Portland, Oregon|Portland Oregon]], ambaye anajulikana kwa shughuli zake za kutetea na baadaye kupinga tiba mbadala za usonji. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://oregoniansforscienceandreason.org/events/fads-and-fallacies-in-autism/|title=Fads and Fallacies in Autism|publisher=Oregonians for Science and Reason|date=23 June 2005|access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] qdrgc19q8fa5v4x38kxkew1glc3sanp 0 190051 1361740 2024-11-08T07:15:29Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Jacqueline Carol Jackson''' ni mwandishi wa [[Uingereza]] ambaye anatoa huduma za ushauri, hutoa mihadhara na anaandika kuhusu masuala mengi yanayohusiana na usonji. Tese yake ya udaktari, iliyopewa jina 'Nurturing the Engagement of Children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder through Digital Polysensory Experiences' (Kukuza Ushirikiano wa Watoto Wenye Usumbufu wa Spectrum ya usonji Kupitia Uzoefu wa Kidijitali wa Aina Mbalimbali za aisti), ilikabidhiwa ku...' 1361740 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacqueline Carol Jackson''' ni mwandishi wa [[Uingereza]] ambaye anatoa huduma za ushauri, hutoa mihadhara na anaandika kuhusu masuala mengi yanayohusiana na usonji. Tese yake ya udaktari, iliyopewa jina 'Nurturing the Engagement of Children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder through Digital Polysensory Experiences' (Kukuza Ushirikiano wa Watoto Wenye Usumbufu wa Spectrum ya usonji Kupitia Uzoefu wa Kidijitali wa Aina Mbalimbali za aisti), ilikabidhiwa kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha [[Coventry]]. Tese hiyo ilichambua tofauti za aisti za watoto wenye ASD na athari za mazingira ya kidijitali na yale ya majengo. Jacqueline pia hutoa ushauri kuhusu muundo wa mazingira ya majengo na athari za mwanga na muundo kwa watu wenye usonji na neurodiversity zingine. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/columnists/luke/240903_index.shtml|title=Ouch! Columnists, back to school|publisher=bbc.co.uk|date=10 November 2007|access-date=8 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328235807/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/columnists/luke/240903_index.shtml|archive-date=28 March 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] c9zf44987n6yrqm5qmmslcrmkkbu6or 1361789 1361740 2024-11-08T11:10:04Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361789 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacqueline Carol Jackson''' ni mwandishi wa [[Uingereza]] ambaye anatoa huduma za ushauri, hutoa mihadhara na anaandika kuhusu masuala mengi yanayohusiana na usonji. Tese yake ya udaktari, iliyopewa jina 'Nurturing the Engagement of Children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder through Digital Polysensory Experiences' (Kukuza Ushirikiano wa Watoto Wenye Usumbufu wa Spectrum ya usonji Kupitia Uzoefu wa Kidijitali wa Aina Mbalimbali za aisti), ilikabidhiwa kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha [[Coventry]]. Tese hiyo ilichambua tofauti za aisti za watoto wenye ASD na athari za mazingira ya kidijitali na yale ya majengo. Jacqueline pia hutoa ushauri kuhusu muundo wa mazingira ya majengo na athari za mwanga na muundo kwa watu wenye usonji na neurodiversity zingine. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/columnists/luke/240903_index.shtml|title=Ouch! Columnists, back to school|publisher=bbc.co.uk|date=10 November 2007|access-date=8 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328235807/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/columnists/luke/240903_index.shtml|archive-date=28 March 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 66wnu808h6jpsl8bf23132n76222pjx 0 190052 1361745 2024-11-08T07:24:05Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Rudy Simone''' (jina la kalamu, '''Artemisia''') ni mwandishi kutoka [[Marekani]] wa vitabu vinavyohusu Ugonjwa wa Asperger.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independentpublisher.com/article.php?page=1442|title=Independent Publisher: THE Voice of the Independent Publishing Industry|author=|date=|work=Independent Publisher – feature}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forewordreviews.com/reviews/aspergirls/|title=Book Review of Aspergirls: Empowering F...' 1361745 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rudy Simone''' (jina la kalamu, '''Artemisia''') ni mwandishi kutoka [[Marekani]] wa vitabu vinavyohusu Ugonjwa wa Asperger.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independentpublisher.com/article.php?page=1442|title=Independent Publisher: THE Voice of the Independent Publishing Industry|author=|date=|work=Independent Publisher – feature}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forewordreviews.com/reviews/aspergirls/|title=Book Review of Aspergirls: Empowering Females with Asperger Syndrome (9781849058261) — Foreword Reviews|author=Kaavonia Hinton|date=August 5, 2010|work=Foreword Reviews}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] th31tozaz31sdbv9wjwh98avz0tba1j 1361746 1361745 2024-11-08T07:30:32Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 /* Marejeo */ 1361746 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Rudy Simone 2016.jpg|thumb|Rudy Simone]] '''Rudy Simone''' (jina la kalamu, '''Artemisia''') ni mwandishi kutoka [[Marekani]] wa vitabu vinavyohusu Ugonjwa wa Asperger.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independentpublisher.com/article.php?page=1442|title=Independent Publisher: THE Voice of the Independent Publishing Industry|author=|date=|work=Independent Publisher – feature}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forewordreviews.com/reviews/aspergirls/|title=Book Review of Aspergirls: Empowering Females with Asperger Syndrome (9781849058261) — Foreword Reviews|author=Kaavonia Hinton|date=August 5, 2010|work=Foreword Reviews}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 07mqqobzrn4src7rowqm62nhghmj16s 0 190053 1361747 2024-11-08T07:44:22Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[picha:TupacHunterPressConference.jpg|thumb|Tupac Hunter]] '''Tupac Amaru Hunter''' (alizaliwa [[25 Julai|Julai 25]], [[1973]]) ni mwanasiasa kutoka [[Marekani]] ambaye alikuwa mjumbe wa Seneti ya [[Michigan]], akiwakilisha wilaya ya 5 ambazo zinajumuisha kaskazini-magharibi mwa [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Dearborn Heights, Michigan|Dearborn Heights]], na [[Inkster, Michigan|Inkster]]. Alihudumu kama kiongozi wa wengi wa chini. <ref name="reelected">...' 1361747 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:TupacHunterPressConference.jpg|thumb|Tupac Hunter]] '''Tupac Amaru Hunter''' (alizaliwa [[25 Julai|Julai 25]], [[1973]]) ni mwanasiasa kutoka [[Marekani]] ambaye alikuwa mjumbe wa Seneti ya [[Michigan]], akiwakilisha wilaya ya 5 ambazo zinajumuisha kaskazini-magharibi mwa [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Dearborn Heights, Michigan|Dearborn Heights]], na [[Inkster, Michigan|Inkster]]. Alihudumu kama kiongozi wa wengi wa chini. <ref name="reelected">[http://ballotpedia.org/wiki/index.php/Michigan_2010_legislative_election_results Michigan 2010 legislative election results]</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist|30em}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1973]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] nz85oco4p771ztvu3i90dkioc0sgpe3 1361790 1361747 2024-11-08T11:11:01Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361790 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:TupacHunterPressConference.jpg|thumb|Tupac Hunter]] '''Tupac Amaru Hunter''' (alizaliwa [[25 Julai]] [[1973]]) ni [[Siasa|mwanasiasa]] kutoka [[Marekani]] ambaye alikuwa mjumbe wa Seneti ya [[Michigan]], akiwakilisha wilaya ya 5 ambazo zinajumuisha kaskazini-magharibi mwa [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Dearborn Heights, Michigan|Dearborn Heights]], na [[Inkster, Michigan|Inkster]]. Alihudumu kama kiongozi wa wengi wa chini. <ref name="reelected">[http://ballotpedia.org/wiki/index.php/Michigan_2010_legislative_election_results Michigan 2010 legislative election results]</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist|30em}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1973]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 0jlp3zntq9haaq00ar0zs36h1n4jvs2 0 190054 1361748 2024-11-08T07:56:39Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Paige Hennekam''' (alizaliwa [[2 Agosti|Agosti 2]], [[2000]]), anajulikana zaidi kwa jina la '''Paige Layle''', ni mtetezi na mwandishi kutoka [[Kanada]] anayehusiana na kukubalika kwa ADHD "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder" (Shida ya Upungufu wa Umakini na Uhamasishaji wa Haraka) na usonji. Alianza kutuma kuhusu uzoefu wake na ADHD na usonji kwenye mitandao ya kijamii mnamo [[Machi]] [[2020]] na tangu wakati huo amepata wafuasi wengi kwenye I...' 1361748 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Paige Hennekam''' (alizaliwa [[2 Agosti|Agosti 2]], [[2000]]), anajulikana zaidi kwa jina la '''Paige Layle''', ni mtetezi na mwandishi kutoka [[Kanada]] anayehusiana na kukubalika kwa ADHD "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder" (Shida ya Upungufu wa Umakini na Uhamasishaji wa Haraka) na usonji. Alianza kutuma kuhusu uzoefu wake na ADHD na usonji kwenye mitandao ya kijamii mnamo [[Machi]] [[2020]] na tangu wakati huo amepata wafuasi wengi kwenye [[Instagram]], [[TikTok]], na [[YouTube]]. Pia aliandika kitabu kiitwacho "But Everyone Feels This Way: How an Autism Diagnosis Saved My Life" (Lakini kila mtu anahisi hivi: Jinsi utabiri wa usonji ulivyookoa maisha yangu). <ref name="pronouns">{{cite web|last=@paigelayle|title=paigelayle|url=https://www.instagram.com/paigelayle/|url-status=|access-date=2021-09-06|website=Instagram}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 2000]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Kanada]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] j3w8td8ei0y3qlk2mj3qcg3shzky69r 1361791 1361748 2024-11-08T11:11:54Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361791 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Paige Hennekam''' (anajulikana zaidi kwa jina la '''Paige Layle''', alizaliwa [[2 Agosti]] [[2000]]) ni mtetezi na mwandishi kutoka [[Kanada]] anayehusiana na kukubalika kwa ADHD "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder" (Shida ya Upungufu wa Umakini na Uhamasishaji wa Haraka) na usonji. Alianza kutuma kuhusu uzoefu wake na ADHD na usonji kwenye mitandao ya kijamii mnamo [[Machi]] [[2020]] na tangu wakati huo amepata wafuasi wengi kwenye [[Instagram]], [[TikTok]], na [[YouTube]]. Pia aliandika kitabu kiitwacho "But Everyone Feels This Way: How an Autism Diagnosis Saved My Life" (Lakini kila mtu anahisi hivi: Jinsi utabiri wa usonji ulivyookoa maisha yangu). <ref name="pronouns">{{cite web|last=@paigelayle|title=paigelayle|url=https://www.instagram.com/paigelayle/|url-status=|access-date=2021-09-06|website=Instagram}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 2000]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Kanada]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] fz9zucjdyp2qpykq37k531jy8oahwcy 0 190055 1361749 2024-11-08T08:19:55Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Coral Hull''' (alizaliwa mwaka [[1965]]) ni mwandishi, mshairi, msanii, na mpiga picha anayeishi Darwin, [[Australia]]. Amekuja na vitabu vingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na mashairi, riwaya, vitabu visivyo vya riwaya, sanaa, na upigaji picha wa kidijitali. Sehemu za maslahi yake maalum ni pamoja na maadili, haki za wanyama, usonji, hali ya kuwa na ufahamu, mwingiliano wa nafsi, metafizikia, na mambo ya kiroho yasiyo kawaida. Kitabu chake kuhusu psychokinesis kil...' 1361749 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Coral Hull''' (alizaliwa mwaka [[1965]]) ni mwandishi, mshairi, msanii, na mpiga picha anayeishi Darwin, [[Australia]]. Amekuja na vitabu vingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na mashairi, riwaya, vitabu visivyo vya riwaya, sanaa, na upigaji picha wa kidijitali. Sehemu za maslahi yake maalum ni pamoja na maadili, haki za wanyama, usonji, hali ya kuwa na ufahamu, mwingiliano wa nafsi, metafizikia, na mambo ya kiroho yasiyo kawaida. Kitabu chake kuhusu psychokinesis kilichoitwa "Walking With The Angels: The RSPK Journals" kilikamilika mwaka [[2007]]. Coral pia alikuwa ni medium wa trance na channeler aliyehusika na harakati za enzi mpya na mambo ya uchawi. Hull alikubali kuwa Mkristo tena mwishoni mwa mwaka [[2009|2009.]] <ref>[http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20120417174726/http://www.nla.gov.au/pub/nlanews/2003/dec03/story-5.pdf "Cheap Live and Death Dodgers: Vegetarianism in the National Library"]. nla.gov.au. Retrieved 24 January 2023.</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Australia]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1965]] oiiwzreg6nixlc8tdqg4yk8bstifg5r 0 190056 1361750 2024-11-08T08:44:22Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Princess Samira bint Abdullah Al Faisal Al Farhan Al Saud''' (pia inavyotamkwa '''Sameera''') (Kiarabu: '''سميرة بنت عبدالله آل سعود''') ni mtetezi wa haki za walemavu, mchangiaji wa kifedha, na mjumbe wa familia ya kifalme ya [[Saudia|Saudi Arabia]]. Anajitolea kukuza uelewa kuhusu ulemavu nchini Saudi Arabia, hasa usonji na schizophrenia. Yeye ni Mwenyekiti wa "Saudi Schizophrenia Charity Association" na "Charitable Society of Aut...' 1361750 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Princess Samira bint Abdullah Al Faisal Al Farhan Al Saud''' (pia inavyotamkwa '''Sameera''') (Kiarabu: '''سميرة بنت عبدالله آل سعود''') ni mtetezi wa haki za walemavu, mchangiaji wa kifedha, na mjumbe wa familia ya kifalme ya [[Saudia|Saudi Arabia]]. Anajitolea kukuza uelewa kuhusu ulemavu nchini Saudi Arabia, hasa usonji na schizophrenia. Yeye ni Mwenyekiti wa "Saudi Schizophrenia Charity Association" na "Charitable Society of Autism Families" Princess Samira ni mwanzilishi wa "Charitable Society of Autism Families" na alianzisha kituo cha usonji mjini [[Riyad|Riyadh]]. Alipewa heshima na serikali ya umoja wa falme za kiarabu kwa huduma yake kwa watu wenye ulemavu. <ref name="ability">{{Cite web|title=Saudi Arabia — A Princess Seeks A World of Change|url=https://abilitymagazine.com/saudi-arabia-a-princess-seeks-a-world-of-change/|access-date=2023-12-06|website=ABILITY Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2018-11-06|title=Saudi Schizophrenia Charity Association Event at Alfaisal University|url=https://news.alfaisal.edu/saudi-schizophrenia-charity-association-event-at-alfaisal-university/|access-date=2023-12-06|website=Alfaisal News|language=en-US}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Falme za Kiarabu]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 1r9kqhf44gkz6dv71yh2p4ef7xb39qq 1361792 1361750 2024-11-08T11:14:10Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361792 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Samira bint Abdullah Al Faisal Al Farhan Al Saud''' (kwa [[Kiarabu]]: '''سميرة بنت عبدالله آل سعود''') ni mtetezi wa haki za walemavu, mchangiaji wa kifedha, na mjumbe wa familia ya kifalme ya [[Saudia|Saudi Arabia]]. Anajitolea kukuza uelewa kuhusu ulemavu nchini Saudi Arabia, hasa [[usonji]] na [[skizofrenia]]. Yeye ni Mwenyekiti wa "Saudi Schizophrenia Charity Association" na "Charitable Society of Autism Families" Bintimfalme Samira ni mwanzilishi wa "Charitable Society of Autism Families" na alianzisha kituo cha usonji mjini [[Riyad|Riyadh]]. Alipewa heshima na serikali ya umoja wa falme za kiarabu kwa huduma yake kwa watu wenye ulemavu. <ref name="ability">{{Cite web|title=Saudi Arabia — A Princess Seeks A World of Change|url=https://abilitymagazine.com/saudi-arabia-a-princess-seeks-a-world-of-change/|access-date=2023-12-06|website=ABILITY Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2018-11-06|title=Saudi Schizophrenia Charity Association Event at Alfaisal University|url=https://news.alfaisal.edu/saudi-schizophrenia-charity-association-event-at-alfaisal-university/|access-date=2023-12-06|website=Alfaisal News|language=en-US}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Saudia]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 9te881lbdoou3xj0aflol8g4ug6htic 0 190057 1361753 2024-11-08T08:52:10Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Trump ashinda urais 2024]] hadi [[Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, 2024]]: usahihi wa jina 1361753 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Uchaguzi wa Rais wa Marekani, 2024]] nm4l6iypx7ux7lc9o73ia819usk1bj4 0 190058 1361756 2024-11-08T09:08:20Z Praygod mwanga 39272 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Evelyn Richter''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 31 Januari 1930 – Alifariki tarehe 10 Oktoba 2021) alikuwa mpiga picha wa sanaa wa [[Ujerumani]] anayejulikana hasa kwa kazi zake za upigaji picha wa maandiko ya kijamii katika Ujerumani Mashariki.<ref>[http://www.damianzimmermann.de/blog/eros-und-stasi-im-ludwig-forum-aachen/ "Eros und Stasi" im Ludwig Forum Aachen] (in German) damianzimmermann.de 23 October 2010</ref><ref>[https://artmap.com/ludwigforum/exhibition...' 1361756 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Evelyn Richter''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 31 Januari 1930 – Alifariki tarehe 10 Oktoba 2021) alikuwa mpiga picha wa sanaa wa [[Ujerumani]] anayejulikana hasa kwa kazi zake za upigaji picha wa maandiko ya kijamii katika Ujerumani Mashariki.<ref>[http://www.damianzimmermann.de/blog/eros-und-stasi-im-ludwig-forum-aachen/ "Eros und Stasi" im Ludwig Forum Aachen] (in German) damianzimmermann.de 23 October 2010</ref><ref>[https://artmap.com/ludwigforum/exhibition/eros-und-stasi-2010 Eros und Stasi] artmap.com 2010</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1930]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2021]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] hsd3i7gncfvvz9u1ivbmrcck4z0uhj9 1361794 1361756 2024-11-08T11:15:13Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361794 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Evelyn Richter''' (31 Januari 1930 – 10 Oktoba 2021) alikuwa mpiga picha wa sanaa wa [[Ujerumani]] anayejulikana hasa kwa kazi zake za upigaji picha wa maandiko ya kijamii katika Ujerumani Mashariki.<ref>[http://www.damianzimmermann.de/blog/eros-und-stasi-im-ludwig-forum-aachen/ "Eros und Stasi" im Ludwig Forum Aachen] (in German) damianzimmermann.de 23 October 2010</ref><ref>[https://artmap.com/ludwigforum/exhibition/eros-und-stasi-2010 Eros und Stasi] artmap.com 2010</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1930]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2021]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] [[Jamii:wasanii wa Ujerumani]] li92v0wvjyftuw9auzwtxiccnwg1rxq 0 190059 1361765 2024-11-08T09:15:09Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361765 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Leandro Rovirosa Wade.jpg|thumb|Leandro Rovirosa Wade]] '''Leandro Rovirosa Wade''' (alizaliwa [[26 Februari]] [[1918]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nMn_o47zM8C&dq=Leandro+Rovirosa+Wade+1918&pg=PA322|title=Diccionario institucional|publisher=Univ. J. Autónoma de Tabasco|year=2007|isbn=9789689024354}}</ref> – alifariki [[6 Aprili]] [[2014]]) alikuwa [[mwanasiasa]] wa [[Meksiko|Mexico]] aliyekuwa mwanachama wa Chama cha Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Alihudumu kama [[Gavana]] wa Tabasco katika kipindi cha [[1977]]–[[1982]]. Kabla ya hapo, alihudumu kama Waziri wa Rasilimali za Maji katika serikali ya Rais Luis Echeverría.<ref>{{cite news|title=Fallece Leandro Rovirosa Wade, exgobernador de Tabasco|url=http://www.proceso.com.mx/?p=369023|accessdate=12 April 2014|newspaper=[[Proceso (magazine)|Proceso]]|date=6 April 2014}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1918]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2014]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 5wip8g6af5dukpp7u8id1f82tjbb8vt 1361795 1361765 2024-11-08T11:15:49Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361795 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Leandro Rovirosa Wade.jpg|thumb|Leandro Rovirosa Wade]] '''Leandro Rovirosa Wade''' ([[26 Februari]] [[1918]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nMn_o47zM8C&dq=Leandro+Rovirosa+Wade+1918&pg=PA322|title=Diccionario institucional|publisher=Univ. J. Autónoma de Tabasco|year=2007|isbn=9789689024354}}</ref> – [[6 Aprili]] [[2014]]) alikuwa [[mwanasiasa]] wa [[Meksiko|Mexico]] aliyekuwa mwanachama wa Chama cha Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Alihudumu kama [[Gavana]] wa Tabasco katika kipindi cha [[1977]]–[[1982]]. Kabla ya hapo, alihudumu kama Waziri wa Rasilimali za Maji katika serikali ya Rais Luis Echeverría.<ref>{{cite news|title=Fallece Leandro Rovirosa Wade, exgobernador de Tabasco|url=http://www.proceso.com.mx/?p=369023|accessdate=12 April 2014|newspaper=[[Proceso (magazine)|Proceso]]|date=6 April 2014}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1918]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2014]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Mexiko]] 6o7n5vzi8f30brjrr73mpxbknts41ul 0 190060 1361766 2024-11-08T09:15:38Z Ester Gasper Kimario 70787 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Anna Kennedy''' (alizaliwa [[12 Machi|Machi 12]], [[1960]]) ni mtetezi wa haki za walemavu na neurodiversity ambaye amefanya kazi ya kuboresha elimu na huduma nyingine kwa watoto na watu wazima wanaoelezwa kuwa katika "spectrum ya autismu"(kiwango tofauti cha dalili na ufanisi wa usonji) na hali nyingine za neurodiverse. Katika juhudi zake za kusaidia, ameweza kuanzisha shule mbili, chuo, nyumba ya mapumziko, na tovuti inayofuatiwa na zaidi ya wafuasi...' 1361766 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Anna Kennedy''' (alizaliwa [[12 Machi|Machi 12]], [[1960]]) ni mtetezi wa haki za walemavu na neurodiversity ambaye amefanya kazi ya kuboresha elimu na huduma nyingine kwa watoto na watu wazima wanaoelezwa kuwa katika "spectrum ya autismu"(kiwango tofauti cha dalili na ufanisi wa usonji) na hali nyingine za neurodiverse. Katika juhudi zake za kusaidia, ameweza kuanzisha shule mbili, chuo, nyumba ya mapumziko, na tovuti inayofuatiwa na zaidi ya wafuasi 100,000 kutoka duniani kote. .<ref name="Autism School">{{cite web|url=http://www.tescomagazine.com/mum-of-the-year/winners-2013/anna-kennedy.html|title=Autism School by Mum of the year award winner Anna Kennedy|publisher=Tesco Magazine|access-date=2014-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707073448/http://www.tescomagazine.com/mum-of-the-year/winners-2013/anna-kennedy.html|archive-date=2013-07-07|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist|2}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1960]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 1v00h8y575yfe8mknuhhyyzu6fc70xg 0 190061 1361771 2024-11-08T09:22:44Z Praygod mwanga 39272 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Sinaida Rosenthal''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 22 Februari 1932 – Alifariki tarehe 21 Novemba 1988) alikuwa mtaalamu wa biokemia na biolojia ya molekuli wa [[Ujerumani]]. Alifanya kazi kama profesa katika Chuo Kikuu cha Humboldt cha [[Berlin]] na baadaye, hadi kifo chake, kama mkuu wa idara katika Taasisi Kuu ya Biolojia ya Molekuli huko Berlin kwenye Chuo cha Sayansi cha Ujerumani.<ref name=BBAWSR>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbaw.de/bbaw/MitgliederderVorgaeng...' 1361771 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sinaida Rosenthal''' (Alizaliwa tarehe 22 Februari 1932 – Alifariki tarehe 21 Novemba 1988) alikuwa mtaalamu wa biokemia na biolojia ya molekuli wa [[Ujerumani]]. Alifanya kazi kama profesa katika Chuo Kikuu cha Humboldt cha [[Berlin]] na baadaye, hadi kifo chake, kama mkuu wa idara katika Taasisi Kuu ya Biolojia ya Molekuli huko Berlin kwenye Chuo cha Sayansi cha Ujerumani.<ref name=BBAWSR>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbaw.de/bbaw/MitgliederderVorgaengerakademien/AltmitgliedDetails?altmitglied_id=2318|title=Sinaida Rosenthal: Biologie, Biochemie |accessdate=28 March 2015|publisher=Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften }}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1932]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1988]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] o6mf11gopy5odiihl0grjczntarhzb7 1361796 1361771 2024-11-08T11:17:22Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361796 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sinaida Rosenthal''' (22 Februari 1932 – 21 Novemba 1988) alikuwa mtaalamu wa biokemia na biolojia ya molekuli wa [[Ujerumani]]. Alifanya kazi kama profesa katika Chuo Kikuu cha Humboldt cha [[Berlin]] na baadaye, hadi kifo chake, kama mkuu wa idara katika Taasisi Kuu ya Biolojia ya Molekuli huko Berlin kwenye Chuo cha Sayansi cha Ujerumani.<ref name=BBAWSR>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbaw.de/bbaw/MitgliederderVorgaengerakademien/AltmitgliedDetails?altmitglied_id=2318|title=Sinaida Rosenthal: Biologie, Biochemie |accessdate=28 March 2015|publisher=Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften }}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasayansi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1932]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1988]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ujerumani]] [[Jamii:wanabiolojia wa Ujerumani]] 2iyerbaitmlr4pkgq5ex0wyyjy6qxwg 14 190062 1361773 2024-11-08T09:41:53Z Orattas 71002 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '{{Commonscat|Azerbaijani language}} [[Jamii:Lugha za Kiturki]]' 1361773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Commonscat|Azerbaijani language}} [[Jamii:Lugha za Kiturki]] jrekigix3gp96s6ry7ae001pp2qlcv3 0 190063 1361775 2024-11-08T09:52:48Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Gynocentrism''' ni mtazamo unaolenga kwa kiasi kikubwa au kwa kipekee [[wanawake]] katika nadharia au vitendo..<ref>Staff writer (2009), "[https://web.archive.org/web/20160927230438/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gynocentrism Gynocentrism]", in {{cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary - Vers.4.0|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199563838|editor-last=OED}}</ref> Yeyote anaweza kuchukulia kitu kuwa gynocentric ikiwa kimezingatiw...' 1361775 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gynocentrism''' ni mtazamo unaolenga kwa kiasi kikubwa au kwa kipekee [[wanawake]] katika nadharia au vitendo..<ref>Staff writer (2009), "[https://web.archive.org/web/20160927230438/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gynocentrism Gynocentrism]", in {{cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary - Vers.4.0|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199563838|editor-last=OED}}</ref> Yeyote anaweza kuchukulia kitu kuwa gynocentric ikiwa kimezingatiwa kwa mtazamo wa kike au wa kikeist, yaani kwa mtazamo unaoweka masuala ya wanawake katikati. Kinyume chake, kuweka mtazamo wa kiume katikati ni androcentrism.<ref>Staff writer (2010), "[https://web.archive.org/web/20170402081315/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gynocentric Gynocentric]", in {{cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=9780198614241|editor-last=OED}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu}} [[Jamii:Wanawake]] tkjbk5v54y961j064nwwhc44u22qk07 1361801 1361775 2024-11-08T11:26:15Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361801 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Gynocentrism''' ni mtazamo unaolenga kwa kiasi kikubwa au kwa kipekee [[wanawake]] katika nadharia au vitendo..<ref>Staff writer (2009), "[https://web.archive.org/web/20160927230438/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gynocentrism Gynocentrism]", in {{cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary - Vers.4.0|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199563838|editor-last=OED}}</ref> Yeyote anaweza kuchukulia kitu kuwa gynocentric ikiwa kimezingatiwa kwa mtazamo wa kike au wa kikeist, yaani kwa mtazamo unaoweka masuala ya wanawake katikati. Kinyume chake, kuweka mtazamo wa kiume katikati ni androcentrism.<ref>Staff writer (2010), "[https://web.archive.org/web/20170402081315/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/gynocentric Gynocentric]", in {{cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=9780198614241|editor-last=OED}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu}} [[Jamii:Wanawake]] k86dr9a4vvtucmzpsyqrr0bqucwzczt 0 190064 1361776 2024-11-08T10:01:09Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361776 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Brad bird cropped 2009.jpg|thumb| Brad Bird]] '''Philip Bradley Bird''' (alizaliwa [[Septemba]] [[1957]]) ni mtayarishaji wa [[filamu]], [[mchoraji]] wa michoro, na [[mwigizaji]] wa sauti kutoka [[Marekani]]. Amefanya kazi kwa zaidi ya miongo minne katika tasnia ya uchoraji wa michoro na filamu za uigizaji wa moja kwa moja.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/director-brad-bird-and-spouse-elizabeth-canney-pose-for-a-news-photo/472814844?#director-brad-bird-and-spouse-elizabeth-canney-pose-for-a-photo-at-picture-id472814844|title=Director Brad Bird (R) and spouse Elizabeth Canney pose for a photo at the premiere of Disney's Tomorrowland in Anaheim, California on May 9, 2015.|website=[[Getty Images]]|date=May 10, 2015|access-date=April 2, 2017}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references />{{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1957]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Marekani]] is8mf83pbkpv5ca6k9hg49vcnn3mkvq 1361802 1361776 2024-11-08T11:27:04Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361802 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Brad bird cropped 2009.jpg|thumb| Brad Bird]] '''Philip Bradley Bird''' (alizaliwa [[Septemba]] [[1957]]) ni mtayarishaji wa [[filamu]], [[mchoraji]] na [[mwigizaji]] wa sauti kutoka [[Marekani]]. Amefanya kazi kwa zaidi ya miongo minne katika tasnia ya uchoraji wa michoro na filamu za uigizaji wa moja kwa moja.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/director-brad-bird-and-spouse-elizabeth-canney-pose-for-a-news-photo/472814844?#director-brad-bird-and-spouse-elizabeth-canney-pose-for-a-photo-at-picture-id472814844|title=Director Brad Bird (R) and spouse Elizabeth Canney pose for a photo at the premiere of Disney's Tomorrowland in Anaheim, California on May 9, 2015.|website=[[Getty Images]]|date=May 10, 2015|access-date=April 2, 2017}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1957]] [[Jamii:Waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] mcwciu37a3sk8cwrr21h1oyj1lsuoqj 0 190065 1361777 2024-11-08T10:22:28Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[Faili:Kate_Clinton.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Clinton katika uwanja wa askari wakati wa sherehe za ufunguzi wa Michezo ya Mashoga ya 2006]] '''Kate Clinton''' (alizaliwa [[9 Novemba|Novemba 9]], [[1947]]) ni mchekeshaji wa [[Kimarekani]] anayebobea katika kutoa maoni ya kisiasa kutoka kwa mtazamo wa jamii ya wapenzi wa jinsia moja (gay/lesbian).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glbtq.com/arts/clinton_k.html|title=GLBTQ >> arts >> Clinton, Kate|access-date=2008-12-...' 1361777 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Kate_Clinton.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Clinton katika uwanja wa askari wakati wa sherehe za ufunguzi wa Michezo ya Mashoga ya 2006]] '''Kate Clinton''' (alizaliwa [[9 Novemba|Novemba 9]], [[1947]]) ni mchekeshaji wa [[Kimarekani]] anayebobea katika kutoa maoni ya kisiasa kutoka kwa mtazamo wa jamii ya wapenzi wa jinsia moja (gay/lesbian).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glbtq.com/arts/clinton_k.html|title=GLBTQ >> arts >> Clinton, Kate|access-date=2008-12-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081230214930/http://www.glbtq.com/arts/clinton_k.html|archive-date=2008-12-30}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1947]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] t5czj76wyejs7x8jplrkqbzdn6ppzpu 1361805 1361777 2024-11-08T11:28:30Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361805 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Kate_Clinton.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Clinton katika uwanja wa askari wakati wa sherehe za ufunguzi wa Michezo ya Mashoga ya 2006.]] '''Kate Clinton''' (alizaliwa [[9 Novemba]] [[1947]]) ni mchekeshaji wa [[Marekani]] aliyebobea katika kutoa maoni ya kisiasa kwa mtazamo wa jamii ya [[Mapenzi ya jinsia moja|wapenzi wa jinsia moja]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glbtq.com/arts/clinton_k.html|title=GLBTQ >> arts >> Clinton, Kate|access-date=2008-12-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081230214930/http://www.glbtq.com/arts/clinton_k.html|archive-date=2008-12-30}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1947]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] h7m08xflbddsrhtpu6996h8ss1dn7sa 0 190066 1361779 2024-11-08T10:33:46Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361779 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michelle Carla Cliff''' (alizaliwa [[2 Novemba]] [[1946]] – [[12 Juni]] [[2016]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi]] wa asili ya Jamaika na [[Marekani]], ambaye kazi zake mashuhuri zinajumuisha ''Abeng'' (1985), ''No Telephone to Heaven'' (1987), na ''Free Enterprise'' (2004).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Caribbean and Afro-Latin American biography|others=Knight, Franklin W.,, Gates, Henry Louis, Jr.|year=2016|isbn=978-0-19-993579-6|location=New York|oclc=927363773}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1946]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2016]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] h3qth4klw5q49elq4e99xl0d6q4zcs1 1361806 1361779 2024-11-08T11:31:11Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361806 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michelle Carla Cliff''' ([[2 Novemba]] [[1946]] – [[12 Juni]] [[2016]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi]] wa asili ya [[Jamaika]] na [[Marekani]], ambaye kazi zake mashuhuri zinajumuisha ''Abeng'' (1985), ''No Telephone to Heaven'' (1987), na ''Free Enterprise'' (2004).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Caribbean and Afro-Latin American biography|others=Knight, Franklin W.,, Gates, Henry Louis, Jr.|year=2016|isbn=978-0-19-993579-6|location=New York|oclc=927363773}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1946]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2016]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:wanawake wa Jamaika]] [[Jamii:waandishi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:waandishi wa Jamaika]] jrd03xs38d2dlf2m06vaiuxw9ca2p8h 0 190067 1361793 2024-11-08T11:14:27Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ' '''Elizabeth Lawrence Cless''' (alizaliwa [[28 Januari|Januari 28]], [[1916]] – alifariki [[20 Julai|Julai 20]], [[1992]]) alikuwa mtaalamu wa [[elimu]] kutoka [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa mwasisi wa maendeleo ya elimu endelevu kwa wanawake, ambapo alianzisha njia na programu mpya za kuwasaidia wanawake kuendelea na elimu ya juu ambayo walikuwa wameiacha au kuahirisha.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DSpace|url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/151777/1...' 1361793 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Elizabeth Lawrence Cless''' (alizaliwa [[28 Januari|Januari 28]], [[1916]] – alifariki [[20 Julai|Julai 20]], [[1992]]) alikuwa mtaalamu wa [[elimu]] kutoka [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa mwasisi wa maendeleo ya elimu endelevu kwa wanawake, ambapo alianzisha njia na programu mpya za kuwasaidia wanawake kuendelea na elimu ya juu ambayo walikuwa wameiacha au kuahirisha.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DSpace|url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/151777/1/MWCHistory2010%20(1).pdf|work=conservancy.umn.edu|accessdate=2024-11-08}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1916]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1992]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] oz8elh6knj2j5nuwp4j92o8jiw7x4f5 1361809 1361793 2024-11-08T11:33:36Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361809 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Elizabeth Lawrence Cless''' ([[28 Januari]] [[1916]] – [[20 Julai]] [[1992]]) alikuwa mtaalamu wa [[elimu]] kutoka [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa mwasisi wa maendeleo ya elimu endelevu kwa wanawake, ambapo alianzisha njia na programu mpya za kuwasaidia wanawake kuendelea na elimu ya juu ambayo walikuwa wameiacha au kuahirisha.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DSpace|url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/151777/1/MWCHistory2010%20(1).pdf|work=conservancy.umn.edu|accessdate=2024-11-08}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1916]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1992]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] 49hmdibbwnwc4tcr01gl538riht3w06 0 190068 1361797 2024-11-08T11:22:40Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[Faili:William_Morton_House_in_Lexington.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|The William Morton House, the Clay family residence in Lexington.]] '''Mary Jane Warfield Clay''' (alizaliwa [[20 Januari|Januari 20]], [[1815]] – alifariki [[29 Aprili|Aprili 29]], [[1900]]) alikuwa mrembo, mtetezi wa haki za [[wanawake]], mfuasi wa ukabolishaji wa utumwa, na mtetezi wa kisiasa kutoka [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa kiongozi wa mapema katika harakati za kupigania haki ya kupiga k...' 1361797 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:William_Morton_House_in_Lexington.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|The William Morton House, the Clay family residence in Lexington.]] '''Mary Jane Warfield Clay''' (alizaliwa [[20 Januari|Januari 20]], [[1815]] – alifariki [[29 Aprili|Aprili 29]], [[1900]]) alikuwa mrembo, mtetezi wa haki za [[wanawake]], mfuasi wa ukabolishaji wa utumwa, na mtetezi wa kisiasa kutoka [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa kiongozi wa mapema katika harakati za kupigania haki ya kupiga kura kwa wanawake huko Kentucky, ambapo alianza kwa kuanzisha klabu ya kupigania haki ya kupiga kura nyumbani kwake mwaka 1879.<ref name="Brave2">{{cite journal|last1=Clay|first1=Mary Barr|date=March 2, 1889|title=A Brave Kentucky Woman|journal=Woman's Journal|volume=20|issue=9|page=78}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1815]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1900]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] 2havp8y3plv81ye92csorvhoic93ur2 1361798 1361797 2024-11-08T11:23:00Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 1361798 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:William_Morton_House_in_Lexington.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Nyumba ya William Morton, makazi ya familia ya Clay huko Lexington.]] '''Mary Jane Warfield Clay''' (alizaliwa [[20 Januari|Januari 20]], [[1815]] – alifariki [[29 Aprili|Aprili 29]], [[1900]]) alikuwa mrembo, mtetezi wa haki za [[wanawake]], mfuasi wa ukabolishaji wa utumwa, na mtetezi wa kisiasa kutoka [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa kiongozi wa mapema katika harakati za kupigania haki ya kupiga kura kwa wanawake huko Kentucky, ambapo alianza kwa kuanzisha klabu ya kupigania haki ya kupiga kura nyumbani kwake mwaka 1879.<ref name="Brave2">{{cite journal|last1=Clay|first1=Mary Barr|date=March 2, 1889|title=A Brave Kentucky Woman|journal=Woman's Journal|volume=20|issue=9|page=78}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1815]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1900]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] dj6dbhwzheas71ab4tre7j3veq06uoc 1361811 1361798 2024-11-08T11:34:52Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361811 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:William_Morton_House_in_Lexington.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Nyumba ya William Morton, makazi ya familia ya Clay huko Lexington.]] '''Mary Jane Warfield Clay''' ([[20 Januari]] [[1815]] – [[29 Aprili]] [[1900]]) alikuwa mrembo, mtetezi wa [[haki za wanawake]], mfuasi wa ukabolishaji wa utumwa, na mtetezi wa kisiasa kutoka [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa kiongozi wa mapema katika harakati za kupigania haki ya kupiga kura kwa wanawake huko Kentucky, ambapo alianza kwa kuanzisha klabu ya kupigania haki ya kupiga kura nyumbani kwake mwaka 1879.<ref name="Brave2">{{cite journal|last1=Clay|first1=Mary Barr|date=March 2, 1889|title=A Brave Kentucky Woman|journal=Woman's Journal|volume=20|issue=9|page=78}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1815]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1900]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:wanaharakati wa Marekani]] ry4bd7g3rpm3cj5zqrls4073xkzfr74 0 190069 1361804 2024-11-08T11:27:55Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[picha: Clay Mary Barr.jpg|thumb|Mary Barr Clay]] '''Mary Barr Clay''' (alizaliwa [[13 Oktoba|Oktoba 13]], [[1839]] – alifariki [[12 Oktoba|Oktoba 12]], [[1924]]) alikuwa kiongozi wa harakati za haki ya kupiga kura kwa wanawake nchini [[Marekani]]. Alijulikana pia kwa majina ya Mary B. Clay na Mrs. J. Frank Herrick.<ref name="woman">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924032324752#page/n187/mode/2up|title=A woman of the century : fourteen hun...' 1361804 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha: Clay Mary Barr.jpg|thumb|Mary Barr Clay]] '''Mary Barr Clay''' (alizaliwa [[13 Oktoba|Oktoba 13]], [[1839]] – alifariki [[12 Oktoba|Oktoba 12]], [[1924]]) alikuwa kiongozi wa harakati za haki ya kupiga kura kwa wanawake nchini [[Marekani]]. Alijulikana pia kwa majina ya Mary B. Clay na Mrs. J. Frank Herrick.<ref name="woman">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924032324752#page/n187/mode/2up|title=A woman of the century : fourteen hundred-seventy biographical sketches accompanied by portraits of leading American women in all walks of life|date=1893|publisher=Harvard University|pages=179–180|access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1939]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1924]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] 6069baenhu9hvyolnnb0s1h20p4tvlr 1361812 1361804 2024-11-08T11:37:26Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361812 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha: Clay Mary Barr.jpg|thumb|Mary Barr Clay]] '''Mary Barr Clay''' (alijulikana pia kama '''Mary B. Clay''' na '''Mrs. J. Frank Herrick'''; [[13 Oktoba]] [[1839]] – [[12 Oktoba]] [[1924]]) alikuwa kiongozi wa harakati za haki ya kupiga kura kwa wanawake nchini [[Marekani]].<ref name="woman">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924032324752#page/n187/mode/2up|title=A woman of the century : fourteen hundred-seventy biographical sketches accompanied by portraits of leading American women in all walks of life|date=1893|publisher=Harvard University|pages=179–180|access-date=14 March 2016}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1939]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1924]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] fap1n4a7dh47qg98fvufv173uxzdhic 0 190070 1361808 2024-11-08T11:32:44Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361808 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha: Nancy Talbot Clark.jpg|thumb|Nancy Talbot Clark]] '''Nancy Elizabeth Talbot Clark Binney''' (alizaliwa [[22 Mei|Mei 22]], [[1825]] – alifariki [[28 Julai|Julai 28]], [[1901]]) alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa pili kupata shahada ya [[udaktari]] nchini [[Marekani]] kutoka kwa taasisi ya matibabu inayotambuliwa (isiyokuwa ya dhehebu au ya allopathic) baada ya Elizabeth Blackwell, alihitimu mwaka 1852. Pia alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kupata shahada ya udaktari kutoka Shule ya Matibabu ya Case Western Reserve University, ambayo wakati huo ilijulikana kama Cleveland Medical College of the Western Reserve College.,<ref>{{cite journal|last=WAITE|first=FREDERICK C.|date=17 December 1931|title=Dr. Nancy E. (Talbot) Clark|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=205|issue=25|pages=1195–1198|doi=10.1056/NEJM193112172052507}}</ref> == Marejeo == [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1825]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1901]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] <references />{{Mbegu-mtu}} 2xqki4pzlpa7freebs1333jpxmoq86w 1361813 1361808 2024-11-08T11:38:53Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361813 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha: Nancy Talbot Clark.jpg|thumb|Nancy Talbot Clark]] '''Nancy Elizabeth Talbot Clark Binney''' ([[22 Mei]] [[1825]] – [[28 Julai]] [[1901]]) alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa pili kupata shahada ya [[udaktari]] nchini [[Marekani]] kutoka taasisi ya matibabu inayotambuliwa (isiyokuwa ya dhehebu au ya allopathic) baada ya [[Elizabeth Blackwell]], alihitimu mwaka 1852. Pia alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kupata shahada ya udaktari kutoka Shule ya Matibabu ya Case Western Reserve University, ambayo wakati huo ilijulikana kama Cleveland Medical College of the Western Reserve College.,<ref>{{cite journal|last=WAITE|first=FREDERICK C.|date=17 December 1931|title=Dr. Nancy E. (Talbot) Clark|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=205|issue=25|pages=1195–1198|doi=10.1056/NEJM193112172052507}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1825]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1901]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] 0pfrc8wtq5fffs7abhfylj9d1xghogf 0 190071 1361815 2024-11-08T11:41:10Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361815 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Tennessee Celeste Claflin by Bradley and Rulofson.jpg|thumb|Tennessee Claflin]] '''Tennessee Celeste Claflin, Viscountess of Montserrat''' (alizaliwa [[26 Oktoba|Oktoba 26]], [[1844]] – alifariki [[18 Januari|Januari 18]], [[1923]]), pia alijulikana kama Tennie C., alikuwa mtetezi wa haki za [[wanawake]] kutoka [[Marekani]], ambaye alijulikana zaidi kama mwanamke wa kwanza, pamoja na dada yake Victoria Woodhull, kufungua ofisi ya udalali ya Wall Street, jambo lililotokea mwaka [[1870]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Greenspan|first1=Jesse|title=9 Things You Should Know About Victoria Woodhull|url=http://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-should-know-about-victoria-woodhull|website=History.com|publisher=A&E Television Networks, LLC|accessdate=30 March 2016|date=23 September 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist|2}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1844]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1923]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] r54rmqt0g66yeiae8k0c0xh8oaifb56 1361819 1361815 2024-11-08T11:46:03Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1361819 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Tennessee Celeste Claflin by Bradley and Rulofson.jpg|thumb|Tennessee Claflin]] '''Tennessee Celeste Claflin, Viscountess of Montserrat''' ([[26 Oktoba]] [[1844]] – [[18 Januari]] [[1923]]) pia alijulikana kama Tennie C., alikuwa mtetezi wa [[haki za wanawake]] kutoka [[Marekani]], ambaye alijulikana zaidi kama mwanamke wa kwanza, pamoja na dada yake Victoria Woodhull, kufungua ofisi ya udalali ya Wall Street, jambo lililotokea mwaka [[1870]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Greenspan|first1=Jesse|title=9 Things You Should Know About Victoria Woodhull|url=http://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-should-know-about-victoria-woodhull|website=History.com|publisher=A&E Television Networks, LLC|accessdate=30 March 2016|date=23 September 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist|2}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1844]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1923]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] tipuxhya97a1ieyand2ag7299lhdi6t 0 190072 1361820 2024-11-08T11:48:26Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Lucinda Cisler''' (alizaliwa [[30 Oktoba|Oktoba 30]], 1938) ni mtetezi wa [[haki]] za kutoa [[mimba]] kutoka [[Marekani]], [[mwanaharakati]] wa [[Ufeministi|feministi]] wa Kipindi cha Pili, na mjumbe wa kundi la feminist wa itikadi kali la Redstockings lililozunguka [[New York]]. Maandishi yake kuhusu vikwazo visivyo vya lazima kwa taratibu za utoaji mimba kwa njia ya matibabu kwa namna moja ilitabiri mikakati ya kupinga utoaji mimba katika miaka ya 2...' 1361820 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lucinda Cisler''' (alizaliwa [[30 Oktoba|Oktoba 30]], 1938) ni mtetezi wa [[haki]] za kutoa [[mimba]] kutoka [[Marekani]], [[mwanaharakati]] wa [[Ufeministi|feministi]] wa Kipindi cha Pili, na mjumbe wa kundi la feminist wa itikadi kali la Redstockings lililozunguka [[New York]]. Maandishi yake kuhusu vikwazo visivyo vya lazima kwa taratibu za utoaji mimba kwa njia ya matibabu kwa namna moja ilitabiri mikakati ya kupinga utoaji mimba katika miaka ya [[2010]], ambayo ilijulikana kama ''Targeted Regulation of Abortion Providers'' (TRAP) na wafuasi wa haki za utoaji mimba.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gofundme.com/LucindaCisler|title=Click here to support Stop Lucinda Cisler's Eviction organized by Jenny Brown|website=gofundme.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-11}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1938]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] lr2wlqy0mukhn24f6gvjj4c75vhxuas 0 190073 1361822 2024-11-08T11:54:17Z EdwardJacobo42 48620 #WPWP #WPWPARK 1361822 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:Greta Christina at SASHAcon.jpg|thumb| Greta Christina]] '''Greta Christina''' (alizaliwa [[1961]]) ni [[mwanamke]] kutoka [[Marekani]], mfuasi wa kutokuwa na imani, [[mwandishi]] wa blogu, mzungumzaji, na mwandishi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gretachristina.typepad.com/greta_christinas_weblog/2008/06/the-screwed-up-teachings-of-jesus.html?#comment-6a00d8341bf68b53ef01156ff8d5e9970b|title=Greta Christina's Blog: The Messed-Up Teachings of Jesus|website=Gretachristina.typepad.com|date=2008-06-30|access-date=2013-01-04}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist|2}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1961]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] h5de47t3m3vg8kj329wpxs5uav169ly